essay on elizabethan age of english literature

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• Elizabethan Age

By all arguments, one of the greatest playwright of the world  is William Shakespeare , who emerged from what is known as the Elizabethan Age. While we have read plenty of Shakespeare's works and researched his life, it is also crucial to understand the times he lived in - what were the social, political and economic conditions during the Elizabethan Age? Did they feature in literary works emerging from the time? Let's find out!

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Elizabethan Age: summary

The Elizabethan Age is named after the reigning monarch of England at the time, Queen Elizabeth I. The epoch began in 1558 when Queen Elizabeth I ascended the throne and ended with her death in 1603. Queen Elizabeth was a great patron of the arts, extending her patronage to remarkable artists and performers, thus leading to a surge in works of art produced. This is why the period is also referred to as the Golden Age, i.e., because of the flourishing of arts and artists during this time.

During the Elizabethan Age, England was experiencing the effects of the Renaissance , which began as a movement in Italy and then swept the rest of Europe in the 16th century.

The Renaissance , which means 'rebirth,' is seen as a reaction to Classicism. It inspired creators of the time to focus on the human condition and individualism, and also led to the pioneering of various forms of arts and literary styles, such as the development of the history play or the historical drama .

The Renaissance spurred artists to create great works of art and had a significant influence on the ideologies and products of painting, sculpture, music, theatre and literature. Figures representing the English Renaissance include Thomas Kyd, Francis Bacon, William Shakespeare and Edmund Spenser among others.

With the growing wealth and status of the English population as a result of the flourishing Golden Age and the English Renaissance, Queen Elizabeth I was regarded highly by her subjects. She also painted her public image as one devoted to England and its people, especially by calling herself 'The Virgin Queen,' who was married solely to England.

Characteristics of the Elizabethan Age

The Elizabethan Age is marked by numerous religious, social, political and economic shifts, some of which we will explore in the sections below.

The religious background of the Elizabethan Age

Queen Elizabeth's father, Henry VIII broke away from the Catholic Church and separated the Church of England from Papal authority in 1534 to divorce his wife, Catherine of Aragon. This led to religious unrest in England. After King Henry VIII's reign, i.e., during Edward VI's and Mary I's succession, the religious unrest only increased. Queen Elizabeth I's religious tolerance led to a time of peace between religious factions. This is the reason people celebrate her reign.

The social background of the Elizabethan Age

The social aspects of life during the Elizabethan Age had their merits and demerits. While there were no famines, and harvest was bountiful during this period, people also lived in extreme poverty due to a wide wealth gap among the different social groups.

Families that could afford to, sent their sons to school, while daughters were either sent to work and earn money for the household or be trained to manage a household, do domestic chores and take care of children in the hopes of them marrying well.

The population of England increased. This increase led to inflation, as labour was available for cheap. Those who were able-bodied were expected to work and earn a living. Due to an increase in population, major cities, especially London , were overcrowded. This led to rat infestation, filthy environments and the rapid spread of diseases. There were multiple outbreaks of plague during the Elizabethan Age, during which outdoor gatherings were banned, including theatre performances.

The political background of the Elizabethan Age

During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, the Parliament was not yet strong enough to pit itself against Royal authority. This changed after the succession of James I of the crown. An elaborate spy network and a strong military foiled numerous assassination attempts on the Queen. Furthermore, Queen Elizabeth I's army and naval fleet also prevented the invasion of England by the Spanish Armada in 1588, thus establishing England's and consequently Queen Elizabeth I's supremacy in Europe. The period was also marked by political expansion and exploration. The trade of goods thrived, leading to a period of commercial progress.

Literature of the Elizabethan Age

Some of the most significant contributions to the English literary canon emerged from the Elizabethan Age. This section explores some of the popular playwrights and poets of the Elizabethan Age.

Writers and Poets of the Elizabethan Age

The most important playwrights and poets of the Elizabethan Age include William Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Christopher Marlowe and Edmund Spenser.

William Shakespeare

William Shakespeare (1564-1616) was known as the 'Bard of Stratford' as he hailed from a place called Stratford-Upon-Avon in England. He is credited with having written 39 plays, 154 sonnets and other literary works. A prolific writer, much of the vocabulary we use today in our everyday lives was coined by William Shakespeare.

William Shakespeare often performed a supporting character in the theatrical iterations of the plays he wrote. He was a part-owner of a theatre company that came to be known as the King's Men as it received great favour and patronage from King James I. Even during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, Shakespeare received patronage from the monarch and often performed for her.

Because of the universal themes that characterise his works, such as jealousy, ambition, power struggle, love etc., William Shakespeare's plays continue to be widely read and analysed today. Some of his most famous plays include Hamlet (c. 1599-1601), Othello (1603), Macbeth (1606), As You Like It (1599) and Romeo and Juliet (c. 1595).

Ben Jonson had a significant influence on English theatre and poetry. His work popularised the genre of comedy of humours, such as Every Man in His Humour (1598).

