essay about communicative competence

• DOI: 10.52902/kjsc.2024.28.121
• Corpus ID: 269039411

Correlation between Communication Competence, Problem-Solving Skills, Clinical Competence, and Critical Thinking Competence on Person-Centered Care Competence of Nursing Students in who Experienced Clinical Practice

• Mi Young Moon
• Published in Forum of Public Safety and… 30 March 2024
• Education, Medicine

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Fusing Translanguaging with Speaking Technology in the Hospitality Industry: Improving English Communicative Competence

20 Pages Posted: 15 Aug 2024 Publication Status: Under Review

Ervina CM Simatupang

Widyatama University

Ida Zuraida

In response to the hospitality industry's critical need for staff with proficient English communicative skills, this study fused translanguaging with speaking technology in a 15-week training program aimed at enhancing English competence among hotel staff in Indonesia. Employing a sequential explanatory mixed-method approach, the research involved 47 international hotel staff members (55.32% male and 44.68% female) from various departments, examining their experiences with and perceptions of translanguaging practices. Data were collected through surveys, pre- and post-speaking tests for quantitative analysis, and narrative frames for qualitative insights. Both descriptive and inferential statistics analyzed the quantitative data, while thematic analysis was applied to the qualitative data. Findings indicated that incorporating Indonesian alongside English markedly improved training outcomes, as evidenced by strong positive participant feedback. Thematic analysis supported these results, highlighting increased confidence, better comprehension of complex concepts, and practical applications in the workplace. Despite challenges like difficulty in switching between languages and occasional confusion, the advantages, such as heightened motivation, faster understanding of materials, and respect for cultural diversity, significantly outweighed the drawbacks. The comparative analysis of the five key aspects of the training confirmed these benefits and the effectiveness of interactions. Moreover, notable enhancements in speaking scores, comprehension, fluency, pronunciation, and vocabulary in pre- and post-tests affirmed the program's success in boosting English communicative competence.

Keywords: translanguaging, speaking technology, hotel staff, hospitality industry

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Communicative Competence Essays

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1.4 Communication Competence

Learning objectives.

• Define communication competence.
• Explain each part of the definition of communication competence.
• Discuss strategies for developing communication competence.
• Discuss communication apprehension and public speaking anxiety and employ strategies to manage them.

Communication competence has become a focus in higher education over the past couple of decades as educational policy makers and advocates have stressed a “back to basics” mentality (McCroskey, 1984). The ability to communicate effectively is often included as a primary undergraduate learning goal along with other key skills like writing, critical thinking, and problem solving. You likely haven’t heard professors or university administrators use the term communication competence , but as we learn more about it in this section, I am sure you will see how communication competence can benefit you in many aspects of your life. Since this book focuses on communication in the real world, strategies for developing communication competence are not only limited to this section. A “Getting Competent” feature box is included in each chapter, specifically to help you develop communication competence.

Defining Competence

We have already defined communication , and you probably know that to be competent at something means you know what you’re doing. When we combine these terms, we get the following definition: communication competence refers to the knowledge of effective and appropriate communication patterns and the ability to use and adapt that knowledge in various contexts (Cooley & Roach, 1984). To better understand this definition, let’s break apart its components.

Developing communication competence can bring many rewards, but it also requires time and effort.

Paul Shanks – Communication – CC BY-NC 2.0.

The first part of the definition we will unpack deals with knowledge . The cognitive elements of competence include knowing how to do something and understanding why things are done the way they are (Hargie, 2011). People can develop cognitive competence by observing and evaluating the actions of others. Cognitive competence can also be developed through instruction. Since you are currently taking a communication class, I encourage you to try to observe the communication concepts you are learning in the communication practices of others and yourself. This will help bring the concepts to life and also help you evaluate how communication in the real world matches up with communication concepts. As you build a repertoire of communication knowledge based on your experiential and classroom knowledge, you will also be developing behavioral competence.

The second part of the definition of communication competence that we will unpack is the ability to use . Individual factors affect our ability to do anything. Not everyone has the same athletic, musical, or intellectual ability. At the individual level, a person’s physiological and psychological characteristics affect competence. In terms of physiology, age, maturity, and ability to communicate affect competence. In terms of psychology, a person’s mood, stress level, personality, and level of communication apprehension (level of anxiety regarding communication) affect competence (Cooley & Roach, 1984). All these factors will either help or hinder you when you try to apply the knowledge you have learned to actual communication behaviors. For example, you might know strategies for being an effective speaker, but public speaking anxiety that kicks in when you get in front of the audience may prevent you from fully putting that knowledge into practice.

The third part of the definition we will unpack is ability to adapt to various contexts . What is competent or not varies based on social and cultural context, which makes it impossible to have only one standard for what counts as communication competence (Cooley & Roach, 1984). Social variables such as status and power affect competence. In a social situation where one person—say, a supervisor—has more power than another—for example, his or her employee—then the supervisor is typically the one who sets the standard for competence. Cultural variables such as race and nationality also affect competence. A Taiwanese woman who speaks English as her second language may be praised for her competence in the English language in her home country but be viewed as less competent in the United States because of her accent. In summary, although we have a clear definition of communication competence, there are not definitions for how to be competent in any given situation, since competence varies at the individual, social, and cultural level.

Despite the fact that no guidelines for or definitions of competence will be applicable in all situations, the National Communication Association (NCA) has identified many aspects of competence related to communication. The primary focus has been on competencies related to speaking and listening, and the NCA notes that developing communication competence in these areas will help people in academic, professional, and civic contexts (Morreale, Rubin, & Jones, 1998). To help colleges and universities develop curriculum and instruction strategies to prepare students, the NCA has defined what students should be able to do in terms of speaking and listening competencies by the time they graduate from college:

• State ideas clearly.
• Communicate ethically.
• Recognize when it is appropriate to communicate.
• Identify their communication goals.
• Select the most appropriate and effective medium for communicating.
• Demonstrate credibility.
• Identify and manage misunderstandings.
• Manage conflict.
• Be open-minded about another’s point of view.
• Listen attentively.

These are just some of the competencies the NCA identified as important for college graduates. While these are skill focused rather than interpersonally or culturally focused, they provide a concrete way to assess your own speaking competencies and to prepare yourself for professional speaking and listening, which is often skill driven. Since we communicate in many different contexts, such as interpersonal, group, intercultural, and mediated, we will discuss more specific definitions of competence in later sections of the book.

Developing Competence

Knowing the dimensions of competence is an important first step toward developing competence. Everyone reading this book already has some experience with and knowledge about communication. After all, you’ve spent many years explicitly and implicitly learning to communicate. For example, we are explicitly taught the verbal codes we use to communicate. On the other hand, although there are numerous rules and norms associated with nonverbal communication, we rarely receive explicit instruction on how to do it. Instead, we learn by observing others and through trial and error with our own nonverbal communication. Competence obviously involves verbal and nonverbal elements, but it also applies to many situations and contexts. Communication competence is needed in order to understand communication ethics, to develop cultural awareness, to use computer-mediated communication, and to think critically. Competence involves knowledge, motivation, and skills. It’s not enough to know what good communication consists of; you must also have the motivation to reflect on and better your communication and the skills needed to do so.

In regards to competence, we all have areas where we are skilled and areas where we have deficiencies. In most cases, we can consciously decide to work on our deficiencies, which may take considerable effort. There are multiple stages of competence that I challenge you to assess as you communicate in your daily life: unconscious incompetence, conscious incompetence, conscious competence, and unconscious competence (Hargie, 2011). Before you have built up a rich cognitive knowledge base of communication concepts and practiced and reflected on skills in a particular area, you may exhibit unconscious incompetence , which means you are not even aware that you are communicating in an incompetent manner. Once you learn more about communication and have a vocabulary to identify concepts, you may find yourself exhibiting conscious incompetence . This is where you know what you should be doing, and you realize that you’re not doing it as well as you could. However, as your skills increase you may advance to conscious competence , meaning that you know you are communicating well in the moment, which will add to your bank of experiences to draw from in future interactions. When you reach the stage of unconscious competence , you just communicate successfully without straining to be competent. Just because you reach the stage of unconscious competence in one area or with one person does not mean you will always stay there. We are faced with new communication encounters regularly, and although we may be able to draw on the communication skills we have learned about and developed, it may take a few instances of conscious incompetence before you can advance to later stages.

