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The Benefits and Shortcomings of Internet Censorship Today

• Categories: Censorship Internet Censorship

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Published: Apr 11, 2022

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Works Cited

• Abbasi, M., & Altmann, J. (2017). Measuring self-censorship on social media: A case study of Weibo. Journal of Informetrics, 11(1), 317-332.
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• Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Random House.
• MacKinnon, R. (2012). Consent of the Networked: The Worldwide Struggle For Internet Freedom. Basic Books.
• Roberts, R. (2014). Censored 2014: Fearless Speech in Fateful Times. Seven Stories Press.
• Runciman, D. (2018). How Democracy Ends. Profile Books.
• Sunstein, C. R. (2017). #Republic: Divided Democracy in the Age of Social Media. Princeton University Press.
• Xu, Q., Zhang, Y., & Yang, C. C. (2017). Why do people self-censor on social media? An empirical study of the Chinese case. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 61(2), 191-207.
• Zittrain, J. (2009). The Future of the Internet—And How to Stop It. Yale University Press.

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Freedom of expression in the Digital Age: Internet Censorship

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• First Online: 08 May 2020
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• Md Nurul Momen 4  

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Freedom of expression includes freedom to hold opinions and ideas and to receive and impart information without restrictions by state authorities.

Introduction

Internet is regarded as an important issue that shapes free expression in today’s volatile nature of human rights world (Momen 2020 ). In the digital age, authoritarian governments in the world always attempt to undermine political and social movement through the complete shutdown of the Internet or providing partial access to it. It is also found that the restrictions on freedom of expression on the Internet are through surveillance and monitoring the online activities. In response to any kind of political and social movement, authoritarian governments across the border occasionally shut down many websites, along with the arrest of several anti-government bloggers and political activists. However, under the international legal instruments, for instance, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), denial of the...

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Ariffin, L. J. (2012). Rais backs Dr M call for curbs to Internet freedom . https://www.malaysia-today.net/2012/06/05/rais-backs-dr-m-call-for-curbs-to-internet-freedom/ . Accessed 10 June 2018.

Arnaudo, D., Alva, A., Wood, P., & Whittington, J. (2013). Political and economic implications of authoritarian control of the internet. In J. Butts & S. Shenoi (Eds.), Critical infrastructure protection VII (IFIP AICT) (Vol. 417, pp. 3–19). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer.

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Momen, M. N. (2020). Myth and reality of freedom of expression on the Internet. International Journal of Public Administration, 43 (3), 277–281. https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2019.1628055 .

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Shirokanova, A., & Silyutina, O. (2018). Internet regulation: A text-based approach to media coverage. In D. A. Alexandrov et al. (Eds.), Digital Transformation and Global Society (DTGS) 2018 (Communications in computer and information science (CCIS)) (Vol. 858, pp. 181–194). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02843-5_15 .

Ziccardi, G. (2013). Digital activism, internet control, transparency, censorship, surveillance and human rights: An international perspective. In Resistance, liberation technology and human rights in the digital age (Law, governance and technology series) (Vol. 7). Dordrecht: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5276-4_6 .

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Md Nurul Momen

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Manish Thapa

Nemzetkozi Tanulmanyok Intezet, Rm 503, Corvinus Univ, Inst of Intl Studies, Budapest, Hungary

Péter Marton

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Momen, M.N. (2019). Freedom of expression in the Digital Age: Internet Censorship. In: Romaniuk, S., Thapa, M., Marton, P. (eds) The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Global Security Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74336-3_31-1

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Building the (Fire) Wall: Internet Censorship in the United States and China

In a time of ever-increasing wealth of information on the internet, China has become notorious for having the most stringent internet censorship policies and surveillance systems in the world. Search engines and social media platforms that are ubiquitous in the United States and much of the world—like Google, Instagram, Facebook, and Twitter—are blocked from China’s internet. In response, the US government, US technology companies, non-profit activist groups, and think tanks have publicly criticized and taken action against China’s restrictive policies. However, the newly instituted “Clean Network Initiative” in the United States strikes eerie parallels with China’s “Great Firewall,” leading to concerns about the state of internet freedom in the United States and abroad. As governments limit what citizens can and can’t see on the web, internet freedom and accessibility is threatened, limiting conduits for democratic thought, innovation and research, and global communication.

A Brief History of China’s Internet Censorship

Before President Xi Jinping’s rise to power in China, the internet was a relatively transparent and open platform for discussion. Although the Chinese government implemented restrictions on the internet almost as soon as its inception with a national network security and content blocking project, the Golden Shield, it had few restrictions and was easily circumvented by citizens. At the turn of the millennium, popular bloggers and influencers were able to advocate for social and political reforms by organizing protests and exposing political corruption through the internet. In the late 1990s, the China Democracy Party grew from twelve members in one region to hundreds of members across the country, primarily through email communication. Around the same time, the spiritual group Falun Gong used mobile phones and email to organize a silent protest against the Chinese government’s suppression of their religious practices. As more people gained access to the internet, the use of bulletin board systems (BBS) and chat rooms became critical for publicizing sensitive political topics and creating discussion forums for underground organizations.

However, dissenting groups and protests quickly drew harsh responses from Chinese authorities. Leaders of the China Democracy Party and Falun Gong were traced and imprisoned. Government paranoia surrounding the internet was further heightened by the introduction of modern social media platforms, such as Sina Weibo. By 2013, over 2 million citizens were employed as “public opinion analysts” to monitor user activity and social media, while other officials blocked posts that were deemed threatening to the party and published party propaganda masked as ordinary citizens.

The election of President Xi Jinping ushered in a new era of the China Communist Party’s (CCP) control over the internet; in 2016, Xi demanded that “all the work by the party’s media … reflect the [China Communist Party]’s will, safeguard the party’s authority, and safeguard the party’s unity.” His efforts to strengthen the Golden Shield and the “Great Firewall of China” involve collaboration between “the government and the domestic technology and telecommunications companies compelled to enforce the state’s rules.” These projects aim to ensure complete social and political conformity in the real and virtual world.

Consequences of Censorship

In response to domestic and international criticism, Chinese authorities argue that internet regulation is necessary for national security, social stability, and the protection of Chinese culture. However, this comes at a high cost; China faces serious repercussions in its economic development, scientific advancement, and creative innovation. China’s internet is “notoriously unreliable” and “ranks 91st in the world for speed” due to its large network of censors and restrictions, despite its general improvement in internet infrastructure.

This lack of efficiency can significantly slow economic growth, especially for corporations who struggle to keep their websites online due to China’s commercial censorship aimed specifically at foreign industries. Many in the global trade community claim that “China’s internet controls constitute a barrier to market access and are therefore a violation of China’s global trade obligations.”

Although scientific innovation is particularly valued by the Chinese government and in Chinese culture, the Chinese government continues to ban access to valuable internet resources such as Google Scholar, which are crucial for international scientific collaboration. Before 2015, many Chinese scientists and citizens used virtual private networks (VPNs) to route their internet traffic through foreign servers, bypassing the firewalls on Chinese servers and staying hidden from government surveillance. However, President Xi’s 2015 crackdown on VPNs made it nearly impossible to use them within China’s cyber-borders. In response, one Chinese biologist lamented the inefficiency of internet research in China in an essay entitled “Why Do Scientists Need Google?” He wrote: “If a country wants to make this many scientists take out time from the short duration of their professional lives to research technology for climbing over the Great Firewall and to install and to continually upgrade every kind of software for routers, computers, tablets and mobile devices, no matter that this behaviour wastes a great amount of time; it is all completely ridiculous.”

US Policy and Industry Intervention

The United States has traditionally been a major supporter of global free speech and internet accessibility, and has advocated for policies to “promote internet freedom in China’s increasingly restrictive environment and to mitigate the global impact of Chinese government censorship.” In 2000 for example, Congress established the Congressional-Executive Commission on China (CECC) “to monitor China’s compliance with international human rights standards, to encourage the development of the rule of law in the PRC, and to establish and maintain a list of victims of human rights abuses in China.”

The US Agency for Global Media (USAGM), formerly the Broadcasting Board of Governors (BBG), is an independent agency of the US government that aims to “inform, engage, and connect people around the world in support of freedom and democracy.” The USAGM sponsors Radio Free Asia, a non-profit news corporation, that connects with in-country sources and journalists to provide censored information to the Chinese public.

Private US information and communications industry interests in promoting free internet access in China are represented through the Global Network Initiative (GNI) ; members of the GNI include high-profile companies like Google, Microsoft, Verizon, and Facebook. Like many others in the global trade community, these corporations cite that China’s restrictions are unjustly discriminatory towards foreign industry.

US Clean Network Initiative

At the same time that US initiatives attempt to promote internet freedom in China, domestic policies threaten that same ideal at home. On August 5, 2020, the Trump administration, under Secretary of State Michael Pompeo’s direction, announced its expansion of the Clean Network Initiative , which builds upon the 5G Clean Path Initiative .  The Clean Network initiative aims to guard “citizens’ privacy and [US] companies’ most sensitive information from aggressive intrusions by malign actors, such as the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).”