Comedy of humours typically focuses on one or more characters, particularly highlighting their 'humours' or shifts in temperaments.

Jonson is identified by some as the first poet Laureate as he received patronage from aristocrats as well as a yearly pension. Ben Jonson's work was influenced by his social, cultural and political engagements. Jonson was well acquainted with Shakespeare and the latter's theatre company often produced Jonson's plays. While during his lifetime, Jonson was often critical of Shakespeare's works, he also credited Shakespeare as a genius in the preface to the First Folio.

The First Folio is the first consolidated publication of Shakespeare's plays. It was published by John Heminges and Henry Condell.

Some works authored by Ben Jonson include The Alchemist (1610), Volpone, or The Fox (c. 1606) and Mortimer His Fall (1641).

Christopher Marlowe

Christopher Marlowe was a contemporary of Jonson and Shakespeare and a prolific poet and playwright. He is best known for his translation of Goethe's tale of Dr. Faust, which Marlowe titled The Tragical History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus (c. 1592).

Marlowe employed the blank verse to compose his works, popularising the form in the Elizabethan Age. His works include Tamburlaine the Great (c. 1587), The Jew of Malta (c. 1589) and Dido , Queen of Carthage (c. 1585). Marlowe's untimely death at the age of 29 is a matter of debate among scholars, some of whom think that Marlowe was killed by a spy in the Privy Council.

Blank verse refers to unrhymed lines written in the iambic pentameter .

An iamb is a metrical foot consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. When an iamb is repeated five times, it is said to be a line written in the iambic pentameter .

Edmund Spenser

Edmund Spenser is most famous for his epic poem The Fearie Queene (c. 1590), which includes pastoral themes and whose titular character is inspired by Queen Elizabeth I. The poem celebrates the Tudor dynasty and was widely read at the time of publication, and continues to be an important part of the English literary canon emerging from the period.

Edmund Spenser is also the pioneer of the Spenserian stanza and the Spenserian sonnet , both of which are named after him.

The Spenserian stanza is composed of lines written in the iambic pentameter with the final line of the stanza written in the iambic hexameter (the iambic foot occurring 6 times). The rhyme scheme of the Spensarian stanza is ababbcbcc. The poem The Faerie Queene is written in Spensarian stanzas.

The Spenserian sonnet is 14 lines long, wherein the final line of each quatrain is linked to the first line of the quatrain. A quatrain is a stanza composed of 4 lines. The rhyme scheme of a Spensarian sonnet is ababbcbccdcdee.

The Elizabethan Age today

The effects of the Elizabethan Age can be felt in contemporary works of literature. This is because of the many literary forms, devices and genres that were developed during the time and remained popular through the centuries. Literary works emerging from the Elizabethan Age are widely read and studied till the present day, particularly those of William Shakespeare.

Elizabethan Age - Key takeaways

• The Elizabethan Age is named after the reigning monarch of England, Queen Elizabeth I.

The Elizabethan Age lasted from 1558 to 1603.

• The Elizabethan Age is also known as the Golden Age as works of art flourished during this period.
• The popular writers and poets of the Elizabethan Age include William Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Christopher Marlowe and Edmund Spenser.
• Works emerging from the Elizabethan Age are read and studied to this day.

Flashcards inElizabethan Age 10

The Elizabethan Age lasted from ________ to ________.

1558 to 1603

The Elizabethan Age is named after whom?

Queen Elizabeth I

True or False: During the Elizabethan Age, there was no great wealth divide among different social classes.

Which playwright from the Elizabethan Age wrote a play about the legend of Doctor Faustus?

Who is the author of the epic poem The Faerie Queene ?

What is the meter of the final line of the Spensarian stanza?

Iambic hexameter

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Frequently Asked Questions about Elizabethan Age

Why was the Elizabethan age considered a golden age?

Queen Elizabeth was a great patron of the arts, extending her patronage to remarkable artists and performers, thus leading to a surge in works of art produced. This is why the period is also referred to as the Golden Age.

What is the Elizabethan age

The Elizabethan Age is named after the reigning monarch of England at the time, Queen Elizabeth I. The epoch began in 1558 when Queen Elizabeth I ascended the throne and ended with her death in 1603. 

During the Elizabethan Age, England was experiencing the effects of the Renaissance, which began as a movement in Italy and then swept the rest of Europe in the 16th century. 

When was the Elizabethan Age?

What are the characteristics of the Elizabethan age?

The Elizabethan Age is marked by numerous religious, social, political and economic shifts. Queen Elizabeth I's religious tolerance led to a time of peace between religious factions. Families sent sons to schools while daughters were educated in domestic responsibilities. During bouts of plague, outdoor gatherings were not permitted. Queen Elizabeth I's military and navy managed to consolidate her power and prevent the Spanish invasion by defeating the Spanish Armada.

Why was the Elizabethan age so important?

The effects of the Elizabethan Age can be felt in contemporary works of literature. This is because of the many literary forms, devices and genres that were developed during the time and remained popular through the centuries. Literary works emerging from the Elizabethan Age are widely read and studied to the present day.