In many introductory communication classes that I teach, a student usually says something like “You must be really good at this stuff since you study it and have been teaching it for a while.” At the same time students assume that I have a high level of communication competence, they are hard on themselves for being at the stage of conscious incompetence, where they catch themselves communicating poorly in regards to a concept we recently studied. In response to both of these comments, I say, “Just because I know the concepts and definitions doesn’t mean I always put them to good use. We’re all imperfect and fallible, and if we expect to be perfect communicators after studying this, then we’re setting ourselves up for failure. However, when I do mess up, I almost always make a mental note and reflect on it. And now you’re starting to do the same thing, which is to notice and reflect on your communication more. And that already puts you ahead of most people!”

Becoming more mindful of your communication and the communication of others can contribute to your communication competence.

Free Stock Photos – public domain.

One way to progress toward communication competence is to become a more mindful communicator. A mindful communicator actively and fluidly processes information, is sensitive to communication contexts and multiple perspectives, and is able to adapt to novel communication situations (Burgoon, Berger, & Waldron, 2000). Becoming a more mindful communicator has many benefits, including achieving communication goals, detecting deception, avoiding stereotypes, and reducing conflict. Whether or not we achieve our day-to-day communication goals depends on our communication competence. Various communication behaviors can signal that we are communicating mindfully. For example, asking an employee to paraphrase their understanding of the instructions you just gave them shows that you are aware that verbal messages are not always clear, that people do not always listen actively, and that people often do not speak up when they are unsure of instructions for fear of appearing incompetent or embarrassing themselves. Some communication behaviors indicate that we are not communicating mindfully, such as withdrawing from a romantic partner or engaging in passive-aggressive behavior during a period of interpersonal conflict. Most of us know that such behaviors lead to predictable and avoidable conflict cycles, yet we are all guilty of them. Our tendency to assume that people are telling us the truth can also lead to negative results. Therefore, a certain amount of tentativeness and mindful monitoring of a person’s nonverbal and verbal communication can help us detect deception. However, this is not the same thing as chronic suspicion, which would not indicate communication competence. This is just the beginning of our conversation about communication competence. Regarding the previous examples, we will learn more about paraphrasing in Chapter 5 “Listening” , conflict management in Chapter 6 “Interpersonal Communication Processes” , and deception in Chapter 4 “Nonverbal Communication” .

“Getting Competent”

Getting Started on Your Road to Communication Competence

The “Getting Competent” boxes throughout this book are meant to help you become a more confident and skilled communicator. While each box will focus on a specific aspect of communication competence, this box addresses communication competence more generally. A common communication pitfall that is an obstacle on many students’ roads to communication competence is viewing communication as “common sense.”

Many students note that some of what we learn in communication classes is “common sense.” I agree with this observation in some cases but disagree with it in others. As I’ve noted before, this class builds on knowledge that you have already gained, through experience and observation as a person with many years of communication under your belt. For example, a student might say that it is “common sense” that conflict avoidance can lead to built-up tensions that eventually hurt an interpersonal relationship. But many of us avoid confronting what is causing conflict in our relationships even though we know it’s better to talk about our problems than to let them build up. In order to put that “commonsense” knowledge to competent use, we must have a more nuanced understanding of how conflict and interpersonal communication relate and know some conflict management strategies.

Communication is common in that it is something that we spend most of our time doing, but the ability to make sense of and improve our communication takes competence that is learned through deliberate study and personal reflection. So, to get started on your road to competence, I am proposing that you do two things. First, challenge yourself to see the value in the study of communication. Apply the concepts we are learning to your life and find ways to make this class help you achieve your goals. Second, commit to using the knowledge you gain in this class to improve your communication and the communication of those around you. Become a higher self-monitor, which means start to notice your communication more. We all know areas where we could improve our communication, and taking this class will probably expose even more. But you have to be prepared to put in the time to improve; for example, it takes effort to become a better listener or to give better feedback. If you start these things now you will be primed to take on more communication challenges that will be presented throughout this book.

• What aspects of communication do you think are “common sense?” What aspects of communication do you think require more formal instruction and/or study?
• What communication concept has appealed to you most so far? How can you see this concept applying to your life?
• Do a communication self-assessment. What are your strengths as a communicator? What are your weaknesses? What can you do to start improving your communication competence?

Overcoming Anxiety

Whether you will give your first presentation in this class next week or in two months, you may be one of many students in the introduction to communication studies course to face anxiety about communication in general or public speaking in particular.

Communication apprehension and public speaking anxiety are common but can be managed productively.

Ana C. – day 339 butterflies – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Decades of research conducted by communication scholars shows that communication apprehension is common among college students (Priem & Solomon, 2009). Communication apprehension (CA) is fear or anxiety experienced by a person due to actual or imagined communication with another person or persons. CA includes multiple forms of communication, not just public speaking. Of college students, 15 to 20 percent experience high trait CA, meaning they are generally anxious about communication. Furthermore, 70 percent of college students experience some trait CA, which means that addressing communication anxiety in a class like the one you’re taking now stands to benefit the majority of students (Priem & Solomon, 2009). Public speaking anxiety is type of CA that produces physiological, cognitive, and behavioral reactions in people when faced with a real or imagined presentation (Bodie, 2010). Research on public speaking anxiety has focused on three key ways to address this common issue: systematic desensitization, cognitive restructuring, and skills training (Bodie, 2010). Communication departments are typically the only departments that address communication apprehension explicitly, which is important as CA is “related to negative academic consequences such as negative attitudes toward school, lower over-all classroom achievement, lower final course grades, and higher college attrition rates” (Allen, Hunter, & Donohue, 2009). Additionally, CA can lead others to make assumptions about your communication competence that may be unfavorable. Even if you are intelligent, prepared, and motivated, CA and public speaking anxiety can detract from your communication and lead others to perceive you in ways you did not intend. CA is a common issue faced by many people, so you are not alone. We will learn more about speaking anxiety in Chapter 12 “Public Speaking in Various Contexts” . While you should feel free to read ahead to that chapter, you can also manage your anxiety by following some of the following tips.

Top Ten Ways to Reduce Speaking Anxiety

• Remember, you are not alone. Public speaking anxiety is common, so don’t ignore it—confront it.
• You can’t literally “die of embarrassment.” Audiences are forgiving and understanding.
• It always feels worse than it looks.
• Take deep breaths. It releases endorphins, which naturally fight the adrenaline that causes anxiety.
• Look the part. Dress professionally to enhance confidence.
• Channel your nervousness into positive energy and motivation.
• Start your outline and research early. Better information = higher confidence.
• Practice and get feedback from a trusted source. (Don’t just practice for your cat.)
• Visualize success through positive thinking.
• Prepare, prepare, prepare! Practice is a speaker’s best friend.

