essay on renewable energy and energy conservation

Energy Conservation Essay for Students and Children

500 words energy conservation essay.

Energy conservation refers to the efforts made to reduce the consumption of energy. The energy on Earth is not in unlimited supply. Furthermore, energy can take plenty of time to regenerate. This certainly makes it essential to conserve energy. Most noteworthy, energy conservation is achievable either by using energy more efficiently or by reducing the amount of service usage.

Importance of Energy Conservation

First of all, energy conservation plays an important role in saving non-renewable energy resources. Furthermore, non-renewable energy sources take many centuries to regenerate. Moreover, humans consume energy at a faster rate than it can be produced. Therefore, energy conservation would lead to the preservation of these precious non-renewable sources of energy.

Energy conservation will reduce the expenses related to fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are very expensive to mine. Therefore, consumers are required to pay higher prices for goods and services. Energy conservation would certainly reduce the amount of fossil fuel being mined. This, in turn, would reduce the costs of consumers.

Consequently, energy conservation would strengthen the economy as consumers will have more disposable income to spend on goods and services.

Energy conservation is good for scientific research. This is because; energy conservation gives researchers plenty of time to conduct researches.

Therefore, these researchers will have more time to come up with various energy solutions and alternatives. Humans must ensure to have fossil fuels as long as possible. This would give me enough time to finding practical solutions.

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Another important reason for energy conservation is environmental protection. This is because various energy sources are significantly harmful to the environment. Furthermore, the burning of fossil fuels considerably pollutes the atmosphere. Moreover, nuclear energy creates dangerous nuclear waste. Hence, energy conservation will lead to environmental protection.

Energy conservation would also result in the good health of humans. Furthermore, the pollution released due to energy sources is harmful to the human body. The air pollution due to fossil fuels can cause various respiratory problems. Energy sources can pollute water which could cause several harmful diseases in humans. Nuclear waste can cause cancer and other deadly problems in the human body.

Measures to Conserve Energy

Energy taxation is a good measure from the government to conserve energy. Furthermore, several countries apply energy or a carbon tax on energy users. This tax would certainly put pressure on energy users to reduce their energy consumption. Moreover, carbon tax forces energy users to shift to other energy sources that are less harmful.

Building design plays a big role in energy conservation. An excellent way to conserve energy is by performing an energy audit in buildings. Energy audit refers to inspection and analysis of energy use in a building. Most noteworthy, the aim of the energy audit is to appropriately reduce energy input.

Another important way of energy conservation is by using energy-efficient products. Energy-efficient products are those that use lesser energy than their normal counterparts. One prominent example can be using an energy-efficient bulb rather than an incandescent light bulb.

In conclusion, energy conservation must be among the utmost priorities of humanity. Mahatma Gandhi was absolutely right when he said, “the earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s needs but not every man’s greed”. This statement pretty much sums up the importance of energy conservation. Immediate implementation of energy conservation measures is certainly of paramount importance.

FAQs on Energy Conservation

Q1 state one way in which energy conservation is important.

A1 One way in which energy conservation is important is that it leads to the preservation of fossil fuels.

Q2 Why energy taxation is a good measure to conserve energy?

A2 Energy taxation is certainly a good measure to conserve energy. This is because energy taxation puts financial pressure on energy users to reduce their energy consumption.

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Aerial view of a wind farm at Pen y Cymoedd in south Wales, UK. Wind-generated power in the UK increased by 83% between 2015 and 2020 to provide nearly a quarter of our electricity . It's also one of the fastest-growing renewable energy technologies globally. © Richard Whitcombe/ Shutterstock

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Renewable energy and its importance for tackling climate change

Replacing fossil fuel-reliant power stations with renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar, is a vital part of stabilising climate change and achieving net zero carbon emissions.

Professor Magda Titirici , Chair in Sustainable Energy Materials at Imperial College London, offers an introduction to renewable energy and the future of clean, green power in the UK.

What is renewable energy?

Renewable energy comes from sources that replenish naturally and continually within a human lifetime. Renewable energy is often called sustainable energy.

Major sources of renewable energy include solar, wind, hydroelectric, tidal, geothermal and biomass energy, which is derived from burning plant or animal matter and waste.

Switching our reliance on fossil fuels to renewable energy sources that produce lower or no greenhouse gas emissions is critically important in tackling the climate crisis .

Clean, green or renewable - what's the difference?

Clean energy doesn't produce any pollution once installed. Nor does green energy, which comes from natural sources such as the Sun and is produced without any major negative impacts on the environment. Renewable energy refers to sources that are constantly replenished.

While there is often overlap between these definitions and most renewable energy sources can also be considered clean and green, it's not always the case.

Nuclear energy doesn't release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, so some people consider it to be clean - providing the radioactive waste is stored safely and doesn't escape into the environment. But the uranium energy source used in nuclear power plants isn't renewable.

A coal power plant emitting smoke, steam and carbon dioxide. Fossil fuels such as coal are non-renewable resources. Burning fossil fuels contributes to climate change by releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. © Peter Gudella/ Shutterstock

What's the difference between renewable and non-renewable energy?

Non-renewable energy comes from natural resources such as coal, oil and natural gas that take billions of years to form, which is why we call them fossil fuels. They are present in finite amounts and will run out, as we are using them far more quickly than they form.

When will fossil fuels run out?

Research based on 2015 data predicts that coal stocks will last well into the next century, but oil and natural gas reserves (stocks that we know we can extract from) will run out in the late 2060s . However, scientific models suggest that if we are to limit global warming to 2°C - the target agreed at COP26 is 1.5°C - over 80% of coal, 50% of gas and 30% of oil reserves will need to be left untouched anyway.

When we extract fossil fuels from deep within the planet and burn them, we can generate electricity quite efficiently. But the process releases a lot of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) into the atmosphere, which contributes to the greenhouse effect, global warming and biodiversity loss .

Magda explains, 'Fossil fuels brought with them immense technological progress but using them releases CO 2 into the atmosphere, which acts like a blanket, trapping heat that would otherwise escape into space and causing global warming.'

Did you know?

The energy sector is responsible for almost three-quarters of the emissions that have caused global temperatures to warm by 1.1°C since pre-industrial times. 

If we continue to use fossil fuels, the effect will only worsen.

Magda adds, 'If we want to live on this planet much longer than 2050 and keep temperature levels below the 1.5°C of warming agreed to by governments around the world, we need to make some radical changes right now. We need to move to technologies that will give us the same level and comfort of living but drastically cut our emissions and carbon footprint .'

Examples of renewable energy sources

The main types of renewable energy are wind, solar, hydroelectric, tidal, geothermal and biomass. Read on to discover the pros and cons of each of these renewable energy sources.

One of the main benefits of most renewable energy sources is that they don't release carbon dioxide or pollute the air when they are used to produce electricity or heat. Greenhouse gases are emitted during the lifetime of some of the technologies - for example, during their manufacture or construction - but overall emissions are significantly lower than for fossil fuels.

Whereas some countries lack direct access to fossil fuels and must rely on international sources, renewable energy often allows countries to supply their own energy needs, a big economic and political advantage.

Wind energy

An offshore wind farm in the North Sea off the UK coast. Wind energy is an important renewable resource for the UK. According to analysis by Imperial College London's Energy Institute , offshore wind turbines offer the best-value option for meeting the UK's target of delivering carbon neutral electricity by 2035. But the UK's current target for offshore wind electricity production - up to 50 gigawatts by 2030 - will need to be significantly increased to do so. © Riekelt Hakvoort/ Shutterstock

Wind power converts wind - the movement of air - into stored power by turning turbines and converting mechanical energy into electricity. Wind farms can be built both on land and offshore. They work well wherever wind is strong and reliable.

Advantages: Wind energy is a clean, green and renewable resource and turbines can be placed on farmland with minimal disruption. It has the lowest carbon footprint of all renewable energy sources .

Disadvantages: Like any infrastructure, there is an upfront establishment cost and ongoing maintenance fees. These are even higher if wind farms are built offshore. Turbines have a reputation for being noisy and poorly sited wind farms can be dangerous to some wildlife - for instance, if they're placed in the migration paths of birds or bats.

How loud is a wind turbine?

At 300 metres from a dwelling, wind turbines have a sound pressure of 43 decibels , which is between the volume of a refrigerator and an air conditioner.

Solar energy

An array of solar panels in a field in Chippenham, UK. Solar energy is a renewable resource, and the Sun provides more energy than we'll ever use. If we could capture it all, an hour of sunlight would meet the world's energy needs for a year. © Alexey Fedorenko/ Shutterstock

Solar power captures energy (radiation) from the Sun and converts it into electricity, which is then fed into a power grid or stored for later use. Although places near the equator receive the most solar energy, solar panels can generate electricity anywhere that gets sunlight.

Advantages:  Solar energy is renewable, clean, increasingly efficient and has low maintenance costs. Once established, it can dramatically reduce the price of generating electricity.

Disadvantages:  Setting up a solar array is costly and there are expenses involved with energy storage. Solar panels can take up more land than some other types of renewable energy and performance depends on the availability of sunlight. The mining and processing of minerals needed to make the panels can pollute and damage the environment.

China is currently leading the world in solar energy production , with roughly 35% of the global market.

Hydroelectric energy

Although hydroelectric energy is renewable, it is not always considered green, as building large-scale dams can negatively impact the environment. Nepean Dam in Australia, shown here, was included in a study that showed dams are causing problems for platypuses by creating a barrier between populations. © Greg Brave/ Shutterstock

Hydroelectric power uses the flow of water, often from rivers and lakes controlled by a dam, to turn turbines and power generators, creating electricity. Hydropower works best for regions with reliable rainfall and large, natural water reservoirs.

Hydropower currently produces more electricity than  all other renewable energy sources combined and provides around 17% of the world's energy.

Advantages: Hydroelectricity is dependable and renewable for as long as there is rainfall or flowing water. Reservoirs can offer additional benefits, such as providing drinking water, irrigation and recreational opportunities, including swimming or boating.

Disadvantages: Hydropower plants take up a lot of room and aren't suited to all climates. They are susceptible to drought. Creating artificial water reservoirs can harm biodiversity in natural water systems by limiting the inflow of nutrients and blocking the journey of migratory fish populations. These reservoirs can also release methane - a type of greenhouse gas - as vegetation in the flooded area decomposes. Large amounts of cement are used to construct dams. The manufacture of this material produces large amounts of carbon dioxide.

Tidal energy

Renewable tidal energy is produced by the natural rise and fall of the sea. However, tidal power plants can change the local biodiversity. This one on the River Rance in Brittany, France, not only led to the local extinction of a fish called plaice but to an increase in the number of cuttlefish, which now thrive there. © Francois BOIZOT/ Shutterstock

Tidal energy uses the continual movement of ocean tides to generate power. Turbines in the water turn a generator, creating electricity.

Advantages: Tidal energy is renewable, generates no carbon emissions and can produce a lot of energy very reliably.

Disadvantages: Offshore infrastructure is expensive to set up and maintain and there are a limited number of appropriate sites for tidal power plants around the world. They can also damage marine environments and impact local plants and animals.

Geothermal energy

A geothermal power plant in Iceland harnesses this renewable energy source. © Peter Gudella/ Shutterstock

Geothermal power uses underground reservoirs of hot water or steam created by the heat of Earth's core to generate electricity. It works best in regions near tectonic plate boundaries .

Advantages: Geothermal energy is highly reliable and has a consistent power output. It also has a relatively small footprint on the land.

Disadvantages: Drilling geothermal wells is expensive and can affect the stability of surrounding land. It must be monitored carefully to minimise environmental impact. There is also a risk of releasing greenhouse gases trapped under Earth's surface.  

Biomass energy

A biogas plant producing renewable energy from biomass in the Czech Republic. © Kletr/ Shutterstock

Biomass energy comes from burning plants, plant by-products or waste. Examples include ethanol (from corn or sugarcane), biodiesel (made from vegetable oils, used cooking oils and animal fats), green diesel (derived from algae, sustainable wood crops or sawdust) and biogas (derived from animal manure and other waste).

Advantages: Abundant and cheaply produced, biomass energy is a novel use of waste product and leftover crops. It creates less emissions than burning fossil fuels and having carbon capture in place can stop carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere. Biofuels are also considered relatively easy and inexpensive to implement, as they are compatible with existing agriculture and waste processing and used in existing petrol and diesel vehicles.

Disadvantages: Generating biofuels requires land and water so growing demand for them could lead to deforestation and biodiversity loss. Burning biomass emits carbon dioxide unless carbon capture is implemented.

Ethanol-powered vehicles create up to 86% less greenhouse gas emissions than petrol vehicles, and crops that are grown to produce biomass absorb carbon dioxide.

Can renewable energy replace fossil fuels in the UK?

In 2020, 42% of the UK's electricity came from renewable energy. A quarter of the UK's electricity was produced by wind power, which is the highest proportion of any G20 country and more than four times the global average. Statistics on UK energy trends reveal that from April to June 2022, nearly 39% of the UK's electricity came from renewable energy, slightly more than during the same period in 2021, but down from 45.5% between January and March 2022 when it was unusually sunny and wind speeds were high.

'There has been good news in recent years in terms of progress on renewables,' says Magda, 'but in my opinion, the UK is still lagging behind. It is not so strong yet for truly sustainable technologies. It needs storage and conversion.'

Magda believes that wind (particularly offshore), solar, green hydrogen and rapid innovation in battery storage will be key to the UK reaching net zero by 2050.

She explains, 'The UK is a really windy place, so wind is the perfect renewable energy technology. By 2035 wind and solar should provide 75-90% of total UK electricity to bring emissions down significantly.'

'It has already been shown that it's feasible to produce 90% of the UK's electricity from wind and solar combined. The tech is there and it's becoming more efficient and affordable each year.'

'Offshore wind capacity will also help produce green hydrogen, another crucial part of the UK decarbonisation path.'

What is green hydrogen?

Green hydrogen is a fuel created using renewable energy in a process known as electrolysis. When green hydrogen is burned to produce energy, it releases water.

It's predicted that the UK will need 100 terawatt-hours of green hydrogen by 2035.

What is a terawatt-hour?

A terawatt-hour is a unit of measurement that's large enough to describe the annual electricity needs of entire countries. For scale, one terawatt-hour is equivalent to burning 588,441 barrels of oil.

The future of renewable energy in the UK

Magda believes the UK is at a very critical point in its sustainable technologies journey.

'Everything will depend on what happens this year and next. We need to see radical changes, investment, subsidies and support to reach our target of net zero by 2050.'

'It would cost less than 1% of GDP to get to net zero by 2050 but the advantages would be immense: new jobs, a sustainable economy and a healthy and resilient society.'

An empty electric vehicle charging point © Tony Skerl/ Shutterstock

Challenges and opportunities for renewable energy in the UK

One of the biggest challenges the UK is facing right now is battery storage and access to materials like cobalt and lithium , which are needed to produce lithium-ion batteries at scale.

Why are batteries important for renewable energy?

Batteries help make renewable energy supply reliable and portable - such as in the case of electric vehicles.

Batteries are an important part of our transition to renewable technologies, as they allow energy to be stored and released as needed. For example, solar panels generate energy during the day, and batteries make it possible to store and use that electricity at night.

Currently, just a few countries are responsible for most of the world's production of lithium.

According to Magda, the UK lacks access to the supply chain needed for Li-ion batteries. 'As a result, she adds, 'Johnson Matthey, which is a major company driving battery innovations in the UK, announced they would stop lithium battery research because they are unable to secure a path to raw materials and be competitive on the international market.'

Museum researchers are investigating whether it would be possible to develop a  more sustainable, domestic supply chain by extracting lithium from UK rocks. They made a key breakthrough in 2021 when they produced battery-grade lithium chemicals from UK rocks for the first time.

According to Professor Richard Herrington, Head of Earth Sciences at the Museum, 'An increased, reliable supply of lithium is critical if we are to meet the rising demand for electric cars and provide a dependable supply of energy from renewable sources. The next generation of batteries that don't require lithium may still be three to five years away from being ready for public use.'

However, Magda is optimistic that the UK could lead in emerging battery technologies. 'I think the UK has an amazing opportunity to pioneer the next generation of batteries,' she says.

Innovative models already under development at The Faraday Institution include:

• Sodium-ion batteries, which are based on waste-derived anodes and critical metal -free cathodes, provide almost the same performance as lithium-ion batteries at half the cost.
• Lithium-sulphur batteries with 10 times the energy density of lithium-ion batteries make more efficient use of limited materials and eliminate metals from the cathode by using sulphur instead.

Magda adds, 'We need to focus on the areas where the UK has the potential to lead. The UK has such a big tradition in new materials and discoveries, we could move to completely new technologies both for batteries and hydrogen production.'

'There are a lot of challenges, but if we're investing in it, we could be future leaders and even solve one of the most difficult challenges in decarbonisation: flight.'

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Renewable Energy

Renewable energy comes from sources that will not be used up in our lifetimes, such as the sun and wind.

Earth Science, Experiential Learning, Engineering, Geology

Wind Turbines in a Sheep Pasture

Wind turbines use the power of wind to generate energy. This is just one source of renewable energy.

Photograph by Jesus Keller/ Shutterstock

The wind, the sun, and Earth are sources of  renewable energy . These energy sources naturally renew, or replenish themselves.

Wind, sunlight, and the planet have energy that transforms in ways we can see and feel. We can see and feel evidence of the transfer of energy from the sun to Earth in the sunlight shining on the ground and the warmth we feel when sunlight shines on our skin. We can see and feel evidence of the transfer of energy in wind’s ability to pull kites higher into the sky and shake the leaves on trees. We can see and feel evidence of the transfer of energy in the geothermal energy of steam vents and geysers .

People have created different ways to capture the energy from these renewable sources.

Solar Energy

Solar energy can be captured “actively” or “passively.”

Active solar energy uses special technology to capture the sun’s rays. The two main types of equipment are photovoltaic cells (also called PV cells or solar cells) and mirrors that focus sunlight in a specific spot. These active solar technologies use sunlight to generate electricity , which we use to power lights, heating systems, computers, and televisions.

Passive solar energy does not use any equipment. Instead, it gets energy from the way sunlight naturally changes throughout the day. For example, people can build houses so their windows face the path of the sun. This means the house will get more heat from the sun. It will take less energy from other sources to heat the house.

Other examples of passive solar technology are green roofs , cool roofs, and radiant barriers . Green roofs are completely covered with plants. Plants can get rid of pollutants in rainwater and air. They help make the local environment cleaner.

Cool roofs are painted white to better reflect sunlight. Radiant barriers are made of a reflective covering, such as aluminum. They both reflect the sun’s heat instead of absorbing it. All these types of roofs help lower the amount of energy needed to cool the building.

Advantages and Disadvantages There are many advantages to using solar energy. PV cells last for a long time, about 20 years.

However, there are reasons why solar power cannot be used as the only power source in a community. It can be expensive to install PV cells or build a building using passive solar technology.

Sunshine can also be hard to predict. It can be blocked by clouds, and the sun doesn’t shine at night. Different parts of Earth receive different amounts of sunlight based on location, the time of year, and the time of day.

Wind Energy

People have been harnessing the wind’s energy for a long, long time. Five-thousand years ago, ancient Egyptians made boats powered by the wind. In 200 B.C.E., people used windmills to grind grain in the Middle East and pump water in China.

Today, we capture the wind’s energy with wind turbines . A turbine is similar to a windmill; it has a very tall tower with two or three propeller-like blades at the top. These blades are turned by the wind. The blades turn a generator (located inside the tower), which creates electricity.

Groups of wind turbines are known as wind farms . Wind farms can be found near farmland, in narrow mountain passes, and even in the ocean, where there are steadier and stronger winds. Wind turbines anchored in the ocean are called “ offshore wind farms.”

Wind farms create electricity for nearby homes, schools, and other buildings.

Advantages and Disadvantages Wind energy can be very efficient . In places like the Midwest in the United States and along coasts, steady winds can provide cheap, reliable electricity.

Another great advantage of wind power is that it is a “clean” form of energy. Wind turbines do not burn fuel or emit any pollutants into the air.

Wind is not always a steady source of energy, however. Wind speed changes constantly, depending on the time of day, weather , and geographic location. Currently, it cannot be used to provide electricity for all our power needs.

Wind turbines can also be dangerous for bats and birds. These animals cannot always judge how fast the blades are moving and crash into them.

Geothermal Energy

Deep beneath the surface is Earth’s core . The center of Earth is extremely hot—thought to be over 6,000 °C (about 10,800 °F). The heat is constantly moving toward the surface.

We can see some of Earth’s heat when it bubbles to the surface. Geothermal energy can melt underground rocks into magma and cause the magma to bubble to the surface as lava . Geothermal energy can also heat underground sources of water and force it to spew out from the surface. This stream of water is called a geyser.

However, most of Earth’s heat stays underground and makes its way out very, very slowly.

We can access underground geothermal heat in different ways. One way of using geothermal energy is with “geothermal heat pumps.” A pipe of water loops between a building and holes dug deep underground. The water is warmed by the geothermal energy underground and brings the warmth aboveground to the building. Geothermal heat pumps can be used to heat houses, sidewalks, and even parking lots.

Another way to use geothermal energy is with steam. In some areas of the world, there is underground steam that naturally rises to the surface. The steam can be piped straight to a power plant. However, in other parts of the world, the ground is dry. Water must be injected underground to create steam. When the steam comes to the surface, it is used to turn a generator and create electricity.

In Iceland, there are large reservoirs of underground water. Almost 90 percent of people in Iceland use geothermal as an energy source to heat their homes and businesses.

Advantages and Disadvantages An advantage of geothermal energy is that it is clean. It does not require any fuel or emit any harmful pollutants into the air.

Geothermal energy is only avaiable in certain parts of the world. Another disadvantage of using geothermal energy is that in areas of the world where there is only dry heat underground, large quantities of freshwater are used to make steam. There may not be a lot of freshwater. People need water for drinking, cooking, and bathing.

Biomass Energy

Biomass is any material that comes from plants or microorganisms that were recently living. Plants create energy from the sun through photosynthesis . This energy is stored in the plants even after they die.

Trees, branches, scraps of bark, and recycled paper are common sources of biomass energy. Manure, garbage, and crops , such as corn, soy, and sugar cane, can also be used as biomass feedstocks .

We get energy from biomass by burning it. Wood chips, manure, and garbage are dried out and compressed into squares called “briquettes.” These briquettes are so dry that they do not absorb water. They can be stored and burned to create heat or generate electricity.

Biomass can also be converted into biofuel . Biofuels are mixed with regular gasoline and can be used to power cars and trucks. Biofuels release less harmful pollutants than pure gasoline.

Advantages and Disadvantages A major advantage of biomass is that it can be stored and then used when it is needed.

Growing crops for biofuels, however, requires large amounts of land and pesticides . Land could be used for food instead of biofuels. Some pesticides could pollute the air and water.

Biomass energy can also be a nonrenewable energy source. Biomass energy relies on biomass feedstocks—plants that are processed and burned to create electricity. Biomass feedstocks can include crops, such as corn or soy, as well as wood. If people do not replant biomass feedstocks as fast as they use them, biomass energy becomes a non-renewable energy source.

Hydroelectric Energy

Hydroelectric energy is made by flowing water. Most hydroelectric power plants are located on large dams , which control the flow of a river.

Dams block the river and create an artificial lake, or reservoir. A controlled amount of water is forced through tunnels in the dam. As water flows through the tunnels, it turns huge turbines and generates electricity.

Advantages and Disadvantages Hydroelectric energy is fairly inexpensive to harness. Dams do not need to be complex, and the resources to build them are not difficult to obtain. Rivers flow all over the world, so the energy source is available to millions of people.

Hydroelectric energy is also fairly reliable. Engineers control the flow of water through the dam, so the flow does not depend on the weather (the way solar and wind energies do).

However, hydroelectric power plants are damaging to the environment. When a river is dammed, it creates a large lake behind the dam. This lake (sometimes called a reservoir) drowns the original river habitat deep underwater. Sometimes, people build dams that can drown entire towns underwater. The people who live in the town or village must move to a new area.

Hydroelectric power plants don’t work for a very long time: Some can only supply power for 20 or 30 years. Silt , or dirt from a riverbed, builds up behind the dam and slows the flow of water.

Other Renewable Energy Sources

Scientists and engineers are constantly working to harness other renewable energy sources. Three of the most promising are tidal energy , wave energy , and algal (or algae) fuel.

Tidal energy harnesses the power of ocean tides to generate electricity. Some tidal energy projects use the moving tides to turn the blades of a turbine. Other projects use small dams to continually fill reservoirs at high tide and slowly release the water (and turn turbines) at low tide.

Wave energy harnesses waves from the ocean, lakes, or rivers. Some wave energy projects use the same equipment that tidal energy projects do—dams and standing turbines. Other wave energy projects float directly on waves. The water’s constant movement over and through these floating pieces of equipment turns turbines and creates electricity.

Algal fuel is a type of biomass energy that uses the unique chemicals in seaweed to create a clean and renewable biofuel. Algal fuel does not need the acres of cropland that other biofuel feedstocks do.

Renewable Nations

These nations (or groups of nations) produce the most energy using renewable resources. Many of them are also the leading producers of nonrenewable energy: China, European Union, United States, Brazil, and Canada

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The Future of Sustainable Energy

26 June, 2021

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Building a sustainable energy future calls for leaps forward in both technology and policy leadership. State governments, major corporations and nations around the world have pledged to address the worsening climate crisis by transitioning to 100% renewable energy over the next few decades. Turning those statements of intention into a reality means undertaking unprecedented efforts and collaboration between disciplines ranging from environmental science to economics.

There are highly promising opportunities for green initiatives that could deliver a better future. However, making a lasting difference will require both new technology and experts who can help governments and organizations transition to more sustainable practices. These leaders will be needed to source renewables efficiently and create environmentally friendly policies, as well as educate consumers and policymakers. To maximize their impact, they must make decisions informed by the most advanced research in clean energy technology, economics, and finance.

Current Trends in Sustainability

The imperative to adopt renewable power solutions on a worldwide scale continues to grow even more urgent as the global average surface temperature hits historic highs and amplifies the danger from extreme weather events . In many regions, the average temperature has already increased by 1.5 degrees , and experts predict that additional warming could drive further heatwaves, droughts, severe hurricanes, wildfires, sea level rises, and even mass extinctions.

In addition, physicians warn that failure to respond to this dire situation could unleash novel diseases : Dr. Rexford Ahima and Dr. Arturo Casadevall of the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine contributed to an article in the Journal of Clinical Investigation that explained how climate change could affect the human body’s ability to regulate its own temperature while bringing about infectious microbes that adapt to the warmer conditions.

World leaders have accepted that greenhouse gas emissions are a serious problem that must be addressed. Since the Paris Agreement was first adopted in December 2015, 197 nations have signed on to its framework for combating climate change and preventing the global temperature increase from reaching 2 degrees Celsius over preindustrial levels.

Corporate giants made their own commitments to become carbon neutral by funding offsets to reduce greenhouse gases and gradually transitioning into using 100% renewable energy. Google declared its operations carbon neutral in 2017 and has promised that all data centers and campuses will be carbon-free by 2030. Facebook stated that it would eliminate its carbon footprint in 2020 and expand that commitment to all the organization’s suppliers within 10 years. Amazon ordered 100,000 electric delivery vehicles and has promised that its sprawling logistics operations will arrive at net-zero emissions by 2040.

Despite these promising developments, many experts say that nations and businesses are still not changing fast enough. While carbon neutrality pledges are a step in the right direction, they don’t mean that organizations have actually stopped using fossil fuels . And despite the intentions expressed by Paris Agreement signatories, total annual carbon dioxide emissions reached a record high of 33.5 gigatons in 2018, led by China, the U.S., and India.

“The problem is that what we need to achieve is so daunting and taxes our resources so much that we end up with a situation that’s much, much worse than if we had focused our efforts,” Ferraro said.

Recent Breakthroughs in Renewable Power

An environmentally sustainable infrastructure requires innovations in transportation, industry, and utilities. Fortunately, researchers in the private and public sectors are laying the groundwork for an energy transformation that could make the renewable energy of the future more widely accessible and efficient.

Some of the most promising areas that have seen major developments in recent years include:

Driving Electric Vehicles Forward

The technical capabilities of electric cars are taking great strides, and the popularity of these vehicles is also growing among consumers. At Tesla’s September 22, 2020 Battery Day event, Elon Musk announced the company’s plans for new batteries that can be manufactured at a lower cost while offering greater range and increased power output .

The electric car market has seen continuing expansion in Europe even during the COVID-19 pandemic, thanks in large part to generous government subsidies. Market experts once predicted that it would take until 2025 for electric car prices to reach parity with gasoline-powered vehicles. However, growing sales and new battery technology could greatly speed up that timetable .

Cost-Effective Storage For Renewable Power

One of the biggest hurdles in the way of embracing 100% renewable energy has been the need to adjust supply based on demand. Utilities providers need efficient, cost-effective ways of storing solar and wind power so that electricity is available regardless of weather conditions. Most electricity storage currently takes place in pumped-storage hydropower plants, but these facilities require multiple reservoirs at different elevations.

Pumped thermal electricity storage is an inexpensive solution to get around both the geographic limitations of hydropower and high costs of batteries. This approach, which is currently being tested , uses a pump to convert electricity into heat so it can be stored in a material like gravel, water, or molten salts and kept in an insulated tank. A heat engine converts the heat back into electricity as necessary to meet demand.

Unlocking the Potential of Microgrids

Microgrids are another area of research that could prove invaluable to the future of power. These systems can operate autonomously from a traditional electrical grid, delivering electricity to homes and business even when there’s an outage. By using this approach with power sources like solar, wind, or biomass, microgrids can make renewable energy transmission more efficient.

Researchers in public policy and engineering are exploring how microgrids could serve to bring clean electricity to remote, rural areas . One early effort in the Netherlands found that communities could become 90% energy self-sufficient , and solar-powered microgrids have now also been employed in Indian villages. This technology has enormous potential to change the way we access electricity, but lowering costs is an essential step to bring about wider adoption and encourage residents to use the power for purposes beyond basic lighting and cooling.

Advancing the Future of Sustainable Energy

There’s still monumental work to be done in developing the next generation of renewable energy solutions as well as the policy framework to eliminate greenhouse gases from our atmosphere. An analysis from the International Energy Agency found that the technologies currently on the market can only get the world halfway to the reductions needed for net-zero emissions by 2050.