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Elizabethan Era Literature: Characteristics, Themes, and Authors

Back to: History of English Literature All Ages – Summary & Notes

Table of Contents

Introduction

Elizabethan Period is generally regarded as the greatest in the history of English Literature. Historically, we note in this age, the tremendous impetus received from the Renaissance from the Reformation & from the exploration of the new world.

It was marked by a strong national spirit, by patriotism, by religious tolerance, by social content, by intellectual progress & by unbounded enthusiasm.

Such an age of thought, feeling & vigorous action, finds its best expression in the drama; & the wonderful development of the drama, culminating.

Though the age produced some of the excellent prose works, it is essentially an age of poetry; & the poetry is remarkable for its variety, its freshness, its youth & romantic feeling.

Revival of Interest in Greek Literature

The ardent revival in the study of Greek literature brought a dazzling light into many dark places of interest. The new classical influences were a great benefit. They tempered & polished the earlier rudeness of English Literature.

Abundance of Output

The Elizabethan age was rich in literary productions of all kinds. Singing is impossible when one’s hearts undeclared & at any moment one may be laid prostrate.

Not till the accession of Queen Elizabeth, did a better state of things began to be. In the Elizabethan age, pamphlets & treatises were freely written.

Sometimes writers indulged in scurrilous abuses which were of personal character. But on the whole, the output of the literature was very wide, & after the lean years of the preceding epoch, the prodigal issue of the Elizabethan age is almost embarrassing.

The New Romanticism

The romantic quest is, for the remote, the wonderful & the beautiful. All these desires were abundantly fed during the Elizabethan age, which is the first & the greatest romantic epoch (period).

According to Albert, “there was a daring & resolute spirit of adventure in literary as well as the other regions, & most important of these was an un-mistakable buoyancy & freshness in the strong wind of the spirit. It was the ardent youth of English Literature & the achievement was worthy of it.”

Translations in Elizabethan Age

The Elizabethan age witnessed translation into English of several important foreign books. Many translations were as popular as the original works. Sir Thomas North translated Plutarch’s Lives & John Florio translated Montaigne’s Essais .

No less popular were the translations of poetry . E.g. Metamorphoses by Arthur Golding, Aristotle’s Orlando Furioso by Sir John Harrington, Tasso’s Terusalom Liberata by Richard Carew.

Spirit of Independence

In spite of borrowings from abroad, the authors of this age showed a spirit of independence & creativeness.  Shakespeare borrowed freely, but by the alembic of his creative imaginations, he transformed the dross into gold.

Spenser introduced the ‘ Spenserian Stanza ’, & from his works, we got the impression of inventiveness & intrepidity. On the whole, the outlook of the writers during the age was broad & independent.

Development of Drama

During the Elizabethan Age, the drama made a swift & wonderful leap into maturity . The drama reached the splendid perfection in the hands of Shakespeare & Ben Jonson, though in the concluding part of the age, particularly in Jacobean Age, there was a decline of drama standards.

Popularity of Poetry

Poetry enjoyed its hey-day during the Elizabethan age . The whole of the age lived in a state of poetic fervour. Songs, lyric s & sonnet s were produced in plenty, & England became the nest of the singing birds. In versification, there was a marked improvement. Melody & pictorialism were introduced in poetry by Spenser.

Prose & Novel

For the first time, prose rose to the position of first-rate importance. “Even the development of poetical drama between 1579 A.D. -1629 A.D., is hardly more extraordinary than the sudden expansion of English prose & its adaptation to every kind of literary requirement.”

The deadweight of the Latin & English prose acquired a tradition & universal application. English Novel made its first proper appearance during this age .

Exploring the Elizabethan Golden Period: A Comprehensive Analysis of its Historical Significance and Cultural Contributions in English Literature

Today, we embark on a literary journey to unravel the enchanting world of the Elizabethan Golden Age in English literature. This captivating period in history holds a unique place in our cultural tapestry, and in this article, we shall explore its fascinating depths.

To truly understand the splendor of the Elizabethan Golden Age, we must first appreciate the historical backdrop against which it unfolded. The Elizabethan era, named after Queen Elizabeth I of England, spanned from the late 16th century into the early 17th century. It was a time of immense transformation, marked by the reign of a strong and influential monarch, Queen Elizabeth I. This era was notable for its relative stability, both politically and socially, and it witnessed England’s rise as a powerful nation on the global stage.

The heart of our exploration lies in the realm of literature. The Elizabethan Golden Age is celebrated as a glorious chapter in English literary history. It was during this period that English literature experienced an unparalleled blossoming of creativity and expression. The plays, poetry, and prose produced during these years have left an indelible mark on our literary heritage. The names of luminaries like William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Ben Jonson shine brightly from this epoch.

As we embark on this literary expedition, our purpose is clear. We aim to delve into the reasons why the Elizabethan era is often referred to as the “Golden Age” of English literature. What were the conditions and inspirations that led to such a characterization? By examining the historical context, exploring the lives and works of prominent literary figures, and considering the cultural contributions of this era, we hope to unveil the secrets of its lasting allure. In essence, this article is a key to unlocking the treasure trove of creativity that is the Elizabethan Golden Age.