Key Takeaways

• Communication competence refers to the knowledge of effective and appropriate communication patterns and the ability to use and adapt that knowledge in various contexts.
• To be a competent communicator, you should have cognitive knowledge about communication based on observation and instruction; understand that individual, social, and cultural contexts affect competence; and be able to adapt to those various contexts.
• Getting integrated: The NCA notes that developing communication competence in speaking and listening will help college students in academic, professional, and civic contexts.
• Levels of communication competence include unconscious incompetence, conscious incompetence, conscious competence, and unconscious competence.
• In order to develop communication competence, you must become a more mindful communicator and a higher self-monitor.
• Communication apprehension (CA) refers to fear or anxiety experienced by a person due to real or imagined communication with another person or persons. Public speaking anxiety is a form of CA that more specifically focuses on anxiety about giving a public presentation. Both are commonly experienced by most people and can be managed using various strategies.
• Getting integrated: Evaluate your speaking and listening competencies based on the list generated by the NCA. Out of the skills listed, which ones are you more competent in and less competent in? Which skill will be most useful for you in academic contexts? Professional contexts? Personal contexts? Civic contexts?
• Think of a person you know who you think possesses a high level of communication competence. What makes you think this? What communication characteristics do they have that you might want to have yourself?
• What anxieties do you have regarding communication and/or public speaking? Since communication and speaking are a necessary part of life, identify some strategies you can use to manage those anxieties.

Allen, M., John E. Hunter, and William A. Donohue, “Meta-analysis of Self-Report Data on the Effectiveness of Public Speaking Anxiety Treatment Techniques,” Communication Education 38, no. 1 (2009): 54–76.

Bodie, G. D., “A Racing Heart, Rattling Knees, and Ruminative Thoughts: Defining, Explaining, and Treating Public Speaking Anxiety,” Communication Education 59, no. 1 (2010): 72.

Burgoon, J. K., Charles R. Berger, and Vincent R. Waldron, “Mindfulness and Interpersonal Communication,” Journal of Social Issues 56, no. 1 (2000): 105.

Cooley, R. E., and Deborah A. Roach, “A Conceptual Framework,” in Competence in Communication: A Multidisciplinary Approach , ed. Robert N. Bostrom (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1984), 25.

Hargie, O., Skilled Interpersonal Interaction: Research, Theory, and Practice (London: Routledge, 2011), 9.

McCroskey, J. C., “Communication Comptence: The Elusive Construct,” in Competence in Communication: A Multidisciplinary Approach , ed. Robert N. Bostrom (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1984), 259.

Morreale, S., Rebecca B. Rubin, and Elizabeth Jones, Speaking and Listening Competencies for College Students (Washington, DC: National Communication Association, 1998), n.p.

Priem, J. S., and Denise Haunani Solomon, “Comforting Apprehensive Communicators: The Effects of Reappraisal and Distraction on Cortisol Levels among Students in a Public Speaking Class,” Communication Quarterly 57, no. 3 (2009): 260.

Communication in the Real World Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Communicative Competence Definition, Examples, and Glossary

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• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

The term communicative competence refers to both the tacit knowledge of a language and the ability to use it effectively. It's also called  communication competence , and it's the key to social acceptance.

The concept of communicative competence (a term coined by linguist Dell Hymes in 1972) grew out of resistance to the concept of linguistic competence introduced by Noam Chomsky . Most scholars now consider linguistic competence to be a part of communicative competence.

Examples and Observations

"Why have so many scholars, from so many fields, studied communicative competence within so many relational, institutional, and cultural contexts? Our hunch is that scholars, as well as the contemporary Western societies in which most live and work, widely accept the following tacit beliefs: (a) within any situation, not all things that can be said and done are equally competent; (b) success in personal and professional relationships depends, in no small part, on communicative competence; and (c) most people display incompetence in at least a few situations, and a smaller number are judged incompetent across many situations." (Wilson and Sabee)

"By far the most important development in TESOL has been the emphasis on a communicative approach in language teaching (Coste, 1976; Roulet, 1972; Widdowson, 1978). The one thing that everyone is certain about is the necessity to use language for communicative purposes in the classroom. Consequently, the concern for teaching linguistic competence has widened to include communicative competence , the socially appropriate use of language, and the methods reflect this shift from form to function." (Paulston)

Hymes on Competence

"We have then to account for the fact that a normal child acquires knowledge of sentences not only as grammatical, but also as appropriate. He or she acquires competence as to when to speak, when not, and as to what to talk about with whom, when, where, in what manner. In short, a child becomes able to accomplish a repertoire of  speech acts , to take part in speech events, and to evaluate their accomplishment by others. This competence, moreover, is integral with attitudes, values, and motivations concerning language, its features and uses, and integral with competence for, and attitudes toward, the interrelation of language with the other code of communicative conduct." (Hymes)

Canale and Swain's Model of Communicative Competence

In "Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing" ( Applied Linguistics , 1980), Michael Canale and Merrill Swain identified these four components of communicative competence:

(i) Grammatical competence includes knowledge of phonology , orthography , vocabulary , word formation and sentence formation. (ii) Sociolinguistic competence includes knowledge of sociocultural rules of use. It is concerned with the learners' ability to handle for example settings, topics and communicative functions in different sociolinguistic contexts. In addition, it deals with the use of appropriate grammatical forms for different communicative functions in different sociolinguistic contexts. (iii) Discourse competence is related to the learners' mastery of understanding and producing texts in the modes of listening, speaking, reading and writing. It deals with cohesion and coherence in different types of texts. (iv) Strategic competence refers to compensatory strategies in case of grammatical or sociolinguistic or discourse difficulties, such as the use of reference sources, grammatical and lexical paraphrase, requests for repetition, clarification, slower speech, or problems in addressing strangers when unsure of their social status or in finding the right cohesion devices. It is also concerned with such performance factors as coping with the nuisance of background noise or using gap fillers. (Peterwagner)

Resources and Further Reading

• Canale, Michael, and Merrill Swain. “Theoretical Bases Of Communicative Approaches To Second Language Teaching And Testing.” Applied Linguistics , I, no. 1, 1 Mar. 1980, pp. 1-47, doi:10.1093/applin/i.1.1.
• Chomsky, Noam. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax . MIT, 1965.
• Hymes, Dell H. “Models of the Interaction of Language and Social Life.” Directions in Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of Communication , edited by John J. Gumperz and Dell Hymes, Wiley-Blackwell, 1991, pp. 35-71.
• Hymes, Dell H. “On Communicative Competence.” Sociolinguistics: Selected Readings , edited by John Bernard Pride and Janet Holmes, Penguin, 1985, pp. 269-293.
• Paulston, Christina Bratt. Linguistics and Communicative Competence: Topics in ESL . Multilingual Matters, 1992.
• Peterwagner, Reinhold. What Is the Matter with Communicative Competence?: An Analysis to Encourage Teachers of English to Assess the Very Basis of Their Teaching . LIT Verlang, 2005.
• Rickheit, Gert, and Hans Strohner, editors. Handbook of Communication Competence: Handbooks of Applied Linguistics . De Gruyter, 2010.
• Wilson, Steven R., and Christina M. Sabee. “Explicating Communicative Competence as a Theoretical Term.” Handbook of Communication and Social Interaction Skills , edited by John O. Greene and Brant Raney Burleson, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2003, pp. 3-50.
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• Linguistic Competence: Definition and Examples
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• v.38(3); 2021

Language: English | German

What is communicative competence and how can it be acquired?

Was ist kommunikative kompetenz und wie kann man sie erwerben, claudia kiessling.

1 Universität Witten/Herdecke, Fakultät für Gesundheit, Lehrstuhl für die Ausbildung personaler und interpersonaler Kompetenzen im Gesundheitswesen, Witten, Germany

Götz Fabry

2 Albert-Ludwigs-Universität, Medizinische Fakultät, Medizinische Psychologie & Medizinische Soziologie, Freiburg, Germany

The commentary deals with the question of what constitutes communicative competence (or communication skills) and to what extent findings regarding motor and social skills are transferable to the domain of communication. After a proposal for a definition, the commentary considers how learners acquire communicative competence and what needs to be considered from the trainers’ perspective in order to support learners in their competence development.