Pompeo’s press statement delineates five principles of a “clean network”:

• Clean Carrier: Ban untrusted People’s Republic of China (PRC) cell carriers from connecting to US networks.
• Clean Store: Remove untrusted PRC apps from US app stores to prevent spread of viruses, propaganda, and violation of privacy.
• Clean Apps: Block untrusted PRC smartphone manufacturers, such as Huawei, from pre-installing trusted apps (from the United States or abroad) on their app store.
• Clean Cloud: Prevent US personal information and intellectual property (ex. COVID-19 vaccine research) from being stored in cloud-based systems that can be accessed by foreign adversaries, such as the PRC (ex. Alibaba, Baidu, Tencent).
• Clean Cable: Protect undersea cables from intelligence gathering by the PRC.

The justification for these restrictive, China-centered policies are summed up in Pompeo’s concluding sentence: “building a Clean fortress around our citizens’ data will ensure all of our nations’ security.” Ironically, the Chinese government similarly often cites national security to justify its harsh restrictions, even when empirical evidence does not support their claims. Both the Clean Network Initiative and the Great Firewall require concessions of internet freedoms from their citizens in return for vague promises of national security and privacy. They also paint foreign influences as “intruders” upon the nation’s internet (though the internet was not created with state borders or separations), with China’s policies warding against almost all foreign nations while the Clean Network specifically targets China. The United States and China are essentially waging an “internet sovereignty” war, where each side employs the tactics of the other.

The day after the introduction of the Clean Network Initiative, President Donald Trump published an executive order imposing sanctions on the Chinese-owned apps TikTok and WeChat, which aims to remove them from US app stores and prohibit transactions between consumers and the apps. While US citizens would still be able access TikTok and WeChat if the apps are already on their device, they would not receive new software updates, effectively resulting in the apps becoming unusable over time.

During one of the many preliminary injunctions against Trump’s executive order, a judge blocked the order due to a lack of specific evidence regarding the presumed insecurity of WeChat. Another federal judge questioned “whether the order would harm First Amendment rights,” arguing that “it would shut down the primary means of communication for the Chinese community.” WeChat is one of the only social media platforms available to users in China, so users abroad rely on WeChat to stay connected with their families, friends, and business partners in China.

While Trump and Pompeo claim that these measures are necessary to our national security, the lack of concrete evidence behind their claims and singular focus on Chinese media point to other geopolitical motivations. The Clean Network Initiative doesn’t specify exactly which Chinese-owned applications will be removed; for example, it is unclear whether Chinese-owned entertainment platforms such as League of Legends are banned, since League of Legends is owned by TENCENT, one of the companies mentioned in the Initiative under “Clean Cloud.” However, it is abundantly clear that the Clean Network Initiative and Trump’s executive order specifically target Chinese-controlled social media platforms, telecommunications providers, and cell phone manufacturers, which disproportionately impact Chinese American communities (compared to League of Legends, which has a much more diverse user base). These policies exhibit a degree of xenophobia and racism against Chinese American citizens and discourages any ties, whether professional, familial, or (rarely) political, with China.

In the Clean Network Initiative, Pompeo emphasizes that “more than thirty countries and territories are now Clean Countries,” and urges other US allies to join this pact. By turning other countries against Chinese media and the CCP, the Trump administration may be attempting to assert US dominance in the international cybersphere and promote a pro-American internet free of Chinese influence.

Upon the introduction of these policies, Beijing has expressed outrage at the clear distrust of Chinese companies and government. In an interview, the Chinese foreign minister Wang Yi claimed that this is a “textbook case of bullying,” since he believes the United States is acting to “keep its monopoly in science and technology but deny other countries the legitimate right to development.” He also accuses the United States of conducting its own mass surveillance around the world and domestically, contradicting the principles delineated in Pompeo’s press release. While Wang Yi claims that China promotes open business environments and international exchanges in science and technology, it is clear that neither China nor the United States is accomplishing those goals with their mutual censorship and foreign internet policy.

International Implications

Global internet freedom has declined as countries have imposed stricter censorship policies and weaponized social media as a tool to advance state agendas. Chinese development of more advanced censorship software and social media surveillance tools have often been seen by many in the international community as the inspiration in the development of their own censorship programs. Chinese firms reportedly connected to the Chinese government, such as Semptian and Knowlesys, advertise their surveillance products at international trade shows, demonstrating features such as “monitoring your targets’ messages, profiles, locations, behaviors, relationships, and more” as well as how to “monitor public opinion for election.” Authoritarian regimes can easily purchase these systems to find and block dissident users, creating an environment of fear and self-censorship in cyberspace.

The downward spiral of internet freedom threatens the very values the Internet was founded on: quite literally named the “world wide web,” it aimed to enable open and free access to information across the globe. This vision of a globally connected network is at risk of crumbling under increasing internet censorship within individual countries. This push towards a divided internet limits global conversations and collaboration, while further polarizing each nation by creating echo chambers in which we can only hear our own voices. At a time when global cooperation is needed more than ever, we are building more walls than we are tearing down.

Cover photo: President Donald J. Trump joins Xi Jinping, President of the People’s Republic of China, at the start of their bilateral meeting Saturday, June 29, 2019, at the G20 Japan Summit in Osaka, Japan. Official White House Photo by Shealah Craighead, Public domain, accessed via Wikimedia Commons .

Qijia Zhou is a staff writer for the HIR. Qijia is interested in international politics, as well as the intersection between science and policy.

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Internet Censorship (Part 1): The Technology of the Working Web

Despite the guarantee of free access to information enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human rights, the number of countries engaging in some kind of internet censorship continues to grow rapidly around the world. The issue of internet censorship is now central in policy, communication, and technology debates. It has also become of interest to scholars in the humanities and social sciences who think seriously about the relationship between culture, politics, and the internet.

But in order to build a rich conversation about the causes and consequences of internet censorship, we must first understand how internet censorship works, especially on a technical level. This two-part post lays out a (simplified) explanation of internet censorship technologies. The first of these gives a broad overview of how the internet works, while the next post builds on these foundations to explain how various censorship techniques can block information on the internet.

How the Internet Works

To understand how internet censorship works, as well as how to circumvent such obstacles, we must first get a grip on how the internet works. Consider this over-simplified model of just what happens when you view a webpage.

When you log onto the internet at your home, office, school, library or internet café, you are connecting through an Internet Service Provider ( ISP ), such as Comcast or AT&T. The ISP then assigns your individual computer an IP Address, which is similar to a postal address in that it is used to identify you and transport information. Anyone who learns your IP address can find out what city you’re in, and other institutions such as your ISP, internet café, library or business can find out more, such as which building you are in and even which computer you are using. Government agencies, to the extent that they have access to said institutions, may know these details as well.

Your Internet Connection

So, when you type in http://townsendcenter.berkeley.edu into your web browser, a series of things happen:

• Your computer sends the domain name "townsendlab.berkeley.edu" to a selected DNS server, which returns a message containing the IP address for the server that hosts the Townsend Humanities Lab (currently, 174.129.208.156).
• The browser then sends a request to your ISP for a connection to that IP address.
• The request goes through a series of routers , each one forwarding a copy of the request to a router closer to the destination, until it reaches a router that finds the specific computer needed.
• The message from the Web site to you travels through other devices (computers or routers). Each such device along a path can be referred to as a " hop "; the number of hops is the number of computers or routers your message comes in contact with along its way and is often between 5 and 30.
• This computer sends information back to you, allowing your browser to send the full URL and receive the data to display the page. Et Voila!

Image Credits: LAN (Main Image) Your Internet Connection DNS "Hops"

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Internet censorship: making the hidden visible

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Despite being founded on ideals of freedom and openness, censorship on the internet is rampant, with more than 60 countries engaging in some form of state-sponsored censorship. A research project at the University of Cambridge is aiming to uncover the scale of this censorship, and to understand how it affects users and publishers of information

Censorship over the internet can potentially achieve unprecedented scale Sheharbano Khattak

For all the controversy it caused, Fitna is not a great film. The 17-minute short, by the Dutch far-right politician Geert Wilders, was a way for him to express his opinion that Islam is an inherently violent religion. Understandably, the rest of the world did not see things the same way. In advance of its release in 2008, the film received widespread condemnation, especially within the Muslim community.

When a trailer for Fitna was released on YouTube, authorities in Pakistan demanded that it be removed from the site. YouTube offered to block the video in Pakistan, but would not agree to remove it entirely. When YouTube relayed this decision back to the Pakistan Telecommunications Authority (PTA), the decision was made to block YouTube.

Although Pakistan has been intermittently blocking content since 2006, a more persistent blocking policy was implemented in 2011, when porn content was censored in response to a media report that highlighted Pakistan as the top country in terms of searches for porn. Then, in 2012, YouTube was blocked for three years when a video, deemed blasphemous, appeared on the website. Only in January this year was the ban lifted, when Google, which owns YouTube, launched a Pakistan-specific version, and introduced a process by which governments can request the blocking of access to offending material.

All of this raises the thorny issue of censorship. Those censoring might raise objections to material on the basis of offensiveness or incitement to violence (more than a dozen people died in Pakistan following widespread protests over the video uploaded to YouTube in 2012). But when users aren’t able to access a particular site, they often don’t know whether it’s because the site is down, or if some force is preventing them from accessing it. How can users know what is being censored and why?

“The goal of a censor is to disrupt the flow of information,” says Sheharbano Khattak, a PhD student in Cambridge’s Computer Laboratory, who studies internet censorship and its effects. “internet censorship threatens free and open access to information. There’s no code of conduct when it comes to censorship: those doing the censoring – usually governments – aren’t in the habit of revealing what they’re blocking access to.” The goal of her research is to make the hidden visible.