Now, let’s turn our attention to the historical backdrop against which the Elizabethan Golden Age unfolded, a context that significantly shaped the literature of the era.

Political Landscape during the Elizabethan Era:

Reign of Queen Elizabeth I: At the helm of England’s destiny was Queen Elizabeth I, a remarkable and influential monarch. Her reign, which spanned from 1558 to 1603, is often referred to as the Elizabethan era. This was a time of great political stability and a flourishing of the arts.

Social and Political Stability: England enjoyed a period of relative peace and stability during Queen Elizabeth I’s rule. This stability provided fertile ground for the growth of English literature and culture .

Socio-Cultural Milieu:

Exploration and Expansion: The Elizabethan era was marked by a spirit of exploration and expansion. English explorers like Sir Walter Raleigh ventured to distant lands, bringing back tales of new discoveries. This spirit of adventure and curiosity found its way into the literature of the time.

Renaissance Influence: The Renaissance, a cultural and intellectual movement, was in full swing during the Elizabethan era. It was a time when the arts, sciences, and learning experienced a rebirth. The influence of the Renaissance on literature was profound, with a renewed emphasis on humanism, classical themes, and artistic innovation.

Understanding this historical context is vital to grasping the essence of the Elizabethan Golden Age in English literature, as it provides the fertile ground upon which the literary brilliance of the era flourished.

Literary Figures of the Elizabethan Golden Age:

In our quest to understand the magic of the Elizabethan Golden Age, it is imperative that we acquaint ourselves with the literary giants who helped shape this remarkable period.

William Shakespeare:

Biography and Early Life: Born in 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon, William Shakespeare’s early life is shrouded in some mystery. However, his genius as a playwright and poet is undeniable.

Contribution to Elizabethan Literature: Shakespeare’s contribution to Elizabethan literature is immeasurable. His unparalleled ability to capture the complexities of human nature and emotions through his words has left an indelible mark on English literature.

Iconic Works: Shakespeare gifted the world with timeless classics such as “Romeo and Juliet,” “Hamlet,” and “Macbeth,” which continue to enchant readers and theatergoers to this day.

Christopher Marlowe:

Life and Background: Christopher Marlowe, a contemporary of Shakespeare, led a fascinating life. Born in 1564, the same year as Shakespeare, his early years remain somewhat enigmatic. He was known for his wit and intelligence.

Influence on Elizabethan Drama: Marlowe’s impact on Elizabethan drama cannot be overstated. His works, including “Doctor Faustus” and “Tamburlaine,” broke new ground with their bold themes and vivid characters.

Ben Jonson:

Jonson’s Literary Achievements: Ben Jonson was a towering figure in the Elizabethan literary scene. He was known for his versatility as a playwright, poet, and critic. His works, such as “Volpone” and “Every Man in His Humour,” displayed his mastery of both comedy and tragedy.

Role in the Development of English Comedy: Jonson played a pivotal role in the development of English comedy. His comedies, characterized by sharp wit and humor, set the stage for the evolution of comedic drama in later years.

These literary luminaries, with their unique talents and contributions, are the pillars upon which the glory of the Elizabethan Golden Age in English literature rests. Their works continue to inspire and resonate with audiences, ensuring the enduring legacy of this remarkable era.

Literary Works and Genres:

Now that we have acquainted ourselves with the literary figures who shaped the Elizabethan Golden Age, let us journey further into the diverse tapestry of literary works and genres that thrived during this remarkable era.

Elizabethan Drama:

Development and Characteristics: Elizabethan drama was a cornerstone of this era’s artistic expression. The theater flourished, and plays became a beloved pastime. The characteristics of this drama included elaborate plots, vivid characters, and a blend of comedy and tragedy.

Shakespearean Tragedy and Comedy: Within Elizabethan drama, we find the genius of William Shakespeare. His tragedies like “Hamlet” and “Macbeth” are known for their exploration of human flaws and the human condition, while his comedies, such as “A Midsummer Night’s Dream,” delighted audiences with their wit and humor.

Sonnets and Poetry:

Sonnet Sequences of the Era: The Elizabethan era saw the emergence of captivating sonnet sequences. These poetic collections, often exploring themes of love and beauty, provided a platform for poets to express their deepest emotions. Shakespeare’s own sonnets, for instance, remain iconic.

Poetry as a Vehicle for Expression: Poetry, during this era, was a powerful means of expression. It allowed poets to convey their thoughts, feelings, and reflections on life, love, and the human experience with eloquence and artistry.

Prose and Essays:

Prose Writers and Their Contributions: In addition to the flourishing drama and poetry, prose writing also found its place in the Elizabethan era. Notable prose writers of the time, such as Sir Philip Sidney and Francis Bacon, contributed to the intellectual landscape with essays and treatises.