The commentary does not claim to present all definitions of the concept of competence or communicative competence in a comprehensive way. Nor does it aim to present the current state of research. Our aim is to provide teachers and interested individuals in medical education with a pragmatic guide to how communicative competence can be taught and learned based on a skills model.

Zusammenfassung

Der Kommentar setzt sich mit der Frage auseinander, was kommunikative Kompetenz konstituiert und inwieweit Erkenntnisse bezüglich motorischer und sozialer Fertigkeiten auf die Domäne Kommunikation übertragbar sind. Nach einem Vorschlag für eine Definition erfolgen Überlegungen, wie Lernende kommunikative Kompetenz erwerben und was dabei aus Sicht der Dozierenden zu beachten ist, um Lernende bei ihrem Kompetenzaufbau zu unterstützen.

Der Kommentar erhebt nicht den Anspruch, sämtliche Definitionen des Kompetenzbegriffs oder kommunikativer Kompetenzen umfassend darzustellen. Es geht auch nicht um die Darstellung des aktuellen Forschungstands. Unser Ziel ist eine pragmatische Handreichung für Lehrende und Anwender*innen in der medizinischen Ausbildung, wie – basierend auf einem Fertigkeiten-Modell – kommunikative Kompetenz vermittelt und gelernt werden können.

1. Introduction

Communicative competence (or communication skills) is one of the central prerequisites for successful medical practice, of this there is probably no serious doubt [ 1 ]. However, there is less agreement whether and, if so, how communicative competence can be acquired [ 2 ], [ 3 ]. The answer to this question also depends on what we mean by communicative competence. In the literature, there is now a large number of explanatory models from various disciplines (e.g. medicine, psychology, sociology, linguistics, university didactics, communication sciences) that attempt to answer this question. A complete presentation of these explanatory models would go beyond the scope of this commentary.

We believe that it makes sense, particularly with regard to educational issues, to understand communicative competence as the situation-specific use of communicative skills [ 4 ]. Thus, the scientific findings on the teaching, acquisition and testing of skills are also valid for the field of clinical communication.

2. What is communicative competence?

When we deal with the question of whether and how we should teach communicative competence, we must first define what communicative competence actually is. Unfortunately, as in the discussion about the concept of competence in general, there is no uniform definition. In the scientific literature, no systematic or clear distinction is made between “Communication Competence” and “Communication Skills”. For example, the standard work by Silverman, Kurtz and Draper is entitled “Skills for Communicating with Patients”, although it is probably the aim of the book to promote the acquisition of communicative competence even though the term “competence” does not appear in the book [ 5 ]. Thus, for pragmatic reasons it seems obvious and legitimate to use the concept of skills when we search for a definition of communicative competence and to ask the question of whether and, if so, what similarities exist between motor skills, social skills and communication skills.

According to Owen Hargie, who has developed a comprehensive concept of communication skills, a motor skill is an organised, coordinated, goal-oriented activity that involves a sequence of sensory, cognitive and motor mechanisms [ 6 ]. A skill can be learned, i.e. understanding and behaviour are built up step by step through repeated experience. A skill is also serial, i.e. there is an order and coordination of different processes and activities in a sequence.

However, perhaps a communication skill is less a motor skill than an interactional or social skill. Hargie defines a social skill as a process in which an individual applies a set of purposeful, interconnected, situational appropriate social behaviours that are learned and controlled [ 6 ]. Social skills include verbal and non-verbal behaviour, involve appropriate prompts and responses that require timing and control of specific behaviour, and are influenced by contextual factors. Therefore, the process of couple dancing is an apt metaphor for social skills [ 7 ]: Each dancing partner brings with him/her own motives, e.g. to impress the other or to build a relationship. Couples complement each other in fluid, coordinated patterns. This requires a coordinated interlocking of the learned repertoire of both partners. Certain “moves” are expected or anticipated. If one cannot dance or tries a different dance step, it becomes difficult.

So where are the differences between motor and social skills? Social interaction is related to other people, i.e. one's own goals and the goals of others are included, and rules and routines are less strictly defined. As far as social skills are concerned, emotions and personal involvement play a greater role (self-esteem, acceptance, etc.). Perception in the process plays a greater role, as it is not only about the perception of the skill itself, but also about one's own reactions and the reactions of others. And personal factors also play a greater role (age, gender, origin etc.). A first hypothesis at this point would be that communicative competence is more similar to social skills than to motor skills [ 6 ].

Let us now look at the competence definition. By now a large number of definitions of the term competence do exist. In the didactic context of higher education, reference is often made to the Weinert’s definition, who describes competencies as ”the cognitive abilities and skills available to individuals or learnable by them to solve certain problems, as well as the associated motivational, volitional and social readiness and ability to use problem-solving in variable situations successfully and responsibly” [ 8 ]. Competences are therefore highly specific and can best be understood from the requirements side: We experience and evaluate a person as competent when he or she is able to solve certain tasks or meet certain requirements. Skills, on the other hand, can be understood as specific behavioral or action dispositions that must be organized and used in a situationally appropriate manner when solving a non-trivial task.

3. Proposal for a definition of communicative competence

If one now tries to bring together the ideas on social skills according to Hargie with the concept of competence according to Weinert, one could define communicative competence as follows:

Communicative competence is the ability to achieve communicative goals in a socially appropriate manner. It is organized and goal-oriented, i.e. it includes the ability to select and apply skills that are appropriate and effective in the respective context. It includes verbal and non-verbal behaviour. The application of communicative competence is serial, i.e. different processes and activities are coordinated in a typical sequence and require appropriate timing and control of specific behaviour. It is influenced by the behaviour of the other person and by the context and requires the preparedness and willingness to communicate with the other person for the benefit of all. Communicative competence can be acquired, i.e. the necessary skills are built up step by step through repeated, reflected practice and experience [ 9 ], [ 10 ] quoted from [ 6 ].

4. How can learners acquire communicative competence?

When acquiring motor or cognitive skills, the prior experience of the learner is of central importance, because the design of the learning environment must be based on it [ 11 ], [ 12 ]. A learner with little experience must first get an overview and then build up a knowledge base (e.g. by reading, discussions etc.), while application initially plays a subordinate role. More experienced learners at an intermediate level benefit from worked examples and can focus more on specific problem solving [ 13 ]. In this way, experience-based knowledge and heuristics are built up and misconceptions can be corrected. High-level learners with a lot of prior experience can improve the accuracy and speed of their skills through repeated practice (Deliberate Practice) and transfer them to other contexts [ 14 ]. These considerations are also plausible against the background of findings on the use of cognitive resources (cognitive load) [ 15 ]: Since individual cognitive resources are basically limited, learning tasks should be designed in such a way that they are adapted to the level of expertise of the learners [ 16 ]. This can be illustrated well by the example of simulations, which are often used to train communication skills. In order to take the patient’s history in a patient-centred manner, a student must know what to ask (the content of the history), listen attentively to the patient and control his or her conversational behaviour (e.g. ask open questions). At the same time however, he or she must pay attention to the patient's behaviour in order to notice emotional cues, for example, to which he or she can then react empathically (which in turn requires him or her to know how to do this). It is easy to imagine that students with little prior experience are quickly overwhelmed in such a situation because they have to consciously process many tasks, while experienced students at least partially have automated routines and can thus free up more cognitive resources, e.g. to deal with demanding content in a medical encounter (see [ 17 ]).