To make it the rest of the way, researchers and policymakers must still explore possibilities such as:

• Devise and implement large-scale carbon capture systems that store and use carbon dioxide without polluting the atmosphere
• Establish low-carbon electricity as the primary power source for everyday applications like powering vehicles and heat in buildings
• Grow the use of bioenergy harnessed from plants and algae for electricity, heat, transportation, and manufacturing
• Implement zero-emission hydrogen fuel cells as a way to power transportation and utilities

However, even revolutionary technology will not do the job alone. Ambitious goals for renewable energy solutions and long-term cuts in emissions also demand enhanced international cooperation, especially among the biggest polluters. That’s why Jonas Nahm of the Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies has focused much of his research on China’s sustainable energy efforts. He has also argued that the international community should recognize China’s pivotal role in any long-term plans for fighting climate change.

As both the leading emitter of carbon dioxide and the No. 1 producer of wind and solar energy, China is uniquely positioned to determine the future of sustainability initiatives. According to Nahm, the key to making collaboration with China work is understanding the complexities of the Chinese political and economic dynamics. Because of conflicting interests on the national and local levels, the world’s most populous nation continues to power its industries with coal even while President Xi Jinping advocates for fully embracing green alternatives.

China’s fraught position demonstrates that economics and diplomacy could prove to be just as important as technical ingenuity in creating a better future. International cooperation must guide a wide-ranging economic transformation that involves countries and organizations increasing their capacity for producing and storing renewable energy.

It will take strategic thinking and massive investment to realize a vision of a world where utilities produce 100% renewable power while rows of fully electric cars travel on smart highways. To meet the challenge of our generation, it’s more crucial than ever to develop leaders who understand how to apply the latest research to inform policy and who can take charge of globe-spanning sustainable energy initiatives .

About the MA in Sustainable Energy (online) Program at Johns Hopkins SAIS

Created by Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies faculty with input from industry experts and employers, the Master of Arts in Sustainable Energy (online) program is tailored for the demands of a rapidly evolving sector. As a top-11 global university, Johns Hopkins is uniquely positioned to equip graduates with the skills they need to confront global challenges in the transition to renewable energy.

The MA in Sustainable Energy curriculum is designed to build expertise in finance, economics, and policy. Courses from our faculty of highly experienced researchers and practitioners prepare graduates to excel in professional environments including government agencies, utility companies, energy trade organizations, global energy governance organizations, and more. Students in the Johns Hopkins SAIS benefit from industry connections, an engaged network of more than 230,000 alumni, and high-touch career services.

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Introduction to Renewable Energy

Exploring our content.

Fast Facts View our summary of key facts and information. ( Printable PDF, 270 KB )

Before You Watch Our Lecture Maximize your learning experience by reviewing these carefully curated readings we assign to our students.

Our Lecture Watch the Stanford course lecture.

Additional Resources Find out where to explore beyond our site.

Fast Facts About Renewable Energy

Principle Energy Uses: Electricity, Heat Forms of Energy: Kinetic, Thermal, Radiant, Chemical

The term “renewable” encompasses a wide diversity of energy resources with varying economics, technologies, end uses, scales, environmental impacts, availability, and depletability. For example, fully “renewable” resources are not depleted by human use, whereas “semi-renewable” resources must be properly managed to ensure long-term availability. The most renewable type of energy is energy efficiency, which reduces overall consumption while providing the same energy service. Most renewable energy resources have significantly lower environmental and climate impacts than their fossil fuel counterparts.

The data in these Fast Facts do not reflect two important renewable energy resources: traditional biomass, which is widespread but difficult to measure; and energy efficiency, a critical strategy for reducing energy consumption while maintaining the same energy services and quality of life. See the Biomass and Energy Efficiency pages to learn more.

Significance

14% of world 🌎 9% of US 🇺🇸

Electricity Generation

30% of world 🌎 21% of US 🇺🇸

Global Renewable Energy Uses

Electricity 65% Heat 26% Transportation 9%

Global Consumption of Renewable Electricity Change

Increase: ⬆ 33% (2017 to 2022)

Energy Efficiency

Energy efficiency measures such as LED light bulbs reduce the need for energy in the first place

Renewable Resources

Wind Solar Ocean

Semi-Renewable Resources

Hydro Geothermal Biomass

Renewable Energy Has Vast Potential to Meet Global Energy Demand

Solar >1,000x global demand Wind ~3x global demand

Share of Global Energy Demand Met by Renewable Resources

Hydropower 7% Wind 3% Solar 2% Biomass <2%  

Share of Global Electricity Generation Met by Renewable Resources

Hydropower 15% Wind 7% Solar 5% Biomass & Geothermal <3%

Global Growth

Hydropower generation increase ⬆6% Wind generation increase ⬆84% Solar generation increase ⬆197% Biofuels consumption increase ⬆23% (2017-2022)

Largest Renewable Energy Producers

China 34% 🇨🇳 US 10% 🇺🇸 of global renewable energy

Highest Penetration of Renewable Energy

Norway 72% 🇳🇴 of the country’s primary energy is renewable

(China is at 16%, the US is at 11%)

Largest Renewable Electricity Producers

China 31% 🇨🇳 US 11% 🇺🇸 of global renewable electricity

Highest Penetration of Renewable Electricity

Albania, Bhutan, CAR, Lesotho, Nepal, & Iceland 100%

Iceland, Ethiopia, Paraguay, DRC, Norway, Costa Rica, Uganda, Namibia, Eswatini, Zambia, Tajikistan, & Sierra Leone > 90% of the country’s primary electricity is renewable

(China is at 31%, the US is at 22%)

Share of US Energy Demand Met by Renewable Resources

Biomass 5% Wind 2% Hydro 1% Solar 1%

Share of US Electricity Generation Met by Renewable Resources

Wind 10% Hydropower 6% Solar 3% Biomass 1%

US States That Produce the Most Renewable Electricity

Texas 21% California 11% of US renewable energy production

US States With Highest Penetration of Renewable Electricity

Vermont >99% South Dakota 84% Washington 76% Idaho 75% of state’s total generation comes from renewable fuels

Renewable Energy Expansion Policies

The Inflation Reduction Act continued tax credits for new renewable energy projects in the US.

Production Tax Credit (PTC)

Tax credit of $0.0275/kWh of electricity produced at qualifying renewable power generation sites

Investment Tax Credit (ITC)

Tax credit of 30% of the cost of a new qualifying renewable power generation site

To read more about the credit qualifications, visit this EPA site .

*LCOE (levelized cost of electricity) - price for which a unit of electricity must be sold for system to break even

Important Factors for Renewable Site Selection

• Resource availability
• Environmental constraints and sensitivities, including cultural and archeological sites
• Transmission infrastructure
• Power plant retirements
• Transmission congestion and prices
• Electricity markets
• Load growth driven by population and industry
• Policy support
• Land rights and permitting
• Competitive and declining costs of wind, solar, and energy storage
• Lower environmental and climate impacts (social costs) than fossil fuels
• Expansion of competitive wholesale electricity markets
• Governmental clean energy and climate targets and policies
• Corporate clean energy targets and procurement of renewable energy
• No fuel cost or fuel price volatility
• Retirements of old and/or expensive coal and nuclear power plants
• Most renewable resources are abundant, undepletable
• Permitting hurdles and NIMBY/BANANA* concerns
• Competition from subsidized fossil fuels and a lack of price for their social cost (e.g., price on carbon)
• Site-specific resources means greater need to transport energy/electricity to demand
• High initial capital expenditure requirements required to access fuel cost/operating savings
• Intermittent resources
• Inconsistent governmental incentives and subsidies
• Managing environmental impacts to the extent that they exist

*NIMBY - not in my backyard; BANANA - build absolutely nothing anywhere near anything

Climate Impact: Low to High

• Solar, wind, geothermal, and ocean have low climate impacts with near-zero emissions; hydro and biomass can have medium to high climate impact
• Hydro: Some locations have greenhouse gas emissions due to decomposing flooded vegetation
• Biomass: Some crops require significant energy inputs, land use change can release carbon dioxide and methane

Environmental Impact: Low to High

• Most renewable energy resources have low environmental impacts, particularly relative to fossil fuels; some, like biomass, can have more significant impacts
• No air pollution with the exception of biomass from certain feedstocks
• Can have land and habitat disruption for biomass production, solar, and hydro
• Potential wildlife impacts from wind turbines (birds and bats)
• Modest environmental impacts during manufacturing, transportation, and end of life

Updated January 2024

Before You Watch Our Lecture on Introduction to Renewable Energy

We assign videos and readings to our Stanford students as pre-work for each lecture to help contextualize the lecture content. We strongly encourage you to review the Essential reading below before watching our lecture on  Introduction to Renewable Energy . Include the Optional and Useful readings based on your interests and available time.

• The Sustainable Energy in America 2024 Factbook (Executive Summary pp. 5-10) . Bloomberg New Energy Finance. 2024. (6 pages) Provides valuable year-over-year data and insights on the American energy transformation.

Optional and Useful

• Renewables 2024 Global Status Report (Global Overview pp. 10-39) . REN21. 2024. (30 pages)  Documents the progress made in the renewable energy sector and highlights the opportunities afforded by a renewable-based economy and society.

Our Lecture on Introduction to Renewable Energy

This is our Stanford University Understand Energy course lecture that introduces renewable energy. We strongly encourage you to watch the full lecture to gain foundational knowledge about renewable energy and important context for learning more about specific renewable energy resources. For a complete learning experience, we also encourage you to review the Essential reading we assign to our students before watching the lecture.

Presented by: Kirsten Stasio , Adjunct Lecturer, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University; CEO, Nevada Clean Energy Fund (NCEF) Recorded on:  May 15, 2024  Duration: 68 minutes

Table of Contents

(Clicking on a timestamp will take you to YouTube.) 00:00 Introduction  02:06 What Does “Renewable” Mean?  15:29 What Role Do Renewables Play in Our Energy Use?  27:12 What Factors Affect Renewable Energy Project Development?

Lecture slides available upon request .

Additional Resources About Renewable Energy

Stanford university.

• Precourt Institute for Energy Renewable Energy , Energy Efficiency
• Stanford Energy Club
• Energy Modeling Forum
• Sustainable Stanford
• Sustainable Finance Initiative
• Mark Jacobson - Renewable energy
• Michael Lepech - Life-cycle analysis
• Leonard Ortolano - Environmental and water resource planning
• Chris Field - Climate change, land use, bioenergy, solar energy
• David Lobell - Climate change, agriculture, biofuels, land use
• Sally Benson - Climate change, energy, carbon capture and storage

Government and International Organizations

• International Energy Agency (IEA) Renewables Renewables 2022 Report .
• National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
• US Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy (EERE)
• US Energy Information Administration (EIA) Renewable Energy Explained
• US Energy Information Administration (EIA) Energy Kids Renewable Energy
• US Energy Information Administration (EIA) Today in Energy Renewables

Other Organizations and Resources

• REN21: Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century
• REN21 Renewables 2023 Global Status Report Renewables in Energy Supply
• BloombergNEF (BNEF)
• Carnegie Institution for Science  Biosphere Sciences and Engineering
• The Solutions Project
• Renewable Energy World
• World of Renewables
• Energy Upgrade California

Next Topic: Energy Efficiency Other Energy Topics to Explore

Fast Facts Sources

• Energy Mix (World 2022): Energy Institute. Statistical Review of World Energy . 2023.
• Energy Mix (US 2022): US Energy Information Agency (EIA). Total Energy: Energy Overview, Table 1.3 . 
• Electricity Mix (World 2022): Energy Institute. Statistical Review of World Energy . 2023.
• Electricity Mix (US 2022): US Energy Information Agency (EIA). Total Energy: Electricity, Table 7.2a.  
• Global Solar Use (2022): REN21. Renewables 2023 Global Status Report: Renewables in Energy Supply , page 42. 2023
• Global Consumption of Renewable Electricity Change (2017-2022): Energy Institute. Statistical Review of World Energy . 2023.
• Renewable Energy Potential: Perez & Perez. A Fundamental Look at Energy Reserves for the Planet . 2009
• Share of Global Energy Demand (2022): Energy Institute. Statistical Review of World Energy . 2023.
• Share of Global Electricity Demand (2022): Energy Institute. Statistical Review of World Energy . 2023.
• Global Growth (2017-2022): Energy Institute. Statistical Review of World Energy . 2023.
• Largest Renewable Energy Producers (World 2022): International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). Renewable Capacity Statistics 2023 . 2023.
• Highest Penetration Renewable Energy (World 2022): Our World in Data. Renewable Energy . 2023.
• Largest Renewable Electricity Producers (World 2022):   Energy Institute. Statistical Review of World Energy . 2023.
• Highest Penetration Renewable Electricity (World 2022): Our World in Data. Renewable Energy . 2023.
• Share of US Energy Demand (2022): Energy Information Administration (EIA). Electric Power Monthly. 2023.
• Share of Electricity Generation (2022): Energy Information Administration (EIA). Electric Power Monthly. 2023.
• States with Highest Generation (2022): Energy Information Administration (EIA). Electric Power Monthly. 2023.
• States with Highest Penetration (2021): Energy Information Administration (EIA). State Profile and Energy Estimates. 2023.
• LCOE of US Renewable Resources: Lazard. LCOE. April 2023.
• LCOE of US Non Renewable Resources: Lazard. LCOE. April 2023.

More details available on request . Back to Fast Facts

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Renewable energy – powering a safer future

Energy is at the heart of the climate challenge – and key to the solution.

A large chunk of the greenhouse gases that blanket the Earth and trap the sun’s heat are generated through energy production, by burning fossil fuels to generate electricity and heat.

Fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and gas, are by far the largest contributor to global climate change , accounting for over 75 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions and nearly 90 percent of all carbon dioxide emissions.

The science is clear: to avoid the worst impacts of climate change, emissions need to be reduced by almost half by 2030 and reach net-zero by 2050.

To achieve this, we need to end our reliance on fossil fuels and invest in alternative sources of energy that are clean, accessible, affordable, sustainable, and reliable.

Renewable energy sources – which are available in abundance all around us, provided by the sun, wind, water, waste, and heat from the Earth – are replenished by nature and emit little to no greenhouse gases or pollutants into the air.

Fossil fuels still account for more than 80 percent of global energy production , but cleaner sources of energy are gaining ground. About 29 percent of electricity currently comes from renewable sources.

Here are five reasons why accelerating the transition to clean energy is the pathway to a healthy, livable planet today and for generations to come.

1. Renewable energy sources are all around us

About 80 percent of the global population lives in countries that are net-importers of fossil fuels -- that’s about 6 billion people who are dependent on fossil fuels from other countries, which makes them vulnerable to geopolitical shocks and crises.

In contrast, renewable energy sources are available in all countries, and their potential is yet to be fully harnessed. The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) estimates that 90 percent of the world’s electricity can and should come from renewable energy by 2050.

Renewables offer a way out of import dependency, allowing countries to diversify their economies and protect them from the unpredictable price swings of fossil fuels, while driving inclusive economic growth, new jobs, and poverty alleviation.

2. Renewable energy is cheaper

Renewable energy actually is the cheapest power option in most parts of the world today. Prices for renewable energy technologies are dropping rapidly. The cost of electricity from solar power fell by 85 percent between 2010 and 2020. Costs of onshore and offshore wind energy fell by 56 percent and 48 percent respectively.

Falling prices make renewable energy more attractive all around – including to low- and middle-income countries, where most of the additional demand for new electricity will come from. With falling costs, there is a real opportunity for much of the new power supply over the coming years to be provided by low-carbon sources.

Cheap electricity from renewable sources could provide 65 percent of the world’s total electricity supply by 2030. It could decarbonize 90 percent of the power sector by 2050, massively cutting carbon emissions and helping to mitigate climate change.

Although solar and wind power costs are expected to remain higher in 2022 and 2023 then pre-pandemic levels due to general elevated commodity and freight prices, their competitiveness actually improves due to much sharper increases in gas and coal prices, says the International Energy Agency (IEA).

3. Renewable energy is healthier

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), about 99 percent of people in the world breathe air that exceeds air quality limits and threatens their health, and more than 13 million deaths around the world each year are due to avoidable environmental causes, including air pollution.

The unhealthy levels of fine particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide originate mainly from the burning of fossil fuels. In 2018, air pollution from fossil fuels caused $2.9 trillion in health and economic costs , about $8 billion a day.

Switching to clean sources of energy, such as wind and solar, thus helps address not only climate change but also air pollution and health.

4. Renewable energy creates jobs

Every dollar of investment in renewables creates three times more jobs than in the fossil fuel industry. The IEA estimates that the transition towards net-zero emissions will lead to an overall increase in energy sector jobs : while about 5 million jobs in fossil fuel production could be lost by 2030, an estimated 14 million new jobs would be created in clean energy, resulting in a net gain of 9 million jobs.

In addition, energy-related industries would require a further 16 million workers, for instance to take on new roles in manufacturing of electric vehicles and hyper-efficient appliances or in innovative technologies such as hydrogen. This means that a total of more than 30 million jobs could be created in clean energy, efficiency, and low-emissions technologies by 2030.

Ensuring a just transition , placing the needs and rights of people at the heart of the energy transition, will be paramount to make sure no one is left behind.

5. Renewable energy makes economic sense

About $7 trillion was spent on subsidizing the fossil fuel industry in 2022, including through explicit subsidies, tax breaks, and health and environmental damages that were not priced into the cost of fossil fuels.

In comparison, about $4.5 trillion a year needs to be invested in renewable energy until 2030 – including investments in technology and infrastructure – to allow us to reach net-zero emissions by 2050.

The upfront cost can be daunting for many countries with limited resources, and many will need financial and technical support to make the transition. But investments in renewable energy will pay off. The reduction of pollution and climate impacts alone could save the world up to $4.2 trillion per year by 2030.

Moreover, efficient, reliable renewable technologies can create a system less prone to market shocks and improve resilience and energy security by diversifying power supply options.

Learn more about how many communities and countries are realizing the economic, societal, and environmental benefits of renewable energy.

Will developing countries benefit from the renewables boom? Learn more here .

What is renewable energy?

Derived from natural resources that are abundant and continuously replenished, renewable energy is key to a safer, cleaner, and sustainable world. Explore common sources of renewable energy here.

Why invest in renewable energy?

Learn more about the differences between fossil fuels and renewables, the benefits of renewable energy, and how we can act now.

Five ways to jump-start the renewable energy transition now

UN Secretary-General outlines five critical actions the world needs to prioritize now to speed up the global shift to renewable energy.

What is net zero? Why is it important? Our net-zero page explains why we need steep emissions cuts now and what efforts are underway.

• What is climate change?

Our climate 101 offers a quick take on the how and why of climate change. Read more.

How will the world foot the bill? We explain the issues and the value of financing climate action.

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It’s time to stop burning our planet, and start investing in the abundant renewable energy all around us." ANTÓNIO GUTERRES , United Nations Secretary-General

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• 08 August 2023

Clean energy can fuel the future — and make the world healthier

You have full access to this article via your institution.

China is on track to reach its solar-power target for 2030. Credit: Zhao Yongtao/VCG/Getty

The 2030 targets laid out by the United Nations for the seventh Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 7) are clear enough: provide affordable access to energy; expand use of renewable sources; improve energy efficiency year on year; and enhance international cooperation in support of clean-energy research, development and infrastructure. Meeting those goals, however, will be anything but simple. As seen in many of the editorials in this series examining the SDGs at their halfway stage , the world is falling short.

This is due, at least in part, to the influence of the fossil-fuel industry, which drives the economics and, often, the politics of countries large and small, rich and poor. Rising human prosperity, as measured by economic growth, has long been linked to an abundance of fossil fuels. Many politicians fear that the pursuit of clean-energy sources will compromise that economic development. The latest science clearly counters this view — but the voice of the research community is not being heard in the right places. To meet the targets embodied in SDG 7, that has to change.

There is much to be done. In 2021, some 675 million people worldwide still did not have access to electricity. This is down from 1.1 billion a decade or so ago, but the pace of progress has slowed. On the basis of current trends, 660 million people, many of them in sub-Saharan Africa, will remain without electricity by 2030. And projections indicate that some 1.9 billion people will still be using polluting and inefficient cooking systems fuelled by coal and wood (see go.nature.com/3s8d887 ). This is bad news all round: for health, biodiversity and the climate.

Carbon emissions hit new high: warning from COP27

Achieving the energy-access targets was always going to be a stretch, but progress has been slow elsewhere, too. Take energy efficiency. More energy efficiency means less pollution, and energy efficiency has increased by around 2% annually in the past few years. But meeting the target for 2030 — to double the rate of the 1990–2010 average — would require gains of around 3.4% every year for the rest of this decade.

The picture for renewable energy is similarly mixed. Despite considerable growth in wind and solar power to generate grid electricity, progress in the heat and transport sectors remains sluggish. Renewable energy’s share of total global energy consumption was just 19.1% in 2020, according to the latest UN tracking report, but one-third of that came from burning resources such as wood.

One reason for the slow progress is the continued idea that aggressive clean-energy goals will get in the way of economic development. It’s easier and more profitable for major fossil-fuel producers to simply maintain the status quo. Just last month, ministers from the G20 group of the world’s biggest economies, including the European Union, India, Saudi Arabia and the United States, failed to agree on a plan to phase out fossil fuels and triple the capacity of renewable energy by 2030.

But this is where science has a story to tell. In the past, researchers say, many models indicated that clean energy would be more expensive than that from fossil fuels, potentially pricing the poorest nations out of the market as well as driving up people’s food bills and exacerbating hunger. But the latest research suggests that the picture is more complex. Energy is a linchpin for most of the SDGs, and research that merges climate, energy and the SDGs underscores this 1 . For example, the agriculture and food-transport sectors still depend on fossil fuels, and that generates pollution that kills millions of people each year. Other links are indirect: lack of access to light at night and to online information — as a result of energy poverty — hampers educational attainment and contributes to both long- and short-term inequality.

US aims for electric-car revolution — will it work?

The lesson from research is that it might be easier, not harder, to address these challenges together. In 2021, researcher Gabriela Iacobuţă at the German Institute of Development and Sustainability in Bonn and her colleagues showed that technologies centred on renewable resources and efficiency tend to come with few trade-offs and many benefits, including improved public health and wealth, thanks to a cleaner environment and better jobs 2 . And climate scientist Bjoern Soergel at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research in Germany and his colleagues found that a coordinated package of climate and development policies could achieve most of the SDGs while limiting global warming to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels 3 .

The study assessed 56 indicators across all 17 SDGs. One proposed intervention is an international climate finance mechanism that would levy fees on carbon emissions that would be redistributed through national programmes to reduce poverty. A second focuses on promoting healthy diets — including reducing the consumption of meat, the production of which requires a lot of water, energy and land. This would benefit people on low incomes by lowering both food and energy prices.

The biggest challenge lies in translating these models to the real world. To do so, we need leaders who are not bound by outmoded thinking, are aware of the latest science and can draw on the research to build public support for the necessary energy transition. We require more national and international public institutions that are willing to address problems at the system level. And all of this needs a science community that is willing and able to champion knowledge and evidence.

Nature 620 , 245 (2023)

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-02510-y

Vohra, K. et al. Environ. Res. 195 , 110754 (2021).

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Soergel, B. et al. Nature Clim. Change 11 , 656–664 (2021).

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Three essays on renewable energy and sustainability

1st essay abstract:   

This study investigates the economic rents of the wind energy industry in the U.S. and their economic impacts on local economies, using Benton and White counties in Indiana as study regions. By calibrating a partial equilibrium model using 2007-2010 data of the industry, we find a resource rent of $9.72/MWh. We then use a general equilibrium model with Dutch Disease features to study the optimal tax levied on this rent, and the economic impacts of redistributing the tax revenues back to the county residents. An exhaustive rent tax increases real county personal income by as high as 9.1% and as low as 2%, depending on the county’s features. Applying an incentive compatible resource rent tax rate and redistributing the revenues to the county’s laborers leads to an increase of 3.5% and 16% in their income in White and Benton counties, respectively. We also perform robustness checks by allowing labor mobility between counties to examine the impacts of resource rents on the county economy under endogenous labor growth. 

1st essay data: All data acquired comes from the U.S. Census Bureau, county Quarterly Census of Employment and Wages, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory reports, the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Indeed.com, news articles, and wind developers websites.

2nd essay abstract:   

Using the Regional Energy Deployment System (ReEDS) model, we estimate the deadweight loss imposed by county-level wind power development restrictions in the form of increased electricity costs due to suboptimal siting. This is accomplished by optimizing the power system of the United States' Midcontinent Independent System Operator (MISO) from 2020 to 2050. We perform the optimization with and without land-use constraints arising from simulated potential local ordinances restricting wind power development, and under multiple scenarios reflecting different renewable portfolio standards (RPS). We find that local restrictions on wind power increase the total system cost by 0.15%-0.3% and the wholesale electricity price by 1.8%-2.7%, depending on the RPS scenario. Changes in the generation and installed capacity mixes are more substantial and depend on both the level of county restrictions on wind power, and RPS requirements, thus indicating an interaction between RPS requirements and local wind power restrictions. We also find that plausible restrictions on wind development do not pose major barriers to meeting renewable energy targets in a cost-effective manner.

2nd essay data: All data is embedded inside the Regional Energy Deployment System (ReEDS) model of the National Renewable Energy Laboratory.

3rd essay abstract:   

The USDA promotes adoption of conservation practices beneficial for soil health and environment through agricultural cost-share payment programs such as EQIP or CSP. Although the efficiency of these programs has been evaluated through additionality estimates, which represent the percentage of farmers who would adopt a practice only with payments, the potential complementarities between certain combinations of practices have often been overlooked. Unaccounted for, these complementarities may impact additionality estimates. This paper provides a thorough investigation of additionality estimates of common practices, including no-till, nutrient management and cover crops, accounting for potential complementarities between them. We find no significant differences between traditional additionality estimates and estimates accounted for potential complementarities between the three practices. The results thus indicate that despite agronomic evidence of synergies in co-adopting these three practices, we find no solid indication of adoption complementarity between them in reality. 

3rd essay data: Data is acquired from the U.S. Department of Agriculture and Esri maps.

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Renewable Energy Poses Challenge For Wildlife Conservation

• A new book co-edited by NC State researchers highlights the environmental impacts of renewable energy development to help leaders and industry professionals adopt more sustainable practices and policies.
• Renewable energy (solar panels, wind turbines, etc.) is increasing globally but often requires more land than fossil fuel production, with infrastructure fragmenting or even eliminating high-quality wildlife habitat.
• The intensity and magnitude of environmental impacts from renewable energy development vary depending on the technology used, the extent of land conversion, and a number of other factors.

Solar panels, wind turbines, hydroelectric dams. Renewable energy is often hailed as a key strategy in the fight against climate change, largely because it helps reduce emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. 

Unlike fossil fuels — coal, oil and natural gas — renewable energy is generated from natural processes that are continuously replenished, such as sunlight, geothermal heat, wind, tides, water and various forms of biomass. 

But renewable energy development can have harmful effects on the environment, according to Chris Moorman , a professor and coordinator of the Fisheries, Wildlife and Conservation Biology program at NC State’s College of Natural Resources. 

“Countries around the world are looking to reduce emissions and transition away from fossil fuels,” Moorman said. “And while renewable energy is one of the most effective ways to do so, it’s not always free of environmental impacts.” 

Moorman’s teaching and research activities focus on issues related to global change and wildlife conservation. He recently published a book entitled “Renewable Energy and Wildlife Conservation,” with his co-editors Steve Grodsky, an assistant research ecologist at the UC Davis John Muir Institute of the Environment and PhD graduate of the College of Natural Resources, and Susan Rupp, a certified wildlife biologist and CEO of Arkansas-based Enviroscapes Ecological Consulting. 

Published by Johns Hopkins University Press and The Wildlife Society, the book explores current scientific research and theory behind renewable energy production and its impacts on wildlife — both positive and negative. 

The editors and other subject matter experts describe processes to generate renewable energy, review documented effects on wildlife, consider policy directives, provide mitigation strategies to lessen effects on wildlife, and identify research needs related to wildlife conservation. The book culminates with a chapter underscoring consistent themes, emerging opportunities and recommendations for future research. 

Moorman said the book serves as “a single, comprehensive resource to help policy makers and industry professionals balance renewable energy development with wildlife conservation.” 

“As renewable energy ecologists, we study novel challenges and synergistic benefits to conservation presented by renewable energy development,” Grodsky added. “We have great opportunities to inform sustainable energy development to make for a bright energy future for people, wildlife and the planet, which is very exciting.”

A Growing Footprint 

Investment in renewable energy is increasing globally and isn’t expected to slow down in the coming decades. About 50 million acres of new land are projected to be developed for energy production in the United States by 2035, and the majority of the impact would come from the production of renewable energy. 

Renewable energy often requires more land than fossil fuel production, with infrastructure fragmenting or even eliminating high-quality wildlife habitat, according to Moorman. It can also lead to a variety of other impacts on wildlife, including behavioral changes and direct mortality. 

A few examples: 

• Wind turbines, both land-based and offshore, kill millions of migratory birds and bats each year from collisions.
• Hydroelectric dams block migration routes for fish, preventing them from breeding and causing high juvenile mortality rates.
• Concentrating solar plants known as “power towers” produce beams of sunlight intense enough to incinerate insects and birds.

The intensity and magnitude of environmental impacts from renewable energy development vary depending on the technology used, the extent of land conversion, and a number of other factors. But one of the most important determinants is project siting, according to Moorman. 

“From an ecological standpoint, we should be building these projects in developed areas that already have little wildlife habitat,” Moorman said.

In the United States, however, governments agencies at both the state and federal levels have yet to adopt strong renewable energy policies with regards to wildlife conservation, according to Moorman. 

“North Carolina ranks second to California for solar power production,” he said. “But there’s no regulatory framework in place to prevent bad siting decisions.” 

Studies show that utility companies in the U.S. have built renewable energy projects on mostly undeveloped areas where land prices are less expensive but where risks to biodiversity may be greater than in more developed regions.

However, renewable energy effects on the environment can be avoided or reduced if development is thoughtfully planned and implemented, according to Moorman. For example, using native, pollinator-friendly plantings at solar facilities can increase populations of bees and other insects. 

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More From College of Natural Resources News

Russian invasion of ukraine could have lasting impacts on global economy, environment, climate is most important factor in where mammals choose to live, study finds, open space has increased in the triangle, but there’s still work to be done.

Benefits of Renewable Energy Use

Published Jul 14, 2008 Updated Dec 20, 2017

Wind turbines and solar panels are an increasingly common sight. But why? What are the benefits of renewable energies—and how do they improve our health, environment, and economy?