The Birth of English Prose: This era witnessed the birth and refinement of English prose. It marked a turning point in the development of the English language, as prose became a vehicle for scholarly discourse and philosophical reflection.

The literary works and genres of the Elizabethan Golden Age collectively form a rich mosaic of artistic expression, reflecting the diversity of voices and ideas that thrived during this period. As we explore these facets further, we gain a deeper appreciation for the enduring legacy of this literary golden age.

Cultural Contributions:

As we continue our exploration of the Elizabethan Golden Age, it is vital to examine the lasting impact this remarkable period has left on our language, literature, and the broader cultural landscape.

Language and Vocabulary:

The Elizabethan Impact on the English Language: The Elizabethan era played a pivotal role in shaping the English language as we know it today. The innovative spirit of this period introduced countless new words and phrases into the lexicon. It was a time of linguistic experimentation and enrichment.

Wordplay and Coinages: Wordplay and creative coinages were hallmarks of Elizabethan literature. Playwrights like Shakespeare were masters of linguistic dexterity, coining words and using language to craft intricate puns and metaphors.

Influence on Later Literary Periods:

The Legacy of the Elizabethan Golden Age in Jacobean and Caroline Literature: The influence of the Elizabethan Golden Age reverberated into subsequent literary periods. The Jacobean and Caroline eras inherited and built upon the foundations laid by their Elizabethan predecessors. Themes, styles, and dramatic techniques evolved, but the impact of the Golden Age remained palpable.

Enduring Themes and Motifs: Many themes and motifs that originated in the Elizabethan era continue to resonate in literature and drama. Concepts of love, ambition, power, and the human condition, explored by Elizabethan writers, remain central to literary discourse.

The cultural contributions of the Elizabethan Golden Age extend far beyond its time, leaving an indelible mark on our language, literature, and the broader literary landscape. By understanding these contributions, we gain insight into the enduring relevance of this extraordinary period in English literary history.

What Impact Did Shakespeare Have on the Elizabethan Golden Period and English Literature?

Shakespeare’s impact on english language cannot be understated. During the Elizabethan Golden Period, he shaped English literature in profound ways, elevating it to new heights. His innovative use of language, coined phrases, and profound insights into human nature revolutionized not only theatre but also the very fabric of the English language. Shakespeare’s works continue to resonate, inspiring generations of writers and enriching the literary landscape.

Evaluating the ‘Golden’ Label:

As we embark on our scholarly journey to comprehend the enigmatic aura of the Elizabethan Golden Age, it becomes imperative to subject this era to a meticulous evaluation, dissecting the factors that justify the designation of ‘golden’ in the annals of literary history.

Criteria for Characterizing an Era as ‘Golden’:

To ascribe the label ‘golden’ to an epoch, specific criteria must be met. These criteria often encompass a profound surge of creative expression, profound cultural contributions, and a profound, lasting imprint on subsequent generations. Our task is to rigorously assess whether the Elizabethan era indeed satisfies these prerequisites.

Debates and Controversies Surrounding the Elizabethan Golden Age:

The assertion that the Elizabethan era merits the title of ‘golden’ does not pass unchallenged. In the scholarly arena, there are fervent debates and controversies. Some proponents ardently uphold the era’s unparalleled brilliance, citing its literary treasures as indisputable evidence. Yet, an opposing camp contends that alternative epochs are equally deserving of such acclaim. Our expedition navigates through this complex terrain of discussions, valiantly considering the multitude of perspectives that enrich this discourse.

Alternative Perspectives on the Era:

It is incumbent upon us to recognize that while the Elizabethan Golden Age enjoys widespread celebration, there exist alternative vantage points. Certain erudite scholars may proffer alternative prisms through which to view this period, amplifying aspects beyond its literary eminence. Such perspectives may illuminate the multifaceted nature of the Elizabethan era, highlighting the myriad dimensions that contribute to its historical tapestry.

Our endeavor here is not merely to skim the surface but to plumb the depths of historical evaluation. By interrogating these intricate facets, we aspire to undertake a profound critical assessment of the aptness of the ‘golden’ label conferred upon the Elizabethan era. In so doing, we embark on a scholarly odyssey that enables us to appreciate the intricacies and multiplicity of historical epochs and the kaleidoscope of viewpoints that collectively shape our understanding of literary history.

In drawing the curtains on our exploration of the Elizabethan Golden Age, we are compelled to recollect the significance of this extraordinary era, contemplate its enduring resonance in the realm of English literature and culture, and offer our final reflections on its rightful place in the annals of literary history.

Recapitulation of the Elizabethan Golden Age’s Significance:

As we journeyed through the historical, literary, and cultural tapestries of the Elizabethan era, we uncovered the magnitude of its significance. This period, marked by political stability, artistic efflorescence, and the brilliance of literary luminaries, truly earns its epithet as the ‘Golden Age’ of English literature. It was a time of unparalleled creativity and cultural richness that transcended the bounds of its epoch.