Other important findings on the acquisition of skills relate to the transfer. First of all, it has been shown time and again that learners find it very difficult to transfer skills they have acquired in one context to another content domain. In order to better understand what this transfer is about, a distinction can be made between forward transfer (anticipating clinical practice while learning) and backward transfer (remembering learning when working clinically). In the case of backward transfer, it must be recognised that the current situation has similarities with the situation that has already been successfully mastered in the past [ 18 ]. Therefore, it is important to promote forward transfer in studies by considering as many and different application contexts as possible already during learning, so that later backward recognition is easier. In principle, a close transfer that involves similar content (e.g., reacting empathetically to emotional reactions of children and adults) is easier to achieve than a distant transfer that involves different content areas: information-giving in medical conversations for instance, may have different requirements needing different skills in different contexts (e.g., conversations regarding curative vs. palliative treatment).

With regard to the above-mentioned matching of learning environment and level of expertise, a further distinction is useful: We speak of inward transfer when learning is facilitated by what has already been learned. This is the case, for example, when basic anatomical or biochemical knowledge can be used to learn basic clinical concepts (“Preparation for future Learning”) [ 19 ]. On the other hand, an outwardly directed transfer occurs when learning directly results in better problem-solving in clinical practice [ 20 ]. This distinction is important because, especially with little prior knowledge or experience, an outward transfer cannot be expected directly, but only indirectly when the corresponding knowledge structures closer to the problem have been established. Therefore, learning contents should not be judged hastily only by their usefulness for outward transfer.

By now, there is also some evidence on how transfer-promoting learning should look like [ 21 ]. First of all, a skill that is better mastered can be transferred more easily. For example, a student who has no difficulty whatsoever in responding empathically to emotional cues from his patients when taking a history will also be able to do so relatively quickly in medical conversations focused on information-giving even if the content or other requirements are very demanding. Of course, this presupposes that sufficient learning time was available to learn the respective skill accordingly, which is often not the case in the practice of medical studies. The context-bound nature of skills can be counteracted by using contrasting examples from different content areas from the outset to illustrate deeper principles.

5. Conclusion

With the certainly incomplete considerations outlined here, we want to make clear that the understanding of communicative competence can benefit from understanding it as the situation-specific use of specific skills. We might then transfer what we already know about the acquisition of motor and other skills to the domain of communication, and this knowledge can help us to systematically train communicative competence. Of course, we need more scientific evidence for this claim, for example to check whether the transfer of knowledge postulated here, e.g. from the domain of clinical reasoning or motor skills, is actually permissible. We also need more applied research on various teaching formats, for example with regard to the longitudinal development and acquisition of communication skills in both initial and continuing education and training. In the age of experiential learning, perhaps the question of what knowledge base is conducive or even necessary for the acquisition of communicative competencies has also been neglected. Even if this is only a personal statement, it is worth considering whether the learning environments that we are currently creating provide optimal support for learners to develop communicative competence in a sustainable way.

The commentary is based on a presentation given by the authors on 10.05.2019 at the KUSK Workshop 2019 in Grünberg (Germany).

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Communicative Competence Essay Example

• Pages: 3 (603 words)
• Published: December 13, 2016
• Type: Essay

The notion of communicative competence, origins, communicative competence vs. linguistic competence, components of communicative competence Communicative competence – the ability to understand and use language effectively to communicate in authentic social and school environments. The idea was originally derived from Chomsky’s distinction between competence (shared knowledge of ideal speaker-listener set in a completely homogenous speech community) and performance (process of applying underlying knowledge to actual language use).

According to Dell Hymes (1972), Chomsky’s view was too narrow to describe language behaviour as a whole.He concludes that a linguistic theory must be able to deal with heterogeneous speech community, differential competence and the role of sociocultural features. He referred to CC as that aspect of our competence that enables us to convey and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings interperson

ally within specific contexts. Savignon (1983) noted that “communicative competence is relative, not absolute, and depends on the cooperation of all the participants involved”. There are two kinds of competence:

* linguistic competence – deals with producing and understanding grammatically correct sentences./ is one of the communicative competence components. It is the innate system of linguistic knowledge possessed by native speakers of a language. It is the 'ideal' language system that makes it possible for speakers to produce and understand an infinite number of sentences in their language, and to distinguish grammatical sentences from ungrammatical sentences. Linguistic competence asks: What words do I use? How do I put them into phrases and sentences? * communicative competence – deals with producing and understanding sentences that are appropriate and acceptable to a particular situation/ is a group of abilities that enable people to transfer and

interpret messages and to negotiate meanings interpersonally within specific contexts

The main difference between linguistic competence and communicative competence is that the first is focused on knowledge about language forms and correct usage of it, and the second- communicative competence is focused on the knowledge that enables to communicate functionally and interactively. Seminal work on defining CC was carried out by Canale and Swain in 1980. They divided CC into 4 main components:

* Grammatical competence – includes knowledge of lexical items and of rules of morphology, syntax, sentence – grammar semantics and phonology * Discourse competence – the complement of grammatical competence; the ability we have to connect sentences in stretches of discourse and to form a deep whole out of a series of utterances. Discourse means everything from simple spoken conversation to lengthy written texts./It’s knowing how to interpret the larger context and how to construct longer stretches of language so that the parts make up a coherent whole.

* Sociolinguistic competence – the knowledge of the sociocultural rules of language and discourse. They believe that the knowledge of these rules will be crucial in interpreting utterances for social meaning./It’s knowing how to use and respond language appropriately given the setting, the topic, and the relationships among the people communicating. * Strategic competence – it is made up of verbal and non verbal communication. The competence underlying our ability to make repairs, to cope with imperfect knowledge and to sustain communication through paraphrase, repetition, hesitation, avoidance etc. It is knowing how to recognize and repair communication breakdowns, how to work around gaps in one’s knowledge of the language, and how

to learn more about the language and in the context.

Communicative competence components: 1. Linguistic competences: * Lexical competence- knowledge of, ability to use the vocabulary of a language, consists of lexical elements and grammatical elements; * Grammatical competence- may be defined as the knowledge of, and ability to use the grammatical resources of a language; * Semantic competence- deals with the learner’s awareness and control of the organization of meaning * Phonological competence

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On the Models of Communicative Competence

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Competence in Communication

This essay about communication competence discusses the importance of effectively exchanging information in various contexts. It highlights that communication competence involves not just the transmission of messages but also the adaptability to tailor communication strategies to different audiences and situations. The piece emphasizes the significance of understanding non-verbal cues, active listening, and the nuances of digital communication. It argues that mastering communication skills can enhance personal relationships, professional success, and foster deeper connections. Furthermore, the essay underscores the need for continuous learning and adjustment in communication practices, advocating for a reflective and intentional approach to improving one’s communication competence. It concludes by asserting that effective communication is not only about making oneself understood but also about understanding others, making it a crucial skill in today’s interconnected world.

How it works

In an age where interaction traverses the digital and the physical, mastering communication becomes pivotal. Yet, amidst the cacophony of voices and mediums, what does it truly mean to be competent in communication? Communication competence, a term that might seem laden with academic jargon, is actually an essential lifeline in our daily interactions, influencing everything from personal relationships to professional success.

At its core, communication competence refers to the ability to effectively exchange information with others. This involves not just the mere transmission of messages but ensuring these messages are received as intended.

The nuances of tone, the choice of words, and the timing of delivery all play crucial roles. However, this is just the surface. Competence extends into the realm of understanding and navigating the complex web of human emotions, cultural differences, and social contexts.

Consider the simple act of asking for a favor. In a direct approach, one might simply state the request. Yet, competence in communication recognizes that the effectiveness of this request might vary widely across different cultures or even within different social circles. In some contexts, a more indirect approach, perhaps framing the request as a mutual benefit, might be more successful. This adaptability, the ability to tailor communication strategies to specific situations and audiences, marks the essence of communication competence.

Moreover, communication is not a one-way street. Competence also encompasses active listening skills, the ability to read between the lines, and interpret non-verbal cues. It’s about engaging in a dialogue rather than a monologue, where feedback loops enrich understanding and foster deeper connections. It’s a dynamic process, requiring continuous learning and adjustment, as what works in one context might not in another.