She explains that we haven’t got a clear understanding of the consequences of censorship: how it affects different stakeholders, the steps those stakeholders take in response to censorship, how effective an act of censorship is, and what kind of collateral damage it causes.

Because censorship operates in an inherently adversarial environment, gathering relevant datasets is difficult. Much of the key information, such as what was censored and how, is missing. In her research, Khattak has developed methodologies that enable her to monitor censorship by characterising what normal data looks like and flagging anomalies within the data that are indicative of censorship.

She designs experiments to measure various aspects of censorship, to detect censorship in actively and passively collected data, and to measure how censorship affects various players.

The primary reasons for government-mandated censorship are political, religious or cultural. A censor might take a range of steps to stop the publication of information, to prevent access to that information by disrupting the link between the user and the publisher, or to directly prevent users from accessing that information. But the key point is to stop that information from being disseminated.

Internet censorship takes two main forms: user-side and publisher-side. In user-side censorship, the censor disrupts the link between the user and the publisher. The interruption can be made at various points in the process between a user typing an address into their browser and being served a site on their screen. Users may see a variety of different error messages, depending on what the censor wants them to know. 

“The thing is, even in countries like Saudi Arabia, where the government tells people that certain content is censored, how can we be sure of everything they’re stopping their citizens from being able to access?” asks Khattak. “When a government has the power to block access to large parts of the internet, how can we be sure that they’re not blocking more than they’re letting on?”

What Khattak does is characterise the demand for blocked content and try to work out where it goes. In the case of the blocking of YouTube in 2012 in Pakistan, a lot of the demand went to rival video sites like Daily Motion. But in the case of pornographic material, which is also heavily censored in Pakistan, the government censors didn’t have a comprehensive list of sites that were blacklisted, so plenty of pornographic content slipped through the censors’ nets. 

Despite any government’s best efforts, there will always be individuals and publishers who can get around censors, and access or publish blocked content through the use of censorship resistance systems. A desirable property, of any censorship resistance system is to ensure that users are not traceable, but usually users have to combine them with anonymity services such as Tor.

“It’s like an arms race, because the technology which is used to retrieve and disseminate information is constantly evolving,” says Khattak. “We now have social media sites which have loads of user-generated content, so it’s very difficult for a censor to retain control of this information because there’s so much of it. And because this content is hosted by sites like Google or Twitter that integrate a plethora of services, wholesale blocking of these websites is not an option most censors might be willing to consider.”

In addition to traditional censorship, Khattak also highlights a new kind of censorship – publisher-side censorship – where websites refuse to offer services to a certain class of users. Specifically, she looks at the differential treatments of Tor users by some parts of the web. The issue with services like Tor is that visitors to a website are anonymised, so the owner of the website doesn’t know where their visitors are coming from. There is increasing use of publisher-side censorship from site owners who want to block users of Tor or other anonymising systems.

“Censorship is not a new thing,” says Khattak. “Those in power have used censorship to suppress speech or writings deemed objectionable for as long as human discourse has existed. However, censorship over the internet can potentially achieve unprecedented scale, while possibly remaining discrete so that users are not even aware that they are being subjected to censored information.”

Professor Jon Crowcroft, who Khattak works with, agrees: “It’s often said that, online, we live in an echo chamber, where we hear only things we agree with. This is a side of the filter bubble that has its flaws, but is our own choosing. The darker side is when someone else gets to determine what we see, despite our interests. This is why internet censorship is so concerning.”

“While the cat and mouse game between the censors and their opponents will probably always exist,” says Khattak. “I hope that studies such as mine will illuminate and bring more transparency to this opaque and complex subject, and inform policy around the legality and ethics of such practices.”

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Essay Samples on Internet Censorship

Stand against censorship: unveiling the dangers.

Do you feel like you are being watched on while using the Internet? This essay argues against censorship, highlighting the dangers it poses to personal freedom and democracy, and provides examples of countries like China where censorship is used to control and manipulate the public....

• Internet Censorship

Censorship Advantages and Disadvantages in the Media: My View

Censorship in the media is a controversial topic that I can't stop think about. There is a lot of debate about censorship, its advantages and disadvantages, so in this essay I will briefly explore this topic with a focus on media censorship. First of all...

• Impact of Media
• Social Media

Internet Censorship: an In-Depth Look on the Pros and Cons

Introduction In this sophisticated technology-oriented world, the Internet is considered as one of the latest inventions of science and technology. Undoubtedly, nowadays, almost every walk of human life has been influenced by the Internet. Even though the Internet has provided a plethora of resources to...

Advantages and Disadvantages of Internet Censorship: Unveiling the Web

Introduction In this paper, I will be discussing the internet, the advantages and disadvantages of internet censorship, and how we can effectively control and censor the content on the web, in particular, the problems arising due to censorship. Definitely, Internet Censorship is a hot topic...

• Internet Privacy

The Negative Impacts of Censorship on the Internet

This paper will be primarily focused on the various problems stemming from the censorship of materials found on the internet. Extending from that, it will discuss the author’s opinions on the best possible way for the regulation of posts on the internet. Finally, this paper...

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Censorship and Freedom of Speech Online

One doesn’t have to spend much time at all on the internet to realize that censorship is present to some extent in nearly all online forums. Any platform which allows users to post original thoughts in the form of words, pictures, and videos, typically has...

• Free Speech
• Freedom of Speech

Limiting Human Independence by Abusing Censorship: List of Countries with Strict Censorship Laws

Currently, the Internet has become no substitute for people around the world. Some are delighted with the opportunities offered by the Internet, others are neutral to the world wide web, and still others see a threat to the country. For most state regimes, the unchanged...

• Types of Human Rights

Best topics on Internet Censorship

1. Stand Against Censorship: Unveiling the Dangers

2. Censorship Advantages and Disadvantages in the Media: My View

3. Internet Censorship: an In-Depth Look on the Pros and Cons

4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Internet Censorship: Unveiling the Web

5. The Negative Impacts of Censorship on the Internet

6. Censorship and Freedom of Speech Online

7. Limiting Human Independence by Abusing Censorship: List of Countries with Strict Censorship Laws

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Internet Censorship: Definition, Types, and How It Can Affect You

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Internet censorship is a big deal. The days of complete cyber freedom are all but gone, with  companies and governments interfering with the web. Their involvement is ruining the cyberworld for the rest of us in various ways, with censorship being the most prominent.

Internet censorship is the control or suppression of what can be accessed, published, or viewed online. It happens when governments, organizations, or individuals restrict or block access to web content. In this article, we’ll be explaining how censorship happens, its impact on the internet, and how to avoid it. 

What Is Internet Censorship and How It Happens

Some countries censor the internet because they don’t want their citizens to see things that might upset them or make them think differently. They also might do this to keep people from organizing protests or speaking out against the government.

Their goal, usually, is to make it difficult to get accurate information about what’s going on in the world or stop people from being able to share their opinions freely.

But, the government internet censorship can happen for a variety of other reasons , including political, religious, or moral grounds and restricting media freedom. 

While government-level censorship is meant to shut down dissidents, there are other reasons why organizations and groups of people restrict internet access to others. An organization may block certain websites to protect its members from offensive or inappropriate content or simply to increase productivity by limiting access to entertainment and social media sites.

Censorship of the internet happens in one of two directions:

• Top-down censorship is when a government or organization tells service providers what content to block. In some cases, laws may require certain content to be censored. Users have no say in this and can’t choose what to access. 
• Self-imposed censorship is associated with individuals or groups self-censoring by choosing what content to avoid. For example, someone may decide not to view certain websites because they know their government will censor the information, making it inaccurate. 

Different Types of Web Censorship

Different things can be censored, like specific pictures, words, or whole websites and internet protocols. There are also different ways to censor things – blocking either full access to the material or limiting searches for censored terms.

Government-level Censorship

One type of censorship is when a government makes it illegal to say certain things . For instance, in China, the government has made it illegal to talk about certain topics online, like democracy or human rights. They do this by censoring websites that discuss these topics and punishing people who break the rules. Governments work with ISPs to put those restrictions into motion, either by outright blocking access to websites or redirecting traffic to similar, regulated sites.

Platform Restrictions

Another type of censorship is when social media companies block certain content from their platforms . For example, Facebook has been criticized for censoring body positivity and sex education posts. Likewise, YouTube has been accused of censoring videos about LGBTQ+ rights, mental health, and COVID-19 awareness. In this case, platforms issue take-down notices, followed by the removal of said content.

It’s not uncommon for governments to even force tech companies to impose content restrictions based on their own propaganda. In such a case, the government would strong-arm content hosts into submission by threatening outright bans of their platforms. As a counterpoint, Twitter has started clearly marking government-related profiles, so users can see at a glance whether the profile could be a part of a propaganda machine. It’s not much, but at least it helps fight the censorship on the internet.

Local Restrictions

Lastly, censorship can happen on a smaller scale within a single institution. For example, a school may restrict access to certain parts of the internet or even key phrases. That way, the students cannot use the school’s computers to visit inappropriate websites like adult websites or social networks.

Similarly, employers may put blocks on specific apps, services, and websites, so the employees can only access the software and websites they allow them to. While we’ll be discussing how to avoid content blocks and censorship using free VPNs and similar tactics, we strongly advise caution in such situations.

How Censorship Works in Different Countries

Some countries have rigid censorship laws, while others have none at all. China is well-known for its internet restrictions, which some call the “great firewall of China.” The Chinese government blocks access to many websites and social media platforms, like Facebook and Twitter. Google’s search engine, as well as all other Google products, is also banned in China. The government is censoring search results and blocks certain words from being used online.