Reflection on the Enduring Legacy in English Literature and Culture:

The impact of the Elizabethan Golden Age is not confined to the past. Its influence endures, permeating the very fabric of English literature and culture. The words of Shakespeare, Marlowe, and Jonson continue to resonate, and the linguistic innovations of the era remain integral to our language. Moreover, the themes and motifs explored during this period persist, serving as touchstones for subsequent generations of writers and thinkers.

Final Thoughts on the Period’s Rightful Place in Literary History:

In our quest to evaluate the ‘Golden’ label, we navigated through debates and controversies, acknowledging alternative perspectives. Yet, as we stand at the culmination of our scholarly inquiry, it becomes increasingly apparent that the Elizabethan Golden Age merits its revered status in literary history. Its contributions are both timeless and transformative, enriching the literary canon and etching an indelible mark upon the cultural landscape.

In conclusion, the Elizabethan Golden Age stands as a luminous beacon in the panorama of English literature. Its pages are filled with enduring tales, vibrant characters, and the resounding echoes of human experience. As we partake in this ongoing conversation about its place in history, we emerge with a profound appreciation for the profound and enduring impact of this remarkable epoch.

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The Elizabethan Era in The English History

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Literature Of The Elizabethan Age – Tragedy, Poetry, Comedy, And Drama

“Drama during the Elizabethan to Jacobean period was marked by key features such as a notable degree of religious tolerance, societal satisfaction, intellectual freedom, unwavering patriotism, and domestic and international peace. This era captivated the imagination and intellect, leading literature to naturally gravitate towards theatrical expression.”

Elizabethan Age

• The Elizabethan Age is named after Queen Elizabeth I, the last Tudor Monarch of England, who ruled from 1558 to 1603.
• It extends beyond Elizabeth’s reign, with literary characteristics continuing for some years after her death in 1603.
• According to WH Hudson, the Elizabethan Age spans from the beginning of Queen Elizabeth’s reign to the death of James I in 1625, though the period from 1603 to 1625 is sometimes considered the Jacobean period.
• Elizabeth I’s 45-year reign is often regarded as one of the most glorious periods in English history.
• Nationalism in England rose during Elizabeth’s reign, influencing writers to focus on English-language literary and dramatic works.
• The period witnessed significant cultural development, partly attributed to Queen Elizabeth’s patronage of the arts and the flourishing court atmosphere.
• England achieved notable advancements in navigation and exploration during this era, including Walter Raleigh’s excursions to the Atlantic shore and the establishment of the Roanoke colony.
• Sir Francis Drake’s circumnavigation of the world between 1577 and 1580 was a significant achievement of the Elizabethan Age.

Literature Of The Elizabethan Age

The Elizabethan era in England witnessed a remarkable surge in artistic and literary expression, fueled by Renaissance humanism, Protestant fervour, and discoveries in geography and science. The dominant literary genre during this period was drama, with William Shakespeare emerging as its most influential playwright. Often referred to as the ‘Age of Shakespeare,’ his extensive body of work includes a diverse range of comedies, tragedies, tragicomedies, and sonnets.

In the 1550-60s, the Elizabethan Age saw the emergence of the first English comedy, exemplified by Nicholas Udall’s “Ralph Roister Doister” (circa 1553), and the first blank verse tragedy, showcased in the 1562 play “Gorboduc.” This groundbreaking period laid the foundation for enduring art forms that continue to be studied today.

The establishment of “The Theatre” in 1576 marked the inception of the earliest known theafter, followed closely by others like “The Rose,” “The Swan,” and the highly popular “The Globe,” built in 1599. Elizabethan drama departed from the religious themes predominant in medieval mystery and morality plays. Instead, it embraced poetical meter, notably the five-foot iambic pentameter, for its dialogue.

Beyond drama, the Elizabethan Age also witnessed a flourishing of poetry, including the sonnet and the Spenserian stanza, along with inspiring prose by writers like Francis Bacon. The literary landscape of the era encompassed various forms such as tragedy, comedy, poetry, drama, and chronicles, each contributing to the rich tapestry of Elizabethan literature.

• Tragedy is a type of drama that deals with serious and sorrowful events involving a heroic individual, often approached with a dignified style.
• The term can also be used for serious literary works like novels.
• Despite the common use of “tragedy” for any disaster, it specifically refers to artistic works that seriously explore questions about humanity’s role in the universe.
• The ancient Greeks in Attica, particularly in the 5th century BCE, were the first to use the term to describe a particular kind of play presented at festivals in Greece.
• Tragedy of a high order has been historically created in four specific periods and places.
• These include Attica in Greece (5th century BCE), England during the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I (1558-1625), 17th-century France and Europe, and America during the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century.
• Each historical period led to the development of a distinct style and emphasis, shaping the orientation of tragic theatre.
• In the modern era, roughly from the mid-19th century, tragedy has also found expression in a few novels.