In the digital age, communication competence also demands digital literacy. The platforms we use, from emails to social media, have their own norms and etiquettes. A message that is effective in a face-to-face conversation might not hold the same power in a tweet or a text. The digital landscape demands brevity and immediacy, yet clarity and empathy must not be sacrificed at the altar of conciseness.

The benefits of honing communication competence are profound. In personal relationships, it can bridge gaps, deepen connections, and resolve conflicts. Professionally, it can open doors, foster collaboration, and drive innovation. It’s about making oneself understood but also about understanding others, a reciprocal exchange that enriches both the sender and the receiver.

However, developing communication competence is not a passive process. It requires intentionality, reflection, and practice. It involves stepping out of one’s comfort zone, seeking feedback, and being open to change. It’s a journey of self-discovery, as much as it is about discovering others.

The landscape of human interaction is ever-changing, influenced by cultural shifts, technological advancements, and societal norms. Communication competence offers a compass in this landscape, guiding us towards more meaningful and effective interactions. It’s not merely a skill but a way of engaging with the world, a lens through which we can view our connections with others not as transactions but as opportunities for mutual growth and understanding.

In conclusion, communication competence is an invaluable asset in today’s interconnected world. It transcends the mere mechanics of speaking and listening, encompassing the ability to connect, empathize, and understand. As we navigate through an increasingly complex social fabric, the ability to communicate competently becomes not just desirable but essential. It’s a journey worth embarking on, for the rewards it brings are not just personal but collective, enhancing our interactions and enriching our communities.

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2 Chapter 2: Language Proficiency and Communicative Competence

• Language proficiency is multidimensional and entails linguistic, cognitive, and sociocultural factors.
• As students learn a second language, they progress at different rates along a continuum of predictable stages.
• CAN DO Descriptors depict what students can do with language at different levels of language proficiency.
• Communicative competence involves more than linguistic or grammatical competence.
• Native languages, cultures, and life experiences are resources to be tapped and provide a solid foundation for learning language and content.

As you read the scenario below, think about English language learners (ELLs) you may know. What are their language proficiency levels? How is instruction planned to address their different content and language needs? Reflect on how knowledge of their English language proficiency might help teachers better address their unique needs and tap their strengths.

Scenario Rudi Heinz’s head was swimming: state content standards, national content standards, state English language development standards, Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL) English language proficiency standards, WIDA [1] standards, district mandates, mandatory curriculum. It was becoming overwhelming to try to fit all of the different and sometimes conflicting objectives together into a coherent lesson. “How can I possibly teach all of this? Why do I have to worry about English language development standards anyway?” moaned Rudi to himself. “That’s the English department’s job—or the ELL teacher’s job—not mine! I teach history!” Suddenly the picture of a bumbling juggler (with himself in the lead role) trying to add one more item to his routine sprang into his mind. Like many others, Rudi was a creative guy with a passion for teaching. Sure, stress affected his ability to be creative, but he refused to give up. He drew courage, strength, and inspiration from the memory of the smiling and inquisitive faces of Roman, Marina, Yelena, Augusto, Faridah, and Kumar. Rudi turned once again to the history and English language proficiency standards spread out before him. Each one of his English learners was a unique individual with specific strengths and weaknesses in both language and content. These diverse needs made lesson planning challenging, but his ELL kids were counting on him to find a way to communicate with them. Rudi was determined to do just that.

STOP AND DO

To assist you with the pronunciation of many foreign names, visit How to Say that Name.com. Many names are available with audio files by native speakers.

STOP AND THINK

Think about the English learners you know. What information do you already have that would help to inform the strategies you can use to meet their instructional needs? What information do you still need to obtain?

Language Proficiency

Language proficiency can be defined as the ability to use language accurately and appropriately in its oral and written forms in a variety of settings (Cloud, Genesee, & Hamayan, 2000). Kern (2000) developed a broad conceptual framework for understanding language proficiency that includes three dimensions of academic literacy: linguistic, cognitive, and sociocultural. To be proficient in a language requires knowledge and skills using the linguistic components. It also requires background knowledge, critical thinking and metacognitive skills, as well as understanding and applying cultural nuances, beliefs, and practices in context. Finally, being proficient in a language requires skill in using appropriately the four language domains—listening, speaking, reading, and writing—for a variety of purposes, in a variety of situations, with a variety of audiences.

Language Domains

There are four language domains: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Although these four domains are interrelated, they can develop at different rates and independently of one another. These four domains can be classified as receptive or productive skills and as oral or written. The matrix in Figure 2.1 depicts the four language domains.

Figure 2.1 Language domains. Receptive language refers to the information someone receives through listening or reading activities. Listening. English learners process, understand, and respond to spoken language from a variety of speakers for a range of purposes in a variety of situations. Listening, however, is not a passive skill; it requires the active pursuit of meaning. Reading. English learners process, interpret, and evaluate written words, symbols, and other visual cues used in texts to convey meaning. Learning to read in a second language may be hindered or enhanced by students’ levels of literacy in their native languages. Students who have strong reading foundations in their first languages bring with them literacy skills that can typically be transferred to the process of learning to read in English. Productive language refers to the information produced to convey meaning. The very nature of productive language implies an audience, although not always an immediate audience, as in the case of writing a book or an e-mail. Speaking. English learners engage in oral communication in a variety of situations for a variety of purposes and audiences in a wide array of social, cultural, and academic contexts. Contextual roles for getting and keeping the floor, turn taking, and the way in which children converse with adults are only a few examples. Writing. English learners engage in written communication in a variety of forms for a variety of purposes and audiences. These forms include expressing meaning through drawing, symbols, and/or text. ELLs may come with writing styles and usages that are influenced by their home cultures. Understanding the different demands of each language domain aids educators in addressing the language learning needs of their ELLs. Note that proficiency in a language may vary across the four basic language skills. For example, think about the times we have heard an adult language learner say, “I can read German, but I can’t speak it at all.” Likewise, some ELLs may have stronger listening and speaking skills, while others might be stronger writers but not as strong when it comes to speaking. When assessing the proficiency levels of ELLs, it is important to take into account an individual student’s performances in each domain.

Rudi Heinz has learned that his sixth-grade ELL student, Faridah, scored at a Level 2 on the state’s English language proficiency (ELP) exam. However, this information provides an incomplete and misleading picture of Faridah’s needs and abilities. To address her language needs effectively, to understand the impact of her language proficiencies in the content areas, and to build on her language strengths, Rudi must uncover Faridah’s individual scores in every language domain and in combinations of domains. Faridah’s cumulative file holds a copy of the state’s language proficiency test, which she completed the previous spring. Here are the scores (on a scale from 1 to 4, with 4 being advanced proficiency):

Rudi felt some degree of success at locating the language proficiency information, but he still wondered what to do next. How are these scores helpful? What do they mean in the real-life context of the busy classroom?

English Language Proficiency

As students learn a second, third, or fourth language, they move along a continuum of predictable stages. Careful observation of and interaction with individual students aids educators in identifying each student’s level of language proficiency. This information is pivotal when planning appropriate instruction for ELLs. State English language proficiency (ELP) standards (e.g., Washington state ELPs at http://www.k12.wa.us/MigrantBilingual/ELD.aspx ) or multistate ELPs (e.g., TESOL’s 2006 PreK–12 English language proficiency Standards, or WIDA’s 2012 English language development standards at https://wida.wisc.edu/sites/default/files/resource/2012-ELD-Standards.pdf ) provide helpful guidance for teaching content across the four language domains. TESOL’s five preK–12 English language proficiency standards (see Figure 2.2) can guide teachers in helping ELs become proficient in English while, at the same time, achieving in the content areas.

Figure 2.2 PreK-12 Englis Language Proficiency Standards. Source: PreK-12 English Language Proficiency Standards by TESOL. Copyright 2006 by Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL). Reprinted with permission.