This page explores the many positive impacts of clean energy, including the benefits of wind , solar , geothermal , hydroelectric , and biomass . For more information on their negative impacts—including effective solutions to avoid, minimize, or mitigate—see our page on  The Environmental Impacts of Renewable Energy Technologies .

Less global warming

Human activity is overloading our atmosphere with carbon dioxide and other  global warming emissions . These gases act like a blanket, trapping heat. The result is a web of  significant and harmful impacts , from stronger, more frequent storms, to drought, sea level rise, and extinction.

In the United States, about 29 percent of global warming emissions come from our electricity sector. Most of those emissions come from fossil fuels like coal and natural gas [ 1 ,  2 ].

What is CO 2 e?

Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is the most prevalent greenhouse gas, but other air pollutants—such as methane—also cause global warming. Different energy sources produce different amounts of these pollutants. To make comparisons easier, we use a carbon dioxide equivalent , or CO2e—the amount of carbon dioxide required to produce an equivalent amount of warming.

In contrast, most renewable energy sources produce little to no global warming emissions. Even when including “life cycle” emissions of clean energy (ie, the emissions from each stage of a technology’s life—manufacturing, installation, operation, decommissioning), the global warming emissions associated with renewable energy are minimal [ 3 ].

The comparison becomes clear when you look at the numbers. Burning natural gas for electricity releases between 0.6 and 2 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour (CO2E/kWh); coal emits between 1.4 and 3.6 pounds of CO2E/kWh.  Wind , on the other hand, is responsible for only 0.02 to 0.04 pounds of CO2E/kWh on a life-cycle basis;  solar  0.07 to 0.2;  geothermal  0.1 to 0.2; and  hydroelectric  between 0.1 and 0.5.

Renewable electricity generation from  biomass  can have a wide range of global warming emissions depending on the resource and whether or not it is sustainably sourced and harvested.

Increasing the supply of renewable energy would allow us to replace carbon-intensive energy sources and significantly reduce US global warming emissions.

For example, a 2009 UCS analysis found that a 25 percent by 2025 national renewable electricity standard would lower power plant CO2 emissions 277 million metric tons annually by 2025—the equivalent of the annual output from 70 typical (600 MW) new coal plants [ 4 ].

In addition, a ground-breaking study by the US Department of Energy's National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) explored the feasibility of generating 80 percent of the country’s electricity from renewable sources by 2050. They found that renewable energy could help reduce the electricity sector’s emissions by approximately 81 percent [ 5 ].

Improved public health

The air and water pollution emitted by coal and natural gas plants is linked with breathing problems, neurological damage, heart attacks, cancer, premature death, and a host of other serious problems. The pollution affects everyone: one Harvard University study estimated the life cycle costs and public health effects of coal to be an estimated $74.6 billion every year . That’s equivalent to 4.36 cents per kilowatt-hour of electricity produced—about one-third of the average electricity rate for a typical US home [ 6 ].

Most of these negative health impacts come from air and water pollution that clean energy technologies simply don’t produce. Wind, solar, and hydroelectric systems generate electricity with no associated air pollution emissions. Geothermal and biomass systems emit some air pollutants, though total air emissions are generally much lower than those of coal- and natural gas-fired power plants.

In addition, wind and solar energy require essentially no water to operate and thus do not pollute water resources or strain supplies by competing with agriculture, drinking water, or other important water needs. In contrast, fossil fuels can have a  significant impact on water resources : both coal mining and natural gas drilling can pollute sources of drinking water, and all thermal power plants, including those powered by coal, gas, and oil, withdraw and consume water for cooling. 

Biomass and geothermal power plants, like coal- and natural gas-fired power plants, may require water for cooling. Hydroelectric power plants can disrupt river ecosystems both upstream and downstream from the dam. However, NREL's 80-percent-by-2050 renewable energy study, which included biomass and geothermal, found that total water consumption and withdrawal would decrease significantly in a future with high renewables [ 7 ].

Inexhaustible energy

Strong winds, sunny skies, abundant plant matter, heat from the earth, and fast-moving water can each provide a vast and constantly replenished supply of energy. A relatively small fraction of US electricity currently comes from these sources, but that could change: studies have repeatedly shown that renewable energy can provide a significant share of future electricity needs, even after accounting for potential constraints [ 9 ].

In fact, a major government-sponsored study found that clean energy could contribute somewhere between three and 80 times its 2013 levels, depending on assumptions [8]. And the previously mentioned NREL study found that renewable energy could comfortably provide up to 80 percent of US electricity by 2050.

Getting Excited About Energy: Expanding Renewables in the US

Jobs and other economic benefits.

Compared with fossil fuel technologies, which are typically mechanized and capital intensive, the renewable energy industry is more labor intensive. Solar panels need humans to install them; wind farms need technicians for maintenance.

This means that, on average, more jobs are created for each unit of electricity generated from renewable sources than from fossil fuels.

Renewable energy already supports thousands of jobs in the United States. In 2016, the wind energy industry directly employed over 100,000 full-time-equivalent employees in a variety of capacities, including manufacturing, project development, construction and turbine installation, operations and maintenance, transportation and logistics, and financial, legal, and consulting services [ 10 ]. More than 500 factories in the United States manufacture parts for wind turbines, and wind power project installations in 2016 alone represented $13.0 billion in investments [ 11 ].

Other renewable energy technologies employ even more workers. In 2016, the solar industry employed more than 260,000 people, including jobs in solar installation, manufacturing, and sales, a 25% increase over 2015 [ 12 ]. The hydroelectric power industry employed approximately 66,000 people in 2017 [ 13 ]; the geothermal industry employed 5,800 people [ 14] .

Increased support for renewable energy could create even more jobs. The 2009 Union of Concerned Scientists study of a 25-percent-by-2025 renewable energy standard found that such a policy would create more than three times as many jobs (more than 200,000) as producing an equivalent amount of electricity from fossil fuels [ 15 ]. 

In contrast, the entire coal industry employed 160,000 people in 2016 [ 26 ].

In addition to the jobs directly created in the renewable energy industry, growth in clean energy can create positive economic “ripple” effects. For example, industries in the renewable energy supply chain will benefit, and unrelated local businesses will benefit from increased household and business incomes [ 16 ].

Local governments also benefit from clean energy, most often in the form of property and income taxes and other payments from renewable energy project owners. Owners of the land on which wind projects are built often receive lease payments ranging from $3,000 to $6,000 per megawatt of installed capacity, as well as payments for power line easements and road rights-of-way. They may also earn royalties based on the project’s annual revenues. Farmers and rural landowners can generate new sources of supplemental income by producing feedstocks for biomass power facilities.

UCS analysis found that a 25-by-2025 national renewable electricity standard would stimulate $263.4 billion in new capital investment for renewable energy technologies, $13.5 billion in new landowner income from? biomass production and/or wind land lease payments, and $11.5 billion in new property tax revenue for local communities [ 17 ].

Stable energy prices

Renewable energy is providing affordable electricity across the country right now, and can help stabilize energy prices in the future.

Although renewable facilities require upfront investments to build, they can then operate at very low cost (for most clean energy technologies, the “fuel” is free). As a result, renewable energy prices can be very stable over time.

Moreover, the costs of renewable energy technologies have declined steadily, and are projected to drop even more. For example, the average price to install solar dropped more than 70 percent between 2010 and 2017 [ 20 ]. The cost of generating electricity from wind dropped 66 percent between 2009 and 2016 [ 21 ]. Costs will likely decline even further as markets mature and companies increasingly take advantage of economies of scale.

In contrast, fossil fuel prices can vary dramatically and are prone to substantial price swings. For example, there was a rapid increase in US coal prices due to rising global demand before 2008, then a rapid fall after 2008 when global demands declined [ 23 ]. Likewise, natural gas prices have fluctuated greatly since 2000 [ 25 ].

Using more renewable energy can lower the prices of and demand for natural gas and coal by increasing competition and diversifying our energy supplies. And an increased reliance on renewable energy can help protect consumers when fossil fuel prices spike. 

Barriers to Renewable Energy Technologies

Reliability and resilience.

 Wind and solar are less prone to large-scale failure because they are distributed and modular. Distributed systems are spread out over a large geographical area, so a severe weather event in one location will not cut off power to an entire region. Modular systems are composed of numerous individual wind turbines or solar arrays. Even if some of the equipment in the system is damaged, the rest can typically continue to operate.

For example, Hurricane Sandy damaged fossil fuel-dominated electric generation and distribution systems in New York and New Jersey and left millions of people without power. In contrast, renewable energy projects in the Northeast weathered Hurricane Sandy with minimal damage or disruption [ 25 ]. 

Water scarcity is another risk for non-renewable power plants. Coal, nuclear, and many natural gas plants depend on having sufficient water for cooling, which means that severe droughts and heat waves can put electricity generation at risk. Wind and solar photovoltaic systems do not require water to generate electricity and can operate reliably in conditions that may otherwise require closing a fossil fuel-powered plant. (For more information, see  How it Works: Water for Electricity .)  

The risk of disruptive events will also increase in the future as droughts, heat waves, more intense storms, and increasingly severe wildfires become more frequent due to global warming—increasing the need for resilient, clean technologies.

References:

[1] Environmental Protection Agency. 2017. Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2015.

[2] Energy Information Agency (EIA). 2017.  How much of the U.S. carbon dioxide emissions are associated with electricity generation?

[3] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2011.  IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation . Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1075 pp. (Chapter 9).

[4] Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS). 2009.  Clean Power Green Jobs .

[5] National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). 2012.  Renewable Electricity Futures Study . Volume 1, pg. 210.

[6] Epstein, P.R.,J. J. Buonocore, K. Eckerle, M. Hendryx, B. M. Stout III, R. Heinberg, R. W. Clapp, B. May, N. L. Reinhart, M. M. Ahern, S. K. Doshi, and L. Glustrom. 2011. Full cost accounting for the life cycle of coal in “Ecological Economics Reviews.” Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1219: 73–98.

[7]  Renewable Electricity Futures Study . 2012.

[8] NREL. 2016.  Estimating Renewable Energy Economic Potential in the United States: Methodology and Initial Results .

[9]  Renewable Electricity Futures Study . 2012.

IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation . Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2011.

UCS. 2009.  Climate 2030: A national blueprint for a clean energy economy .

[10] American Wind Energy Association (AWEA). 2017. AWEA U.S. Wind Industry Annual Market Report: Year Ending 2016. Washington, D.C.: American Wind Energy Association.

 [11] Wiser, Ryan, and Mark Bolinger. 2017. 2016 Wind Technologies Market Report. U.S. Department of Energy.

[12] The Solar Foundation. 2017. National Solar Jobs Census 2016.

[13] Navigant Consulting. 2009.  Job Creation Opportunities in Hydropower .

[14] Geothermal Energy Association. 2010.  Green Jobs through Geothermal Energy .

[15] UCS. 2009.  Clean Power Green Jobs .

[16] Environmental Protection Agency. 2010.  Assessing the Multiple Benefits of Clean Energy: A Resource for States . Chapter 5.

[17] UCS. 2009.  Clean Power Green Jobs .

[18] Deyette, J., and B. Freese. 2010.  Burning coal, burning cash: Ranking the states that import the most coal . Cambridge, MA: Union of Concerned Scientists.

[20] SEIA. 2017. Solar Market Insight Report 2017 Q2.

[21] AWEA. 2017. AWEA U.S. Wind Industry Annual Market Report: Year Ending 2016. Washington, D.C.: American Wind Energy Association.

[22] UCS. 2009.  Clean Power Green Jobs .

[23] UCS. 2011.  A Risky Proposition: The financial hazards of new investments in coal plants .

[24] EIA. 2013.  U.S. Natural Gas Wellhead Price .

[25] Unger, David J. 2012.  Are renewables stormproof? Hurricane Sandy tests solar, wind . The Christian Science Monitor. November 19.

[26] Department of Energy. 2017 U.S. Energy and Employment Report

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Article Contents

Introduction, 1 installed capacity and application of solar energy worldwide, 2 the role of solar energy in sustainable development, 3 the perspective of solar energy, 4 conclusions, conflict of interest statement.

• < Previous

Solar energy technology and its roles in sustainable development

• Article contents
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• Supplementary Data

Ali O M Maka, Jamal M Alabid, Solar energy technology and its roles in sustainable development, Clean Energy , Volume 6, Issue 3, June 2022, Pages 476–483, https://doi.org/10.1093/ce/zkac023

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Solar energy is environmentally friendly technology, a great energy supply and one of the most significant renewable and green energy sources. It plays a substantial role in achieving sustainable development energy solutions. Therefore, the massive amount of solar energy attainable daily makes it a very attractive resource for generating electricity. Both technologies, applications of concentrated solar power or solar photovoltaics, are always under continuous development to fulfil our energy needs. Hence, a large installed capacity of solar energy applications worldwide, in the same context, supports the energy sector and meets the employment market to gain sufficient development. This paper highlights solar energy applications and their role in sustainable development and considers renewable energy’s overall employment potential. Thus, it provides insights and analysis on solar energy sustainability, including environmental and economic development. Furthermore, it has identified the contributions of solar energy applications in sustainable development by providing energy needs, creating jobs opportunities and enhancing environmental protection. Finally, the perspective of solar energy technology is drawn up in the application of the energy sector and affords a vision of future development in this domain.

With reference to the recommendations of the UN, the Climate Change Conference, COP26, was held in Glasgow , UK, in 2021. They reached an agreement through the representatives of the 197 countries, where they concurred to move towards reducing dependency on coal and fossil-fuel sources. Furthermore, the conference stated ‘the various opportunities for governments to prioritize health and equity in the international climate movement and sustainable development agenda’. Also, one of the testaments is the necessity to ‘create energy systems that protect and improve climate and health’ [ 1 , 2 ].

The Paris Climate Accords is a worldwide agreement on climate change signed in 2015, which addressed the mitigation of climate change, adaptation and finance. Consequently, the representatives of 196 countries concurred to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions [ 3 ]. The Paris Agreement is essential for present and future generations to attain a more secure and stable environment. In essence, the Paris Agreement has been about safeguarding people from such an uncertain and progressively dangerous environment and ensuring everyone can have the right to live in a healthy, pollutant-free environment without the negative impacts of climate change [ 3 , 4 ].

In recent decades, there has been an increase in demand for cleaner energy resources. Based on that, decision-makers of all countries have drawn up plans that depend on renewable sources through a long-term strategy. Thus, such plans reduce the reliance of dependence on traditional energy sources and substitute traditional energy sources with alternative energy technology. As a result, the global community is starting to shift towards utilizing sustainable energy sources and reducing dependence on traditional fossil fuels as a source of energy [ 5 , 6 ].

In 2015, the UN adopted the sustainable development goals (SDGs) and recognized them as international legislation, which demands a global effort to end poverty, safeguard the environment and guarantee that by 2030, humanity lives in prosperity and peace. Consequently, progress needs to be balanced among economic, social and environmental sustainability models [ 7 ].

Many national and international regulations have been established to control the gas emissions and pollutants that impact the environment [ 8 ]. However, the negative effects of increased carbon in the atmosphere have grown in the last 10 years. Production and use of fossil fuels emit methane (CH 4 ), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and carbon monoxide (CO), which are the most significant contributors to environmental emissions on our planet. Additionally, coal and oil, including gasoline, coal, oil and methane, are commonly used in energy for transport or for generating electricity. Therefore, burning these fossil fuel s is deemed the largest emitter when used for electricity generation, transport, etc. However, these energy resources are considered depleted energy sources being consumed to an unsustainable degree [ 9–11 ].

Energy is an essential need for the existence and growth of human communities. Consequently, the need for energy has increased gradually as human civilization has progressed. Additionally, in the past few decades, the rapid rise of the world’s population and its reliance on technological developments have increased energy demands. Furthermore, green technology sources play an important role in sustainably providing energy supplies, especially in mitigating climate change [ 5 , 6 , 8 ].

Currently, fossil fuels remain dominant and will continue to be the primary source of large-scale energy for the foreseeable future; however, renewable energy should play a vital role in the future of global energy. The global energy system is undergoing a movement towards more sustainable sources of energy [ 12 , 13 ].

Power generation by fossil-fuel resources has peaked, whilst solar energy is predicted to be at the vanguard of energy generation in the near future. Moreover, it is predicted that by 2050, the generation of solar energy will have increased to 48% due to economic and industrial growth [ 13 , 14 ].

In recent years, it has become increasingly obvious that the globe must decrease greenhouse gas emissions by 2050, ideally towards net zero, if we are to fulfil the Paris Agreement’s goal to reduce global temperature increases [ 3 , 4 ]. The net-zero emissions complement the scenario of sustainable development assessment by 2050. According to the agreed scenario of sustainable development, many industrialized economies must achieve net-zero emissions by 2050. However, the net-zero emissions 2050 brought the first detailed International Energy Agency (IEA) modelling of what strategy will be required over the next 10 years to achieve net-zero carbon emissions worldwide by 2050 [ 15–17 ].

The global statistics of greenhouse gas emissions have been identified; in 2019, there was a 1% decrease in CO 2 emissions from the power industry; that figure dropped by 7% in 2020 due to the COVID-19 crisis, thus indicating a drop in coal-fired energy generation that is being squeezed by decreasing energy needs, growth of renewables and the shift away from fossil fuels. As a result, in 2020, the energy industry was expected to generate ~13 Gt CO 2 , representing ~40% of total world energy sector emissions related to CO 2 . The annual electricity generation stepped back to pre-crisis levels by 2021, although due to a changing ‘fuel mix’, the CO 2 emissions in the power sector will grow just a little before remaining roughly steady until 2030 [ 15 ].

Therefore, based on the information mentioned above, the advantages of solar energy technology are a renewable and clean energy source that is plentiful, cheaper costs, less maintenance and environmentally friendly, to name but a few. The significance of this paper is to highlight solar energy applications to ensure sustainable development; thus, it is vital to researchers, engineers and customers alike. The article’s primary aim is to raise public awareness and disseminate the culture of solar energy usage in daily life, since moving forward, it is the best. The scope of this paper is as follows. Section 1 represents a summary of the introduction. Section 2 represents a summary of installed capacity and the application of solar energy worldwide. Section 3 presents the role of solar energy in the sustainable development and employment of renewable energy. Section 4 represents the perspective of solar energy. Finally, Section 5 outlines the conclusions and recommendations for future work.

1.1 Installed capacity of solar energy

The history of solar energy can be traced back to the seventh century when mirrors with solar power were used. In 1893, the photovoltaic (PV) effect was discovered; after many decades, scientists developed this technology for electricity generation [ 18 ]. Based on that, after many years of research and development from scientists worldwide, solar energy technology is classified into two key applications: solar thermal and solar PV.

PV systems convert the Sun’s energy into electricity by utilizing solar panels. These PV devices have quickly become the cheapest option for new electricity generation in numerous world locations due to their ubiquitous deployment. For example, during the period from 2010 to 2018, the cost of generating electricity by solar PV plants decreased by 77%. However, solar PV installed capacity progress expanded 100-fold between 2005 and 2018. Consequently, solar PV has emerged as a key component in the low-carbon sustainable energy system required to provide access to affordable and dependable electricity, assisting in fulfilling the Paris climate agreement and in achieving the 2030 SDG targets [ 19 ].

The installed capacity of solar energy worldwide has been rapidly increased to meet energy demands. The installed capacity of PV technology from 2010 to 2020 increased from 40 334 to 709 674 MW, whereas the installed capacity of concentrated solar power (CSP) applications, which was 1266 MW in 2010, after 10 years had increased to 6479 MW. Therefore, solar PV technology has more deployed installations than CSP applications. So, the stand-alone solar PV and large-scale grid-connected PV plants are widely used worldwide and used in space applications. Fig. 1 represents the installation of solar energy worldwide.

Installation capacity of solar energy worldwide [ 20 ].

1.2 Application of solar energy

Energy can be obtained directly from the Sun—so-called solar energy. Globally, there has been growth in solar energy applications, as it can be used to generate electricity, desalinate water and generate heat, etc. The taxonomy of applications of solar energy is as follows: (i) PVs and (ii) CSP. Fig. 2 details the taxonomy of solar energy applications.

The taxonomy of solar energy applications.

Solar cells are devices that convert sunlight directly into electricity; typical semiconductor materials are utilized to form a PV solar cell device. These materials’ characteristics are based on atoms with four electrons in their outer orbit or shell. Semiconductor materials are from the periodic table’s group ‘IV’ or a mixture of groups ‘IV’ and ‘II’, the latter known as ‘II–VI’ semiconductors [ 21 ]. Additionally, a periodic table mixture of elements from groups ‘III’ and ‘V’ can create ‘III–V’ materials [ 22 ].

PV devices, sometimes called solar cells, are electronic devices that convert sunlight into electrical power. PVs are also one of the rapidly growing renewable-energy technologies of today. It is therefore anticipated to play a significant role in the long-term world electricity-generating mixture moving forward.

Solar PV systems can be incorporated to supply electricity on a commercial level or installed in smaller clusters for mini-grids or individual usage. Utilizing PV modules to power mini-grids is a great way to offer electricity to those who do not live close to power-transmission lines, especially in developing countries with abundant solar energy resources. In the most recent decade, the cost of producing PV modules has dropped drastically, giving them not only accessibility but sometimes making them the least expensive energy form. PV arrays have a 30-year lifetime and come in various shades based on the type of material utilized in their production.

The most typical method for solar PV desalination technology that is used for desalinating sea or salty water is electrodialysis (ED). Therefore, solar PV modules are directly connected to the desalination process. This technique employs the direct-current electricity to remove salt from the sea or salty water.

The technology of PV–thermal (PV–T) comprises conventional solar PV modules coupled with a thermal collector mounted on the rear side of the PV module to pre-heat domestic hot water. Accordingly, this enables a larger portion of the incident solar energy on the collector to be converted into beneficial electrical and thermal energy.

A zero-energy building is a building that is designed for zero net energy emissions and emits no carbon dioxide. Building-integrated PV (BIPV) technology is coupled with solar energy sources and devices in buildings that are utilized to supply energy needs. Thus, building-integrated PVs utilizing thermal energy (BIPV/T) incorporate creative technologies such as solar cooling [ 23 ].

A PV water-pumping system is typically used to pump water in rural, isolated and desert areas. The system consists of PV modules to power a water pump to the location of water need. The water-pumping rate depends on many factors such as pumping head, solar intensity, etc.

A PV-powered cathodic protection (CP) system is designed to supply a CP system to control the corrosion of a metal surface. This technique is based on the impressive current acquired from PV solar energy systems and is utilized for burying pipelines, tanks, concrete structures, etc.

Concentrated PV (CPV) technology uses either the refractive or the reflective concentrators to increase sunlight to PV cells [ 24 , 25 ]. High-efficiency solar cells are usually used, consisting of many layers of semiconductor materials that stack on top of each other. This technology has an efficiency of >47%. In addition, the devices produce electricity and the heat can be used for other purposes [ 26 , 27 ].

For CSP systems, the solar rays are concentrated using mirrors in this application. These rays will heat a fluid, resulting in steam used to power a turbine and generate electricity. Large-scale power stations employ CSP to generate electricity. A field of mirrors typically redirect rays to a tall thin tower in a CSP power station. Thus, numerous large flat heliostats (mirrors) are used to track the Sun and concentrate its light onto a receiver in power tower systems, sometimes known as central receivers. The hot fluid could be utilized right away to produce steam or stored for later usage. Another of the great benefits of a CSP power station is that it may be built with molten salts to store heat and generate electricity outside of daylight hours.

Mirrored dishes are used in dish engine systems to focus and concentrate sunlight onto a receiver. The dish assembly tracks the Sun’s movement to capture as much solar energy as possible. The engine includes thin tubes that work outside the four-piston cylinders and it opens into the cylinders containing hydrogen or helium gas. The pistons are driven by the expanding gas. Finally, the pistons drive an electric generator by turning a crankshaft.

A further water-treatment technique, using reverse osmosis, depends on the solar-thermal and using solar concentrated power through the parabolic trough technique. The desalination employs CSP technology that utilizes hybrid integration and thermal storage allows continuous operation and is a cost-effective solution. Solar thermal can be used for domestic purposes such as a dryer. In some countries or societies, the so-called food dehydration is traditionally used to preserve some food materials such as meats, fruits and vegetables.

Sustainable energy development is defined as the development of the energy sector in terms of energy generating, distributing and utilizing that are based on sustainability rules [ 28 ]. Energy systems will significantly impact the environment in both developed and developing countries. Consequently, the global sustainable energy system must optimize efficiency and reduce emissions [ 29 ].

The sustainable development scenario is built based on the economic perspective. It also examines what activities will be required to meet shared long-term climate benefits, clean air and energy access targets. The short-term details are based on the IEA’s sustainable recovery strategy, which aims to promote economies and employment through developing a cleaner and more reliable energy infrastructure [ 15 ]. In addition, sustainable development includes utilizing renewable-energy applications, smart-grid technologies, energy security, and energy pricing, and having a sound energy policy [ 29 ].

The demand-side response can help meet the flexibility requirements in electricity systems by moving demand over time. As a result, the integration of renewable technologies for helping facilitate the peak demand is reduced, system stability is maintained, and total costs and CO 2 emissions are reduced. The demand-side response is currently used mostly in Europe and North America, where it is primarily aimed at huge commercial and industrial electricity customers [ 15 ].

International standards are an essential component of high-quality infrastructure. Establishing legislative convergence, increasing competition and supporting innovation will allow participants to take part in a global world PV market [ 30 ]. Numerous additional countries might benefit from more actively engaging in developing global solar PV standards. The leading countries in solar PV manufacturing and deployment have embraced global standards for PV systems and highly contributed to clean-energy development. Additional assistance and capacity-building to enhance quality infrastructure in developing economies might also help support wider implementation and compliance with international solar PV standards. Thus, support can bring legal requirements and frameworks into consistency and give additional impetus for the trade of secure and high-quality solar PV products [ 19 ].

Continuous trade-led dissemination of solar PV and other renewable technologies will strengthen the national infrastructure. For instance, off-grid solar energy alternatives, such as stand-alone systems and mini-grids, could be easily deployed to assist healthcare facilities in improving their degree of services and powering portable testing sites and vaccination coolers. In addition to helping in the immediate medical crisis, trade-led solar PV adoption could aid in the improving economy from the COVID-19 outbreak, not least by providing jobs in the renewable-energy sector, which are estimated to reach >40 million by 2050 [ 19 ].

The framework for energy sustainability development, by the application of solar energy, is one way to achieve that goal. With the large availability of solar energy resources for PV and CSP energy applications, we can move towards energy sustainability. Fig. 3 illustrates plans for solar energy sustainability.

Framework for solar energy applications in energy sustainability.

The environmental consideration of such applications, including an aspect of the environmental conditions, operating conditions, etc., have been assessed. It is clean, friendly to the environment and also energy-saving. Moreover, this technology has no removable parts, low maintenance procedures and longevity.

Economic and social development are considered by offering job opportunities to the community and providing cheaper energy options. It can also improve people’s income; in turn, living standards will be enhanced. Therefore, energy is paramount, considered to be the most vital element of human life, society’s progress and economic development.

As efforts are made to increase the energy transition towards sustainable energy systems, it is anticipated that the next decade will see a continued booming of solar energy and all clean-energy technology. Scholars worldwide consider research and innovation to be substantial drivers to enhance the potency of such solar application technology.

2.1 Employment from renewable energy

The employment market has also boomed with the deployment of renewable-energy technology. Renewable-energy technology applications have created >12 million jobs worldwide. The solar PV application came as the pioneer, which created >3 million jobs. At the same time, while the solar thermal applications (solar heating and cooling) created >819 000 jobs, the CSP attained >31 000 jobs [ 20 ].

According to the reports, although top markets such as the USA, the EU and China had the highest investment in renewables jobs, other Asian countries have emerged as players in the solar PV panel manufacturers’ industry [ 31 ].

Solar energy employment has offered more employment than other renewable sources. For example, in the developing countries, there was a growth in employment chances in solar applications that powered ‘micro-enterprises’. Hence, it has been significant in eliminating poverty, which is considered the key goal of sustainable energy development. Therefore, solar energy plays a critical part in fulfilling the sustainability targets for a better plant and environment [ 31 , 32 ]. Fig. 4 illustrates distributions of world renewable-energy employment.

World renewable-energy employment [ 20 ].

The world distribution of PV jobs is disseminated across the continents as follows. There was 70% employment in PV applications available in Asia, while 10% is available in North America, 10% available in South America and 10% availability in Europe. Table 1 details the top 10 countries that have relevant jobs in Asia, North America, South America and Europe.

List of the top 10 countries that created jobs in solar PV applications [ 19 , 33 ]

Solar energy investments can meet energy targets and environmental protection by reducing carbon emissions while having no detrimental influence on the country’s development [ 32 , 34 ]. In countries located in the ‘Sunbelt’, there is huge potential for solar energy, where there is a year-round abundance of solar global horizontal irradiation. Consequently, these countries, including the Middle East, Australia, North Africa, China, the USA and Southern Africa, to name a few, have a lot of potential for solar energy technology. The average yearly solar intensity is >2800 kWh/m 2 and the average daily solar intensity is >7.5 kWh/m 2 . Fig. 5 illustrates the optimum areas for global solar irradiation.

World global solar irradiation map [ 35 ].

The distribution of solar radiation and its intensity are two important factors that influence the efficiency of solar PV technology and these two parameters vary among different countries. Therefore, it is essential to realize that some solar energy is wasted since it is not utilized. On the other hand, solar radiation is abundant in several countries, especially in developing ones, which makes it invaluable [ 36 , 37 ].

Worldwide, the PV industry has benefited recently from globalization, which has allowed huge improvements in economies of scale, while vertical integration has created strong value chains: as manufacturers source materials from an increasing number of suppliers, prices have dropped while quality has been maintained. Furthermore, the worldwide incorporated PV solar device market is growing fast, creating opportunities enabling solar energy firms to benefit from significant government help with underwriting, subsides, beneficial trading licences and training of a competent workforce, while the increased rivalry has reinforced the motivation to continue investing in research and development, both public and private [ 19 , 33 ].

The global outbreak of COVID-19 has impacted ‘cross-border supply chains’ and those investors working in the renewable-energy sector. As a result, more diversity of solar PV supply-chain processes may be required in the future to enhance long-term flexibility versus exogenous shocks [ 19 , 33 ].