In Saudi Arabia, the government filters content based on religious and moral values. It usually blocks websites that contain pornography or material that could be considered offensive to Islam. In Iran, the government blocks websites that are critical of the regime or that contain information that could be used to foment dissent.

In Russia, a new law requires internet service providers to censor websites that the government decides are “extremist.” This can include foreign websites that have critical opinions of the government in question or that provide information about protests or other forms of defiance.

Censorship can also happen in less obvious ways. For example, many countries require internet companies to collect data about their users’ activities. This data can be used to track people and see what they’re doing online. Needless to say that such laws disrupt net neutrality.

Impact of Censorship

Increased censorship can have a number of negative effects. For starters, it limits people’s ability to access information and ideas. This can lead to a loss of knowledge and opportunities for education and personal growth. 

Additionally, digital censorship can stifle creativity and critical thinking . Having no access to the online world can restrain people’s ability to freely express themselves. When people are only exposed to one side of an issue, it can be challenging to develop a well-rounded opinion. Seeing only one aspect of the whole picture can also lead to misinformation.

Censorship can create an atmosphere of fear and mistrust. People may grow afraid of expressing their opinions or sharing their ideas, which can lead to a feeling of isolation and disconnection.

Why Is Internet Freedom Important

Since the early days of the internet, people have been fighting for online freedom. The internet has become an essential part of our lives, so much so that internet access has been declared a basic human right by the UN Resolution in 2016. Censoring the internet denies us that basic right.

Access to the internet means access to information, education, and communication. It allows us to connect with friends and family and participate in the global community. It is essential for businesses and for the economy, which the pandemic years especially confirmed to be true. When regulations on the type of content we can access are imposed, serious issues may arise, such as when restrictions infringe on medical websites that people need. 

Cyberspace is also a powerful tool for democracy and human rights. The UN recognized the importance of the internet in a Resolution passed in 2016, declaring it a basic human right. The general belief is that the internet is something all people should have access to. Restricting access to parts of the internet is threading on human rights, rights to community, learning, and prospering in this modern world.

How to Circumvent Censorship

If you live in a country with restricted internet, there are several ways to bypass the restrictions and gain access to all internet content.

Web proxies are the simplest, fastest way to get around censorship and regional restrictions on the internet. They work by routing your traffic through a different server so that the website you are trying to visit doesn’t know your true IP address. This can be used to get around simple content filters, like the ones your school or workplace may have in place.

Web proxies are not perfect, however. They can be slow, and they don’t always work with every website. Additionally, your traffic is still going through another server, which means that the proxy owner could be snooping on your traffic and detecting phony IP addresses. More important – your internet service provider and, thus, the government, can still know what you were browsing.

Another way to get access to censored websites is to use a virtual private network. VPNs create a private, secure connection between two devices, which can be used to access restricted websites. When you use a VPN that doesn’t log data, your traffic is encrypted, so your ISP or anyone else can’t see what you’re doing online. Even more important, there’s no data saved on the provider’s side as if you’ve never used the service at all. 

While VPNs are legal in most parts of the world, some countries block them and can even issue a fine if you get caught. If you’re using a VPN in a country where they are not allowed or just worried about the repercussions, you may need to use a different method to access restricted websites.

Tor Browser

Lastly, you might only need to switch your internet browser to a more secure one. Tor is a free browser that allows you to surf the internet anonymously. By encrypting traffic and bouncing it through a distributed network of relays, Tor makes it difficult for anyone to track a user’s online activity.

The main downside to using Tor is that it can be slow. Because traffic is routed through multiple relays, each with its own bandwidth limitations, Tor users may experience slowdowns when browsing the web. Additionally, some websites may block traffic from known Tor relays, making them inaccessible to Tor users.

Final Thoughts

Internet censorship, as explained, can be a difficult issue to navigate. On the one hand, it’s important to protect people from offensive or harmful material. On the other hand, it is important to allow people to freely access information and express themselves. 

Lastly, as the internet is now considered a basic human right, imposing restrictions of such kind is a sign of dictatorship and not a signal that the government actually cares about pressing issues.

Further reading

The Onion Theory of Data Security Layers

What Is the Dark Web? Myths and Facts About the Hidden Internet

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Internet Censorship and Control

A collection of peer reviewed papers on the topic of Internet Censorship and Control.

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For more information about this collection, please contact Hal Roberts (hroberts /at/ cyber.law.harvard.edu) or Steven Murdoch (steven.murdoch /at/ cl.cam.ac.uk).

The Internet is and has always been a space where participants battle for control. The two core protocols that define the Internet – TCP and IP – are both designed to allow separate networks to connect to each other easily, so that networks that differ not only in hardware implementation (wired vs. satellite vs. radio networks) but also in their politics of control (consumer vs. research vs. military networks) can interoperate easily. It is a feature of the Internet, not a bug, that China – with its extensive, explicit censorship infrastructure – can interact with the rest of the Internet.

In the following collection, published as an open access collection here and as well in a special issue of IEEE Internet Computing, we present five peer reviewed papers on the topic of Internet censorship and control. The topics of the papers include a broad look at information controls, censorship of microblogs in China, new modes of online censorship, the balance of power in Internet governance, and control in the certificate authority model. These papers make it clear that there is no global consensus on what mechanisms of control are best suited for managing conflicts on the Internet, just as there is none for other fields of human endeavour. That said, there is optimism that with vigilance and continuing efforts to maintain transparency the Internet can stay as a force for increasing freedom than a tool for more efficient repression.

• Introduction to Special Issue on Internet Censorship and Control by Steven J. Murdoch and Hal Roberts.
• Not by Technical Means Alone: The Multidisciplinary Challenge of Studying Information Controls by Masashi Crete-Nishihata, Ronald J. Deibert, and Adam Senft.
• Assessing Censorship on Microblogs in China: Discriminatory Keyword Analysis and Impact Evaluation of the 'Real Name Registration' Policy by King-wa Fu, Chung-hong Chan and Michael Chau.
• Censorship V3.1 by Derek E. Bambauer.
• Anarchy, State, or Utopia? Checks and Balances of Power in Internet Governance by M. Christopher Riley.
• Trust Darknet: Control and Compromise in the Internet's Certificate Authority Model by Steven B. Roosa and Stephen Schultze.

Necessity of Internet Censorship: Essay Sample

Internet censorship: essay introduction, internet censorship: essay body, internet censorship: essay conclusion.

Technological advancement in the world has made many people adopt the use of computers and internet in their daily lives; this is due to the ease of carrying out tasks enabled by computer technology. Many people have transformed their houses into work stations since they can communicate with their colleagues through internet about their daily duties.

This means that communication has been enhanced, and a lot of information can be sought and transferred through internet (Zacks, 2002). However, there have been negative implications in the society as people have changed their behaviors due to the influence of internet materials. Westernization has been enhanced by the increased use of internet in the world, and this has brought a lot of conflicts in many countries.

Many governments have taken various measures to ensure that they monitor information that is made available to their citizens. This has been found necessary, since any user of a computer can access information from internet regardless of their age.

For instance, one of the greatest dangers is that children can easily access pornographic materials from the internet. This adversely affected their behavior leading to early exposure to sexual contents. In addition, many people end up abusing drugs due to the influence of internet users and prohibited materials available in the internet.

Measures put in place by governments to ensure that only ethically accepted materials are available for viewers include supervision of children by parents and teachers. This means that teachers and parents should ensure that they monitor what their children do on the internet (Wilson, 2008).

This may include being with them all the time they have access to the internet or guiding them on what they must access from the internet. This is extremely hard since parents and teachers do not have enough time to observe each child.

In fact, children may at times sneak to internet sites when they notice that their guardians cannot see what they are doing. The government may also liaise with internet providers to make use of content filters. This means that only information that is universally accepted within such states will be available on internet search engines.

Governments have come up with regulations to govern the usage of internet in their respective states. For example, the Australian Communications and Media Authority have a lot of powers regarding control of contents within Australia. This body instills restrictions on websites that contain contents considered to be harmful or unethical for the Australian community (Levin, 2010).

The government has empowered this body to blacklist all websites that may contain unethical contents such as pornography. In case ACMA notices existence of prohibited contents circulating in the internet, they work with law enforcing agencies to ensure that those involved are punished.

There is a vast number of contents being posted on the internet every day, therefore, ACMA has the principle role of vetting all websites and advising the government on contents that need reviewing. If the agency does not raise any complaint, then no measures are taken and the content is believed to be ethical and not contradicting the set rules in Australia (Wilson, 2008).

Those who supported government legislations to censor internet information insisted that the internet was meant for creation and sending information hence enabling communication. For instance, Jim Wallace argued that the internet was not invented to be free for everyone.

He believed that the internet was meant to share research information hence there was no problem with censoring websites. Therefore, internet was not only meant to provide information to people hence supporting the government’s directives to censor websites (Gorman, 2005).

Some of the materials being prohibited by law are suicide related contents. This means that it is illegal to post contents that may influence people’s decision to commit suicide or cause physical harm to others or to themselves. In Australia, there is an act to prohibit exposure of such materials.

In addition, there are other legislations put in place to protect information against piracy also known as copyright protection acts. There were a lot of opponents of these filters since some people believed that it was out of order to ban using certain contents to homes (Gorman, 2005).