English Language Proficiency Levels

Students progress through the stages of language proficiency at different rates: some acquire nativelike competency in 7 years, some may take 10 years, while others may never reach that level. Most students learning a second language follow a similar route; that is, certain linguistic forms and rules are acquired early, whereas others tend to be acquired late, as illustrated in Figure 2.3. In other words, while most students follow the same path in learning English, their pace and rate are different depending on a variety of factors, such as native language, familiarity with the Latin alphabet, competence in the native language, age, previous schooling experiences, aptitude, motivation, personality, and other social and psychological factors.

Figure 2.3 Acquisition of English features While many states have developed their own sets of standards and may use four, five, or six proficiency levels or apply different labels for each stage (e.g., beginning, early intermediate, intermediate, early advanced, and advanced), the standards outline the progression of English language development in the four domains of listening, speaking, reading, and writing through each of the different levels from novice to proficient.

Check examples of state English language proficiency standards for K–12 education on the website for the state of California at http://www.cde.ca.gov/be/st/ss/documents/englangdevstnd.pdf ; Illinois at https://www.isbe.net/Pages/English-Language-Learning-Standards.aspx ; and Texas at http://ipsi.utexas.edu/EST/files/standards/ELPS/ELPS.pdf The English language proficiency (ELP) standards developed by TESOL provide a model of the process of language acquisition that can be adapted by districts and states within the context of their own language leveling system (see Figure 2.4 for these standards).

Figure 2.4 Levels of language proficiency Source: PreK-12 English Language Proficiency Standards by TESOL. Copyright 2006 by Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL). Reprinted with permission. The language proficiency levels are not necessarily connected to cognitive functions. Often students may be able to process advanced cognitive tasks and yet not be able to express those understandings in the second language. For example, Level 1 or Level 2 English language learners can still analyze and classify information if it is presented in small chunks and supported visually.

Take a moment to recall the information Rudi Heinz collected about Faridah’s English language proficiency test scores:

Using the information presented in the preceding section, answer the following questions.

• What are Faridah’s strengths?
• How does this information help Rudi plan instruction for Faridah?
• What can Rudi reasonably expect Faridah to understand and do in his ancient history class?
• Is that all there is to learning a language?

Communicative Competence

Pike (1982), notes that “[l]anguage is not merely a set of unrelated sounds, clauses, rules, and meanings; it is a total coherent system of these integrating with each other, and with behavior, context, universe of discourse, and observer perspective” (p. 44). As early as the 1970s, Dell Hymes (1972) put forward a notion of linguistic competence to mean more than mastery of formal linguistic systems. Communication is not only about oral and written language. When we speak, our speech is often accompanied by nonverbal communications such as facial expressions, gestures, body movement, and sighs. The way we stand, the distance between our listeners and us, the looks on our faces, and our tone of voice all influence the manner and content of our communication. While the ability to correctly form words, sentences, paragraphs, and larger bodies of text is an important expectation by schools and educators, the area of communicative competence can sometimes be overlooked. Briefly, the idea of communicative competence is the communicator’s comprehensive knowledge and appropriate application of a language in a specific context. This knowledge helps the communicator know what to communicate and, more important, how, when, and where to communicate something. For example, the following exchange between a principal and her middle school Honduran student includes appropriate grammatical features but much more information than needed:

While Antonio’s grammatical constructions are acceptable, in U.S. settings this may not be the response expected by a principal or teacher because it contains much more information than needed.

• Can you recall any conversations with English language learners and/or their families that are similar to the example involving Antonio above?
• What did you find inappropriate in the example(s) that you recalled?
• Why was that instance from your student (or from his or her family member) inappropriate? By whose standards?

Elements of Communicative Competence

Communicative competence does not apply only to oral language. Communicative competence means competence in all four language domains—both the productive and the receptive. When talking of communicative competence, we need to consider four important elements: grammatical or linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic. Each will be defined below. Examples are provided in Figure 2.6.

• Grammatical or linguistic competencies involve accuracy of language used (e.g., spelling, vocabulary, sentence formation, pronunciation).
• Sociolinguistic competencies entail the use of language in an appropriate manner or style in a given context. These competencies take into account a variety of factors such as rules and social conventions, the status of participants, and cultural norms.
• Discourse competencies involve the ability to connect correctly formed phrases and sentences into a coherent and cohesive message in a particular style. These competencies involve the ability to be a sender and receiver of messages and to appropriately alternate those roles in conversations or written language.
• Strategic competencies involve the development of strategies such as how to get into or out of conversation, break silences, hold the floor in conversations, and deal with strategies to continue communicating when faced with breakdown in communication.

Figure 2.6 Elements and examples of communicative competence.

How can educators model and teach each facet of communicative competence while simultaneously teaching content? Think of specific examples.

The Role of Native Languages and Cultures

Native language is the primary or first language spoken by an individual. It is also called the mother tongue. The abbreviation L1 refers to someone’s native language. It is generally used in contrast to L2 , the language a person is learning. Native culture is the term often used to refer to the culture acquired first in life by a person or the culture that this individual identifies with as a group member. Norton (1997) claims that, “[t]he central questions teachers need to ask are not, ‘What is the learner’s mother tongue?’ and ‘Is the learner a native speaker of Punjabi?’ Rather the teacher should ask, ‘What is the learner’s linguistic repertoire? Is the learner’s relationship to these languages based on expertise, inheritance, affiliation, or a combination?’” (p. 418). There is an intimate relationship among language, culture, identity, and cognition. Educating ELLs includes not only focusing on language learning but also on building on students’ native languages, cultures, and experiences. Most English language learners are very familiar with at least one other language and have an intuitive understanding of how language and texts work. This knowledge of their first language (L1) will greatly enhance their opportunities to learn English. Research in this area indicates that full proficiency in the native language facilitates the development of the second language (L2) (August & Shanahan, 2017). Native language proficiency can also impact how students learn complex material, such as what is typically encountered in content-area classrooms (Ernst-Slavit & Slavit, 2007). The key is to consider students’ first languages and cultures as resources to be tapped into and built upon. Thinking of our English learners as “having to start from scratch” is the equivalent of denying the many experiences that children have accumulated before coming to the United States and the vast amount of family and cultural knowledge and traditions that have been passed on to students from the moment they were born. The consequences of denying students’ first language can be far reaching because language, culture, and identity are inextricably linked.

For a useful article on the value of the native language and culture, see “The Home Language: An English Language Learner’s Most Valuable Resource” in ¡Colorín Colorado!, by Genesee (2012), at http://www.colorincolorado.org/article/home-language-english-language-learners-most-valuable-resource . For ideas about how to find out information about students’ cultures, see the section called “Background” in Chapter 3 of this text.