First English Tragedy: Gorboduc

• Gorboduc, also known as ‘The Tragedy of Ferrex and Porrex,’ is considered the very first tragedy written in English.
• It’s also thought to be the earliest English tragic play in a style called blank verse.
• The play was written by Thomas Norton (1532-1584) and Thomas Sackville (1536-1608).
• It had its first performance in 1561, with Norton handling the first three acts and Sackville contributing the last two.
• The storyline of Gorboduc is based on Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historie Regum Britanniae (1135-38), which tells the story of a conflict between Gorboduc’s two sons, Ferrex and Porrex, regarding who should inherit the throne.
• The play follows the sophisticated tragic style inspired by Seneca, an ancient Roman playwright.
• Other works imitated Gorboduc, such as Gascoigne and Kinwelmersh’s Jocasta and Gismond of Salem, created by five gentlemen of the Inner Temple.
• Comedy is a type of literature and drama that aims to be funny and satirical, typically ending on a cheerful note.
• The main theme involves overcoming difficulties through humor, leading to a happy or successful conclusion.
• The primary goal of comedy is to entertain the audience, making them laugh and enjoy the performance.
• Comedy includes various sub-genres based on where the humor comes from, the context of dialogues, and how they are delivered.
• Examples of comedic styles include farce, satire, and burlesque.
• In contrast to comedy, tragedy focuses on sad and tragic events in a story, presenting a different emotional experience for the audience.

First English Comedy: Ralph Roister Doister

• Ralph Roister Doister is recognized as the first English comedy, written by Nicholas Udall, a playwright from England, probably between 1551 and 1553.
• The play revolves around the character Ralph Roister Doister, a wealthy but foolish young man.
• Despite boasting about his bravery, he behaves like a coward when faced with action.
• Ralph’s attempts to court a wealthy widow named Christian Custance do not go well, forming a central plot element in the comedy.
• The play reflects the influence of classical playwrights Plautus and Terence in its comedic style and structure.
• The Elizabethan age marked a significant era in English literature, particularly for poetry.
• Poetry became an integral part of education among the educated class during this period, leading to the emergence of numerous poetry books by various writers.
• The Elizabethan Age was renowned for its remarkable contributions to literature, with drama taking center stage.
• Initially, the quality of these dramas was not consistently high, though comedies tended to fare better than tragedies.
• Ralph Roister Doister is acknowledged as the first official English comedy, characterized as a rough verse farce, and crafted by Nicholas Udall.
• Another notable comedy, “Gammer Gurton’s Needle,” was performed at Cambridge University in 1566, contributing to the evolution of comedic works.
• John Lyly further refined comedy with prose works like “Compaspe” and “Endymion.”
• “Gorboduc,” written by Thomas Norton and Thomas Sackville, is regarded as the first regular tragedy, even though it was criticized for its dullness and poor use of blank verse.
• Thomas Kyd played a pivotal role in improving tragedy with his work, “The Spanish Tragedy,” characterized by themes of blood and revenge.

Final Words

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ENGL 322 A: English Literature: The Elizabethan Age

Shakespeare's notoriety as the world's greatest writer has eclipsed the reputations of his contemporaries. Some of them--had they lived in any other era--would be regarded as major figures. Part  of the answer to why Shakespeare's plays and poems have captured the imagination of every generation in virtually every part of the world is that he worked in a literary and dramatic environment richer than in any other period in English history. We'll examine the works of some the great writers of this period--More, Wyatt, Surrey, Sidney, Spenser, Marlowe, Jonson, and, yes, some Shakespeare too.

TEXT:  The Norton Anthology of English Literature , Volume B, The Sixteenth Century, 10th Edition  

Requirements: in class essays, two quizzes.

Note: This class is taught entirely on line

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 Summer, A Term 2021                       English 322a                                            W.R. Streitberger Zoom                                       Elizabethan Literature                                           streitwr@                                 

Our ordinary procedure: we will meet every M, Tu, W, Th from 9:40 to 11:50 in ZOOM.  Log in through CANVAS.UW.EDU. We will also use email to communicate and to submit work. Y must check your email every 24 hours during the quarter. All written assignments and quizzes will be submitted to me by email as WORD attachments (no other kind of attachments please).

Our “fail safe” procedure: Online courses require internet access. What if my/your internet goes down? Our plan is as follows: I have sent you the syllabus for the entire quarter listing the requirements, the schedule, and study questions for each hour of class time. You are to follow this schedule. Do the reading and answer the questions for each class period. Choose one question for each hour, write a 20 minute essay on it, submit them to me when we meet again.

Text : Required: The Norton Anthology, English Literature, The Sixteenth Century , 10 th ed.    This is a 300 level, junior-senior level majors course in Elizabethan literature. All of the works we read were written early modern English. While the spelling and orthography have been modernized in our text, early modern syntax and word choice will occasionally make reading more challenging than you might be used to. You need to plan for this in terms of setting aside enough time to comprehend the reading assignments. In our class sessions you must have your text open in front of you so that you can follow along in our reading and discussions and take the appropriate notes. If you do not do this you will not do well on the writing assignments or on the exams.

If you are unable to get the course text before we begin the term read Sir Thomas More’s Utopia on line.