Families that have adults only were denied access to materials that are suitable for an adult but are not suitable for children. In fact, exceptionally pertinent information may be filtered hence denying its access by parents. For instance, some contents that contain information regarding parenthood may be filtered since the ACMA believes that they are not appropriate for children.

In fact, censoring of online information has been seen as a threat to freedom of speech. Activists believe that by censoring protected speech on the internet government makes adults see and hear materials that the are only suitable for children (Levin, 2010).

This has created an uphill task for many governments to ensure that they control what is exposed to the public through the internet. Despite all those conflicting situations, many governments have been able to achieve their intended goals in censoring online information.

There have been protests from social groups demanding that web filters be removed in schools since they block a lot of useful information. Protestors argue that web filters are unconstitutionally blocking websites which include useful resources regarding bullying and gay-straight alliances in America. In fact, hiding this information from school children does not help in curbing the social crime.

These websites should be allowed in schools since students can learn from experiences hence avoiding such behaviors in future (Ebbs and Rheingold, 1994). For instance, if there is a website detailing how students were bullied and its implications on their education, chances are high that in future students will try to avoid bullying others.

Information about gay-straight alliances should be made available to everyone so that they can evaluate and decide for themselves on which side they should stay. By censoring websites that give details on these alliances, school children are denied vital information that may help them make wise decisions in life.

Suzanne Dvorak who is children rights activist argued that prohibiting freedom of speech cannot prevent exploitation of children. She argued that some filtered information may be considered for children. Instead, she argues that parents should be allowed to monitor and expose their children to all information that they feel is worth.

Censoring internet information leads to blocking legitimate and legal contents. This means that agencies set by governments to advice on information to be censored use their own set standards to prohibit materials on the internet. In fact, all stakeholders should be involved to ensure that useful information is not censored.

For instance, parents should be consulted to give directions on the extent to which information should be barred from circulation. This will help to avoid conflicts when parents feel that some information, which is vital for growth of their children has been censored. Therefore, governments should carry out extensive research among internet users to ensure that they do not prohibit information useful to some people.

Personal interests also influence censoring of websites hence bring the credibility of trusted agencies into question. For instance, in Australia a document leaked to the public exposing secret blacklist from the ACMA in the year 2010. It showed that most of the listed websites did not contain contents relating to child pornography.

This means that the credibility of bodies that observe online contents may be tainted hence prohibiting websites that are not harmful to the society. This ends up being dangerous since people may be denied legitimate information that can contribute to the nation building.

Internet censuring rarely achieves its set goals. This is due to the fact that websites keep on changing every day with many others being created. In fact, websites can be created with names that do not raise suspicion of its contents.

Therefore, its target users can know how to tell their friends about the new website hence accessing prohibited materials without knowledge of regulating bodies. It is also known that child pornography is not distributed through websites. Instead, those supporting the crime distribute illicit contents through various internet tools that are hard to monitor or censor.

These tools include chat rooms and instant messaging. These are internet tools where people communicate with each other without involving others. Since privacy is enhanced, the government finds it exceedingly hard to monitor and control what people exchange in chat rooms (Gorman, 2005). Filters do not cover Usenet groups and social networks hence people use them to exchange materials that are abusive in public websites.

Governments try their best to censor websites, but the intended objective is not achieved since they fail to filter other internet tools. Achievement of set goals is also hindered by the fact that monitoring websites that experience high traffics stops the website from working.

This is the reason why censoring contents on YouTube has been impossible in many parts of the world. In addition, governments have been unable to monitor proxy servers hence enabling anybody with knowhow in computer information to bypass blocking systems hence accessing all information.

These include information technology specialists who understand functioning of filters hence creating bypasses to ensure that they can access unfiltered information (Andrew, 2010). Finally, X-rated materials which are fit for adults are not censored hence these materials find their way to children’s view.

This happens because parents determine what they can show to their children and some may not mind exposing their children to X-rated materials. Cybercrimes are also prevalent through other internet tools that are not censored, and this proves that efforts by governments to censor websites cannot achieve all its set goals and objectives.

Many have argued that filters themselves are flawed. This means that filters cannot be trusted with censoring all information on the internet. In fact, filters block 7.8% of legitimate websites and allow 13% of materials that are supposed to be inaccessible. This means that internet filters cannot be effective for censoring all information that has to be prohibited from the public (Andrew, 2010).

These are some challenges that governments face in censoring information because some sneak to the public. This means that measures have to be put in place if the government has to censor all intended information. In fact, they should try to develop laws that can work alongside filters to ensure that information that bypasses filters does not affect the public.

Internet censoring lulls parents into a sense of security for their children, which may be false. This means that parents may assume that their children are safe from any immoral material on the internet (Zacks, 2002). Children end up accessing a lot of information which should be inaccessible to them since their parents are less vigilant as they believe in filters (Hosein, 2007).

This may adversely affect growth in children as they may acquire immoral behaviors such as drug abuse and crime. Parents should guide their children on how to use internet for the right purpose only. They should monitor what is right for their children and control it to ensure that only what is healthy for children growth is accessed.

They should not trust filters proposed by governments since they are fraudulent, and in case their children get access to materials such as child pornography, the direct impact would be felt by parents and not the government (Al-Saggaf, Himma and Kharabsheh, 2008).

In addition, parents should try to use home based filters which may be more effective. This is where parents identify websites that they want to be accessed by their children. This can be more effective than the government filters because parents are going to set up a filter system for their homes. Parents should allow all websites that they think contain useful materials for their children.

Internet censorship is aimed at ensuring that information that is believed to be harmful to the society is restricted from being displayed to the public. Many governments in the world are making laws aimed at controlling internet usage. For instance, any information that may influence the society negatively is censored from public access.

These include websites that display children pornography and information regarding terrorism (Ebbs and Rheingold, 1994). Various measures have been put in place to curb the vice and protect children and society as a whole. Some of the measures put in place by governments are internet filters that identify and block websites that are believed to contain illegal information.

Governments have entered into agreements with internet providers to ensure that they block some websites. This has been aimed at ensuring that what is available for users is only what is allowed by the government and service providers.

On the other hand, internet censorship has been faced by stiff opposition from human rights activists who believe that it is unconstitutional. Activists argue that freedom of speech is being violated when websites are blocked. In fact, many people opposed filters imposed by governments on internet usage (Hosein, 2007).

They cite various reasons some of which are genuine while others are not. For instance, it is hugely essential for parents to ensure that they control what their children access in the internet since filters cannot be fully reliable.

Therefore, internet censorship should be done carefully to ensure that useful information is not censored. On the other hand, measures should be put in place to ensure that information that is unacceptable is not accessed by the public. All stakeholders in the society should work hand in hand to ensure that only reliable information is available to children and the general public.

Al-Saggaf, Y., Himma, E. K. & Kharabsheh, R. (2008). Political online communities in Saudi Arabia: the major players. Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in Society , 6 (2), 127 – 140

Andrew, A. M. (2010), Internet freedom, Kybernetes, Vol. 39(7), 1097 – 1099

Ebbs, G., & Rheingold, H. (1994). Information Management & Computer Security. Emerald , 2 (4), 30-31.

Gorman, G. E. (2005), China-bashing in the internet censorship wars, Online Information Review , 29 (5), 453 – 456.

Hosein, G. (2007) They know where you are. Index on censorship , 4 (2), 132-136

Levin, J. (2010). Internet Censorship: The Debate Rages On, Screen Education , 59 (4), 46-51.

Wilson, M. (2008), Censorship, new technology and libraries, The Electronic Library , 26 (5) 695 – 701

Zacks, M. (2002). U.S. plans office to fight internet censorship. IEEE Internet Computing , 6 (6), 8-9.

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Article Summaries: Article 1

Article 1 & 2: analysis and evaluation.

The 21 st century has witnessed a lot of advancements especially technological ones involving information technology, and which have had great impacts on people’s lives, economically, politically, socially as well as psychologically. Positively, these advancements have aided in making people’s lives easier, while businesses have boomed due to use of new communication devices while governments have also benefitted from efficient industries. On a negative note, information technology, in relation to the utilization of the internet, has opened up a platform where many people have been swindled especially by cybercriminals, promoted the rise of sexual predators and other perversions tied to pornographic content. These negative effects have brought about many debates and discussions on the need to maintain privacy and restrictions to various kinds of information that may be harmful to the general public. This is exemplified by measures taken by Russia, as reported on BBC News (2012) and CNET News (Whittaker & Blue 2012), where the parliament voted in an internet censorship law purposed to safeguard the people’s right to be protected, with emphasis on children. This paper discusses the evolution of internet censorship and the related ethical and social issues involved through summary of two articles on the subject of internet censorship.

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The article by Eko, Kumar & Yao published in the Journal of Internet Law in 2011, and titled “Google this: The great firewall of China, the IT wheel of India, Google Inc., and internet regulation”, discuses internet censorship in China and India with regards to Google, democracy and communism. The article highlights how internet censorship has been used in countries such as India and China despite continued globalization, as represented by the interconnectedness related to culture, politics and Google services in these nations. Generally, internet censorship involves the suppression or control of information that is accessible through the internet, carried out by individuals, private organizations but mainly by governments. The authors indicate the hideous paternalism of the Chinese government, due to its censorship of internet content through what Eko, Kumar & Yao (2011, 5) term as strategic government-controlled international gateways and national access points. The social and ethical issues involved in China’s control of the flow of information into and out of the country are highlighted by the government’s manipulation of information and infringement of people’s rights to free speech and expression.