It is vital to establish a well-functioning quality infrastructure to expand the distribution of solar PV technologies beyond borders and make it easier for new enterprises to enter solar PV value chains. In addition, a strong quality infrastructure system is a significant instrument for assisting local firms in meeting the demands of trade markets. Furthermore, high-quality infrastructure can help reduce associated risks with the worldwide PV project value chain, such as underperforming, inefficient and failing goods, limiting the development, improvement and export of these technologies. Governments worldwide are, at various levels, creating quality infrastructure, including the usage of metrology i.e. the science of measurement and its application, regulations, testing procedures, accreditation, certification and market monitoring [ 33 , 38 ].

The perspective is based on a continuous process of technological advancement and learning. Its speed is determined by its deployment, which varies depending on the scenario [ 39 , 40 ]. The expense trends support policy preferences for low-carbon energy sources, particularly in increased energy-alteration scenarios. Emerging technologies are introduced and implemented as quickly as they ever have been before in energy history [ 15 , 33 ].

The CSP stations have been in use since the early 1980s and are currently found all over the world. The CSP power stations in the USA currently produce >800 MW of electricity yearly, which is sufficient to power ~500 000 houses. New CSP heat-transfer fluids being developed can function at ~1288 o C, which is greater than existing fluids, to improve the efficiency of CSP systems and, as a result, to lower the cost of energy generated using this technology. Thus, as a result, CSP is considered to have a bright future, with the ability to offer large-scale renewable energy that can supplement and soon replace traditional electricity-production technologies [ 41 ]. The DESERTEC project has drawn out the possibility of CSP in the Sahara Desert regions. When completed, this investment project will have the world’s biggest energy-generation capacity through the CSP plant, which aims to transport energy from North Africa to Europe [ 42 , 43 ].

The costs of manufacturing materials for PV devices have recently decreased, which is predicted to compensate for the requirements and increase the globe’s electricity demand [ 44 ]. Solar energy is a renewable, clean and environmentally friendly source of energy. Therefore, solar PV application techniques should be widely utilized. Although PV technology has always been under development for a variety of purposes, the fact that PV solar cells convert the radiant energy from the Sun directly into electrical power means it can be applied in space and in terrestrial applications [ 38 , 45 ].

In one way or another, the whole renewable-energy sector has a benefit over other energy industries. A long-term energy development plan needs an energy source that is inexhaustible, virtually accessible and simple to gather. The Sun rises over the horizon every day around the globe and leaves behind ~108–1018 kWh of energy; consequently, it is more than humanity will ever require to fulfil its desire for electricity [ 46 ].

The technology that converts solar radiation into electricity is well known and utilizes PV cells, which are already in use worldwide. In addition, various solar PV technologies are available today, including hybrid solar cells, inorganic solar cells and organic solar cells. So far, solar PV devices made from silicon have led the solar market; however, these PVs have certain drawbacks, such as expenditure of material, time-consuming production, etc. It is important to mention here the operational challenges of solar energy in that it does not work at night, has less output in cloudy weather and does not work in sandstorm conditions. PV battery storage is widely used to reduce the challenges to gain high reliability. Therefore, attempts have been made to find alternative materials to address these constraints. Currently, this domination is challenged by the evolution of the emerging generation of solar PV devices based on perovskite, organic and organic/inorganic hybrid materials.

This paper highlights the significance of sustainable energy development. Solar energy would help steady energy prices and give numerous social, environmental and economic benefits. This has been indicated by solar energy’s contribution to achieving sustainable development through meeting energy demands, creating jobs and protecting the environment. Hence, a paramount critical component of long-term sustainability should be investigated. Based on the current condition of fossil-fuel resources, which are deemed to be depleting energy sources, finding an innovative technique to deploy clean-energy technology is both essential and expected. Notwithstanding, solar energy has yet to reach maturity in development, especially CSP technology. Also, with growing developments in PV systems, there has been a huge rise in demand for PV technology applications all over the globe. Further work needs to be undertaken to develop energy sustainably and consider other clean energy resources. Moreover, a comprehensive experimental and validation process for such applications is required to develop cleaner energy sources to decarbonize our planet.

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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Energy Conservation Overview: How to Save Energy & Nature

Green Coast is supported by its readers. We may earn an affiliate commission at no extra cost to you if you buy through a link on this page . Learn more .

Our energy conservation guide will highlight everything you should know about saving and conserving energy. We should do whatever it takes to consume less and increase efficiency. This will help save our planet and better our future.

Energy Conservation Guide: Importance of Saving Energy & the Environment

One of the biggest challenges faced by our planet in the 21st-century is climate change . Unusual heatwaves are a testament to that. Energy conservation is at the center when it comes to fighting climate change and saving the future of the planet.

There are only limited fossil fuels and natural resources to meet our energy needs, and at some point, in the future, these resources will run out.

It is simply unsustainable. We need to think about sustainable decisions today. Not down the road. 

If we take a good hard look at some of the problems today, you can notice how they are intertwined. Fossil fuel extraction pushed by the ever-increasing energy consumption demands is increasing carbon emissions.

Simply put, more demand, more fossil fuel extraction, more carbon emission.

Subsequently, we are seeing major health crises and economic slumps in developed and developing countries alike.

According to the latest figures from NASA , the global temperature rise in a year stands at 0.8 °C. These numbers indicate a strong need for energy conservation. 

What Is Energy Conservation?

Before learning more about the importance of saving energy, it is important to understand what is energy conservation. The term has somewhat broad applications, but the underlying purpose is the same. 

In simple words, energy conservation means reducing energy consumption. Some refer to it as the fifth fuel after oil, gas, coal, and nuclear energy production. It essentially helps save the two primary energy resources – oil and gas – the demand for which has risen and continues to rise dramatically. 

Under the umbrella term of energy consumption comes energy efficiency, renewable energy, and wastage reduction. It encompasses various types of energy conservation from the global level to a small level such as gasoline in your car. 

Are energy conservation and energy efficiency the same thing?

In some cases, people confuse conservation for efficiency when it comes to energy. Being energy efficient simply means using technology to get the same function with less energy.

Obviously, this directly contributes to conservation. 

Why is Energy Conservation Important?

It goes without saying that time is of the essence when it comes to taking control of energy production and consumption patterns. As the population of the world increases (at least for the next 5 to 8 decades), so will the energy needs. 

However, as mentioned before, the resources to produce this required energy are gradually depleting. On top of that, fossil fuel extraction and energy consumption, in general, is taking a toll on the climate and health.

Carbon Emissions

The energy produced through traditional methods is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) , transportation and electricity production were the biggest producers of greenhouse gases in the US in 2017. The transportation sector is responsible for 28.9% of total carbon emission, whereas electricity production is not far standing at 27.5%. 

In addition to the above two, industries across the US and also globally are causing quite a damage to the environment. While the discussion has been going on for some decades now, it has only gained ground recently given the terrible effects global warming is having.  Here are a few tips as to you should care for the environment . 

The more energy we produce and consume, the more at risk the planet would be. At a high-level UN General Assembly meeting earlier this year, experts said that we only have 11 years left to prevent irreversible damage to the planet.

What does this mean? We all have to act NOW!

Conserving energy is at the heart of the solution. If we reduce use and subsequently limit production, we can successfully limit harmful carbon emissions and stop climate change in its path, at least for now. Going all-electric at home , for instance, can not only positively affect your monthly bills but also result in a significant reduction of your carbon footprint.

Did you know you can save money on energy without installing anything? You can use Arcadia Power to move to clean energy. You’ll save on your electric bill for completely free.

Limited Resources

Former French President Francois Hollande said in one of his speeches about Climate Change , “The time is past when humankind thought it could selfishly draw on resources. We now know the world is not a commodity.”  

He was right, isn’t he?

The number of years of fossil fuels left is hotly debated, but almost everyone agrees that they will end at some point. While we are gradually moving towards sustainable solutions to meet our energy needs, we must conserve the resources we have. 

At the current rate of global consumption which is around 11 billion tonnes of oil a year, the oil reserves should last for just another 53 years . That is a very short time which is why many oil-rich nations are moving away from their dependency on oil . This is because they realize that if their dependencies continue, their economies will die when the vast reserves finally end. 

A great example is Norway. It has vast oil reserves in the North Sea but has been a staunch supporter of renewable energy.

The government gives subsidies for electric cars which is why they currently have the highest market share for plug-in electric cars anywhere in the world. 

In addition to CO 2 emissions, we are producing a lot more pollution that is harming our health. Environmental pollution, as well as water pollution, eventually becomes a health risk. 

It is no surprise that every now and then we see outbreaks of dangerous viruses and diseases, especially in underdeveloped countries. The culprit behind that is waste and pollution, much of which comes from burning fossil fuels for energy and transportation. 

As the air is getting polluted, it pollutes the rain coming down. As a result, the soil gets polluted with harmful substances and has a direct impact on crops. Even nuclear energy , which is considered clean, is not free from blame. 

The nuclear waste is not always disposed of carefully and ends up infiltrating the environment. The water from the reactors that is cleansed and recycled into the rivers is warmer by 25 degrees which is a threat to marine life. 

An Increasing Number of Vehicles

Transportation is a big producer of CO 2 around the world. This sector roughly amounts to a whopping 63% of oil consumption globally according to the World Energy Council. This number continues to grow as it is predicted to grow to 88% in the coming years.

Thanks to the rising middle class in developing countries, car ownerships have sky-rocketed in the last few decades. Even though car manufacturers are slowly moving towards energy-efficient and environmentally safe cars, the demand for gasoline cars is still high as they are cheap. This makes it even harder to prevent climate change and conserve energy. 

The importance of conserving energy could not be more apparent in the times we live in. Thanks to peak fossil fuel extraction, transportation, and manufacturing, we are running out of resources and polluting the planet at the same time. 

What are the Popular Energy Conservation Methods?

It is not just the responsibility of governments to limit energy production and find alternatives to conserve energy. As citizens of the world, the duty falls on everyone to play their part in reducing their use of energy in its various forms and contribute to saving the planet. 

Efforts are already in motion on a global level with many governments from developed and developing world taking serious measures to fight climate change, including conserving energy. However, with the threat so imminent more needs to be done.

Now that you understand what and why of energy conservation, it is time to talk about how. 

There are various energy conservation methods but here you will find them bundled into a few categories:

Renewable Energy

The most obvious solution to conserving energy is to shift to renewable resources. These include wind, solar, water, geothermal, and biomass. These resources are called renewable because there is an abundance of them, and unlike oil and gas, they will not deplete. They are also environment-friendly and do not produce harmful carbon emissions. 

According to REN21’s Global Status Report of 2018, renewable resources accounted for 18.2% of global energy production. While promising, this number should rapidly increase if we are to ensure the conservation of elementary energy resources. 

Europe, China, and the United States are the biggest investors in this sector, but developing countries in Asia and Africa are also making strides. 

If you are a homeowner and want to conserve energy, you may want to invest in renewable sources. The most popular for domestic purposes are solar panels .

They can be pricey, but in the long term, you will not only help save energy but also save money. 

On the other hand, you don’t always need a solar panel system to take advantage of solar power, especially when it comes to lighting. For instance, using solar-powered flagpole light is a great way to illuminate the flag without adding cost to your energy bill. Or if you have chickens in your backyard, you might consider installing a small solar chicken coop light , which will help keep hens healthy and safe using the sun’s energy.

If you are a business owner, you might want to invest in some power infrastructure that uses renewable resources like solar energy. Many governments offer subsidies to businesses that implement sustainable energy provisions. You should also evaluate your carbon footprint and minimize that.

Energy Efficiency

You will be conserving energy when you use efficient modern technology that gives the same output using less input. The good news is that such technology is not always expensive. For instance, LED bulbs use up to 35% less energy than your regular incandescent bulbs. 

When shopping for electronics, always look into the power consumption numbers like wattage, amp, etc. Energy-efficient appliances in your home will use less energy and not run up huge electricity bills. 

Did you know that appliances still draw power from outlets even when not in use? They do, and the way to make sure that does not happen is using smart power strips. These are a great investment in your energy-saving mission. 

Heating in the winter is costly as it contributes to nearly 25% of your energy bill. However, it can be even more expensive if your home loses heat.

This usually happens because of the windows. What you need are efficient windows that are a double pane. These gas-filled windows can reduce heat loss by 20%.

If you live in a region that sees very frigid winters with storms, you should consider installing storm windows. 

Shift to Hybrid/Electric Cars

By now you know that your car is probably using a lot of gasoline if it is a gasoline engine car. You can go green and help save energy by switching to an electric car or a hybrid one.

The great thing is that you will save up a lot of money over time. That said, saving money should not be the sole motivator for conserving energy.  

Changes in Energy Consumption

A small change can go a long way. Remember, part of the problem is unnecessary consumption too, which ultimately raises demand, and the cycle continues.

There are many ways you can cut on your power usage around your home and work. Here are some useful energy conservation examples.

• Shut off those unnecessary lights around the house.
• Clean air filters in the air conditioning systems in your house regularly.
• Do full loads when washing clothes or dishes in washers.
• Air dry clothes instead of using a dryer (it is good for the environment as well),
• Use maximum daylight instead of turning on lights.
• Install those lights with sensors in hallways and stairs.
• Walk or cycle for small distance journey.
• Wear warm clothes inside the house to use less heating.

Energy Audit 

Aside from the energy conservation examples above, you can hire an energy audit company or expert to audit your house and recommend measures to make it more efficient. 

It will help you find out which areas of your house are losing energy and how to improve them. They usually produce a very detailed report with projections about how much you would be conserving and saving by making the recommended changes. 

See Related : Best Quotes About Sustainability

Weatherization 

Weatherize means sealing your house for air leaks. It helps prevent cool air in the summer and heating in the winter from leaking. The most common avenue for air leaks are doors, windows, and vents inside your house. You should check to see that there are no cracks in the walls or gaps in windows or door frames.

For cracks in the walls, caulk can be used. For windows or doors, you may want to use weather strips. 

You can do the inspection yourself at the start of winter or summer seasons. The energy audit experts can do this for you too. 

If you have an attic in your home, make sure to inspect that as well. Attics are most common for heat escapes as hot air usually travels upwards and escapes through cracks or openings in the attic.

You can seriously bring down your heating bill by weatherizing your home. 

Like all these tips mentioned above? Use these other energy conservation methods to reduce consumption and save money along the way.

Conclusion on Energy Conservation

Energy conservation has many benefits both for you and the people around you. Many people adopt these practices to save money. However, the benefits go beyond that. You may be cutting down on your energy bills, but at the same time, you are saving the future of this planet.

We are rummaging through the limited resources we have and in doing so terribly damaging the environment.

By making small changes and using less energy, you reduce the demand and spare resources. You also leave a smaller carbon footprint.

As mentioned, global temperatures are rising fast, and the ice sheet in the Arctic is melting, making sea levels rise. One of our weapons to fight against global warming is by making smart choices that help conserve power. 

Related Resources

• Non-Biodegradable vs Biodegradable Resources
• What is Greywater: A Complete Guide & Overview
• How to Choose the Right Recycling Center Near You

Green Coast is a renewable energy and green living community focused on helping others live a better, more sustainable life. We believe that energy and green living has become far too complex, so we created a number of different guides to build a sustainable foundation for our future.

Follow us on Twitter and Facebook .

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Review of the impact of renewable energy development on the environment and nature conservation in Southeast Asia

• Review Paper
• Open access
• Published: 16 May 2020
• Volume 5 , pages 221–239, ( 2020 )

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• Santi Pratiwi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7570-2184 1 , 2 &
• Nataly Juerges 1  

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Renewable energy development is growing rapidly due to vast population growth and the limited availability of fossil fuels in Southeast Asia. Located in a tropical climate and within the Ring of Fire, this region has great potential for a transition toward renewable energy utilization. However, numerous studies have found that renewable energy development has a negative impact on the environment and nature conservation. This article presents a systematic literature review of the impact of renewable energy development on the environmental and nature conservation in Southeast Asia. Based on a review of 132 papers and reports, this article finds that the most reported negative impact of renewable energy development comes from hydropower, biofuel production, and geothermal power plants. Solar and wind power might also have a negative impact, albeit one less reported on than that of the other types of renewable energy. The impact was manifested in environmental pollution, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, and wildlife extinction. Thus, renewable energy as a sustainable development priority faces some challenges. Government action in integrated policymaking will help minimize the impact of renewable energy development.

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1 Introduction

Demand for energy in Southeast Asia has rapidly increased due to rapid population growth and economic development (IEA 2019 ). Energy is crucial for fulfilling household needs and allowing industry and commercial trade. To allow further economic development, a reliable energy supply is necessary. However, dependence on fossil fuels is still high, especially in rural development (Erdiwansyah et al. 2019 ). The depletion of fossil fuels and climate change forces society to achieve sustainable development goals (SDGs). These goals point out that human development needs to be achieved in an environmentally sustainable way (Malerba 2019 ; Yadav et al. 2018 ). As part of climate change mitigation strategies, countries try to reduce fossil fuels and greenhouse gas emissions by transforming energy systems into sustainable systems, based on renewable energy, as one of the priorities of sustainable development (Karakosta et al. 2009 ; Khuong et al. 2019 ). Given the close relationship between climate change and energy use, renewable energy (RE) is a global solution for sustainable development (IEA 2019 ), offering environmentally friendly, low-emission technology (Malerba 2019 ).

In 2011, the United Nations secretary general launched the Sustainable Energy for All (SE4ALL) initiative, one of the objectives of which was to double the share of RE in the global mix by 2030 (IRENA 2018 ) to support one of the sustainable development goals for increased access to clean energy (Haselip et al. 2017 ). Most of the countries are actually well positioned to benefit from the Kyoto Protocol through Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects, especially for the development of RE (Lidula et al. 2007 ; Uddin et al. 2010 ). Countries have set a number of policies and mechanisms, especially at the ASEAN level under the ASEAN Plan of Action for Energy Cooperation (APAEC) in 2004–2009 (ACE 2015 ). This action plan has three priorities: energy efficiency and conservation, renewable energies, and clean coal technologies (Lidula et al. 2007 ). Under a regime of low-carbon measures, RE has been used and has grown extensively in the past few years in Southeast Asia (IEA 2019 ).

The Southeast Asia region consists of 11 countries, all of which (except for Timor-Leste) are also members of the Association of Southeast Asia Nations (ASEAN). ASEAN was established in 1967 and consists of Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Indonesia, Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia. Southeast Asian countries have a high RE potential due to tropical climate conditions and the fact that some are located within the Ring of Fire (Erdiwansyah et al. 2019 ; IEA 2019 ; Kumar 2016 ). In 2016, RE accounted for 26% of the total energy demand from biomass, hydropower, and wind, solar, and geothermal energy sources. Among those, hydropower was the biggest source of power generation, contributing 14% (IEA 2019 ). The Philippines ranks second in the world in terms of total geothermal electricity generation, while Indonesia ranks third. Thailand shows rapid annual growth in solar photovoltaic power, and the Mekong countries (Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Myanmar) have abundant hydropower potential (Kumar 2016 ). Each country has targeted a different percentage use of RE to reach 23% of ASEAN energy mix by 2030 (Erdiwansyah et al. 2019 ).

Nevertheless, the region is not yet ready to globally contribute to RE development due to various challenges (Erdiwansyah et al. 2019 ; Lidula et al. 2007 ). There are large gaps between the ambitious target of installed capacity and the reality of RE development in Southeast Asia (Khuong et al. 2019 ). The selection of sustainable RE technologies often causes problems for policymakers and conflicts in society (Karakosta et al. 2009 ). Despite the importance of deploying renewable energy as a sustainable energy technology in Southeast Asia, there are many discussions about the impact of RE development on the environment and nature conservation worldwide. Paradoxically, RE development might increase biodiversity loss and wildlife extinction (Sánchez-Zapata et al. 2016 ). This review paper looks at the impact of RE development on the environment and nature conservation in Southeast Asia, while the most frequent studies concern RE potential and technical preparation in several Southeast Asian countries (ACE 2015 ; Ahmed et al. 2017 ; Erdiwansyah et al. 2019 ; IEA 2019 ; IRENA 2018 ; Kumar 2016 ; Lidula et al. 2007 ). Although many researchers have shown that RE will have a lower carbon footprint (Ahmed et al. 2017 ; Ismail et al. 2015 ; Petinrin and Shaaban 2015 ; Rana et al. 2016 ), there is still an impact on the environment and nature conservation, which is often miscalculated by the researcher and creates a cumulative impact on the future (Rudman et al. 2017 ). These trade-offs are often neglected by policymakers who experience knowledge gaps, since there is still little research on this topic worldwide. The importance of balancing trade-offs between RE development and environmental and natural conservation is likely to grow in the next decades, since the demand for RE is continuing to grow. Our study will help other researchers to assess the trade-offs from renewable energy development, the challenges, and its policy implications. This review makes relevant literature about the relationship between RE development and the environment easily available to policymakers. Thus, the government can formulate good planning and strong policy to achieve the goals of RE development without harming the environment and nature conservation.

2.1 Study area

RE resources are abundantly available in most Southeast Asian countries (Fig.  1 ). Located in tropical regions, almost all of the countries receive high daily solar radiation and are rich in water resources. Hydropower has the greatest potential in almost all countries, followed by wind and solar power. The biomass potential also varies due to differences in the production structures of agriculture, forestry, livestock, and industry. Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand lead the way in biomass development, which mainly comes from rice husks, bagasse, and palm oil waste (Lidula et al. 2007 ). Until 2016, the capacity and production of RE varied among countries. Countries with high water resources utilize hydropower to produce energy (the Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Vietnam). Solar and wind power resources are also abundant and are expected to grow continuously in the coming decades (IEA 2019 ). The potential of geothermal energy varies from country to country depending on the presence of volcanic mountains, with the Philippines and Indonesia in leading positions (Kumar 2016 ; Lidula et al. 2007 ).

Geographical distribution of RE potential in Southeast Asia

2.2 Data collection

This paper compiled the scientific literature on the impact of RE development on environmental and natural conservation in Southeast Asia. Information and data were obtained from published papers, databases, statistics, and reports. In the search for literature, various keywords and database sources were used. Studies were sought using keyword combinations from a first category (renewable energy, bioenergy, geothermal, hydropower, solar energy, and wind power), a second category (conflicts, trade-off, impact, problem, and land use change), a third category (nature conservation, biodiversity, nature protection, forest, and environment), and a fourth category (Southeast Asia, Brunei, Cambodia, Timor-Leste, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, and ASEAN). The database sources of Google Scholar, Web of Science, Science Direct, and JSTOR Search were used as search platforms.

Of the 303 papers found through this literature search, 132 papers were cited in this paper due to their relevance to the review topic. We considered relevant papers only if they mentioned the trade-off or impact from the type of renewable energy on the environment and nature conservation. The type of impact analyzed included air, soil, and water pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, hydrological changes, landslide/soil erosion, deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and biodiversity loss, as summarized in Table  1 . We listed the relevant papers as a graph as shown in Fig.  2 ).

The total of cited papers based on the type of renewable energy

About 171 papers were considered irrelevant since they had no relation with the focus of our review and only discussed technical points. This article focuses on the most common type of RE (solar, wind, bioenergy, hydro, and geothermal) in Southeast Asia. Other types of RE technologies, such as ocean energy, were excluded, as they were still considered to be under development (Fig.  3 ).

The total of cited papers based on the Southeast Asian countries

3 Environmental concerns

An important reason for the development of RE is the desire to produce more energy while protecting the environment. While RE systems are generally less polluting than fossil fuels at their point of use (Liu et al. 2017 ), their environmental impact can be high at other stages in the life cycle of the system (Quek et al. 2018 ). There are several animal and plant species that could be disturbed by the development of RE. (See “Appendix 1 ” for more details.) Therefore, the environmental sustainability of RE depends on many aspects and not just on greenhouse gas emissions at the point of electricity generation (Quek et al. 2018 ).

3.1 Solar power

Solar power has a lower environmental impact than other RE technologies. However, researchers have found some impact of large-scale solar power on the environment. These trade-offs may occur during the construction, operation, and decommission of a utility-scale solar power plant. The manufacturing process of solar cells can produce dangerous waste (Delicado et al. 2016 ; Sánchez-Zapata et al. 2016 ). Solar power has the potential to increase water use and consumption (Rudman et al. 2017 ), dust and air pollution (Darwish et al. 2018 ), soil erosion, and land use change (Hernandez et al. 2014 ; Sánchez-Zapata et al. 2016 ), since solar power plants usually use large areas that need to be cleared of vegetation (Sánchez-Zapata et al. 2016 ). As a result of life cycle assessment in Singapore, solar photovoltaics contribute significantly to acidification potential (AP), eutrophication potential (EP), and human toxicity potential (HTP) (Quek et al. 2018 ). The highest environmental impact comes from solar energy in the form of HTP, which is mainly due to the manufacturing stage of the panels. The use of double-glazed windows and color-tinted modules in building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) also produces more greenhouse gas emissions (Ng and Mithraratne 2014 ).

3.2 Wind power

Wind power is considered the most environmentally friendly renewable technology. It has lower carbon emissions than other RE technologies. However, wind generators produce electric and magnetic fields, increasing the possibility that they will be struck by lightning (Saidur et al. 2011 ). Researchers have also found that wind turbines have some noise and visual impact on residences and wildlife (Delicado et al. 2016 ; Ladenburg 2009 ). The wind turbine also creates microclimate issues by changing the heat and moisture conditions around the wind farm (Rajewski et al. 2016 ; Sánchez-Zapata et al. 2016 ). The latest study found that wind turbines can induce weather modification with the possibility of climate change due to wind velocity, turbulence, and rough landscapes (Abbasi and Tabassum-Abbasi 2016 ). Recently, the governments of Thailand and Laos signed an agreement to build the Monsoon Wind Farm project near the Mekong River in southern Laos. Although the International Energy Agency (IEA) has confirmed that there will be no disruption to people’s livelihoods and the environment, it will have an impact during the construction of plants (Saidur et al. 2011 ) that need to clear the land and remove all vegetation in the wind farm, creating soil erosion (Sánchez-Zapata et al. 2016 ).

3.3 Bioenergy (biomass, biofuel, and biogas)

For biogas, the generation of acidic substances during crop farming and combustion triggers acidification, while eutrophication impacts are associated with phosphorus concentration and nitrogen enrichment in water runoff from agricultural land (Quek et al. 2018 ). Air pollution has become a great environmental concern in Malaysia due to the combustion of wood and agricultural and animal waste (Shafie et al. 2011 ).

The conversion of land use had a significant effect in many cases, such as conflicts surrounding land and water resources. For example, the conversion of forests contributes 15–25% to global carbon emissions (Baral and Lee 2016 ). Indirect land use change for biofuel production can also add to greenhouse gas emissions, which are supposed to be reduced (Kumar et al. 2013 ). The whole chain of biofuel production (cultivation, processing, conversion, transport, and combustion) is considered to have more global warming potential than sequestered carbon (Mukherjee and Sovacool 2014 ). A study on the greenhouse gas performance of bio-ethanol in Thailand showed that changing land use change from grassland to a cassava plantation causes more emissions than improving the yield of an existing plantation (Silalertruksa et al. 2009 ).

A study on the impact of the conversion of secondary peat swamp forest into mature palm oil plantations was conducted in Malaysia (Tonks et al. 2017 ), which found that the conversion decreased the swamp’s carbon storage and water holding capacity. Peat lands are well known to house carbon reserves, which will cause greater carbon debt when they are converted into other land use. The carbon debt generated when carbon is emitted by converting native habitats (e.g., rainforest) into croplands will require years to be recaptured (Fargione et al. 2008 ). The land use change for biodiesel in Indonesia created the largest carbon debts (around 472.8–1743.7 t CO 2 ha −1 ) due to the conversion of dense tropical forest into oil palm plantations. These plantations require another 59–220 years to offset the initial carbon debt (Achten and Verchot 2011 ). Another example is the establishment of palm oil plantations around the Danau Sentarum National Park, which has a negative effect by disrupting 96,519 ha of peat land, slowly releasing approximately 128 million tons of underground carbon into the atmosphere (Yuliani et al. 2000 ). Deforestation can lead to the diversion of waterways and swamps used as sources of freshwater for domestic needs. The villagers who live near palm oil plantations suffer from air pollution because of the burning of oil palm waste (Obidzinski et al. 2012 ). Others experienced soil erosion and changes in water quality and quantity, where the river floods in the rainy season and dries in the dry season. The increased use of insecticides and fertilizers to enhance biomass productivity may accelerate environmental degradation by causing a loss of biological control and water pollution for downstream communities (Baral and Lee 2016 ).

Furthermore, plantations of oil palm have grown in number, not only for biofuel production but also to meet demand from the food industry and other industries (Mukherjee and Sovacool 2014 ). Regarding the use of oil palm, the initial reason for the rapid development of oil palm plantations was the global demand of food (Susanti and Maryudi 2016 ). An IEA report shows that the use of oil is bigger in the industry than in the transportation sector (IEA 2019 ). Nevertheless, most of the Southeast Asian countries set themselves the goal of becoming the largest biodiesel producer as one of the valuable and promising alternatives to RE, especially Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand. For example, Malaysia retains 40% of its oil palm stock to produce biodiesel (Mekhilef et al. 2011 ), while Indonesia mandates that 20% of its oil palm stock be blended into diesel (Susanti and Maryudi 2016 ). This target converts large swaths of forest into oil palm in order to generate more money and achieve national biodiesel production. When this process occurs, claims of sustainable palm oil or environmentally friendly biodiesel are not valid, since there is an environmental disturbance (Mekhilef et al. 2011 ).

Although biomass fuels provide many advantages, they have a negative impact on the utilization of fossil fuels and fly ash during combustion (Verma et al. 2017 ). Biomass fuel cycles are often not greenhouse-gas-neutral because of the substantial production of PIC (products of incomplete combustion), which have a negative impact on human health in rural households in Cambodia (San et al. 2012 ). In Thailand, biomass power plants that produce less than 10 MW using rice husk combustion systems have the potential to burden nearby villagers with environmental damage (air and water pollution due to black ash from smoke and dust), health problems (due to noise and smoke), and economic harm (due to lower farming productivity) (Yoo 2013 ). Furthermore, the burning of biomass energy and biogas emits CO 2 , SO 2 , and other greenhouse gas emissions, something also reported by other researchers (Andreae and Merlet 2001 ; Gadi et al. 2003 ; Pei-dong et al. 2007 ; Streets and Waldhoff 1998 ).