Translanguaging

Translanguaging affords practitioners and academics alike a different way of conceptualizing bilingualism and multilingualism. This perspective views bilinguals and multilinguals not as possessing two or more autonomous language systems, but as users of a unitary linguistic repertoire where they sort and select whatever resources are needed to make meaning and to communicate with others. The term translanguaging was initially used by Williams (1996) to refer to a pedagogical practice where Welsh students would receive information in one language (e.g., reading) and then use it another language (e.g., writing). Some years later, the use of the term was expanded in the United States by Ofelia Garcia (see, for example, García & Wei, 2014; García & Kleyn, 2016) to refer to the language practices of people who speak more than one language. Translanguaging is not code-switching; it is not just going from one language to another. The notion of code-switching assumes the alternation of separate languages in the context of a single conversation (e.g., “ Maria forgot su bolsa ,” where the child uses Spanish to mean “her bag”). According to Garcia (2011), rather than looking at two separate languages, translanguaging avows that “bilinguals have one linguistic repertoire from which they select diverse features strategically to communicate effectively” (Garcia, 2011). The following example by Ernst-Slavit (2018) showcases how demarcations of languages are difficult to make when several languages are used fluidly in one household: If you attended a gathering at the home of a bilingual family, you might only use English while you were there. However, different family members might have used different languages for multiple purposes. For example, if you visit an Indian family (from southeast Asia), you might find grandma busy in the kitchen pulling pans out of the oven and reading recipes in Hindi while the kids are playing video games in English. Mom, Dad, and guests may be speaking mostly in English. However, when Dad speaks to the children he does so in Urdu. And then there is grandpa, watching a Bollywood movie in Urdu that includes regional variants such as Gujarati and Punjabi (p. 10). The above example of translanguaging in action depicts a family using their many linguistic resources in their everyday lives. While Urdu was the home language mentioned in the census and in the children’s school records, in this household there is not one home language but a full range of language practices used fluidly according to the speaker, purpose, and context (Ernst-Slavit, 2018). The use of translanguaging in educational contexts has brought a wealth of both interest and disagreement. Many educators working on issues of language education—the development of additional languages for all, as well as minoritized languages—have embraced translanguaging theory and pedagogy. Other educators are wary of the work on translanguaging. Some claim that translanguaging pedagogy pays too much attention to the students’ bilingualism; others worry that it could threaten the language separation traditionally posited as necessary for language maintenance and development (Vogel & Garcia, 2017). For a study on translanguaging in a third grade classroom, read “Translanguaging and Protected Spaces in a Dual Language Classroom: Tensions Across Restrictionist Policies and Unrestricted Practice” by Kristen Pratt & Gisela Ernst-Slavit (in press).

While waiting in line for a hot lunch, Rafa, a new teacher in the school, overhears Mrs. Holton telling several native Russian-speaking immigrant students to speak only English. What can he say or do to advocate for the students while at the same time maintaining a good working relationship with Mrs. Holton?

Strategies for using the native language in the classroom

Given the wide variety of languages spoken by immigrant students in the United States today, teachers will not know all of the native languages of their students. Yet teachers can still promote the use of native languages in their classrooms. Below are selected approaches for supporting native language development in K–12 classrooms.

• Organize primary language clusters. Create opportunities for students to work in groups using their primary language. This can be helpful as they discuss new topics, clarify ideas, or review complex concepts.
• Label classroom objects in different languages. Labeling classroom items allows English learners to understand and begin to learn the names of objects around the classroom. Labels also assist educators and other students to learn words in different languages.
• Assign a bilingual buddy to your newcomer student. Having a buddy who speaks the child’s first language can be very helpful as the new student learns how to function in the new school and culture. This buddy provides comfort while at the same time guides the newcomer throughout different activities (e.g., calendar, circle time, journal writing) and settings (e.g., bus stop, science lab, cafeteria).
• Support the use of the native language by using classroom aides or volunteers. By using the preview-review approach (that is, the translation of key concepts before the lesson starts, followed by review of the new content), aides or volunteers can enhance the learning opportunities of ELLs.
• Encourage primary language development at home. In today’s diverse world, bilingualism is highly valued. If students can continue to develop their first language as they learn English, their opportunities as bilingual adults will be enhanced. In addition, when students continue to develop their native language, they can continue to communicate meaningfully in the first language with their parents and relatives.
• Use technology. English learners can benefit from using technology for multiple purposes. The availability of graphical, video and audio resources can provide amazing supports for students. For example, discussion boards can create platform for students to be actively engaged using both academic and everyday English in and outside the classroom context. Likewise, searching for cognates on particular content topics might help your students have a prior of understand of the content. While some students might not be ready to produce a well-crafted five paragraph argumentative essay, they might be able to produce an outstanding PowerPoint presentation. For more ideas about technology use in language learning, see the free OER resource CALL Principles and Practice by Egbert & Shahrokni (available from https://opentext.wsu.edu/call/ ).
• Use bilingual books. An abundance of bilingual books in a variety of languages has been published in the United States since the 1980s. These books provide an effective tool for raising students’ awareness about diversity but also for fostering literacy and biliteracy development. Figure 2.6 provides a list of strategies for using bilingual books in the classroom; the list was developed by Ernst-Slavit and Mulhern (2003).

Figure 2.6 Strategies for using bilingual books in the classroom. Adapted from “Bilingual books: Promoting literacy and biliteracy in the second-language and mainstream classroom” by G. Ernst-Slavit and M. Mulhern. Reading Online, 7 (2). Copyright 2003 by the International Reading Association. Reproduced with permission.

Learning a first language is a complex and lengthy process. While learners follow a similar route in learning a second language, the rate in which they acquire the target language varies depending on a variety of linguistic, sociocultural, and cognitive factors. As students navigate through the process of becoming competent users of English, educators’ awareness of their location along the language learning continuum can help them better address the students’ needs and build on their strengths.

For Reflection

• Speaking a second or third language . Do you speak a second or third language? If you do not, do you have a friend who does? Do you or your friend have equal levels of competence across language domains? Think about why some language domains developed more than others.
• Types of writing systems . Look at some of the different alphabets and writing systems for different languages at Omniglot (http://www.omniglot.com/) or at any other website or text. Based on those writing systems, what language do you think would be easier for you to learn? Which one would be more difficult? Why?
• Linguistic diversity . What native languages other than English are spoken by students in your classroom? In your school, district, and state? Jot down a list of what you believe are the top languages in your area and compare it with information you can find about your school, district and state. (For information about the different languages spoken in your state and across the United States, visit the website for the Office of English Language Acquisition at http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/stats/3_bystate.htm ).
• World-Class Instructional Design and Assessment (WIDA) Consortium consists of 40 partner states, all using the same 2012 amplification of the English language development standards. You may find the list of WIDA states at https://wida.wisc.edu . ↵

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Communicative Competence and Social Media Essay

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Social media has become a pervasive communication tool in modern society. However, the reliance on these digital tools has compromised interaction competence in various ways. Professor Bhamare observes that young people use slang language to network with peers and family, which has had negative implications on proper grammar and syntax. Therefore, we must learn such rules as politeness, speaker roles, taking turns, greetings, and strategies to achieve socialization competence and participate in conversations.

The rules are different on various digital platforms including Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat. Facebook and Twitter guidelines encourage polite language, and users who do not conform to these regulations face a ban. The instructions are slightly different in Snapchat because it does not involve extensive use of text for communication. However, each tool is guided by stringent directions on how the users should share information and connect with each other.

The media environment plays a critical role in shaping culture. Broadcasters serve as the link between history, present, and the future. Therefore, younger generations learn about their history from the media, and such information shapes their culture. However, users must remain wary of the amount of data they consume and utilize as part of the values. Professor Bhamare, in his article, “Effects of Social Media on Communication Skills”, asserts that at this juncture, the negative impact of these platforms outweighs the benefits. Some material in the media is misleading and detrimental to the existence of certain heritages.

I cannot entirely agree with his claim because social media has played a significant role in facilitating interactions, especially during the covid-19 period. Tools like Facebook and Instagram also include business features that enable people to sell their products online effectively, geographical distance notwithstanding. However, there is a need for more regulation to enhance communicative competence when using social media.

• The Rise in Niche Networking in International Business
• Social Media Presence Analysis
• A South Korean Copy of Snapchat
• Slang Language and Its Characteristics
• The Increasing Diversity of Slang and Its Effects
• Loneliness and Social Networking Addiction in Students
• Social Media Use in Universities: Benefits
• Technology and Parenting: Gaming and Social Media
• The Social Networking Sites: Drawbacks in Recruiting
• Malcolm Gladwell’s Small Change: Why the Revolution Will Not Be Tweeted?
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Communicative Competence and Social Media." June 26, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/communicative-competence-and-social-media/.