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However, the legitimacy of these censorship and the related activities thereof, are supported by various laws implemented by the government which implies that the government restricts information as set out and supported by the law of the land. The main issue is that instead of China regulating internet content for protecting its citizen against legitimate dangers such as child pornography and cybercrime, it restricts information about its illegal functions and the outside world. This is exemplified by the information leaked by Wikileaks, where the blocked sites included information about Taiwan and Tibet (Wu 2007, 415–9). The author’s provide the case of Google, as an American company, and its business environment in China, where it is accused of ethical irresponsibility, due to its obedience of unjust Chinese laws, since its democratic origins should drive it to stand up to oppression (Dann & Haddow 2008, 219-8). With regards to India as well as China, the authors indicate that governments continue to censor internet content according to their logic of governance, despite the power of globalization in eliciting positive change in relation to politics and culture as representatives of modern society.

The second article by Bambauer accepted for publication in IEEE Internet Computing in 2013, and titled “Censorship v3.1”, discuses about the evolution of internet censorship in the United States, where the focus on maintaining people’s rights and freedoms has led to a complex metamorphosis of censorship. Fundamentally, Bambauer (2013, 11) refers to this evolution as a sinister model where internet censorship by governments has become less accountable, transparent and vulnerable to challenge with negative ethical and social ramifications. Censorship is carried out due to various negative effects experienced when the harmful or sensitive information is availed to all and sundry, where the repercussions may be moral, economic, religious, political or even legal. As indicated in Eko, Kumar & Yao’s article Bambauer’s article also highlights governments’ continued regulation of internet content, not primarily for protecting its citizen against legitimate dangers such as child pornography and cybercrime, but restriction of information about its illegal functions and the outside world. However, while China’s internet censorship activities are more identifiable and supported by legislations, despite their innate illegality, the censorship in the United States and other democratic nations is more hideous due to complications of respecting rights and freedoms.

Bambauer indicates that the government’s evolution towards less accountable and transparent institutions involved in internet censorship is exemplified by its utilization of the software Censorship v1.0, which did not succeed, after which v2.0 was implemented. However, its implementation and censorship of internet content was obscured by definitional terms that eliminated the label of censorship, considering its negative connotations tied to abuse of rights in countries such as Iran, China and Burma in relation to internet censorship. The author indicates that more democratic nations began increasingly embracing internet censorship, each for a variety of reasons, which saw the introduction of Censorship v3.0, which had more filtering power and represented by the United States seizure of domain names and blocking of sites ostensibly due to infringement of intellectual property. Events such as the opposition of ‘Stop Online Piracy Act’ (SOPA) whose proponents are shown as acknowledging the difficulty of countering misinformation, considering the platform is also owned by the disseminators (Wortham 2012), led to the unfavorable evolution of censorship. Moreover, more effective filtering software such as the Censorship v3.1, combined by chaotic internet governance, which is shared among governments, private corporations and individuals, makes censorship less transparent and accountable and vulnerable to challenge.

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The relevance of Eko, Kumar & Yao’s 2011 article on internet censorship and China’s censorship-related activities is highlighted by its discussion of the negative practices of censorship that governments engages under auspices of citizen protection. The study’s reliability is indicated by the references provided in support of the author’s informational content provided by the article as it checks out. Additionally, the accuracy of the article is also provided by the references provided by the authors as well as information from the internet which confirms their researched information. In relation to the study being up-to-date and complete, the authors provide relevant and up-to-date information including the reference to the Information Technology Act of 2000 and 2008, as well as historical information such as Ranjit v. Union of India of (1965), which highlights comprehensiveness. The lack of bias is exemplified by the authors’ provision of pertinent and comprehensive information in its original form, followed by an analysis that highlights unbiased synthesis of data and information provided.

Conversely, the relevance of Bambauer’s 2013 article on internet censorship and democratic nations’ censorship-related activities is shown by the author’s comprehensive discussion of the negative practices of censorship by democratic governments. The study’s reliability and accuracy is indicated by the references provided in support of the author’s informational content, which is confirmed by a simple search on the internet. In relation to the study being up-to-date, the author provides relevant and up-to-date information including the circumstances surrounding the evolution of internet censorship especially the rejection of the SOPA bill and the introduction of Censorship v1.0 through v3.1. The study’s completeness is indicated by the provision of appropriate recommendations after the insightful analysis by the author. The lack of bias is exemplified by the author’s analysis of varied information in relation to different countries even though the analysis seems to be very forceful as if the author is incensed by the state of internet censorship, hence potential for bias. 

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Should Censorship Laws Be Applied to the Internet? Essay

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• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

The importance of internet censorship, works cited.

With increasing tendency of internet-based communication, control of information residing or passing through the internet has become a publicized debate over the last few years. A great controversy concerns the question on whether controlling and monitoring information on the internet is necessary. It also concerns the determination of whether such actions are likely to interfere with or violate the citizens’ rights of freedom of speech and expression (Goldman 1075).

On the other hand, the need to control cyber crime, cyber stalking, and violation of copyrights, examination leakage and other negative uses of the internet has become a necessity. The debate further revolves around the need to maintain a particular moral standard by censoring the internet. While some nations have implemented strategies to censor the internet, others are finding it difficult because it is difficult to find the difference between censorship for moral standards and violation of rights (Wu 263).

Therefore, it is necessary to investigate this question in a deeper sense. This paper aims at analyzing recent research and literature on the moral standards of internet censorship in order to show that censorship is necessary. Arguably, the internet has become a tool for communication in socialization, business, governance, education, research, leisure and crime, which makes it play a vital role in all aspects of life. This means that information passing through the internet needs integrity, security and meaning.

However, the information should not be harmful in any way. It should not expose people and organizations to psychological or physical threats. From this perspective, it is clear that censorship is necessary in the modern world, which means that censorship laws should be applied to the internet.

Internet censorship will improve security and integration

Internet censorship aims at controlling or suppressing certain information on the internet by regulating how they can be accessed, retrieved, viewed, presented or published. This process seeks to eliminate the problems associated with illegal or unethical use of the internet and its applications (Salbu 429).

Since the internet is becoming a crucial tool in managing daily activities, censorship seeks to ensure that the information passed through the technology has a high degree of security and integrity while at the same removing possible threats posed by unethical use of the information. Therefore, it is possible to censor the internet in a manner that will ensure an orderly application of the technology (Salbu 429).

Internet censorship will control indecency of information

Monitoring and controlling of information accessible to the citizens is a noble idea, despite the concerns raised over the possible violations of information and freedom of expression.

Although excessive technical censorship is oppressive, absolute freedom of internet usage and communication is likely to lead to a number of social, political and economic problems. In particular, decency of information and protection of children from exposure to violence, indecent and other offensive materials is important in censorship.

Currently, there is a rising demand for cyber porn throughout the world, which has raised concern over the necessity of the internet usage among the underage people. According to Adams (27), pornography has found a better marketing channel through the internet. In fact, cyber porn is one of the most lucrative businesses in the modern world due to easiness of marketing.

Internet marketing for porn materials is vibrant and vigorous because the audience is receptive. It needs privacy, which is provided free by computer and internet technologies.

The sexual stimulating content of pornography is the material’s main marketing strength (Goldman 1080). However, a number of other factors account for the increasing demand of cyber pornography in the modern context. For instance, consumers need privacy to watch and listen to porn materials, which the internet has provided. In addition, consumers are provided with an easy way of downloading these materials. It is also evident that these porn materials are easily stored and concealed to avoid monitoring.

Children and young people are some of the main target market for the cyber porn marketers. Porn websites are many and carry numerous materials offered at a fee or free to download. Therefore, these features make cyber porn attractive.

There is no way to verify the age of the user, which means that children and young people are free to access these materials. Ethically and morally, this feature is wrong as it corrupts the morals of the views, especially children. Therefore, it is necessity to censor such websites in order to ensure that the information contained therein is accessible to the intended audience only.

Censorship will control cybercrime

Apart from pornography, the internet is an easy tool for criminals to target their potential victims. Cyber crime has become one of the most controversial uses of the internet in the modern world. Although the internet provides an easy and cheap way of communication, it has provided a cheap and easy way of executing crimes.

Cybercrime has increasingly become a problem in most societies because is difficult to investigate and/or arrests cyber criminals. Cybercrime is wide and complex and ranges from cyber stalking to actions that constitute real crimes. With the internet, it is possible to trick people and obtain information or even money from them. Fraudsters have found a good platform of doing business on the internet (Adams 29). They target their victims using fake email addresses, websites and other social sites on the internet.

They are able to obtain private details such as banks details, PIN numbers and other information that enable them obtain money or information from their targets. Every year, thousands of people lose information or money to online fraudsters. In addition, others use internet communication to carry out other forms of crime such as negotiating for ransoms after kidnappings or hijackings, piracy and forgery (Goldman 1078).

The number of examples of cyber crime is relatively large and is becoming complex with advancement in the internet technology. With effective censorship, the world will remain safe because cyber criminals will not have privacy on the internet. In essence, it is only through reasonable censorship that the authorities and institutions can fight cybercrime.

Violation of copyrights has proved to be easier and effective when the internet is involved (Salbu 431). In fact, the internet has provided free access to materials of various kinds and from various sources. It has become possible for authors, scholars, musicians, artists and other parties to post their materials for pleasure, display and other purposes.

Although it has improved both business and information sharing, it has also enhanced violation of intellectual property rights and copyrights. The internet provides a free or unlimited access to such materials, which allows individuals to copy ideas or even entire pieces of work and use it for financial or other purposes.