3.4 Hydropower

Several studies have reported the potential effects of hydropower project development in the Mekong River, including the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) of Hydropower on the Mekong Mainstream (International Centre for Environmental Management 2010), the Lower Mekong Basin Development Plan 2 (MRC 2011 ), and the working paper on the economic, environmental, and social impacts of hydropower development in the Lower Mekong Basin (Intralawan et al. 2015 ). The Mekong River is one of the biggest rivers in Asia, flowing through six countries, from China through Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, and Cambodia, and ending in Vietnam. For years, hydropower projects have been altering the Mekong River Basin’s riverine ecosystems (Sánchez-Zapata et al. 2016 ), which contain the world’s largest inland fishery and provide food security (Hecht et al. 2019 ). Assessments have already concluded that the proposed dams would have significant effects on the movement of water and sediment, including changes in the timing and magnitude of seasonal flows. These cumulative impacts could destroy fisheries and riverside gardens, which would affect the livelihood of those who rely on river resources (Trung et al. 2018 ). Furthermore, sedimentation by mainstream dams would form a new delta (Trung et al. 2018 ). The planned dams will also cause erosion within the downstream floodplain and a 57% decrease in the wash load downstream. Reservoir sediment trapping due to hydropower development could cause sediment starvation in downstream floodplains (Arias et al. 2014 ), altering the ecosystem services, aquatic productivity, and related ecological habitats (Kondolf et al. 2014 ). In Cambodia, hydropower dams change water levels in the lowland area, which may endanger riverine ecology and aquatic species (Dang et al. 2018 ). These studies, which are supported by other studies, find that the hydropower operations in the Upper Mekong Basin have caused considerable changes in the discharge regime in the Mekong River (Lauri et al. 2012 ; Piman et al. 2013 ; Räsänen et al. 2017 ) and dominate the changes in the floodplain sediment dynamics of the Mekong Delta (Manh et al. 2015 ). The discharge impact dampens the Mekong’s annual flood pulse, thus reducing the sediment and nutrient transport for aquatic habitats (Lamberts 2008 ). The Mekong Delta experienced a decrease of up to 66% in the shoreline gradient rate (Li et al. 2017 ). Recently, a massive dam collapsed in Laos, resulting in casualties and loss of access to food and productive lowland paddy fields. This project diverts the waterway from one river to another through a tunnel, causing riverbank erosion and flooding, which negatively affects fisheries and drinking water (Barney 2007 ; International Rivers 2014 ; Shannon 2008 ). The extensive dam project in Laos also plays an important part in downstream vulnerability (Salmivaara et al. 2013 ) by reducing sediment flux, which affects biogeochemical cycles and ocean geochemistry (Robinson et al. 2007 ).

In addition, the Bakun Hydroelectric Project in Malaysia is a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions, especially carbon dioxide and methane, which arise from the microbial decomposition of submerged forests, vegetation, wildlife, and soil (Keong 2005 ). The dam project is also exposed to direct solar radiation and has a warming effect on the Bakun region. Large hydropower plants emit significant amounts of greenhouse gas (CO 2 and CH 4 ) due to the decomposition of submerged biomass in the reservoir and due to energy-intensive activities such as construction work (Gagnon and Vate 1997 ). Indirectly, such dams would contribute to environmental degradation through logging, clearing of the catchment area, and road construction. These emit a substantial amount of greenhouse gases and affect hydrology, water quality, and river flow in a dam project in Borneo (Sovacool and Bulan 2012 ). There is also the special case of the proposed hydroelectric power project in Timor-Leste, which, due to the karstic nature of the area, would result in water leaking through underground channels. Hydrological diversion would also be responsible for the water level drop around the site (White et al. 2006 ).

3.5 Geothermal

Hot spring water used as a tourist attraction in Laguna, the Philippines, due to its geothermal potential, is estimated to consume a large volume of groundwater. This could result in over-extraction, decreasing groundwater quantity and quality (Jago-on et al. 2017 ). The use of this geothermal energy for a hot spring area can also result in environmental damage, because the wastewater affects aquatic ecology near the geothermal power plants (Sánchez-Zapata et al. 2016 ). It is argued that geothermal power has the highest environmental impact, as it disrupts the geology in the site area (Asdrubali et al. 2015 ). The 1979 Lembata landslide and tsunami in Indonesia were primed by the hydrothermal alteration of rocks and soil in the geothermal environment. The area is located in a volcanic complex where the geothermal potential is evident due to numerous hot springs. The altered rocks and soils become loose, slightly lighter in weight, and change into clay minerals, which are more susceptible to landslides during the heavy rainfall season (Yudhicara et al. 2015 ). This was shown to be the case by the environmental impact assessment that was carried out in the Salak Geothermal Project. The assessment identified increasing surface soil erosion, increasing hydrogen sulfide in the air, temporary changes in stream water quality, and droughts during construction of the geothermal project (Slamet and Moelyono 2000 ). Geothermal power plants also have a social impact on the surrounding environment in the form of seismic activity, odor, and noise pollution. Moreover, the first-generation technology of geothermal power plants has a high potential for emissions because waste gases of 90% CO 2 are directly released (Evans et al. 2009 ).

4 The nature conservation concern

The production of RE can cause competition for land and water, resulting in an impact on biodiversity conservation (Popp et al. 2014 ; Sánchez-Zapata et al. 2016 ; Vijay et al. 2016 ). This is also related to deforestation, where land or forest needs to be cleared to build dams and reservoirs. In terms of nature conservation, this could lead to a loss of biodiversity (Sánchez-Zapata et al. 2016 ), habitat destruction (Urban et al. 2018 ), and a loss of terrestrial and aquatic habitats, which increases pressure on wildlife populations that are dependent on these habitats (Blake 2005 ; Mirumachi and Torriti 2012 ).

4.1 Solar power

Solar power is one of the most promising renewable energy technologies in Southeast Asia. All the countries in the region are in the stage of developing solar power, especially in the form of solar photovoltaics (PV). Reports or studies on the impact of solar PV on nature conservation are still relatively scarce in Southeast Asia. Often, the researcher miscalculates the cumulative and longtime impact from the solar power plant. However, researchers have found direct and indirect impacts of large-scale solar energy on biodiversity. These impacts could vary based on the solar plant design and technology type. The installation of solar power requires an area of many acres, which may result in habitat fragmentation and local biodiversity loss (Hernandez et al. 2014 ). The construction and solar power plants could affect the habitat and movement of local birds (Rudman et al. 2017 ). Solar plants can introduce exotic species invasions due to the opening of project area (Sánchez-Zapata et al. 2016 ). Solar power plants have also affected vegetation structures and types through land clearing and preparation (Rudman et al. 2017 ).

4.2 Wind power

The most negative impact of wind power is fauna collision with the wind turbine, as many researchers have reported (Drewitt and Langston 2006 ; Sovacool 2012 ). It was found that birds and bats have high mortality rates from hitting wind turbines (Maftouni 2017 ). These collisions might be caused by the influence of lighting and attraction from the wind power plant, tower design, weather conditions, and height of flight (Saidur et al. 2011 ). Not only local species of birds and bats were affected by the wind farm but also species that regularly migrated from the Northern to the Southern Hemisphere (Hull et al. 2015 ; Sánchez-Zapata et al. 2016 ). Another indirect impact from wind power plants is habitat fragmentation (Saidur et al. 2011 ) and demographic imbalance because it changes ecosystem function by disrupting not only plants and animals but also the human population (Delicado et al. 2016 ; Sánchez-Zapata et al. 2016 ). Offshore wind projects also have some negative effects on fish, marine mammals, birds, and seabed communities by creating noise, electromagnetic fields, and migration barriers (Dannheim et al. 2019 ; Haslett et al. 2018 ). Wind power projects have been realized in Thailand, the Philippines, and Vietnam. Recently, there has been a lack of studies (Green et al. 2016 ) or reports on the existing trade-offs of these projects.

4.3 Bioenergy

Currently, bioenergy in Indonesia is produced primarily from oil palm, which has been criticized as being a reason for deforestation, biodiversity loss, peat land drainage, and other socio-environmental issues (Abram et al. 2017 ; Gaveau et al. 2016 ; Obidzinski et al. 2012 ; Sharma et al. 2018 ). Poorly planned bioenergy production will degrade natural forests, which are converted into monoculture plantations (Finco and Doppler 2010 ), by destroying biodiversity and, at the same time, increasing greenhouse gas emissions (Baral and Lee 2016 ). Forest conversion has been associated with the loss of biodiversity, including a decline in populations of endangered species such as the orangutan (in Borneo) and the Sumatran tigers (in Sumatra) (Obidzinski et al. 2012 ). Mostly, endangered species are threatened by fragmentation (Mukherjee and Sovacool 2014 ) and rapid extinction without the hope of regeneration (Koh and Wilcove 2008 ). In the riverine habitat, around 104 species of fish as well as a threatened crocodilian species, Tomistoma schegelii , have dwindled in population because of water pollution and loss of refuges and breeding sites caused by the conversion of peat swamp forests around the Danau Sentarum National Park into palm oil plantations. Moreover, 134 species (12 reptiles, 78 birds, and 11 mammals) are expected to become extinct as a result of dense forests changing into monoculture plantations (Yuliani et al. 2000 ). The loss of biodiversity and habitat will eventually lead to land conflicts and poverty from the loss of means of livelihood for the surrounding populations (Baral and Lee 2016 ).

4.4 Hydropower

There are four types of environmental impacts from the hydropower project in Malaysia: land clearing and deforestation, flooding and greenhouse gas emissions, changes in hydrology and water quality, and the impact of downstream aluminum smelting (Sovacool and Bulan 2011 , 2012 ). The most relevant impact on natural conservation was the land clearing and deforestation of 70,000 hectares of forest for a reservoir area. Another project was estimated to have destroyed 500 million cubic meters of biomass, and the home to six rare and endangered fish species, 32 protected bird species, and six protected mammals, including herons, eagles, woodpeckers, silvered leaf monkeys, Borneo gibbons, Langurs, and flying squirrels, as well as more than 1600 protected plants (Keong 2005 ). Most hydropower projects change the existing land use to open reservoirs, which releases carbon, threatens biodiversity, and affects livelihoods in the areas around the project.

Furthermore, extensive hydropower development in the Mekong River Basin will decrease ecosystem productivity (Arias et al. 2014 ; Baran and Myschowoda 2009 ; Campbell et al. 2006 ; Kuenzer et al. 2013 ; Lamberts 2006 ). Developing hydropower to increase energy security has a negative impact on natural systems (Ho 2014 ). Future dam projects on the tributaries will change the seasonal flow (drought and flood), which will affect biodiversity, create environmental hotspots, and threaten the giant catfish and Irrawaddy dolphin in Laos and Myanmar (Intralawan et al. 2018 ). Enormous hydropower dams will also cause fragmentation, where the distribution and complexity of primary vegetation will be reduced (Li et al. 2012 ). In Cambodia and Vietnam, the proposed hydropower projects will also cause major changes to river hydrology and sediment/nutrient dynamics, which will then affect the fisheries’ productivity and floodplains in the coastal zone (Kummu and Sarkkula 2008 ; Kummu and Varis 2007 ; Lamberts 2008 ). With the shift in natural flow seasons, aquatic organisms will also be affected by the new flow conditions (Ngor et al. 2018 ). At least 89 migratory species, including 17 endemic and 14 endangered or critically endangered species, are threatened with extinction in the Mekong River system. This was also supported by a study in Laos, where the planned dams would affect fish diversity basin-wide, disrupting the river network and fish productivity as far as the Cambodian and Vietnamese floodplains (Ziv et al. 2012 ). Furthermore, the impact of changing aquatic ecosystems alters the natural food chain, which is critical to food security and the well-being of the Mekong River populations, as other researchers have observed (Baran and Myschowoda 2009 ; Hortle 2007 ; Intralawan et al. 2018 ; Ngor et al. 2018 ; Ziv et al. 2012 ). In the hydropower project in Timor-Leste, the site consists of a wetland ecosystem, karst nature area, and a tropical forest habitat, which is believed to have been destroyed, although a proper environmental assessment has not been conducted. The damage to the great diversity of aquatic plants, fish, and subsurface fauna needs to be mitigated, especially in the karst landscapes and existing caves, which are sensitive to human activities (White et al. 2006 ).

4.5 Geothermal

Another threat to forestry results from the utilization of geothermal power, for example, in Indonesia. Up to 42% of potential geothermal resources (more than 12GW) are located in protected forest areas. The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) was carried out twice in the geothermal project located on Mount Salak, which was later declared a national park (Mount Halimun Salak National Park). The assessment identified a decline in standing trees and a temporary disturbance to the wildlife habitat during exploration and construction (Slamet and Moelyono 2000 ). Although geothermal projects require only small tracts of land, there is an impact in the form of habitat and terrestrial ecosystem loss. Forest fragmentation, which is caused by the development of roads and other infrastructures to facilitate the development of geothermal projects, can result in habitat changes or destruction of existing flora and fauna (Tuyor et al. 2005 ). The opening process can provide great access to people (such as loggers, poachers, or settlers) and invasive species (Ashat and Ardiansyah 2012 ).

5 Challenges and policy implications

5.1 challenges for re development.

To move forward along the path of RE, it is necessary to identify the challenges related to the impact on environmental and nature conservation and RE development in Southeast Asia.

5.1.1 Financial challenges

The high costs of technology have led to a slow development of RE in countries with limited financial resources (IEA 2019 ; Lidula et al. 2007 ; Rahmadi et al. 2017 ). The high potential of RE resources in Southeast Asia opens opportunities for many donors to support the development of RE projects. For example, the high potential of water resources attracts many foreign capital investors to build hydropower projects (Urban et al. 2013 ). Nevertheless, it is not clear whether large-scale hydropower projects are economically sustainable (Kim and Jung 2018 ). Various case studies have reported that the project countries remain dependent due to the failure of economic growth (Thomas 2005 ). For example, the projects of solar power installation for rural electrification supported by international donors (GTZ, AusAID, UNDP, USAID) in the Philippines showed their unsustainability by ceasing operation, or faced severe problems after the project finished. There was no technical and financial capacity to maintain RE projects, which then went to waste (Marquardt 2014 ). The development of many RE projects without assured financial backing has a negative impact on the environment, due to unsustainable project and maintenance issues.

5.1.2 Institutional challenges

The IEA also concluded that most of the countries have administrative and regulatory barriers, including gaps in the legal framework (IEA 2019 ) and a lack of authoritative institutions tasked with RE issues (Yadav et al. 2018 ). Inadequate policies and regulations that neglect sustainability in developing RE will lead to trade-offs with the environment and nature conservation (Erdiwansyah et al. 2019 ; Khuong et al. 2019 ). Even though there is an environmental impact assessment (EIA), weak coordination and planning among stakeholders does not provide effective harm prevention for nature and the environment. For example, in the case of mega hydropower development in the Lower Mekong Basin countries, an EIA was conducted, but there was a substantial impact on the environment (International Centre for Environmental Management 2010).

5.1.3 Social challenges

A lack of scientific studies and updated databases on the potential and status of RE can cause chaos in the planning process. These problems can lead to a lack of involvement by stakeholders, especially in local communities. A lack of awareness and involvement by local communities due to scarce information and the political situation (Erdiwansyah et al. 2019 ; Khuong et al. 2019 ) has resulted in the rejection of several RE development projects in countries such as Vietnam, Myanmar, and Indonesia. Some forms of RE, such as hydropower dams and geothermal energy, are still considered by local populations to be damaging to the environment. The Save Mekong campaign is a successful example of influencing the policy process and increasing public awareness of the environmental issues surrounding hydropower projects (Dore et al. 2012 ). In Thailand and Malaysia, RE is still considered to be immature, risky, and unproven (Sovacool 2010 ), while in Myanmar, resistance has often led to violence (Dore et al. 2012 ). Furthermore, these instances of rejection could cause an increase in consumption and the creation of subsidies and a general bias toward conventional energy technologies (IEA 2019 ).

5.1.4 Technical challenges

Some countries still have minimal sources and infrastructure and a lack of the skilled human resources that are needed to build RE projects. A lack of advanced knowledge in recent RE technology and innovation can have serious consequences for the environment and nature conservation. These consequences would be worse when there are limited financial resources that would lead to the irrelevant use of RE, for example, with low efficiency rates or low-quality equipment. Environmental sustainability can only be achieved through the deployment of efficient and affordable RE technologies (Kaygusuz 2012 ) and a wide range of approaches (IEA 2019 ). Insufficient grid capacity and extension represent a major bottleneck in the expansion of the market insertion of RE electricity. An example of this is Laos, which still has limited grid facilities and a technology-specific barrier (Lidula et al. 2007 ) (Table  2 ).

5.2 Policy implications

Currently, Southeast Asian countries are trying to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by reducing the utilization of fossil fuels and introducing more RE utilization. These objectives are in line with the SDG’s targets of clean energy and climate action. To foster this change, countries are developing regulations, policies, plans, and supporting mechanisms to reach their own target of RE utilization (Erdiwansyah et al. 2019 ; Gill et al. 2018 ). Clean technologies definitely require energy resources complemented by advanced technology and materials (Brook and Bradshaw 2012 ). Together, these factors accelerate the damage to natural systems. Thus, there will be more challenges to the energy and economic systems, since these countries have committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions (Tran et al. 2016 ). However, climate change does not seem to be the main reason for the pursuit of RE development by these countries. The deployment of RE technology is highly driven by political situations and different interests. Climate change mitigation and sustainable energy development have not yet been fully integrated in global climate governance (Blohmke 2014 ). For example, biofuel development in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand is driven mainly by the need for energy security and socioeconomic development (Kumar et al. 2013 ), while air quality considerations do not seem to be the objective of the introduction of climate policy in Vietnam (Zimmer et al. 2015 ).

A mega hydropower project in the Lower Mekong Basin countries is considered to be the cause of the fragmentation of river systems, changing the ecosystem and the livelihood of the rural population. This leads to environmental and social costs, making these ambitious hydropower plans highly controversial and politically charged (Fu et al. 2010 ; Räsänen et al. 2012 ). In the Philippines, RE is utilized to secure the energy supply and to enhance energy access by means of rural electrification, while climate protection, environmental, and other sustainability concerns remain as driving factors (Marquardt et al. 2016 ). Large-scale energy infrastructure networks can decrease rather than increasing energy security, especially if there is international conflict (Sovacool 2009 ). There is a conflict of interest between the upstream and downstream countries along the Mekong River (Kuenzer et al. 2013 ). The Mekong elite decision makers directly and indirectly profit from the dams and put the majority of the rural poor at risk. This project also became a politically charged topic, in which many studies and assessment reports are biased and guided by the interests of their respective institutions. Recently, ASEAN has halted a large hydropower project due to its impact on the environment (Khuong et al. 2019 ).

In Vietnam, there is confusion about the overlapping strategies for green growth, sustainable development, and tackling climate change, including competing policies that favor different stakeholders’ interests (Urban et al. 2018 ). There is significant tension between building the highest hydropower project in the region and safeguarding the great Irrawaddy River in Myanmar, though the country has tackled the costs of development and environmental integration (Erdiwansyah et al. 2019 ). Due to minimal RE sources and technology, Brunei and Singapore are still engaged in intensive research on RE potential. Despite the renewable portfolio standards in the Philippines and Thailand, investments in fossil fuels continue to be greater than investments in alternative sources (Lidula et al. 2007 ). In Indonesia, forest laws intended to stop the expansion of palm oil plantations have stunted (perhaps unintentionally) the development of geothermal power sources (Sovacool 2010 ). The regulatory frameworks were not harmonized and were inappropriate, leading to the conclusion that the region as a whole was “not yet ready” for RE development (Lidula et al. 2007 ).

Sustainable development needs good governance to be successful. Thus, government intervention is needed to overcome these challenges to the promotion of RE development in each country (Khuong et al. 2019 ). A shift must be made away from the state-centric geopolitics of mastering nature and toward a sustainability paradigm with a link between the economy and ecology (Saroch 2008 ). A sustainable energy policy formulation, with a strong deployment of RE, could minimize the challenges and make climate change mitigation policy more feasible (Erdiwansyah et al. 2019 ; Tran et al. 2016 ). It is also necessary to integrate long-term environmental, social, and economic sustainability targets in all RE plans and programs in the future. Furthermore, international donors could also support the countries by exploiting negative cost options, raising awareness for potential co-benefits, and financing through the CDM (Uddin et al. 2010 ; Zimmer et al. 2015 ). There are some RE mechanisms to support this, such as renewable portfolio standards, green power programs, public research and development expenditures, system benefit charges, investment tax credits, production tax credits, tendering, and feed-in tariffs in Europe and the USA (Sovacool 2010 ). Southeast Asian countries will also need to increase cooperation within the region in order to speed up the deployment of RE technologies through the ASEAN Power Grid (Erdiwansyah et al. 2019 ; IEA 2019 ). This will help ASEAN countries incorporate higher percentages of RE. The expansion of energy supply from RE sources in Southeast Asia will result in socioeconomic and environmental benefits (Erdiwansyah et al. 2019 ; Huang et al. 2019 ) (Table  3 ).

6 Conclusion

Considering the trade-offs between RE development, environment, and nature conservation, it is clear that RE is not always green and sustainable. These trade-offs usually have further implications in social and economic consequences, especially for the livelihoods of local communities near the RE project areas. Therefore, it is also important to raise public awareness and knowledge regarding the deployment of RE. Further scientific research and evaluation is needed to better understand the socioeconomic impact of RE and mitigate the impact of RE development in Southeast Asia.

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Pratiwi, S., Juerges, N. Review of the impact of renewable energy development on the environment and nature conservation in Southeast Asia. Energ. Ecol. Environ. 5 , 221–239 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40974-020-00166-2

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Renewable energy for sustainable development in India: current status, future prospects, challenges, employment, and investment opportunities

• Charles Rajesh Kumar. J   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2354-6463 1 &
• M. A. Majid 1  

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The primary objective for deploying renewable energy in India is to advance economic development, improve energy security, improve access to energy, and mitigate climate change. Sustainable development is possible by use of sustainable energy and by ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for citizens. Strong government support and the increasingly opportune economic situation have pushed India to be one of the top leaders in the world’s most attractive renewable energy markets. The government has designed policies, programs, and a liberal environment to attract foreign investments to ramp up the country in the renewable energy market at a rapid rate. It is anticipated that the renewable energy sector can create a large number of domestic jobs over the following years. This paper aims to present significant achievements, prospects, projections, generation of electricity, as well as challenges and investment and employment opportunities due to the development of renewable energy in India. In this review, we have identified the various obstacles faced by the renewable sector. The recommendations based on the review outcomes will provide useful information for policymakers, innovators, project developers, investors, industries, associated stakeholders and departments, researchers, and scientists.

Introduction

The sources of electricity production such as coal, oil, and natural gas have contributed to one-third of global greenhouse gas emissions. It is essential to raise the standard of living by providing cleaner and more reliable electricity [ 1 ]. India has an increasing energy demand to fulfill the economic development plans that are being implemented. The provision of increasing quanta of energy is a vital pre-requisite for the economic growth of a country [ 2 ]. The National Electricity Plan [NEP] [ 3 ] framed by the Ministry of Power (MoP) has developed a 10-year detailed action plan with the objective to provide electricity across the country, and has prepared a further plan to ensure that power is supplied to the citizens efficiently and at a reasonable cost. According to the World Resource Institute Report 2017 [ 4 , 5 ], India is responsible for nearly 6.65% of total global carbon emissions, ranked fourth next to China (26.83%), the USA (14.36%), and the EU (9.66%). Climate change might also change the ecological balance in the world. Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) have been submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement. The latter has hoped to achieve the goal of limiting the rise in global temperature to well below 2 °C [ 6 , 7 ]. According to a World Energy Council [ 8 ] prediction, global electricity demand will peak in 2030. India is one of the largest coal consumers in the world and imports costly fossil fuel [ 8 ]. Close to 74% of the energy demand is supplied by coal and oil. According to a report from the Center for monitoring Indian economy, the country imported 171 million tons of coal in 2013–2014, 215 million tons in 2014–2015, 207 million tons in 2015–2016, 195 million tons in 2016–2017, and 213 million tons in 2017–2018 [ 9 ]. Therefore, there is an urgent need to find alternate sources for generating electricity.

In this way, the country will have a rapid and global transition to renewable energy technologies to achieve sustainable growth and avoid catastrophic climate change. Renewable energy sources play a vital role in securing sustainable energy with lower emissions [ 10 ]. It is already accepted that renewable energy technologies might significantly cover the electricity demand and reduce emissions. In recent years, the country has developed a sustainable path for its energy supply. Awareness of saving energy has been promoted among citizens to increase the use of solar, wind, biomass, waste, and hydropower energies. It is evident that clean energy is less harmful and often cheaper. India is aiming to attain 175 GW of renewable energy which would consist of 100 GW from solar energy, 10 GW from bio-power, 60 GW from wind power, and 5 GW from small hydropower plants by the year 2022 [ 11 ]. Investors have promised to achieve more than 270 GW, which is significantly above the ambitious targets. The promises are as follows: 58 GW by foreign companies, 191 GW by private companies, 18 GW by private sectors, and 5 GW by the Indian Railways [ 12 ]. Recent estimates show that in 2047, solar potential will be more than 750 GW and wind potential will be 410 GW [ 13 , 14 ]. To reach the ambitious targets of generating 175 GW of renewable energy by 2022, it is essential that the government creates 330,000 new jobs and livelihood opportunities [ 15 , 16 ].

A mixture of push policies and pull mechanisms, accompanied by particular strategies should promote the development of renewable energy technologies. Advancement in technology, proper regulatory policies [ 17 ], tax deduction, and attempts in efficiency enhancement due to research and development (R&D) [ 18 ] are some of the pathways to conservation of energy and environment that should guarantee that renewable resource bases are used in a cost-effective and quick manner. Hence, strategies to promote investment opportunities in the renewable energy sector along with jobs for the unskilled workers, technicians, and contractors are discussed. This article also manifests technological and financial initiatives [ 19 ], policy and regulatory framework, as well as training and educational initiatives [ 20 , 21 ] launched by the government for the growth and development of renewable energy sources. The development of renewable technology has encountered explicit obstacles, and thus, there is a need to discuss these barriers. Additionally, it is also vital to discover possible solutions to overcome these barriers, and hence, proper recommendations have been suggested for the steady growth of renewable power [ 22 , 23 , 24 ]. Given the enormous potential of renewables in the country, coherent policy measures and an investor-friendly administration might be the key drivers for India to become a global leader in clean and green energy.

Projection of global primary energy consumption

An energy source is a necessary element of socio-economic development. The increasing economic growth of developing nations in the last decades has caused an accelerated increase in energy consumption. This trend is anticipated to grow [ 25 ]. A prediction of future power consumption is essential for the investigation of adequate environmental and economic policies [ 26 ]. Likewise, an outlook to future power consumption helps to determine future investments in renewable energy. Energy supply and security have not only increased the essential issues for the development of human society but also for their global political and economic patterns [ 27 ]. Hence, international comparisons are helpful to identify past, present, and future power consumption.

Table 1 shows the primary energy consumption of the world, based on the BP Energy Outlook 2018 reports. In 2016, India’s overall energy consumption was 724 million tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe) and is expected to rise to 1921 Mtoe by 2040 with an average growth rate of 4.2% per annum. Energy consumption of various major countries comprises commercially traded fuels and modern renewables used to produce power. In 2016, India was the fourth largest energy consumer in the world after China, the USA, and the Organization for economic co-operation and development (OECD) in Europe [ 29 ].

The projected estimation of global energy consumption demonstrates that energy consumption in India is continuously increasing and retains its position even in 2035/2040 [ 28 ]. The increase in India’s energy consumption will push the country’s share of global energy demand to 11% by 2040 from 5% in 2016. Emerging economies such as China, India, or Brazil have experienced a process of rapid industrialization, have increased their share in the global economy, and are exporting enormous volumes of manufactured products to developed countries. This shift of economic activities among nations has also had consequences concerning the country’s energy use [ 30 ].

Projected primary energy consumption in India

The size and growth of a country’s population significantly affects the demand for energy. With 1.368 billion citizens, India is ranked second, of the most populous countries as of January 2019 [ 31 ]. The yearly growth rate is 1.18% and represents almost 17.74% of the world’s population. The country is expected to have more than 1.383 billion, 1.512 billion, 1.605 billion, 1.658 billion people by the end of 2020, 2030, 2040, and 2050, respectively. Each year, India adds a higher number of people to the world than any other nation and the specific population of some of the states in India is equal to the population of many countries.

The growth of India’s energy consumption will be the fastest among all significant economies by 2040, with coal meeting most of this demand followed by renewable energy. Renewables became the second most significant source of domestic power production, overtaking gas and then oil, by 2020. The demand for renewables in India will have a tremendous growth of 256 Mtoe in 2040 from 17 Mtoe in 2016, with an annual increase of 12%, as shown in Table 2 .

Table 3 shows the primary energy consumption of renewables for the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India, and China) from 2016 to 2040. India consumed around 17 Mtoe of renewable energy in 2016, and this will be 256 Mtoe in 2040. It is probable that India’s energy consumption will grow fastest among all major economies by 2040, with coal contributing most in meeting this demand followed by renewables. The percentage share of renewable consumption in 2016 was 2% and is predicted to increase by 13% by 2040.

How renewable energy sources contribute to the energy demand in India

Even though India has achieved a fast and remarkable economic growth, energy is still scarce. Strong economic growth in India is escalating the demand for energy, and more energy sources are required to cover this demand. At the same time, due to the increasing population and environmental deterioration, the country faces the challenge of sustainable development. The gap between demand and supply of power is expected to rise in the future [ 32 ]. Table 4 presents the power supply status of the country from 2009–2010 to 2018–2019 (until October 2018). In 2018, the energy demand was 1,212,134 GWh, and the availability was 1,203,567 GWh, i.e., a deficit of − 0.7% [ 33 ].

According to the Load generation and Balance Report (2016–2017) of the Central Electricity Authority of India (CEA), the electrical energy demand for 2021–2022 is anticipated to be at least 1915 terawatt hours (TWh), with a peak electric demand of 298 GW [ 34 ]. Increasing urbanization and rising income levels are responsible for an increased demand for electrical appliances, i.e., an increased demand for electricity in the residential sector. The increased demand in materials for buildings, transportation, capital goods, and infrastructure is driving the industrial demand for electricity. An increased mechanization and the shift to groundwater irrigation across the country is pushing the pumping and tractor demand in the agriculture sector, and hence the large diesel and electricity demand. The penetration of electric vehicles and the fuel switch to electric and induction cook stoves will drive the electricity demand in the other sectors shown in Table 5 .

According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), a quarter of India’s energy demand can be met with renewable energy. The country could potentially increase its share of renewable power generation to over one-third by 2030 [ 35 ].