For example, students, researchers and other scholars find it easy to obtain materials from websites and make minor changes before presenting them as their own. This has a bad implication to the integrity of education system in any society. It is also unethical. Similarly, artists and musicians violate copyrights using the internet, which amounts to a civil crime. By controlling the access and use these materials, it is possible to control all the unethical behaviors associated with the internet technology.

Some authors and critics of censorship believe that it is unethical to control the information on the internet because it is likely to violate the rights to information and freedom of expression. However, it is worth noting that the rate of using the internet for wrong purposes is relatively high. Pornography, fraud and other unethical or illegal uses of the internet have posed real threats to the internet users and the society in general.

Cybercrime and fraud pose economic and social threats to the modern society. Violation of copyrights and plagiarism are some of the problems associated with the integrity of education, research and other fields. Therefore, it is important to censor the internet in order to control crimes, violation of copyrights and other negative uses of this technology. This analysis provides proof that censorship is necessary in the modern world, which means that censorship laws should be applied to the internet.

Adams, Jo-Ann. “Controlling cyberspace: applying the computer fraud and abuse act to the internet.” Santa Clara Computer & High Tech. LJ 12 (2008): 27-33. Print

Goldman, Robert. “Put Another Log on the Fire, There’s a Chill on the Internet: The Effect of Applying Current Anti-Obscenity Laws to Online Communications”. Ga. L. Rev. 29.1 (2004): 1075. Print

Salbu, Steven. “Who Should Govern the Internet: Monitoring and Supporting a New Frontier”? Harvard JL & Tech. 11 (2009): 429. Print

Wu, Tim. “World Trade Law of Censorship and Internet Filtering”, Chi. J. Int’l L. 7 (2010): 263. Print

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Spring 2025 Semester

Undergraduate courses.

Composition courses that offer many sections (ENGL 101, 201, 277 and 379) are not listed on this schedule unless they are tailored to specific thematic content or particularly appropriate for specific programs and majors.

• 100-200 level

ENGL 201.ST2 Composition II: The Mind/Body Connection

Dr. sharon smith.

In this online section of English 201, students will use research and writing to learn more about problems that are important to them and articulate ways to address those problems. The course will focus specifically on issues related to the body, the mind, and the relationship between them. The topics we will discuss during the course will include the correlation between social media and body image; the psychological effects of self-objectification; and the unique mental and physical challenges faced by college students today, including food insecurity and stress.

English 201 S06 and S11: Composition II with an emphasis in Environmental Writing

S06: MWF at 10–10:50 a.m. in Yeager Hall Addition 231

S11: MWF at 12–12:50 p.m. in Crothers Engineering Hall 217

Gwen Horsley

English 201 will help students develop skills to write effectively for other university courses, careers, and themselves. This course will provide opportunities to further develop research skills, to write vividly, and to share their own stories and ideas. Specifically, in this class, students will (1) focus on the relationships between world environments, land, animals and humankind; (2) read various essays by environmental, conservational, and regional authors; and (3) produce student writings. Students will improve their writing skills by reading essays and applying techniques they witness in others’ work and those learned in class. This class is also a course in logical and creative thought. Students will write about humankind’s place in the world and our influence on the land and animals, places that hold special meaning to them or have influenced their lives, and stories of their own families and their places and passions in the world. Students will practice writing in an informed and persuasive manner, in language that engages and enlivens readers by using vivid verbs and avoiding unnecessary passives, nominalizations, and expletive constructions.

Students will prepare writing assignments based on readings and discussions of essays included in Literature and the Environment and other sources. They will use The St. Martin’s Handbook to review grammar, punctuation, mechanics, and usage as needed.

Required Text: Literature and the Environment: A Reader On Nature and Culture. 2nd ed., edited by Lorraine Anderson, Scott Slovic, and John P. O’Grady.

LING 203.S01 English Grammar

TuTh 12:30-1:45 p.m.

Dr. Nathan Serfling

The South Dakota State University 2023-2024 Undergraduate Catalog describes LING 203 as consisting of “[i]nstruction in the theory and practice of traditional grammar including the study of parts of speech, parsing, and practical problems in usage.”

“Grammar” is a mercurial term, though. Typically, we think of it to mean “correct” sentence structure, and, indeed, that is one of its meanings. But Merriam-Webster reminds us “grammar” also refers to “the principles or rules of an art, science, or technique,” taking it beyond the confines of syntactic structures. Grammar also evolves in practice through application (and social, historical, economic changes, among others). Furthermore, grammar evolves as a concept as scholars and educators in the various fields of English studies debate the definition and nature of grammar, including how well its explicit instruction improves students’ writing. In this course, we will use the differing sensibilities, definitions, and fluctuations regarding grammar to guide our work. We will examine the parts of speech, address syntactic structures and functions, and parse and diagram sentences. We will also explore definitions of and debates about grammar. All of this will occur in units about the rules and structures of grammar; the application of grammar rhetorically and stylistically; and the debates surrounding various aspects of grammar, including, but not limited to, its instruction.

ENGL 210 Introduction to Literature

Jodi andrews.

Readings in fiction, drama and poetry to acquaint students with literature and aesthetic form. Prerequisites: ENGL 101. Notes: Course meets SGR #4 or IGR #3.

ENGL 222 British Literature II

TuTh 9:30-10:45 a.m.

This course serves as a chronological survey of the second half of British literature. Students will read a variety of texts from the Romantic period, the Victorian period, and the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, placing these texts within their historical and literary contexts and identifying the major characteristics of the literary periods and movements that produced them.

ENGL 240.ST1 Juvenile Literature

Randi l. anderson.

A survey of the history of literature written for children and adolescents, and a consideration of the various types of juvenile literature.

ENGL 240.ST1 Juvenile Literature: 5-12 Grade

In English 240 students will develop the skills to interpret and evaluate various genres of literature for juvenile readers. This particular section will focus on various works of literature at approximately the 5th-12th grade level.

Readings for this course include works such as Night, Brown Girl Dreaming, All American Boys, Esperanza Rising, Anne Frank’s Diary: A Graphic Adaptation, Animal Farm, Fahrenheit 451, The Giver, The Hobbit, Little Women, and Lord of the Flies . These readings will be paired with chapters from Reading Children’s Literature: A Critical Introduction to help develop understanding of various genres, themes, and concepts that are both related to juvenile literature, and also present in our readings.

In addition to exploring various genres of writing (poetry, non-fiction, fantasy, historical, non-fiction, graphic novels, etc.) this course will also allow students to engage in a discussion of larger themes present in these works such as censorship, race, rebellion and dissent, power and oppression, gender, knowledge, and the power of language and the written word. Students’ understanding of these works and concepts will be developed through readings, discussion posts, quizzes and exams.

ENGL 240.ST2 Juvenile Literature Elementary-5th Grade

April myrick.

A survey of the history of literature written for children and adolescents, and a consideration of the various genres of juvenile literature. Text selection will focus on the themes of imagination and breaking boundaries.

ENGL 242.S01 American Literature II

TuTh 11 a.m.-12:15 p.m.

Dr. Paul Baggett

This course surveys a range of U.S. literatures from about 1865 to the present, writings that treat the end of slavery and the development of a segregated America, increasingly urbanized and industrialized U.S. landscapes, waves of immigration, and the fulfilled promise of “America” as imperial nation. The class will explore the diversity of identities represented during that time, and the problems/potentials writers imagined in response to the century’s changes—especially literature’s critical power in a time of nation-building. Required texts for the course are The Norton Anthology of American Literature: 1865 to the Present and Toni Morrison’s A Mercy.

WMST 247.S01: Introduction to Women, Gender and Sexuality Studies

As an introduction to Women, Gender and Sexuality studies, this course considers the experiences of women and provides an overview of the history of feminist thought and activism, particularly within the United States. Students will also consider the concepts of gender and sexuality more broadly to encompass a diversity of gender identifications and sexualities and will explore the degree to which mainstream feminism has—and has not—accommodated this diversity. The course will focus in particular on the ways in which gender and sexuality intersect with race, class, ethnicity, and disability. Topics and concepts covered will include: movements for women’s and LGBTQ+ rights; gender, sexuality and the body; intersectionality; rape culture; domestic and gender violence; reproductive rights; Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women (MMIW); and more.

ENGL 283.S01 Introduction to Creative Writing

MWF 1-1:50 p.m.

Prof. Steven Wingate

Students will explore the various forms of creative writing (fiction, nonfiction and poetry) not one at a time in a survey format—as if there were decisive walls of separation between then—but as intensely related genres that share much of their creative DNA. Through close reading and work on personal texts, students will address the decisions that writers in any genre must face on voice, rhetorical position, relationship to audience, etc. Students will produce and revise portfolios of original creative work developed from prompts and research. This course fulfills the same SGR #2 requirements ENGL 201; note that the course will involve creative research projects. Successful completion of ENGL 101 (including by test or dual credit) is a prerequisite.

English 284: Introduction to Criticism

This course introduces students to selected traditions of literary and cultural theory and to some of the key issues that animate discussion among literary scholars today. These include questions about the production of cultural value, about ideology and hegemony, about the patriarchal and colonial bases of Western culture, and about the status of the cultural object, of the cultural critic, and of cultural theory itself.