Table 6 presents the estimated contribution of renewable energy sources to the total energy demand. MoP along with CEA in its draft national electricity plan for 2016 anticipated that with 175 GW of installed capacity of renewable power by 2022, the expected electricity generation would be 327 billion units (BUs), which would contribute to 1611 BU energy requirements. This indicates that 20.3% of the energy requirements would be fulfilled by renewable energy by 2022 and 24.2% by 2027 [ 36 ]. Figure 1 shows the ambitious new target for the share of renewable energy in India’s electricity consumption set by MoP. As per the order of revised RPO (Renewable Purchase Obligations, legal act of June 2018), the country has a target of a 21% share of renewable energy in its total electricity consumption by March 2022. In 2014, the same goal was at 15% and increased to 21% by 2018. It is India’s goal to reach 40% renewable sources by 2030.

Target share of renewable energy in India’s power consumption

Estimated renewable energy potential in India

The estimated potential of wind power in the country during 1995 [ 37 ] was found to be 20,000 MW (20 GW), solar energy was 5 × 10 15 kWh/pa, bioenergy was 17,000 MW, bagasse cogeneration was 8000 MW, and small hydropower was 10,000 MW. For 2006, the renewable potential was estimated as 85,000 MW with wind 4500 MW, solar 35 MW, biomass/bioenergy 25,000 MW, and small hydropower of 15,000 MW [ 38 ]. According to the annual report of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) for 2017–2018, the estimated potential of wind power was 302.251 GW (at 100-m mast height), of small hydropower 19.749 GW, biomass power 17.536 GW, bagasse cogeneration 5 GW, waste to energy (WTE) 2.554 GW, and solar 748.990 GW. The estimated total renewable potential amounted to 1096.080 GW [ 39 ] assuming 3% wasteland, which is shown in Table 7 . India is a tropical country and receives significant radiation, and hence the solar potential is very high [ 40 , 41 , 42 ].

Gross installed capacity of renewable energy in India

As of June 2018 reports, the country intends to reach 225 GW of renewable power capacity by 2022 exceeding the target of 175 GW pledged during the Paris Agreement. The sector is the fourth most attractive renewable energy market in the world. As in October 2018, India ranked fifth in installed renewable energy capacity [ 43 ].

Gross installed capacity of renewable energy—according to region

Table 8 lists the cumulative installed capacity of both conventional and renewable energy sources. The cumulative installed capacity of renewable sources as on the 31 st of December 2018 was 74081.66 MW. Renewable energy (small hydropower, wind, biomass, WTE, solar) accounted for an approximate 21% share of the cumulative installed power capacity, and the remaining 78.791% originated from other conventional sources (coal, gas diesel, nuclear, and large hydropower) [ 44 ]. The best regions for renewable energy are the southern states that have the highest solar irradiance and wind in the country. When renewable energy alone is considered for analysis, the Southern region covers 49.121% of the cumulative installed renewable capacity, followed by the Western region (29.742%), the Northern region (18.890%), the Eastern region (1.836%), the North-Easter region 0.394%, and the Islands (0.017%). As far as conventional energy is concerned, the Western region with 33.452% ranks first and is followed by the Northern region with 28.484%, the Southern region (24.967%), the Eastern region (11.716%), the Northern-Eastern (1.366%), and the Islands (0.015%).

Gross installed capacity of renewable energy—according to ownership

State government, central government, and private players drive the Indian energy sector. The private sector leads the way in renewable energy investment. Table 9 shows the installed gross renewable energy and conventional energy capacity (percentage)—ownership wise. It is evident from Fig. 2 that 95% of the installed renewable capacity derives from private companies, 2% from the central government, and 3% from the state government. The top private companies in the field of non-conventional energy generation are Tata Power Solar, Suzlon, and ReNew Power. Tata Power Solar System Limited are the most significant integrated solar power players in the country, Suzlon realizes wind energy projects, and ReNew Power Ventures operate with solar and wind power.

Gross renewable energy installed capacity (percentage)—Ownership wise as per the 31.12.2018 [ 43 ]

Gross installed capacity of renewable energy—state wise

Table 10 shows the installed capacity of cumulative renewable energy (state wise), out of the total installed capacity of 74,081.66 MW, where Karnataka ranks first with 12,953.24 MW (17.485%), Tamilnadu second with 11,934.38 MW (16%), Maharashtra third with 9283.78 MW (12.532%), Gujarat fourth with 10.641 MW (10.641%), and Rajasthan fifth with 7573.86 MW (10.224%). These five states cover almost 66.991% of the installed capacity of total renewable. Other prominent states are Andhra Pradesh (9.829%), Madhya Pradesh (5.819%), Telangana (5.137%), and Uttar Pradesh (3.879%). These nine states cover almost 91.655%.

Gross installed capacity of renewable energy—according to source

Under union budget of India 2018–2019, INR 3762 crore (USD 581.09 million), was allotted for grid-interactive renewable power schemes and projects. As per the 31.12.2018, the installed capacity of total renewable power (excluding large hydropower) in the country amounted to 74.08166 GW. Around 9.363 GW of solar energy, 1.766 GW of wind, 0.105 GW of small hydropower (SHP), and biomass power of 8.7 GW capacity were added in 2017–2018. Table 11 shows the installed capacity of renewable energy over the last 10 years until the 31.12.2018. Wind energy continues to dominate the countries renewable energy industry, accounting for over 47% of cumulative installed renewable capacity (35,138.15 MW), followed by solar power of 34% (25,212.26 MW), biomass power/cogeneration of 12% (9075.5 MW), and small hydropower of 6% (4517.45 MW). In the renewable energy country attractiveness index (RECAI) of 2018, India ranked in fourth position. The installed renewable energy production capacity has grown at an accelerated pace over the preceding few years, posting a CAGR of 19.78% between 2014 and 2018 [ 45 ] .

Estimation of the installed capacity of renewable energy

Table 12 gives the share of installed cumulative renewable energy capacity, in comparison with the installed conventional energy capacity. In 2022 and 2032, the installed renewable energy capacity will account for 32% and 35%, respectively [ 46 , 47 ]. The most significant renewable capacity expansion program in the world is being taken up by India. The government is preparing to boost the percentage of clean energy through a tremendous push in renewables, as discussed in the subsequent sections.

Gross electricity generation from renewable energy in India

The overall generation (including the generation from grid-connected renewable sources) in the country has grown exponentially. Between 2014–2015 and 2015–2016, it achieved 1110.458 BU and 1173.603 BU, respectively. The same was recorded with 1241.689 BU and 1306.614 BU during 2015–2016 and 1306.614 BU from 2016–2017 and 2017–2018, respectively. Figure 3 indicates that the annual renewable power production increased faster than the conventional power production. The rise accounted for 6.47% in 2015–2016 and 24.88% in 2017–2018, respectively. Table 13 compares the energy generation from traditional sources with that from renewable sources. Remarkably, the energy generation from conventional sources reached 811.143 BU and from renewable sources 9.860 BU in 2010 compared to 1.206.306 BU and 88.945 BU in 2017, respectively [ 48 ]. It is observed that the price of electricity production using renewable technologies is higher than that for conventional generation technologies, but is likely to fall with increasing experience in the techniques involved [ 49 ].

The annual growth in power generation as per the 30th of November 2018

Gross electricity generation from renewable energy—according to regions

Table 14 shows the gross electricity generation from renewable energy-region wise. It is noted that the highest renewable energy generation derives from the southern region, followed by the western part. As of November 2018, 50.33% of energy generation was obtained from the southern area and 29.37%, 18.05%, 2%, and 0.24% from Western, Northern, North-Eastern Areas, and the Island, respectively.

Gross electricity generation from renewable energy—according to states

Table 15 shows the gross electricity generation from renewable energy—region-wise. It is observed that the highest renewable energy generation was achieved from Karnataka (16.57%), Tamilnadu (15.82%), Andhra Pradesh (11.92%), and Gujarat (10.87%) as per November 2018. While adding four years from 2015–2016 to 2018–2019 Tamilnadu [ 50 ] remains in the first position followed by Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.

Gross electricity generation from renewable energy—according to sources

Table 16 shows the gross electricity generation from renewable energy—source-wise. It can be concluded from the table that the wind-based energy generation as per 2017–2018 is most prominent with 51.71%, followed by solar energy (25.40%), Bagasse (11.63%), small hydropower (7.55%), biomass (3.34%), and WTE (0.35%). There has been a constant increase in the generation of all renewable sources from 2014–2015 to date. Wind energy, as always, was the highest contributor to the total renewable power production. The percentage of solar energy produced in the overall renewable power production comes next to wind and is typically reduced during the monsoon months. The definite improvement in wind energy production can be associated with a “good” monsoon. Cyclonic action during these months also facilitates high-speed winds. Monsoon winds play a significant part in the uptick in wind power production, especially in the southern states of the country.

Estimation of gross electricity generation from renewable energy

Table 17 shows an estimation of gross electricity generation from renewable energy based on the 2015 report of the National Institution for Transforming India (NITI Aayog) [ 51 ]. It is predicted that the share of renewable power will be 10.2% by 2022, but renewable power technologies contributed a record of 13.4% to the cumulative power production in India as of the 31st of August 2018. The power ministry report shows that India generated 122.10 TWh and out of the total electricity produced, renewables generated 16.30 TWh as on the 31st of August 2018. According to the India Brand Equity Foundation report, it is anticipated that by the year 2040, around 49% of total electricity will be produced using renewable energy.

Current achievements in renewable energy 2017–2018

India cares for the planet and has taken a groundbreaking journey in renewable energy through the last 4 years [ 52 , 53 ]. A dedicated ministry along with financial and technical institutions have helped India in the promotion of renewable energy and diversification of its energy mix. The country is engaged in expanding the use of clean energy sources and has already undertaken several large-scale sustainable energy projects to ensure a massive growth of green energy.

1. India doubled its renewable power capacity in the last 4 years. The cumulative renewable power capacity in 2013–2014 reached 35,500 MW and rose to 70,000 MW in 2017–2018.

2. India stands in the fourth and sixth position regarding the cumulative installed capacity in the wind and solar sector, respectively. Furthermore, its cumulative installed renewable capacity stands in fifth position globally as of the 31st of December 2018.

3. As said above, the cumulative renewable energy capacity target for 2022 is given as 175 GW. For 2017–2018, the cumulative installed capacity amounted to 70 GW, the capacity under implementation is 15 GW and the tendered capacity was 25 GW. The target, the installed capacity, the capacity under implementation, and the tendered capacity are shown in Fig. 4 .

4. There is tremendous growth in solar power. The cumulative installed solar capacity increased by more than eight times in the last 4 years from 2.630 GW (2013–2014) to 22 GW (2017–2018). As of the 31st of December 2018, the installed capacity amounted to 25.2122 GW.

5. The renewable electricity generated in 2017–2018 was 101839 BUs.

6. The country published competitive bidding guidelines for the production of renewable power. It also discovered the lowest tariff and transparent bidding method and resulted in a notable decrease in per unit cost of renewable energy.

7. In 21 states, there are 41 solar parks with a cumulative capacity of more than 26,144 MW that have already been approved by the MNRE. The Kurnool solar park was set up with 1000 MW; and with 2000 MW the largest solar park of Pavagada (Karnataka) is currently under installation.

8. The target for solar power (ground mounted) for 2018–2019 is given as 10 GW, and solar power (Rooftop) as 1 GW.

9. MNRE doubled the target for solar parks (projects of 500 MW or more) from 20 to 40 GW.

10. The cumulative installed capacity of wind power increased by 1.6 times in the last 4 years. In 2013–2014, it amounted to 21 GW, from 2017 to 2018 it amounted to 34 GW, and as of 31st of December 2018, it reached 35.138 GW. This shows that achievements were completed in wind power use.

11. An offshore wind policy was announced. Thirty-four companies (most significant global and domestic wind power players) competed in the “expression of interest” (EoI) floated on the plan to set up India’s first mega offshore wind farm with a capacity of 1 GW.

12. 682 MW small hydropower projects were installed during the last 4 years along with 600 watermills (mechanical applications) and 132 projects still under development.

13. MNRE is implementing green energy corridors to expand the transmission system. 9400 km of green energy corridors are completed or under implementation. The cost spent on it was INR 10141 crore (101,410 Million INR = 1425.01 USD). Furthermore, the total capacity of 19,000 MVA substations is now planned to be complete by March 2020.

14. MNRE is setting up solar pumps (off-grid application), where 90% of pumps have been set up as of today and between 2014–2015 and 2017–2018. Solar street lights were more than doubled. Solar home lighting systems have been improved by around 1.5 times. More than 2,575,000 solar lamps have been distributed to students. The details are illustrated in Fig. 5 .

15. From 2014–2015 to 2017–2018, more than 2.5 lakh (0.25 million) biogas plants were set up for cooking in rural homes to enable families by providing them access to clean fuel.

16. New policy initiatives revised the tariff policy mandating purchase and generation obligations (RPO and RGO). Four wind and solar inter-state transmission were waived; charges were planned, the RPO trajectory for 2022 and renewable energy policy was finalized.

17. Expressions of interest (EoI) were invited for installing solar photovoltaic manufacturing capacities associated with the guaranteed off-take of 20 GW. EoI indicated 10 GW floating solar energy plants.

18. Policy for the solar-wind hybrid was announced. Tender for setting up 2 GW solar-wind hybrid systems in existing projects was invited.

19. To facilitate R&D in renewable power technology, a National lab policy on testing, standardization, and certification was announced by the MNRE.

20. The Surya Mitra program was conducted to train college graduates in the installation, commissioning, operations, and management of solar panels. The International Solar Alliance (ISA) headquarters in India (Gurgaon) will be a new commencement for solar energy improvement in India.

21. The renewable sector has become considerably more attractive for foreign and domestic investors, and the country expects to attract up to USD 80 billion in the next 4 years from 2018–2019 to 2021–2022.

22. The solar power capacity expanded by more than eight times from 2.63 GW in 2013–2014 to 22 GW in 2017–2018.

23. A bidding for 115 GW renewable energy projects up to March 2020 was announced.

24. The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) acting for system/components of solar PV was established.

25. To recognize and encourage innovative ideas in renewable energy sectors, the Government provides prizes and awards. Creative ideas/concepts should lead to prototype development. The Name of the award is “Abhinav Soch-Nayi Sambhawanaye,” which means Innovative ideas—New possibilities.

Renewable energy target, installed capacity, under implementation and tendered [ 52 ]

Off-grid solar applications [ 52 ]

Solar energy

Under the National Solar Mission, the MNRE has updated the objective of grid-connected solar power projects from 20 GW by the year 2021–2022 to 100 GW by the year 2021–2022. In 2008–2009, it reached just 6 MW. The “Made in India” initiative to promote domestic manufacturing supported this great height in solar installation capacity. Currently, India has the fifth highest solar installed capacity worldwide. By the 31st of December 2018, solar energy had achieved 25,212.26 MW against the target of 2022, and a further 22.8 GW of capacity has been tendered out or is under current implementation. MNRE is preparing to bid out the remaining solar energy capacity every year for the periods 2018–2019 and 2019–2020 so that bidding may contribute with 100 GW capacity additions by March 2020. In this way, 2 years for the completion of projects would remain. Tariffs will be determined through the competitive bidding process (reverse e-auction) to bring down tariffs significantly. The lowest solar tariff was identified to be INR 2.44 per kWh in July 2018. In 2010, solar tariffs amounted to INR 18 per kWh. Over 100,000 lakh (10,000 million) acres of land had been classified for several planned solar parks, out of which over 75,000 acres had been obtained. As of November 2018, 47 solar parks of a total capacity of 26,694 MW were established. The aggregate capacity of 4195 MW of solar projects has been commissioned inside various solar parks (floating solar power). Table 18 shows the capacity addition compared to the target. It indicates that capacity addition increased exponentially.

Wind energy

As of the 31st of December 2018, the total installed capacity of India amounted to 35,138.15 MW compared to a target of 60 GW by 2022. India is currently in fourth position in the world for installed capacity of wind power. Moreover, around 9.4 GW capacity has been tendered out or is under current implementation. The MNRE is preparing to bid out for A 10 GW wind energy capacity every year for 2018–2019 and 2019–2020, so that bidding will allow for 60 GW capacity additions by March 2020, giving the remaining two years for the accomplishment of the projects. The gross wind energy potential of the country now reaches 302 GW at a 100 m above-ground level. The tariff administration has been changed from feed-in-tariff (FiT) to the bidding method for capacity addition. On the 8th of December 2017, the ministry published guidelines for a tariff-based competitive bidding rule for the acquisition of energy from grid-connected wind energy projects. The developed transparent process of bidding lowered the tariff for wind power to its lowest level ever. The development of the wind industry has risen in a robust ecosystem ensuring project execution abilities and a manufacturing base. State-of-the-art technologies are now available for the production of wind turbines. All the major global players in wind power have their presence in India. More than 12 different companies manufacture more than 24 various models of wind turbines in India. India exports wind turbines and components to the USA, Europe, Australia, Brazil, and other Asian countries. Around 70–80% of the domestic production has been accomplished with strong domestic manufacturing companies. Table 19 lists the capacity addition compared to the target for the capacity addition. Furthermore, electricity generation from the wind-based capacity has improved, even though there was a slowdown of new capacity in the first half of 2018–2019 and 2017–2018.

The national energy storage mission—2018

The country is working toward a National Energy Storage Mission. A draft of the National Energy Storage Mission was proposed in February 2018 and initiated to develop a comprehensive policy and regulatory framework. During the last 4 years, projects included in R&D worth INR 115.8 million (USD 1.66 million) in the domain of energy storage have been launched, and a corpus of INR 48.2 million (USD 0.7 million) has been issued. India’s energy storage mission will provide an opportunity for globally competitive battery manufacturing. By increasing the battery manufacturing expertise and scaling up its national production capacity, the country can make a substantial economic contribution in this crucial sector. The mission aims to identify the cumulative battery requirements, total market size, imports, and domestic manufacturing. Table 20 presents the economic opportunity from battery manufacturing given by the National Institution for Transforming India, also called NITI Aayog, which provides relevant technical advice to central and state governments while designing strategic and long-term policies and programs for the Indian government.

Small hydropower—3-year action agenda—2017

Hydro projects are classified as large hydro, small hydro (2 to 25 MW), micro-hydro (up to 100 kW), and mini-hydropower (100 kW to 2 MW) projects. Whereas the estimated potential of SHP is 20 GW, the 2022 target for India in SHP is 5 GW. As of the 31st of December 2018, the country has achieved 4.5 GW and this production is constantly increasing. The objective, which was planned to be accomplished through infrastructure project grants and tariff support, was included in the NITI Aayog’s 3-year action agenda (2017–2018 to 2019–2020), which was published on the 1st of August 2017. MNRE is providing central financial assistance (CFA) to set up small/micro hydro projects both in the public and private sector. For the identification of new potential locations, surveys and comprehensive project reports are elaborated, and financial support for the renovation and modernization of old projects is provided. The Ministry has established a dedicated completely automatic supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)—based on a hydraulic turbine R&D laboratory at the Alternate Hydro Energy Center (AHEC) at IIT Roorkee. The establishment cost for the lab was INR 40 crore (400 million INR, 95.62 Million USD), and the laboratory will serve as a design and validation facility. It investigates hydro turbines and other hydro-mechanical devices adhering to national and international standards [ 54 , 55 ]. Table 21 shows the target and achievements from 2007–2008 to 2018–2019.

National policy regarding biofuels—2018

Modernization has generated an opportunity for a stable change in the use of bioenergy in India. MNRE amended the current policy for biomass in May 2018. The policy presents CFA for projects using biomass such as agriculture-based industrial residues, wood produced through energy plantations, bagasse, crop residues, wood waste generated from industrial operations, and weeds. Under the policy, CFA will be provided to the projects at the rate of INR 2.5 million (USD 35,477.7) per MW for bagasse cogeneration and INR 5 million (USD 70,955.5) per MW for non-bagasse cogeneration. The MNRE also announced a memorandum in November 2018 considering the continuation of the concessional customs duty certificate (CCDC) to set up projects for the production of energy using non-conventional materials such as bio-waste, agricultural, forestry, poultry litter, agro-industrial, industrial, municipal, and urban wastes. The government recently established the National policy on biofuels in August 2018. The MNRE invited an expression of interest (EOI) to estimate the potential of biomass energy and bagasse cogeneration in the country. A program to encourage the promotion of biomass-based cogeneration in sugar mills and other industries was also launched in May 2018. Table 22 shows how the biomass power target and achievements are expected to reach 10 GW of the target of 2022 before the end of 2019.

The new national biogas and organic manure program (NNBOMP)—2018

The National biogas and manure management programme (NBMMP) was launched in 2012–2013. The primary objective was to provide clean gaseous fuel for cooking, where the remaining slurry was organic bio-manure which is rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Further, 47.5 lakh (4.75 million) cumulative biogas plants were completed in 2014, and increased to 49.8 lakh (4.98 million). During 2017–2018, the target was to establish 1.10 lakh biogas plants (1.10 million), but resulted in 0.15 lakh (0.015 million). In this way, the cost of refilling the gas cylinders with liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) was greatly reduced. Likewise, tons of wood/trees were protected from being axed, as wood is traditionally used as a fuel in rural and semi-urban households. Biogas is a viable alternative to traditional cooking fuels. The scheme generated employment for almost 300 skilled laborers for setting up the biogas plants. By 30th of May 2018, the Ministry had issued guidelines for the implementation of the NNBOMP during the period 2017–2018 to 2019–2020 [ 56 ].

The off-grid and decentralized solar photovoltaic application program—2018

The program deals with the energy demand through the deployment of solar lanterns, solar streetlights, solar home lights, and solar pumps. The plan intended to reach 118 MWp of off-grid PV capacity by 2020. The sanctioning target proposed outlay was 50 MWp by 2017–2018 and 68 MWp by 2019–2020. The total estimated cost amounted to INR 1895 crore (18950 Million INR, 265.547 million USD), and the ministry wanted to support 637 crores (6370 million INR, 89.263 million USD) by its central finance assistance. Solar power plants with a 25 KWp size were promoted in those areas where grid power does not reach households or is not reliable. Public service institutions, schools, panchayats, hostels, as well as police stations will benefit from this scheme. Solar study lamps were also included as a component in the program. Thirty percent of financial assistance was provided to solar power plants. Every student should bear 15% of the lamp cost, and the ministry wanted to support the remaining 85%. As of October 2018, lantern and lamps of more than 40 Lakhs (4 million), home lights of 16.72 lakhs (1.672 million) number, street lights of 6.40 lakhs (0.64 million), solar pumps of 1.96 lakhs (0.196 million), and 187.99 MWp stand-alone devices had been installed [ 57 , 58 ].

Major government initiatives for renewable energy

Technological initiatives.

The Technology Development and Innovation Policy (TDIP) released on the 6th of October 2017 was endeavored to promote research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) in the renewable energy sector [ 59 ]. RD&D intended to evaluate resources, progress in technology, commercialization, and the presentation of renewable energy technologies across the country. It aimed to produce renewable power devices and systems domestically. The evaluation of standards and resources, processes, materials, components, products, services, and sub-systems was carried out through RD&D. A development of the market, efficiency improvements, cost reductions, and a promotion of commercialization (scalability and bankability) were achieved through RD&D. Likewise, the percentage of renewable energy in the total electricity mix made it self-sustainable, industrially competitive, and profitable through RD&D. RD&D also supported technology development and demonstration in wind, solar, wind-solar hybrid, biofuel, biogas, hydrogen fuel cells, and geothermal energies. RD&D supported the R&D units of educational institutions, industries, and non-government organizations (NGOs). Sharing expertise, information, as well as institutional mechanisms for collaboration was realized by use of the technology development program (TDP). The various people involved in this program were policymakers, industrial innovators, associated stakeholders and departments, researchers, and scientists. Renowned R&D centers in India are the National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE), Gurgaon, the National Institute of Bio-Energy (NIBE), Kapurthala, and the National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE), Chennai. The TDP strategy encouraged the exploration of innovative approaches and possibilities to obtain long-term targets. Likewise, it efficiently supported the transformation of knowledge into technology through a well-established monitoring system for the development of renewable technology that meets the electricity needs of India. The research center of excellence approved the TDI projects, which were funded to strengthen R&D. Funds were provided for conducting training and workshops. The MNRE is now preparing a database of R&D accomplishments in the renewable energy sector.

The Impacting Research Innovation and Technology (IMPRINT) program seeks to develop engineering and technology (prototype/process development) on a national scale. IMPRINT is steered by the Indian Institute of Technologies (IITs) and Indian Institute of science (IISCs). The expansion covers all areas of engineering and technology including renewable technology. The ministry of human resource development (MHRD) finances up to 50% of the total cost of the project. The remaining costs of the project are financed by the ministry (MNRE) via the RD&D program for renewable projects. Currently (2018–2019), five projects are under implementation in the area of solar thermal systems, storage for SPV, biofuel, and hydrogen and fuel cells which are funded by the MNRE (36.9 million INR, 0.518426 Million USD) and IMPRINT. Development of domestic technology and quality control are promoted through lab policies that were published on the 7th of December 2017. Lab policies were implemented to test, standardize, and certify renewable energy products and projects. They supported the improvement of the reliability and quality of the projects. Furthermore, Indian test labs are strengthened in line with international standards and practices through well-established lab policies. From 2015, the MNRE has provided “The New and Renewable Energy Young Scientist’s Award” to researchers/scientists who demonstrate exceptional accomplishments in renewable R&D.

Financial initiatives

One hundred percent financial assistance is granted by the MNRE to the government and NGOs and 50% financial support to the industry. The policy framework was developed to guide the identification of the project, the formulation, monitoring appraisal, approval, and financing. Between 2012 and 2017, a 4467.8 million INR, 62.52 Million USD) support was granted by the MNRE. The MNRE wanted to double the budget for technology development efforts in renewable energy for the current three-year plan period. Table 23 shows that the government is spending more and more for the development of the renewable energy sector. Financial support was provided to R&D projects. Exceptional consideration was given to projects that worked under extreme and hazardous conditions. Furthermore, financial support was applied to organizing awareness programs, demonstrations, training, workshops, surveys, assessment studies, etc. Innovative approaches will be rewarded with cash prizes. The winners will be presented with a support mechanism for transforming their ideas and prototypes into marketable commodities such as start-ups for entrepreneur development. Innovative projects will be financed via start-up support mechanisms, which will include an investment contract with investors. The MNRE provides funds to proposals for investigating policies and performance analyses related to renewable energy.

Technology validation and demonstration projects and other innovative projects with regard to renewables received a financial assistance of 50% of the project cost. The CFA applied to partnerships with industry and private institutions including engineering colleges. Private academic institutions, accredited by a government accreditation body, were also eligible to receive a 50% support. The concerned industries and institutions should meet the remaining 50% expenditure. The MNRE allocated an INR 3762.50 crore (INR 37625 million, 528.634 million USD) for the grid interactive renewable sources and an INR 1036.50 crore (INR 10365 million, 145.629 million USD) for off-grid/distributed and decentralized renewable power for the year 2018–2019 [ 60 ]. The MNRE asked the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), attempting to build renewable power projects under “priority sector lending” (priority lending should be done for renewable energy projects and without any limit) and to eliminate the obstacles in the financing of renewable energy projects. In July 2018, the Ministry of Finance announced that it would impose a 25% safeguard duty on solar panels and modules imported from China and Malaysia for 1 year. The quantum of tax might be reduced to 20% for the next 6 months, and 15% for the following 6 months.

Policy and regulatory framework initiatives

The regulatory interventions for the development of renewable energy sources are (a) tariff determination, (b) defining RPO, (c) promoting grid connectivity, and (d) promoting the expansion of the market.

Tariff policy amendments—2018

On the 30th of May 2018, the MoP released draft amendments to the tariff policy. The objective of these policies was to promote electricity generation from renewables. MoP in consultation with MNRE announced the long-term trajectory for RPO, which is represented in Table 24 . The State Electricity Regulatory Commission (SERC) achieved a favorable and neutral/off-putting effect in the growth of the renewable power sector through their RPO regulations in consultation with the MNRE. On the 25th of May 2018, the MNRE created an RPO compliance cell to reach India’s solar and wind power goals. Due to the absence of implementation of RPO regulations, several states in India did not meet their specified RPO objectives. The cell will operate along with the Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) and SERCs to obtain monthly statements on RPO compliance. It will also take up non-compliance associated concerns with the relevant officials.

Repowering policy—2016

On the 09th of August 2016, India announced a “repowering policy” for wind energy projects. An about 27 GW turnaround was possible according to the policy. This policy supports the replacing of aging wind turbines with more modern and powerful units (fewer, larger, taller) to raise the level of electricity generation. This policy seeks to create a simplified framework and to promote an optimized use of wind power resources. It is mandatory because the up to the year 2000 installed wind turbines were below 500 kW in sites where high wind potential might be achieved. It will be possible to obtain 3000 MW from the same location once replacements are in place. The policy was initially applied for the one MW installed capacity of wind turbines, and the MNRE will extend the repowering policy to other projects in the future based on experience. Repowering projects were implemented by the respective state nodal agencies/organizations that were involved in wind energy promotion in their states. The policy provided an exception from the Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) for wind farms/turbines undergoing repowering because they could not fulfill the requirements according to the PPA during repowering. The repowering projects may avail accelerated depreciation (AD) benefit or generation-based incentive (GBI) due to the conditions appropriate to new wind energy projects [ 61 ].

The wind-solar hybrid policy—2018

On the 14th of May 2018, the MNRE announced a national wind-solar hybrid policy. This policy supported new projects (large grid-connected wind-solar photovoltaic hybrid systems) and the hybridization of the already available projects. These projects tried to achieve an optimal and efficient use of transmission infrastructure and land. Better grid stability was achieved and the variability in renewable power generation was reduced. The best part of the policy intervention was that which supported the hybridization of existing plants. The tariff-based transparent bidding process was included in the policy. Regulatory authorities should formulate the necessary standards and regulations for hybrid systems. The policy also highlighted a battery storage in hybrid projects for output optimization and variability reduction [ 62 ].

The national offshore wind energy policy—2015

The National Offshore Wind Policy was released in October 2015. On the 19th of June 2018, the MNRE announced a medium-term target of 5 GW by 2022 and a long-term target of 30 GW by 2030. The MNRE called expressions of Interest (EoI) for the first 1 GW of offshore wind (the last date was 08.06.2018). The EoI site is located in Pipavav port at the Gulf of Khambhat at a distance of 23 km facilitating offshore wind (FOWIND) where the consortium deployed light detection and ranging (LiDAR) in November 2017). Pipavav port is situated off the coast of Gujarat. The MNRE had planned to install more such equipment in the states of Tamil Nadu and Gujarat. On the 14 th of December 2018, the MNRE, through the National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE), called tender for offshore environmental impact assessment studies at intended LIDAR points at the Gulf of Mannar, off the coast of Tamil Nadu for offshore wind measurement. The timeline for initiatives was to firstly add 500 MW by 2022, 2 to 2.5 GW by 2027, and eventually reaching 5 GW between 2028 and 2032. Even though the installation of large wind power turbines in open seas is a challenging task, the government has endeavored to promote this offshore sector. Offshore wind energy would add its contribution to the already existing renewable energy mix for India [ 63 ] .

The feed-in tariff policy—2018

On the 28th of January 2016, the revised tariff policy was notified following the Electricity Act. On the 30th May 2018, the amendment in tariff policy was released. The intentions of this tariff policy are (a) an inexpensive and competitive electricity rate for the consumers; (b) to attract investment and financial viability; (c) to ensure that the perceptions of regulatory risks decrease through predictability, consistency, and transparency of policy measures; (d) development in quality of supply, increased operational efficiency, and improved competition; (e) increase the production of electricity from wind, solar, biomass, and small hydro; (f) peaking reserves that are acceptable in quantity or consistently good in quality or performance of grid operation where variable renewable energy source integration is provided through the promotion of hydroelectric power generation, including pumped storage projects (PSP); (g) to achieve better consumer services through efficient and reliable electricity infrastructure; (h) to supply sufficient and uninterrupted electricity to every level of consumers; and (i) to create adequate capacity, reserves in the production, transmission, and distribution that is sufficient for the reliability of supply of power to customers [ 64 ].

Training and educational initiatives

The MHRD has developed strong renewable energy education and training systems. The National Council for Vocational Training (NCVT) develops course modules, and a Modular Employable Skilling program (MES) in its regular 2-year syllabus to include SPV lighting systems, solar thermal systems, SHP, and provides the certificate for seven trades after the completion of a 2-year course. The seven trades are plumber, fitter, carpenter, welder, machinist, and electrician. The Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE) worked out a national skill development policy in 2015. They provide regular training programs to create various job roles in renewable energy along with the MNRE support through a skill council for green jobs (SCGJ), the National Occupational Standards (NOS), and the Qualification Pack (QP). The SCGJ is promoted by the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) and the MNRE. The industry partner for the SCGJ is ReNew Power [ 65 , 66 ].

The global status of India in renewable energy

Table 25 shows the RECAI (Renewable Energy Country Attractiveness Index) report of 40 countries. This report is based on the attractiveness of renewable energy investment and deployment opportunities. RECAI is based on macro vitals such as economic stability, investment climate, energy imperatives such as security and supply, clean energy gap, and affordability. It also includes policy enablement such as political stability and support for renewables. Its emphasis lies on project delivery parameters such as energy market access, infrastructure, and distributed generation, finance, cost and availability, and transaction liquidity. Technology potentials such as natural resources, power take-off attractiveness, potential support, technology maturity, and forecast growth are taken into consideration for ranking. India has moved to the fourth position of the RECAI-2018. Indian solar installations (new large-scale and rooftop solar capacities) in the calendar year 2017 increased exponentially with the addition of 9629 MW, whereas in 2016 it was 4313 MW. The warning of solar import tariffs and conflicts between developers and distribution firms are growing investor concerns [ 67 ]. Figure 6 shows the details of the installed capacity of global renewable energy in 2016 and 2017. Globally, 2017 GW renewable energy was installed in 2016, and in 2017, it increased to 2195 GW. Table 26 shows the total capacity addition of top countries until 2017. The country ranked fifth in renewable power capacity (including hydro energy), renewable power capacity (not including hydro energy) in fourth position, concentrating solar thermal power (CSP) and wind power were also in fourth position [ 68 ].

Globally installed capacity of renewable energy in 2017—Global 2018 status report with regard to renewables [ 68 ]

The investment opportunities in renewable energy in India

The investments into renewable energy in India increased by 22% in the first half of 2018 compared to 2017, while the investments in China dropped by 15% during the same period, according to a statement by the Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF), which is shown in Table 27 [ 69 , 70 ]. At this rate, India is expected to overtake China and become the most significant growth market for renewable energy by the end of 2020. The country is eyeing pole position for transformation in renewable energy by reaching 175 GW by 2020. To achieve this target, it is quickly ramping up investments in this sector. The country added more renewable capacity than conventional capacity in 2018 when compared to 2017. India hosted the ISA first official summit on the 11.03.2018 for 121 countries. This will provide a standard platform to work toward the ambitious targets for renewable energy. The summit will emphasize India’s dedication to meet global engagements in a time-bound method. The country is also constructing many sizeable solar power parks comparable to, but larger than, those in China. Half of the earth’s ten biggest solar parks under development are in India.

In 2014, the world largest solar park was the Topaz solar farm in California with a 550 MW facility. In 2015, another operator in California, Solar Star, edged its capacity up to 579 MW. By 2016, India’s Kamuthi Solar Power Project in Tamil Nadu was on top with 648 MW of capacity (set up by the Adani Green Energy, part of the Adani Group, in Tamil Nadu). As of February 2017, the Longyangxia Dam Solar Park in China was the new leader, with 850 MW of capacity [ 71 ]. Currently, there are 600 MW operating units and 1400 MW units under construction. The Shakti Sthala solar park was inaugurated on 01.03.2018 in Pavagada (Karnataka, India) which is expected to become the globe’s most significant solar park when it accomplishes its full potential of 2 GW. Another large solar park with 1.5 GW is scheduled to be built in the Kadappa region [ 72 ]. The progress in solar power is remarkable and demonstrates real clean energy development on the ground.

The Kurnool ultra-mega solar park generated 800 million units (MU) of energy in October 2018 and saved over 700,000 tons of CO 2 . Rainwater was harvested using a reservoir that helps in cleaning solar panels and supplying water. The country is making remarkable progress in solar energy. The Kamuthi solar farm is cleaned each day by a robotic system. As the Indian economy expands, electricity consumption is forecasted to reach 15,280 TWh in 2040. With the government’s intent, green energy objectives, i.e., the renewable sector, grow considerably in an attractive manner with both foreign and domestic investors. It is anticipated to attract investments of up to USD 80 billion in the subsequent 4 years. The government of India has raised its 175 GW target to 225 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2022. The competitive benefit is that the country has sun exposure possible throughout the year and has an enormous hydropower potential. India was also listed fourth in the EY renewable energy country attractive index 2018. Sixty solar cities will be built in India as a section of MNRE’s “Solar cities” program.

In a regular auction, reduction in tariffs cost of the projects are the competitive benefits in the country. India accounts for about 4% of the total global electricity generation capacity and has the fourth highest installed capacity of wind energy and the third highest installed capacity of CSP. The solar installation in India erected during 2015–2016, 2016–2017, 2017–2018, and 2018–2019 was 3.01 GW, 5.52 GW, 9.36 GW, and 6.53 GW, respectively. The country aims to add 8.5 GW during 2019–2020. Due to its advantageous location in the solar belt (400 South to 400 North), the country is one of the largest beneficiaries of solar energy with relatively ample availability. An increase in the installed capacity of solar power is anticipated to exceed the installed capacity of wind energy, approaching 100 GW by 2022 from its current levels of 25.21226 GW as of December 2018. Fast falling prices have made Solar PV the biggest market for new investments. Under the Union Budget 2018–2019, a zero import tax on parts used in manufacturing solar panels was launched to provide an advantage to domestic solar panel companies [ 73 ].

Foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows in the renewable energy sector of India between April 2000 and June 2018 amounted to USD 6.84 billion according to the report of the department of industrial policy and promotion (DIPP). The DIPP was renamed (gazette notification 27.01.2019) the Department for the Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT). It is responsible for the development of domestic trade, retail trade, trader’s welfare including their employees as well as concerns associated with activities in facilitating and supporting business and startups. Since 2014, more than 42 billion USD have been invested in India’s renewable power sector. India reached US$ 7.4 billion in investments in the first half of 2018. Between April 2015 and June 2018, the country received USD 3.2 billion FDI in the renewable sector. The year-wise inflows expanded from USD 776 million in 2015–2016 to USD 783 million in 2016–2017 and USD 1204 million in 2017–2018. Between January to March of 2018, the INR 452 crore (4520 Million INR, 63.3389 million USD) of the FDI had already come in. The country is contributing with financial and promotional incentives that include a capital subsidy, accelerated depreciation (AD), waiver of inter-state transmission charges and losses, viability gap funding (VGF), and FDI up to 100% under the automated track.

The DIPP/DPIIT compiles and manages the data of the FDI equity inflow received in India [ 74 ]. The FDI equity inflow between April 2015 and June 2018 in the renewable sector is illustrated in Fig. 7 . It shows that the 2018–2019 3 months’ FDI equity inflow is half of that of the entire one of 2017–2018. It is evident from the figure that India has well-established FDI equity inflows. The significant FDI investments in the renewable energy sectors are shown in Table 28 . The collaboration between the Asian development bank and Renew Power Ventures private limited with 44.69 million USD ranked first followed by AIRRO Singapore with Diligent power with FDI equity inflow of 44.69 USD million.

The FDI equity inflow received between April 2015 and June 2018 in the renewable energy sector [ 73 ]

Strategies to promote investments

Strategies to promote investments (including FDI) by investors in the renewable sector:

Decrease constraints on FDI; provide open, transparent, and dependable conditions for foreign and domestic firms; and include ease of doing business, access to imports, comparatively flexible labor markets, and safeguard of intellectual property rights.

Establish an investment promotion agency (IPA) that targets suitable foreign investors and connects them as a catalyst with the domestic economy. Assist the IPA to present top-notch infrastructure and immediate access to skilled workers, technicians, engineers, and managers that might be needed to attract such investors. Furthermore, it should involve an after-investment care, recognizing the demonstration effects from satisfied investors, the potential for reinvestments, and the potential for cluster-development due to follow-up investments.

It is essential to consider the targeted sector (wind, solar, SPH or biomass, respectively) for which investments are required.

Establish the infrastructure needed for a quality investor, including adequate close-by transport facilities (airport, ports), a sufficient and steady supply of energy, a provision of a sufficiently skilled workforce, the facilities for the vocational training of specialized operators, ideally designed in collaboration with the investor.

Policy and other support mechanisms such as Power Purchase Agreements (PPA) play an influential role in underpinning returns and restricting uncertainties for project developers, indirectly supporting the availability of investment. Investors in renewable energy projects have historically relied on government policies to give them confidence about the costs necessary for electricity produced—and therefore for project revenues. Reassurance of future power costs for project developers is secured by signing a PPA with either a utility or an essential corporate buyer of electricity.

FiT have been the most conventional approach around the globe over the last decade to stimulate investments in renewable power projects. Set by the government concerned, they lay down an electricity tariff that developers of qualifying new projects might anticipate to receive for the resulting electricity over a long interval (15–20 years). These present investors in the tax equity of renewable power projects with a credit that they can manage to offset the tax burden outside in their businesses.

Table 29 presents the 2018 renewable energy investment report, source-wise, by the significant players in renewables according to the report of the Bloomberg New Energy Finance Report 2018. As per this report, global investment in renewable energy was USD of 279.8 billion in 2017. The top ten in the total global investments are China (126.1 $BN), the USA (40.5 $BN), Japan (13.4 $BN), India (10.9 $BN), Germany (10.4 $BN), Australia (8.5 $BN), UK (7.6 $BN), Brazil (6.0 $BN), Mexico (6.0 $BN), and Sweden (3.7 $BN) [ 75 ]. This achievement was possible since those countries have well-established strategies for promoting investments [ 76 , 77 ].

The appropriate objectives for renewable power expansion and investments are closely related to the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) objectives, the implementation of the NDC, on the road to achieving Paris promises, policy competence, policy reliability, market absorption capacity, and nationwide investment circumstances that are the real purposes for renewable power expansion, which is a significant factor for the investment strategies, as is shown in Table 30 .

The demand for investments for building a Paris-compatible and climate-resilient energy support remains high, particularly in emerging nations. Future investments in energy grids and energy flexibility are of particular significance. The strategies and the comparison chart between China, India, and the USA are presented in Table 31 .

Table 32 shows France in the first place due to overall favorable conditions for renewables, heading the G20 in investment attractiveness of renewables. Germany drops back one spot due to a decline in the quality of the global policy environment for renewables and some insufficiencies in the policy design, as does the UK. Overall, with four European countries on top of the list, Europe, however, directs the way in providing attractive conditions for investing in renewables. Despite high scores for various nations, no single government is yet close to growing a role model. All countries still have significant room for increasing investment demands to deploy renewables at the scale required to reach the Paris objectives. The table shown is based on the Paris compatible long-term vision, the policy environment for renewable energy, the conditions for system integration, the market absorption capacity, and general investment conditions. India moved from the 11th position to the 9th position in overall investments between 2017 and 2018.

A Paris compatible long-term vision includes a de-carbonization plan for the power system, the renewable power ambition, the coal and oil decrease, and the reliability of renewables policies. Direct support policies include medium-term certainty of policy signals, streamlined administrative procedures, ensuring project realization, facilitating the use of produced electricity. Conditions for system integration include system integration-grid codes, system integration-storage promotion, and demand-side management policies. A market absorption capacity includes a prior experience with renewable technologies, a current activity with renewable installations, and a presence of major renewable energy companies. General investment conditions include non-financial determinants, depth of the financial sector as well, as an inflation forecast.

Employment opportunities for citizens in renewable energy in India

Global employment scenario.

According to the 2018 Annual review of the IRENA [ 78 ], global renewable energy employment touched 10.3 million jobs in 2017, an improvement of 5.3% compared with the quantity published in 2016. Many socio-economic advantages derive from renewable power, but employment continues to be exceptionally centralized in a handful of countries, with China, Brazil, the USA, India, Germany, and Japan in the lead. In solar PV employment (3.4 million jobs), China is the leader (65% of PV Jobs) which is followed by Japan, USA, India, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Germany, Philippines, and Turkey. In biofuels employment (1.9 million jobs), Brazil is the leader (41% of PV Jobs) followed by the USA, Colombia, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, China, and India. In wind employment (1.1 million jobs), China is the leader (44% of PV Jobs) followed by Germany, USA, India, UK, Brazil, Denmark, Netherlands, France, and Spain.

Table 33 shows global renewable energy employment in the corresponding technology branches. As in past years, China maintained the most notable number of people employed (3880 million jobs) estimating for 43% of the globe’s total which is shown in Fig. 8 . In India, new solar installations touched a record of 9.6 GW in 2017, efficiently increasing the total installed capacity. The employment in solar PV improved by 36% and reached 164,400 jobs, of which 92,400 represented on-grid use. IRENA determines that the building and installation covered 46% of these jobs, with operations and maintenance (O&M) representing 35% and 19%, individually. India does not produce solar PV because it could be imported from China, which is inexpensive. The market share of domestic companies (Indian supplier to renewable projects) declined from 13% in 2014–2015 to 7% in 2017–2018. If India starts the manufacturing base, more citizens will get jobs in the manufacturing field. India had the world’s fifth most significant additions of 4.1 GW to wind capacity in 2017 and the fourth largest cumulative capacity in 2018. IRENA predicts that jobs in the wind sector stood at 60,500.

Renewable energy employment in selected countries [ 79 ]

The jobs in renewables are categorized into technological development, installation/de-installation, operation, and maintenance. Tables 34 , 35 , 36 , and 37 show the wind industry, solar energy, biomass, and small hydro-related jobs in project development, component manufacturing, construction, operations, and education, training, and research. As technology quickly evolves, workers in all areas need to update their skills through continuing training/education or job training, and in several cases could benefit from professional certification. The advantages of moving to renewable energy are evident, and for this reason, the governments are responding positively toward the transformation to clean energy. Renewable energy can be described as the country’s next employment boom. Renewable energy job opportunities can transform rural economy [ 79 , 80 ]. The renewable energy sector might help to reduce poverty by creating better employment. For example, wind power is looking for specialists in manufacturing, project development, and construction and turbine installation as well as financial services, transportation and logistics, and maintenance and operations.

The government is building more renewable energy power plants that will require a workforce. The increasing investments in the renewable energy sector have the potential to provide more jobs than any other fossil fuel industry. Local businesses and renewable sectors will benefit from this change, as income will increase significantly. Many jobs in this sector will contribute to fixed salaries, healthcare benefits, and skill-building opportunities for unskilled and semi-skilled workers. A range of skilled and unskilled jobs are included in all renewable energy technologies, even though most of the positions in the renewable energy industry demand a skilled workforce. The renewable sector employs semi-skilled and unskilled labor in the construction, operations, and maintenance after proper training. Unskilled labor is employed as truck drivers, guards, cleaning, and maintenance. Semi-skilled labor is used to take regular readings from displays. A lack of consistent data on the potential employment impact of renewables expansion makes it particularly hard to assess the quantity of skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled personnel that might be needed.

Key findings in renewable energy employment

The findings comprise (a) that the majority of employment in the renewable sector is contract based, and that employees do not benefit from permanent jobs or security. (b) Continuous work in the industry has the potential to decrease poverty. (c) Most poor citizens encounter obstacles to entry-level training and the employment market due to lack of awareness about the jobs and the requirements. (d) Few renewable programs incorporate developing ownership opportunities for the citizens and the incorporation of women in the sector. (e) The inadequacy of data makes it challenging to build relationships between employment in renewable energy and poverty mitigation.

Recommendations for renewable energy employment

When building the capacity, focus on poor people and individuals to empower them with training in operation and maintenance.

Develop and offer training programs for citizens with minimal education and training, who do not fit current programs, which restrict them from working in renewable areas.

Include women in the renewable workforce by providing localized training.

Establish connections between training institutes and renewable power companies to guarantee that (a) trained workers are placed in appropriate positions during and after the completion of the training program and (b) training programs match the requirements of the renewable sector.

Poverty impact assessments might be embedded in program design to know how programs motivate poverty reduction, whether and how they influence the community.

Allow people to have a sense of ownership in renewable projects because this could contribute to the growth of the sector.

The details of the job being offered (part time, full time, contract-based), the levels of required skills for the job (skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled), the socio-economic status of the employee data need to be collected for further analysis.

Conduct investigations, assisted by field surveys, to learn about the influence of renewable energy jobs on poverty mitigation and differences in the standard of living.

Challenges faced by renewable energy in India

The MNRE has been taking dedicated measures for improving the renewable sector, and its efforts have been satisfactory in recognizing various obstacles.

Policy and regulatory obstacles

A comprehensive policy statement (regulatory framework) is not available in the renewable sector. When there is a requirement to promote the growth of particular renewable energy technologies, policies might be declared that do not match with the plans for the development of renewable energy.

The regulatory framework and procedures are different for every state because they define the respective RPOs (Renewable Purchase Obligations) and this creates a higher risk of investments in this sector. Additionally, the policies are applicable for just 5 years, and the generated risk for investments in this sector is apparent. The biomass sector does not have an established framework.

Incentive accelerated depreciation (AD) is provided to wind developers and is evident in developing India’s wind-producing capacity. Wind projects installed more than 10 years ago show that they are not optimally maintained. Many owners of the asset have built with little motivation for tax benefits only. The policy framework does not require the maintenance of the wind projects after the tax advantages have been claimed. There is no control over the equipment suppliers because they undertake all wind power plant development activities such as commissioning, operation, and maintenance. Suppliers make the buyers pay a premium and increase the equipment cost, which brings burden to the buyer.

Furthermore, ready-made projects are sold to buyers. The buyers are susceptible to this trap to save income tax. Foreign investors hesitate to invest because they are exempted from the income tax.

Every state has different regulatory policy and framework definitions of an RPO. The RPO percentage specified in the regulatory framework for various renewable sources is not precise.

RPO allows the SERCs and certain private firms to procure only a part of their power demands from renewable sources.

RPO is not imposed on open access (OA) and captive consumers in all states except three.

RPO targets and obligations are not clear, and the RPO compliance cell has just started on 22.05.2018 to collect the monthly reports on compliance and deal with non-compliance issues with appropriate authorities.

Penalty mechanisms are not specified and only two states in India (Maharashtra and Rajasthan) have some form of penalty mechanisms.

The parameter to determine the tariff is not transparent in the regulatory framework and many SRECs have established a tariff for limited periods. The FiT is valid for only 5 years, and this affects the bankability of the project.

Many SERCs have not decided on adopting the CERC tariff that is mentioned in CERCs regulations that deal with terms and conditions for tariff determinations. The SERCs have considered the plant load factor (PLF) because it varies across regions and locations as well as particular technology. The current framework does not fit to these issues.

Third party sale (TPS) is not allowed because renewable generators are not allowed to sell power to commercial consumers. They have to sell only to industrial consumers. The industrial consumers have a low tariff and commercial consumers have a high tariff, and SRCS do not allow OA. This stops the profit for the developers and investors.

Institutional obstacles

Institutes, agencies stakeholders who work under the conditions of the MNRE show poor inter-institutional coordination. The progress in renewable energy development is limited by this lack of cooperation, coordination, and delays. The delay in implementing policies due to poor coordination, decrease the interest of investors to invest in this sector.

The single window project approval and clearance system is not very useful and not stable because it delays the receiving of clearances for the projects ends in the levy of a penalty on the project developer.

Pre-feasibility reports prepared by concerned states have some deficiency, and this may affect the small developers, i.e., the local developers, who are willing to execute renewable projects.

The workforce in institutes, agencies, and ministries is not sufficient in numbers.

Proper or well-established research centers are not available for the development of renewable infrastructure.

Customer care centers to guide developers regarding renewable projects are not available.

Standards and quality control orders have been issued recently in 2018 and 2019 only, and there are insufficient institutions and laboratories to give standards/certification and validate the quality and suitability of using renewable technology.

Financial and fiscal obstacles

There are a few budgetary constraints such as fund allocation, and budgets that are not released on time to fulfill the requirement of developing the renewable sector.

The initial unit capital costs of renewable projects are very high compared to fossil fuels, and this leads to financing challenges and initial burden.

There are uncertainties related to the assessment of resources, lack of technology awareness, and high-risk perceptions which lead to financial barriers for the developers.

The subsidies and incentives are not transparent, and the ministry might reconsider subsidies for renewable energy because there was a sharp fall in tariffs in 2018.

Power purchase agreements (PPA) signed between the power purchaser and power generators on pre-determined fixed tariffs are higher than the current bids (Economic survey 2017–2018 and union budget on the 01.02.2019). For example, solar power tariff dropped to 2.44 INR (0. 04 USD) per unit in May 2017, wind power INR 3.46 per unit in February 2017, and 2.64 INR per unit in October 2017.

Investors feel that there is a risk in the renewable sector as this sector has lower gross returns even though these returns are relatively high within the market standards.

There are not many developers who are interested in renewable projects. While newly established developers (small and local developers) do not have much of an institutional track record or financial input, which are needed to develop the project (high capital cost). Even moneylenders consider it risky and are not ready to provide funding. Moneylenders look exclusively for contractors who have much experience in construction, well-established suppliers with proven equipment and operators who have more experience.

If the performance of renewable projects, which show low-performance, faces financial obstacles, they risks the lack of funding of renewable projects.

Financial institutions such as government banks or private banks do not have much understanding or expertise in renewable energy projects, and this imposes financial barriers to the projects.

Delay in payment by the SERCs to the developers imposes debt burden on the small and local developers because moneylenders always work with credit enhancement mechanisms or guarantee bonds signed between moneylenders and the developers.

Market obstacles

Subsidies are adequately provided to conventional fossil fuels, sending the wrong impression that power from conventional fuels is of a higher priority than that from renewables (unfair structure of subsidies)

There are four renewable markets in India, the government market (providing budgetary support to projects and purchase the output of the project), the government-driven market (provide budgetary support or fiscal incentives to promote renewable energy), the loan market (taking loan to finance renewable based applications), and the cash market (buying renewable-based applications to meet personal energy needs by individuals). There is an inadequacy in promoting the loan market and cash market in India.

The biomass market is facing a demand-supply gap which results in a continuous and dramatic increase in biomass prices because the biomass supply is unreliable (and, as there is no organized market for fuel), and the price fluctuations are very high. The type of biomass is not the same in all the states of India, and therefore demand and price elasticity is high for biomass.

Renewable power was calculated based on cost-plus methods (adding direct material cost, direct labor cost, and product overhead cost). This does not include environmental cost and shields the ecological benefits of clean and green energy.

There is an inadequate evacuation infrastructure and insufficient integration of the grid, which affects the renewable projects. SERCs are not able to use all generated power to meet the needs because of the non-availability of a proper evacuation infrastructure. This has an impact on the project, and the SERCs are forced to buy expensive power from neighbor states to fulfill needs.

Extending transmission lines is not possible/not economical for small size projects, and the seasonality of generation from such projects affect the market.

There are few limitations in overall transmission plans, distribution CapEx plans, and distribution licenses for renewable power. Power evacuation infrastructure for renewable energy is not included in the plans.

Even though there is an increase in capacity for the commercially deployed renewable energy technology, there is no decline in capital cost. This cost of power also remains high. The capital cost quoted by the developers and providers of equipment is too high due to exports of machinery, inadequate built up capacity, and cartelization of equipment suppliers (suppliers join together to control prices and limit competition).

There is no adequate supply of land, for wind, solar, and solar thermal power plants, which lead to poor capacity addition in many states.

Technological obstacles

Every installation of a renewable project contributes to complex risk challenges from environmental uncertainties, natural disasters, planning, equipment failure, and profit loss.

MNRE issued the standardization of renewable energy projects policy on the 11th of December 2017 (testing, standardization, and certification). They are still at an elementary level as compared to international practices. Quality assurance processes are still under starting conditions. Each success in renewable energy is based on concrete action plans for standards, testing and certification of performance.

The quality and reliability of manufactured components, imported equipment, and subsystems is essential, and hence quality infrastructure should be established. There is no clear document related to testing laboratories, referral institutes, review mechanism, inspection, and monitoring.

There are not many R&D centers for renewables. Methods to reduce the subsidies and invest in R&D lagging; manufacturing facilities are just replicating the already available technologies. The country is dependent on international suppliers for equipment and technology. Spare parts are not manufactured locally and hence they are scarce.

Awareness, education, and training obstacles

There is an unavailability of appropriately skilled human resources in the renewable energy sector. Furthermore, it faces an acute workforce shortage.

After installation of renewable project/applications by the suppliers, there is no proper follow-up or assistance for the workers in the project to perform maintenance. Likewise, there are not enough trained and skilled persons for demonstrating, training, operation, and maintenance of the plant.

There is inadequate knowledge in renewables, and no awareness programs are available to the general public. The lack of awareness about the technologies is a significant obstacle in acquiring vast land for constructing the renewable plant. Moreover, people using agriculture lands are not prepared to give their land to construct power plants because most Indians cultivate plants.

The renewable sector depends on the climate, and this varying climate also imposes less popularity of renewables among the people.

The per capita income is low, and the people consider that the cost of renewables might be high and they might not be able to use renewables.

The storage system increases the cost of renewables, and people believe it too costly and are not ready to use them.

The environmental benefits of renewable technologies are not clearly understood by the people and negative perceptions are making renewable technologies less prevalent among them.

Environmental obstacles

A single wind turbine does not occupy much space, but many turbines are placed five to ten rotor diameters from each other, and this occupies more area, which include roads and transmission lines.

In the field of offshore wind, the turbines and blades are bigger than onshore wind turbines, and they require a substantial amount of space. Offshore installations affect ocean activities (fishing, sand extraction, gravel extraction, oil extraction, gas extraction, aquaculture, and navigation). Furthermore, they affect fish and other marine wildlife.

Wind turbines influence wildlife (birds and bats) because of the collisions with them and due to air pressure changes caused by wind turbines and habitat disruption. Making wind turbines motionless during times of low wind can protect birds and bats but is not practiced.

Sound (aerodynamic, mechanical) and visual impacts are associated with wind turbines. There is poor practice by the wind turbine developers regarding public concerns. Furthermore, there are imperfections in surfaces and sound—absorbent material which decrease the noise from turbines. The shadow flicker effect is not taken as severe environmental impact by the developers.

Sometimes wind turbine material production, transportation of materials, on-site construction, assembling, operation, maintenance, dismantlement, and decommissioning may be associated with global warming, and there is a lag in this consideration.

Large utility-scale solar plants require vast lands that increase the risk of land degradation and loss of habitat.

The PV cell manufacturing process includes hazardous chemicals such as 1-1-1 Trichloroethene, HCL, H 2 SO 4 , N 2 , NF, and acetone. Workers face risks resulting from inhaling silicon dust. The manufacturing wastes are not disposed of properly. Proper precautions during usage of thin-film PV cells, which contain cadmium—telluride, gallium arsenide, and copper-indium-gallium-diselenide are missing. These materials create severe public health threats and environmental threats.

Hydroelectric power turbine blades kill aquatic ecosystems (fish and other organisms). Moreover, algae and other aquatic weeds are not controlled through manual harvesting or by introducing fish that can eat these plants.

Discussion and recommendations based on the research

Policy and regulation advancements.

The MNRE should provide a comprehensive action plan or policy for the promotion of the renewable sector in its regulatory framework for renewables energy. The action plan can be prepared in consultation with SERCs of the country within a fixed timeframe and execution of the policy/action plan.

The central and state government should include a “Must run status” in their policy and follow it strictly to make use of renewable power.

A national merit order list for renewable electricity generation will reduce power cost for the consumers. Such a merit order list will help in ranking sources of renewable energy in an ascending order of price and will provide power at a lower cost to each distribution company (DISCOM). The MNRE should include that principle in its framework and ensure that SERCs includes it in their regulatory framework as well.

SERCs might be allowed to remove policies and regulatory uncertainty surrounding renewable energy. SERCs might be allowed to identify the thrust areas of their renewable energy development.

There should be strong initiatives from municipality (local level) approvals for renewable energy-based projects.

Higher market penetration is conceivable only if their suitable codes and standards are adopted and implemented. MNRE should guide minimum performance standards, which incorporate reliability, durability, and performance.

A well-established renewable energy certificates (REC) policy might contribute to an efficient funding mechanism for renewable energy projects. It is necessary for the government to look at developing the REC ecosystem.

The regulatory administration around the RPO needs to be upgraded with a more efficient “carrot and stick” mechanism for obligated entities. A regulatory mechanism that both remunerations compliance and penalizes for non-compliance may likely produce better results.

RECs in India should only be traded on exchange. Over-the-counter (OTC) or off-exchange trading will potentially allow greater participation in the market. A REC forward curve will provide further price determination to the market participants.