To address these and other questions, we will survey the history of literary theory and criticism (a history spanning 2500 years) by focusing upon a number of key periods and -isms: Greek and Roman Classicism, The Middle Ages and Renaissance, The Enlightenment, Romanticism, Realism, Formalism, Historicism, Political Criticism (Marxism, Post-Colonialism, Feminism, et al.), and Psychological Criticism. We also will “test” various theories we discuss by examining how well they account for and help us to understand various works of poetry and fiction.

• 300-400 level

ENGL 330.S01 Shakespeare

TuTh 8-9:15 a.m.

Dr. Michael S. Nagy

This course will focus on William Shakespeare’s poetic and dramatic works and on the cultural and social contexts in which he wrote them. In this way, we will gain a greater appreciation of the fact that literature does not exist in a vacuum, for it both reflects and influences contemporary and subsequent cultures. Text: The Riverside Shakespeare: Complete Works. Ed. Evans, G. Blakemore and J. J. M. Tobin. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997.

ENGL 363 Science Fiction

MWF 11-11:50 a.m.

This course explores one of the most significant literary genres of the past century in fiction and in film. We will focus in particular on the relationship between science fiction works and technological and social developments, with considerable attention paid to the role of artificial intelligence in the human imagination. Why does science fiction seem to predict the future? What do readers and writers of the genre hope to find in it? Through readings and viewings of original work, as well as selected criticism in the field, we will address these and other questions. Our reading and viewing selections will include such artists as Ursula K. LeGuin, Octavia Butler, Stanley Kubrick and Phillip K. Dick. Students will also have ample opportunity to introduce the rest of the class to their own favorite science fiction works.

ENGL 383.S01 Creative Writing I

MWF 2-2:50 p.m.

Amber Jensen

Creative Writing I encourages students to strengthen poetry, creative nonfiction, and/or fiction writing skills through sustained focus on creative projects throughout the course (for example, collections of shorter works focused on a particular form/style/theme, longer prose pieces, hybrid works, etc.). Students will engage in small- and large-group writing workshops as well as individual conferences with the instructor throughout the course to develop a portfolio of creative work. The class allows students to explore multiple genres through the processes of writing and revising their own creative texts and through writing workshop, emphasizing the application of craft concepts across genre, but also allows students to choose one genre of emphasis, which they will explore through analysis of self-select texts, which they will use to deepen their understanding of the genre and to contextualize their own creative work.

ENGL 475.S01 Creative Nonfiction

Mondays 3-5:50 p.m.

In this course, students will explore the expansive and exciting genre of creative nonfiction, including a variety of forms such as personal essay, braided essay, flash nonfiction, hermit crab essays, profiles and more. Through rhetorical reading, discussion, and workshop, students will engage published works, their own writing process, and peer work as they expand their understanding of the possibilities presented in this genre and the craft elements that can be used to shape readers’ experience of a text. Students will compile a portfolio of polished work that demonstrates their engagement with course concepts and the writing process.

ENGL 485.S01 Writing Center Tutoring

MW 8:30-9:45 a.m.

Since their beginnings in the 1920s and 30s, writing centers have come to serve numerous functions: as hubs for writing across the curriculum initiatives, sites to develop and deliver workshops, and resource centers for faculty as well as students, among other functions. But the primary function of writing centers has necessarily and rightfully remained the tutoring of student writers. This course will immerse you in that function in two parts. During the first four weeks, you will explore writing center praxis—that is, the dialogic interplay of theory and practice related to writing center work. This part of the course will orient you to writing center history, key theoretical tenets and practical aspects of writing center tutoring. Once we have developed and practiced this foundation, you will begin work in the writing center as a tutor, responsible for assisting a wide variety of student clients with numerous writing tasks. Through this work, you will learn to actively engage with student clients in the revision of a text, respond to different student needs and abilities, work with a variety of writing tasks and rhetorical situations and develop a richer sense of writing as a complex and negotiated social process.

ENGL 492.S01 The Vietnam War in Literature and Film

Tuesdays 3-5:50 p.m.

Dr. Jason McEntee

In 1975, the United States officially included its involvement in the Vietnam War, thus marking 2025 as the 50th anniversary of the conclusion (in name only) of one of the most chaotic, confusing, and complex periods in American history. In this course, we will consider how literature and film attempt to chronicle the Vietnam War and, perhaps more important, its aftermath. I have designed this course for those looking to extend their understanding of literature and film to include the ideas of art, experience, commercial products, and cultural documents. Learning how to interpret literature and movies remains the highest priority of the course, including, for movies, the study of such things as genre, mise-en-scene (camera movement, lighting, etc.), editing, sound and so forth.

We will read Dispatches , A Rumor of War , The Things They Carried , A Piece of My Heart , and Bloods , among others. Some of the movies that we will screen are: Apocalypse Now (the original version), Full Metal Jacket , Platoon , Coming Home , Born on the Fourth of July , Dead Presidents , and Hearts and Minds . Because we must do so, we will also look at some of the more fascinatingly outrageous yet culturally significant fantasies about the war, such as The Green Berets and Rambo: First Blood, Part II .

ENGL 492.S02 Classical Mythology

TuTh 3:30-4:45 p.m.

Drs. Michael S. Nagy and Graham Wrightson

Modern society’s fascination with mythology manifests itself in the continued success of novels, films and television programs about mythological or quasi-mythological characters such as Hercules, the Fisher King, and Gandalf the Grey, all of whom are celebrated for their perseverance or their daring deeds in the face of adversity. This preoccupation with mythological figures necessarily extends back to the cultures which first propagated these myths in early folk tales and poems about such figures as Oðin, King Arthur, Rhiannon, Gilgamesh, and Odysseus, to name just a few. English 492, a reading-intensive course cross-listed with History 492, primarily aims to expose students to the rich tradition of mythological literature written in languages as varied as French, Gaelic, Welsh, Old Icelandic, Greek, and Sumerian; to explore the historical, social, political, religious, and literary contexts in which these works flourished (if indeed they did); and to grapple with the deceptively simple question of what makes these myths continue to resonate with modern audiences. Likely topics and themes of this course will include: Theories of myth; Mythological Beginnings: Creation myths and the fall of man; Male and Female Gods in Myth; Foundation myths; Nature Myths; The Heroic Personality; the mythological portrayal of (evil/disruptive) women in myth; and Monsters in myth.

Likely Texts:

• Dalley, Stephanie, trans. Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others. Oxford World’s Classics, 2009
• Faulkes, Anthony, trans. Edda. Everyman, 1995
• Gregory, Lady Augusta. Cuchulain of Muirthemne: The Story of the Men of the Red Branch of Ulster. Forgotten Books, 2007
• Jones, Gwyn, Thomas Jones, and Mair Jones. The Mabinogion. Everyman Paperback Classics, 1993
• Larrington, Carolyne, trans. The Poetic Edda . Oxford World’s Classics, 2009
• Matarasso, Pauline M., trans. The Quest of the Holy Grail. Penguin Classics, 1969
• Apollodorus, Hesiod’s Theogony
• Hesiod’s Works and Days
• Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Homeric Hymns
• Virgil’s Aeneid
• Iliad, Odyssey
• Apollonius of Rhodes Argonautica
• Ovid’s Heroides
• Greek tragedies: Orestaia, Oedipus trilogy, Trojan Women, Medea, Hippoolytus, Frogs, Seneca's Thyestes, Dyskolos, Amphitryon
• Clash of the Titans, Hercules, Jason and the Argonauts, Troy (and recent miniseries), Oh Brother, Where Art Thou?

ENGL 492.ST1 Science Writing

Erica summerfield.

This course aims to teach the fundamentals of effective scientific writing and presentation. The course examines opportunities for covering science, the skills required to produce clear and understandable text about technical subjects, and important ethical and practical constraints that govern the reporting of scientific information. Students will learn to present technical and scientific issues to various audiences. Particular emphasis will be placed on conveying the significance of research, outlining the aims, and discussing the results for scientific papers and grant proposals. Students will learn to write effectively, concisely, and clearly while preparing a media post, fact sheet, and scientific manuscript or grant.

Graduate Courses

Engl 575.s01 creative nonfiction.

In this course, students will explore the expansive and exciting genre of creative nonfiction, including a variety of forms such as personal essay, braided essay, flash nonfiction, hermit crab essays, profiles, and more. Through rhetorical reading, discussion, and workshop, students will engage published works, their own writing process, and peer work as they expand their understanding of the possibilities presented in this genre and the craft elements that can be used to shape readers’ experience of a text. Students will compile a portfolio of polished work that demonstrates their engagement with course concepts and the writing process.

ENGL 592.S01: The Vietnam War in Literature and Film

Engl 704.s01 introduction to graduate studies.

Thursdays 3-5:50 p.m.

Introduction to Graduate Studies is required of all first-year graduate students. The primary purpose of this course is to introduce students to modern and contemporary literary theory and its applications. Students will write short response papers and will engage at least one theoretical approach in their own fifteen- to twenty-page scholarly research project. In addition, this course will further introduce students to the M.A. program in English at South Dakota State University and provide insight into issues related to the profession of English studies.

ENGL 792.ST1 Grant Writing

This online course will familiarize students with the language, rhetorical situation, and components of writing grant proposals. Students will explore various funding sources, learn to read an RFP, and develop an understanding of different professional contexts and the rhetorical and structural elements that suit those distinct contexts. Students will write a sample proposal throughout the course and offer feedback to their peers, who may be writing in different contexts, which will enhance their understanding of the varied applications of course content. Through their work in the course, students will gain confidence in their ability to find, apply for, and receive grant funding to support their communities and organizations.