The policymakers should look at developing and building the REC market.

Most states have defined RPO targets. Still, due to the absence of implemented RPO regulations and the inadequacy of penalties when obligations are not satisfied, several of the state DISCOMs are not complying completely with their RPO targets. It is necessary that all states adhere to the RPO targets set by respective SERCs.

The government should address the issues such as DISCOM financials, must-run status, problems of transmission and evacuation, on-time payments and payment guarantees, and deemed generation benefits.

Proper incentives should be devised to support utilities to obtain power over and above the RPO mandated by the SERC.

The tariff orders/FiTs must be consistent and not restricted for a few years.

Transmission requirements

The developers are worried that transmission facilities are not keeping pace with the power generation. Bays at the nearest substations are occupied, and transmission lines are already carrying their full capacity. This is due to the lack of coordination between MNRE and the Power Grid Corporation of India (PGCIL) and CEA. Solar Corporation of India (SECI) is holding auctions for both wind and solar projects without making sure that enough evacuation facilities are available. There is an urgent need to make evacuation plans.

The solution is to develop numerous substations and transmission lines, but the process will take considerably longer time than the currently under-construction projects take to get finished.

In 2017–2018, transmission lines were installed under the green energy corridor project by the PGCIL, with 1900 circuit km targeted in 2018–2019. The implementation of the green energy corridor project explicitly meant to connect renewable energy plants to the national grid. The budget allocation of INR 6 billion for 2018–2019 should be increased to higher values.

The mismatch between MNRE and PGCIL, which are responsible for inter-state transmission, should be rectified.

State transmission units (STUs) are responsible for the transmission inside the states, and their fund requirements to cover the evacuation and transmission infrastructure for renewable energy should be fulfilled. Moreover, STUs should be penalized if they fail to fulfill their responsibilities.

The coordination and consultation between the developers (the nodal agency responsible for the development of renewable energy) and STUs should be healthy.

Financing the renewable sector

The government should provide enough budget for the clean energy sector. China’s annual budget for renewables is 128 times higher than India’s. In 2017, China spent USD 126.6 billion (INR 9 lakh crore) compared to India’s USD 10.9 billion (INR 75500 crore). In 2018, budget allocations for grid interactive wind and solar have increased but it is not sufficient to meet the renewable target.

The government should concentrate on R&D and provide a surplus fund for R&D. In 2017, the budget allotted was an INR 445 crore, which was reduced to an INR 272.85 crore in 2016. In 2017–2018, the initial allocation was an INR 144 crore that was reduced to an INR 81 crore during the revised estimates. Even the reduced amounts could not be fully used, there is an urgent demand for regular monitoring of R&D and the budget allocation.

The Goods and Service Tax (GST) that was introduced in 2017 worsened the industry performance and has led to an increase in costs and poses a threat to the viability of the ongoing projects, ultimately hampering the target achievement. These GST issues need to be addressed.

Including the renewable sector as a priority sector would increase the availability of credit and lead to a more substantial participation by commercial banks.

Mandating the provident funds and insurance companies to invest the fixed percentage of their portfolio into the renewable energy sector.

Banks should allow an interest rebate on housing loans if the owner is installing renewable applications such as solar lights, solar water heaters, and PV panels in his house. This will encourage people to use renewable energy. Furthermore, income tax rebates also can be given to individuals if they are implementing renewable energy applications.

Improvement in manufacturing/technology

The country should move to domestic manufacturing. It imports 90% of its solar cell and module requirements from Malaysia, China, and Taiwan, so it is essential to build a robust domestic manufacturing basis.

India will provide “safeguard duty” for merely 2 years, and this is not adequate to build a strong manufacturing basis that can compete with the global market. Moreover, safeguard duty would work only if India had a larger existing domestic manufacturing base.

The government should reconsider the safeguard duty. Many foreign companies desiring to set up joint ventures in India provide only a lukewarm response because the given order in its current form presents inadequate safeguards.

There are incremental developments in technology at regular periods, which need capital, and the country should discover a way to handle these factors.

To make use of the vast estimated renewable potential in India, the R&D capability should be upgraded to solve critical problems in the clean energy sector.

A comprehensive policy for manufacturing should be established. This would support capital cost reduction and be marketed on a global scale.

The country should initiate an industry-academia partnership, which might promote innovative R&D and support leading-edge clean power solutions to protect the globe for future generations.

Encourage the transfer of ideas between industry, academia, and policymakers from around the world to develop accelerated adoption of renewable power.

Awareness about renewables

Social recognition of renewable energy is still not very promising in urban India. Awareness is the crucial factor for the uniform and broad use of renewable energy. Information about renewable technology and their environmental benefits should reach society.

The government should regularly organize awareness programs throughout the country, especially in villages and remote locations such as the islands.

The government should open more educational/research organizations, which will help in spreading knowledge of renewable technology in society.

People should regularly be trained with regard to new techniques that would be beneficial for the community.

Sufficient agencies should be available to sell renewable products and serve for technical support during installation and maintenance.

Development of the capabilities of unskilled and semiskilled workers and policy interventions are required related to employment opportunities.

An increase in the number of qualified/trained personnel might immediately support the process of installations of renewables.

Renewable energy employers prefer to train employees they recruit because they understand that education institutes fail to give the needed and appropriate skills. The training institutes should rectify this issue. Severe trained human resources shortages should be eliminated.

Upgrading the ability of the existing workforce and training of new professionals is essential to achieve the renewable goal.

Hybrid utilization of renewables

The country should focus on hybrid power projects for an effective use of transmission infrastructure and land.

India should consider battery storage in hybrid projects, which support optimizing the production and the power at competitive prices as well as a decrease of variability.

Formulate mandatory standards and regulations for hybrid systems, which are lagging in the newly announced policies (wind-solar hybrid policy on 14.05.2018).

The hybridization of two or more renewable systems along with the conventional power source battery storage can increase the performance of renewable technologies.

Issues related to sizing and storage capacity should be considered because they are key to the economic viability of the system.

Fiscal and financial incentives available for hybrid projects should be increased.

The renewable sector suffers notable obstacles. Some of them are inherent in every renewable technology; others are the outcome of a skewed regulative structure and marketplace. The absence of comprehensive policies and regulation frameworks prevent the adoption of renewable technologies. The renewable energy market requires explicit policies and legal procedures to enhance the attention of investors. There is a delay in the authorization of private sector projects because of a lack of clear policies. The country should take measures to attract private investors. Inadequate technology and the absence of infrastructure required to establish renewable technologies should be overcome by R&D. The government should allow more funds to support research and innovation activities in this sector. There are insufficiently competent personnel to train, demonstrate, maintain, and operate renewable energy structures and therefore, the institutions should be proactive in preparing the workforce. Imported equipment is costly compared to that of locally manufactured; therefore, generation of renewable energy becomes expensive and even unaffordable. Hence, to decrease the cost of renewable products, the country should become involve in the manufacturing of renewable products. Another significant infrastructural obstacle to the development of renewable energy technologies is unreliable connectivity to the grid. As a consequence, many investors lose their faith in renewable energy technologies and are not ready to invest in them for fear of failing. India should work on transmission and evacuation plans.

Inadequate servicing and maintenance of facilities and low reliability in technology decreases customer trust in some renewable energy technologies and hence prevent their selection. Adequate skills to repair/service the spare parts/equipment are required to avoid equipment failures that halt the supply of energy. Awareness of renewable energy among communities should be fostered, and a significant focus on their socio-cultural practices should be considered. Governments should support investments in the expansion of renewable energy to speed up the commercialization of such technologies. The Indian government should declare a well-established fiscal assistance plan, such as the provision of credit, deduction on loans, and tariffs. The government should improve regulations making obligations under power purchase agreements (PPAs) statutorily binding to guarantee that all power DISCOMs have PPAs to cover a hundred percent of their RPO obligation. To accomplish a reliable system, it is strongly suggested that renewables must be used in a hybrid configuration of two or more resources along with conventional source and storage devices. Regulatory authorities should formulate the necessary standards and regulations for hybrid systems. Making investments economically possible with effective policies and tax incentives will result in social benefits above and beyond the economic advantages.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

Accelerated depreciation

Billion units

Central Electricity Authority of India

Central electricity regulatory commission

Central financial assistance

Expression of interest

Foreign direct investment

Feed-in-tariff

Ministry of new and renewable energy

Research and development

Renewable purchase obligations

State electricity regulatory

Small hydropower

Terawatt hours

Waste to energy

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Kumar. J, C.R., Majid, M.A. Renewable energy for sustainable development in India: current status, future prospects, challenges, employment, and investment opportunities. Energ Sustain Soc 10 , 2 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13705-019-0232-1

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Assessing the potential of marine renewable energy in mexico: socioeconomic needs, energy potential, environmental concerns, and social perception.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. definition of coast, 2.2. socioeconomic attributes and electricity needs in mexico, 2.3. theoretical marine energy potential, 2.3.1. wave and wind energy, 2.3.2. ocean current energy, 2.3.3. thermal gradient energy, 2.4. environmental concerns, 2.5. social perception of mre, 3.1. socioeconomic attributes and electricity needs in mexico, 3.1.1. socioeconomic marginality, 3.1.2. coastal settlements with and without electricity, 3.2. theoretical marine energy potential, 3.3. environmental restrictions.

3.4. Social Perception of MRE

4. discussion, 4.1. electricity needs in mexico and theoretical energy potential, 4.2. environmental concerns, 4.3. social perception, 4.4. where are the best locations to deploy mre in mexico, 4.5. caveats and relevance of the study, 5. conclusions, supplementary materials, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

• D’Adamo, I.; Di Carlo, C.; Gastaldi, M.; Rossi, E.N.; Uricchio, A.F. Economic Performance, Environmental Protection and Social Progress: A Cluster Analysis Comparison towards Sustainable Development. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 5049. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
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Martínez, M.L.; Chávez, V.; Silva, R.; Heckel, G.; Garduño-Ruiz, E.P.; Wojtarowski, A.; Vázquez, G.; Pérez-Maqueo, O.; Maximiliano-Cordova, C.; Salgado, K.; et al. Assessing the Potential of Marine Renewable Energy in Mexico: Socioeconomic Needs, Energy Potential, Environmental Concerns, and Social Perception. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 7059. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167059

Martínez ML, Chávez V, Silva R, Heckel G, Garduño-Ruiz EP, Wojtarowski A, Vázquez G, Pérez-Maqueo O, Maximiliano-Cordova C, Salgado K, et al. Assessing the Potential of Marine Renewable Energy in Mexico: Socioeconomic Needs, Energy Potential, Environmental Concerns, and Social Perception. Sustainability . 2024; 16(16):7059. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167059

Martínez, M. Luisa, Valeria Chávez, Rodolfo Silva, Gisela Heckel, Erika Paola Garduño-Ruiz, Astrid Wojtarowski, Gabriela Vázquez, Octavio Pérez-Maqueo, Carmelo Maximiliano-Cordova, Karla Salgado, and et al. 2024. "Assessing the Potential of Marine Renewable Energy in Mexico: Socioeconomic Needs, Energy Potential, Environmental Concerns, and Social Perception" Sustainability 16, no. 16: 7059. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167059

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• DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-69395-3
• Corpus ID: 271859342

Assessing microclimate thresholds for heritage preventive conservation to achieve sustainable and energy efficiency goals in a changing climate

• F. Frasca , E. Verticchio , +5 authors A. Siani
• Published in Scientific Reports 12 August 2024
• Environmental Science

50 References

Energy efficiency in historic museums: the interplay between thermal rehabilitation, climate control strategies and regional climates.

• Highly Influential

Applied climatology for heritage

Chemo-mechanical ageing of paper: effect of acidity, moisture and micro-structural features, assessing the impact of climate change on the biodeterioration risk in historical buildings of the mediterranean area: the state archives of palermo, renewable energies and architectural heritage: advanced solutions and future perspectives, numerical modelling of mechanical degradation of canvas paintings under desiccation, albedo influence on the microclimate and thermal comfort of courtyards under mediterranean hot summer climate conditions, cmip6 simulations with the cmcc earth system model (cmcc‐esm2), climate-induced risk for the preservation of paper collections: comparative study among three historic libraries in italy, estimating building cooling energy demand through the cooling degree hours in a changing climate: a modeling study, related papers.

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Center for American Progress

How Project 2025 Threatens the Inflation Reduction Act’s Thriving Clean Energy Economy

As the two-year anniversary of the Inflation Reduction Act is commemorated, the Biden-Harris administration's historic climate action offers much to celebrate, having secured unprecedented clean energy advancements and substantial gains against climate change—but Project 2025 has the potential to reverse this pivotal progress and derail the nation's clean energy transition.

Tackling Climate Change and Environmental Injustice, Biden Administration, Clean Energy, Climate Change, Climate Diplomacy, Climate Impacts, Climate Resilience, Environmental and Climate Justice, Inflation Reduction Act +6 More

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Part of a series.

Project 2025: Exposing the Far-Right Assault on America

In this article.

This issue brief is part of a series from the Center for American Progress exposing how the sweeping Project 2025 policy agenda would harm all Americans. This new authoritarian playbook, published by the Heritage Foundation, would destroy the 250-year-old system of checks and balances upon which U.S. democracy has relied and give far-right politicians, judges, and corporations more control over Americans’ lives.

Two years ago, the Biden-Harris administration signed the landmark Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) into law. This historic legislation, key to the administration’s ambitious climate agenda, is the largest clean energy investment in U.S. history. 1 Since 2022, the IRA has saved Americans money, 2 limited greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, 3 and boosted clean energy. 4 Its total benefits by 2030 are projected at $49 billion domestically and $5.6 trillion globally. 5

As climate change devastates public lands and waters, 6 economies, health, and infrastructure, 7 building a clean energy economy to combat its impacts is a race against the clock. In recent years, climate change has intensified extreme weather events, increasing the frequency, severity, and danger to communities. 8 Since June 2023, every month has set new heat records, with 2024 predicted to supersede 2023 as the warmest year ever recorded. 9

Recognizing this urgency, the Biden-Harris administration has taken more than 300 climate actions to protect against the immediate and long-term threats of climate change. 10 Their science-based approach has worked to reverse more than 150 harmful policies from the previous administration. 11

The expansion of the U.S. clean energy sector both benefits consumers and addresses climate change. However, this domestic progress would be at risk under Project 2025, an authoritarian framework for federal reform drafted by the Heritage Foundation as a playbook for the next conservative administration. 12

Project 2025 dismantles economic, social, and regulatory policies; halts efforts to combat the climate crisis and environmental injustice; and rejects the overwhelming scientific consensus driving climate action. 13 The playbook threatens to reverse progress and return to policymaking that prioritizes fossil fuel profits over the well-being of Americans.

Learn more about Project 2025

What Is Project 2025?

Jul 12, 2024

Colin Seeberger , Hai-Lam Phan , Toni Pandolfo , 2 More Olivia Mowry , Syrus Sadvandi

Understanding the impact of clean energy accomplishments under the Biden-Harris administration is critical to recognizing Project 2025’s risks. This issue brief provides a comparison of the progress made by the current administration, through the IRA and other federal legislation, in various sectors and areas that have benefited under these laws and the implications of Project 2025 proposals to undermine it.

Clean energy investments are making U.S. climate action history

Biden-harris administration actions.

The Biden-Harris administration targets net-zero carbon emissions by 2050, with a 50 percent to 52 percent reduction by 2030, requiring annual 6 percent reductions from 2021—four times faster than Obama-era targets. 14 Current federal policy, namely the IRA and the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA), also known as the bipartisan infrastructure law, put this goal within reach. 15

The IRA offers rebates and tax credits for clean energy deployment. 16 These measures are the single most important policy for meeting federal emissions reductions targets. Developers of clean energy projects can claim these tax credits, with additional incentives for projects in low-income or energy communities. 17 The IRA reduces emissions 40 percent by 2030, 18 with indications its tax measures yield the greatest reduction, at 300 million to 400 million tons of GHG reductions by 2035. 19

By 2030, 80 percent of U.S. energy capacity is expected to come from renewables, 20 with 310 gigawatts (GW) added by 2030 and 650 GW by 2035. 21 IRA tax credits are fostering a low-carbon power sector that, supported by new pollution standards for power plants, vehicles, methane emissions, and energy-efficient appliances, put emissions abatement goals in striking distance. 22 Under existing policies, emissions fall 38 percent to 56 percent below 2023 levels by 2035, with a 42 percent to 83 percent power sector decrease—the largest reduction among major industries. 23

Project 2025 proposal

Project 2025 would increase GHG emissions, hindering the country’s battle against the climate crisis and exposing Americans to worsened public health and extreme weather risks.

“The next Administration should also push for legislation to fully repeal recently passed subsidies in the tax code, including the dozens of credits and tax breaks for green energy companies in Subtitle D of the Inflation Reduction Act.” – Project 2025 , p. 696

Proposals: Project 2025 would repeal IRA tax credits, weaken the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) regulatory authority, and lower or eliminate existing emissions standards. The playbook also recommends easing environmental permitting restrictions for new fossil fuel projects.

Impact: Project 2025’s stated policies would lead to increased GHG emissions, reversing years of progress and making it virtually impossible to limit warming to the 1.5 degrees Celsius goal that is necessary to avoid the worst impacts of climate change. Dismantling federal oversight hinders emissions monitoring and increases public health and climate risks. Consequences include exacerbated extreme weather events such as heat waves, wildfires, and hurricanes. Secondary impacts, such as disruptions to power, water systems, transportation, and communication networks, threaten the health, economy, and safety of Americans.

American industrial innovation has unleashed a domestic manufacturing renaissance

Decarbonizing the industrial sector, responsible for nearly one-third of U.S. carbon emissions, 24 is a challenge the Biden-Harris administration is tackling head-on—partly through the Office of Clean Energy Demonstrations (OCED), which oversees the implementation of $6 billion from the IRA and the IIJA for the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) Industrial Demonstrations Program (IDP). 25 Funding is allocated to projects that advance industrial manufacturing processes and cut carbon emissions, avoiding 14 million metric tons each year 26 and spurring private investment. 27 For instance, Ohio’s Middletown Works steel plant will receive $500 million from the IDP and $1.3 billion privately, supporting leadership in decarbonized manufacturing while cutting 1 million tons of carbon emissions annually and generating $450 million in benefits. 28

Additional funds for the research and development of clean energy technologies are available through the IIJA and the IRA to revitalize and strengthen core manufacturing. 29 In the past two years, solar manufacturing has seen more than 132 projects announced, 30 and investments in U.S. battery manufacturing have increased sevenfold. 31 These investments limit dependence on foreign supply chains and enhance U.S. competitiveness.

Project 2025 would cut advanced manufacturing programs, undermining the country’s competitiveness in global clean technology manufacturing.

“The next Administration should work with Congress to eliminate all DOE energy demonstration programs, including those in OCED.” – Project 2025 , p. 382

Proposals: Project 2025 would cut financing and investments for clean energy technologies and industrial manufacturing. The authors of the playbook call to cut OCED programs working to improve sustainable development outcomes.

Impact: Project 2025 guts U.S. potential to compete with China for leadership in developing clean energy technologies and cedes global leadership in energy manufacturing and supply chain management. Eliminating programs, including IDP investments under the OCED, would halt a growing low-carbon industrial sector, ceasing economywide emissions reductions and forcing American reliance on foreign clean energy providers and markets.

The booming clean energy sector has created hundreds of thousands of new jobs

IRA and IIJA investments have created more than 334,500 new clean energy jobs. 32 The policies support project labor agreements (PLAs), as well as prevailing wage and registered apprenticeship requirements, ensuring family-sustaining wages and good benefits for a variety of jobs. 33 Under this legislation, the nation’s clean energy infrastructure is being built by a diverse, unionized, and skilled workforce that will continue to improve and maintain a grid protected against climate change.

As clean energy grows, a resilient grid and skilled workforce are essential. These jobs have supported the Biden-Harris administration’s investments of more than $30 billion to strengthen grid reliability and resilience, increase capacity, incorporate renewable energies, and protect from power outages. 34 This includes $3.5 billion from the DOE, which sparked $8 billion in public-private investment to bring more than 35 GW of new renewable energy online—enough to power about 30 million households. 35

Under the DOE’s Loan Programs Office (LPO), additional financial support is provided to projects that align federal energy priorities with those of U.S. states, maximizing pollution reduction and energy accessibility. 36 Further investments are leveraging the clean energy workforce to modernize the nation’s transportation network through the installation of electric vehicle charging stations. 37 Creating convenient, affordable, and reliable charging options for all Americans supports electrification of the transportation sector.

Organized Labor Is Uncovering the Truth About Offshore Wind in Rhode Island

Jul 22, 2024

Margaret Cooney , Devon Lespier , Hai-Lam Phan , 2 More Adam Reich , Olivia Mowry

Project 2025 would dismantle labor standards and defund renewable energy programs, sabotaging the clean energy transition and hindering Americans from accessing high-quality union jobs.

“Agencies should end all mandatory Project Labor Agreement requirements and base federal procurement decisions on the contractors that can deliver the best product at the lowest cost.” – Project 2025 , p. 604

Proposal: Project 2025 eliminates PLAs and prevailing wage and registered apprenticeship requirements, reducing labor standards for clean energy workers. It would block the expansion of the electrical grid for renewables and shift transportation infrastructure funding processes to states. In addition, it calls to defund grid deployment programs, cease grid-planning efforts for renewable development, and eliminate the LPO.

Impact: Defunding DOE programs removes a large fiscal promoter of economic activity, jobs, and energy advancement. Project 2025 would decimate the guarantee of a clean energy economy built by a trained workforce with high-quality jobs. Ending PLAs and tax credits for projects meeting workforce requirements would inhibit job creation and limit opportunities for well-paying union jobs.

Project 2025 policies increase communities’ vulnerability to power outages and cease the transition to clean energy by maintaining energy infrastructure incompatible with renewables. The playbook would impede the feasibility of large-scale clean energy production. Decentralizing funding for transportation infrastructure would inhibit transportation electrification and promote reliance on internal combustion engines due to inconsistent project implementation.

Historic conservation investments maintain long-term climate resilience

The Biden-Harris administration set a national conservation goal through the America the Beautiful initiative, which aims to conserve 30 percent of U.S. lands and waters by 2030. 38 As of publication, the administration has conserved more than 41 million acres of public lands and water in pursuit of this goal, 39 benefiting American communities and protecting landscape diversity and connectivity. Total projections indicate the initiative could result in two to four times more carbon protected from loss by 2030. 40

The Biden-Harris administration has invested an unprecedented level of funding for conservation commitments—more than $18 billion. 41 The administration withdrew and protected from oil and gas drilling special areas such as Chaco Canyon in New Mexico and 28 million acres of public lands in Alaska. 42 Additionally, the administration designated five new national monuments, 43 including Avi Kwa Ame National Monument in Nevada, to protect sacred Tribal lands and species habitats. 44 These actions promote long-term environmental sustainability and climate resilience, protecting valuable resources for communities, biodiversity, and the global climate.

Project 2025 would open sensitive public lands to oil and gas drilling, harming natural treasures and wildlife and jeopardizing clean water, all while prioritizing the fossil fuel industry’s interests over the well-being of Americans.

“The new Administration must seek repeal of the Antiquities Act of 1906, which permitted emergency action by a President long before the statutory authority existed for the protection of special federal lands.” – Project 2025 , p. 532

Proposal: Project 2025 advocates for accelerating oil and gas drilling on public lands, increasing lease sales, and eliminating conservation protections for treasured areas. It would remove the national conservation goal and repeal the Antiquities Act, which grants U.S. presidents the authority to preserve cultural resources and protect federal lands through the establishment of national monuments. Other proposals reinstate Trump administration-era policies that allowed for extensive drilling in places such as the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. 45 Project 2025 calls to reverse protections for scenic and historic areas beyond existing national monuments and to open sensitive lands around Chaco Canyon, among other special places, to mining and drilling.

Impact: These rollbacks would dramatically accelerate the loss of natural lands in the United States, endangering nature and clean water access for communities and threatening wildlife. For more than a century, the Antiquities Act has safeguarded America’s lands, 46 but Project 2025 would dismantle its protections, risk millions of acres, and destroy future preservation of cherished landscapes. Policies increasing resource extraction would erode the natural potential of carbon sequestration and destroy critical ecosystems to line the pockets of oil companies.

Centering environmental justice in policymaking is ensuring a cleaner, healthier future for all

The Biden-Harris administration launched the most ambitious and environmental justice-centered agenda in history to ensure that all communities have access to clean air and water. The IRA invested $55 billion to reduce local pollution and improve public health and economic security in communities of color and low-income communities. 47 Combined with IIJA investments in pollution cleanup and lead pipe removal, the administration has backed its commitment to environmental justice with $148 billion. 48

This funding has launched first-time efforts such as the Environmental and Climate Justice Grant program, which provides $3 billion in funding to reduce local pollution and GHG emissions, increase climate resilience, and improve public health in disadvantaged communities. 49 Through a partnership between the EPA and the DOE, $177 million was allocated across 16 organizations under the Environmental Justice Thriving Communities Technical Assistance Centers program (EJ TCTAC) to enhance access to funding opportunities and programs promoting environmental and energy justice priorities. 50 Technical assistance programs, such as the EJ TCTAC, support capacity building and enable civic engagement and advocacy in decision-making, giving underrepresented communities a voice in collaborative problem-solving.

Securing Clean Air, Clean Water, and a Healthy Environment for All

Feb 2, 2024

Devon Lespier , Margaret Cooney , Hannah Malus , 6 More Cathleen Kelly , Hai-Lam Phan , Matthew Gossage , Jeremy Hill , Andrew Sonntag , Toni Pandolfo

These lifesaving investments are part of the administration’s historic Justice40 Initiative, which directs at least 40 percent of federal climate and infrastructure investment benefits to marginalized communities that are historically neglected and disproportionately affected by industry pollution and climate change. 51 The initiative covers more than 500 federal programs, including the Greenhouse Gas Reduction Fund—a $27 billion program that works to reduce emissions and improve air quality—prioritizing disadvantaged communities. 52

Project 2025 would dismantle key programs for public health and environmental justice, worsening hazardous pollution and environmental risks that endanger communities.

“The next Administration should stop using energy policy to advance politicized social agendas. Programs that sound innocuous, such as “energy justice,” Justice40, and DEI, can be transformed to promote politicized agendas.” – Project 2025 , p. 370

Proposal: Project 2025 proposes to eliminate programs that safeguard public health and advance environmental justice, disproportionately harming disadvantaged communities. It calls to disband the EPA offices that protect communities from entities that endanger public and environmental health with hazardous water, air, and chemical pollutants.

Impact: The proposals would undermine efforts to clean up pollution in communities and increase energy and health care costs, worsening climate, environmental, and public health risks for communities already overburdened by pollution. To disband existing EPA offices would disrupt the distribution of funds intended to tackle environmental injustices and support community-based organizations and community-led pollution monitoring. This would increase health disparities and environmental risk for Black, brown, Indigenous, and low-income communities, reversing progress made toward securing safe and healthy communities for all.

U.S. international climate leadership accelerates the global response to climate change

On the first day of the presidential term, The Biden-Harris administration rejoined the Paris Agreement 53 —restoring the United States as a leader in international climate and signaling a renewed dedication to aggressive climate action needed to stay within the 1.5 degree Celsius temperature rise limit. Under the Biden-Harris administration, the United States led by example at the United Nations’ 2023 climate change conference, helping to secure international commitment to “transition away” from fossil fuels. 54 These actions bolstered global support for climate action and accompanied announcements for an array of U.S. initiatives and funding to address the climate crisis worldwide, 55 including a $3 billion pledge to the international Green Climate Fund. 56

Through investments from government agencies, the administration is supporting global clean energy initiatives around the world. The U.S. International Development Finance Corp. contributed to a $43 million investment backing a project that will bring 1,400 minigrids to India and Nigeria and prevent 350,000 tons of carbon emissions over its five-year period. 57 The project will increase access to affordable and reliable clean electricity, enhancing economic and societal growth in rural communities, with a particular benefit to women and children. The Biden-Harris administration also launched the President’s Emergency Plan for Adaptation and Resilience (PREPARE), a novel effort to support developing countries in adapting and building resilience to climate shocks. 58

Project 2025 would withdraw the United States from international climate agreements and ramp up fossil fuel extraction, undermining U.S. climate leadership and compromising global climate action.

“The next conservative Administration should withdraw the U.S. from the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement.” – Project 2025 , p. 709

Proposal: Project 2025 withdraws the United States from international climate agreements and restricts financial support for global climate initiatives. It also includes recommendations to increase fossil fuel extraction and production across the Western Hemisphere.

Impact: The Trump administration withdrew the United States from the Paris Agreement, but the Biden-Harris administration swiftly rejoined, acknowledging it as the cornerstone of global climate action under the Senate-ratified U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change. 59 Project 2025 threatens to dismantle this framework entirely. Backtracking on U.S. commitments yields national leadership, alienates diplomatic partners, and weakens international climate efforts, increasing environmental and economic instability. Increased hemispheric fossil fuel extraction and diminished funding for international climate and energy programs would counteract and de-escalate emissions reductions, exacerbating climate impacts.

Transitioning to an inclusive clean energy economy is essential to overcoming impending climate change threats. This shift relies on enduring climate policies. If implemented as intended, the Biden-Harris administration’s climate policies will continue to improve the country’s economy and Americans’ quality of life, providing tangible benefits to families for decades to come. Now more than ever, we need robust legislation, such as the IRA, and strong leadership to secure a sustainable future—not regressive actions that threaten our planet and communities.

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• Kevin Roberts and others, Mandate for Leadership: The Conservative Promise (Washington: The Heritage Foundation, 2023).
• Ibid.; Mark Lynas, Benjamin Z. Houlton, and Simon Perry, “Greater than 99% consensus on human caused climate change in the peer-reviewed scientific literature,” Environmental Research Letters 16 (11) (2021): 1–7, available at https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac2966 .
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• King and others, “Taking Stock 2024.”
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• Rick McCrabb, “$1.8 billion Cleveland-Cliffs plan means more jobs, stability for Middletown steel plant,” Journal-News , March 29, 2024, available at https://www.journal-news.com/news/18-billion-cleveland-cliffs-plan-means-more-jobs-stability-for-middletown-steel-plant/265NKDXRJVB5RCI7AMUJTABU2E/ ; Business Wire, “Cleveland-Cliffs Selected to Receive $575 Million in US Department of Energy Investments for Two Projects to Accelerate Industrial Decarbonization Technologies,” March 25, 2024, available at https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20240325479918/en/ .
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