Requirements:                                                                                                                                                                                    In-class oral reports. This course is described in the UW Catalog as lecture-discussion. I will lecture from time to time, but we will discuss the material we read in every class period. I have  assigned three leading study questions for each 50 minute period of class. Your job is to give some purposeful though to these questions. Come to class prepared to discuss them and others you might have. I will call on you to respond to the questions during our class meetings.                                                                                                                                                                Wr iting assignments. Choose one of the Discussion Questions listed for the week in which you write. Compose a timed twenty-minute essay on that subject. Submit it to me by email on Friday of the week in wich it is due. There area total of three of these. See the schedule for details.                                                                                                  Exams There will be two exams on 5 July and 21 July.  The exams will consist of multiple choice, fill in the blank, and definition questions along with passage identification and short paragraphs. They will require careful preparation.                                                                                                               

Grading: In class oral reports + writing assignments = 50%. Exams = 50%

Week 1. Over the course of this week read in Norton , 3-13                                                                                              Mon 21 June Introduction                                                                                                                                                 Tues 22 June More, Utopia, 44-117.                                                                                                                                Wed 23 June More, Utopia                                                                                                                                                                Thurs 24 June Castiglione, The Courtier, 176-192. Find online and read Montaigne, On the Inconstancy of our Actions.

Week 2. Lyric Poetry . Over the course of this week read in Norton, 13-26. See the discussion questions for details about readings for each of the sessions this week .                                                                                         Mon 28 June Shakespeare, sonnets 1, 18, 73. Wyatt, Surrey, 119-142                                                                         Tues 29 June Sir Philip Sidney, 586-603, Mary Sidney, 604-608, Amelia Lanyer, 980-990, Mary Wroth, 1110-1120                                                                                                                                                                                        Wed 30 June Shakespeare, Sonnets, 722-738                                                                                                                 Thurs 1 July  Shakespeare, Sonnets,  Sidney, Defense of Poesy, 546-585.                                                                          Due by Friday : twenty minute essay on any reading from weeks 1 and 2.

Week 3. Epic Poetry. Before Tuesday’s class find any Bible on line. Read Revelation , chapters 13, 17, 19-22.             Mon 5 July Exam 1                                                                                                                                                                          Tues 6 July Spenser, Faerie Queene. First Hour: pp. 249-276. The letter to Raleigh. Induction. Book 1 canto 1, stanzas 1-55 (Error and Archimago). Second Hour: pp. 289-298 and 347-352. Book 1, canto 4, stanzas 1-36 (The House of Pride), canto 8, stanzas 31-50 (Orgolio’s dungeon).                                                                                       Wed 7 July Spenser, Faerie Queene. First Hour: pp. 352-365. Book I, canto 9, stanzas 1-20 (Arthur’s story). canto 9, stanzas 21-54 (The Cave of Despair). Second Hour: pp. 365-382. Book I, canto 10, stanzas 1-68 (The House of Holiness).                                                                                                                                                                             Thurs 8 July Spenser, Faerie Queene. First Hour: pp. 382-406 Book I, canto 11, stanzas 1-55 (The Great Battle). canto 12, stanzas 1-42 (Conclusion). Second Hour: pp. 406-417. Book II, canto 12, stanzas 42-87 (The Bower of Bliss).                                                                                                                                                                                        Due by Friday : twenty minute essay on any reading from week 3..

Week 4. Dramatic Poetry. This week read in Norton, 27-35                                                                                              Mon 12 July Marlowe, Dr. Faustus , 679-717.                                                                                                                 Tues 13 July Marlowe, Dr. Faustus .                                                                                                                                 Wed 14 July Shakespeare, Othello , 803-889 .                                                                                                             Thurs 15 July Shakespeare, Othello.                                                                                                                                                Due by Friday : twenty minute essay on any reading from week 4.

  Week 5                                                                                                                                                                                              Mon 19 July Jonson, Volpone , 991-1088.                                                                                                                             Tues 20 July Jonson, Volpone.                                                                                                                                                     Wed 21 July Exam 2

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History of Britain from Roman times to Restoration era

Literary Features of the Elizabethan Era

Introduction to the elizabethan era literature.

In this article, we will see a brief introduction to the Elizabethan Era and the major literary figures and their work. The Elizabethan Era commenced with the reign of Elizabeth the First as the queen of England in 1558 until her death in 1603. In British history, her reign saw literary development reach its climax and conclusion and also, this was perhaps the most remarkable epoch for both mental and geographical horizons.

Are the Elizabethan age and Renaissance age in English Literature same?

The Elizabethan age is a part of the English Renaissance. Hence, it can be said that the two periods overlap.

What are the main characteristics of Elizabethan era Poetry, prose and drama?

These are the main literary features that were reflected in the literature of the Elizabethan Era:

• The New Classicism: By the time of Elizabeth, the Renaissance had made its presence strongly felt in England. There was an ardent revival in the study of Greek and in all, classical languages like Greek and Latin forced themselves upon the branches of literature. But, the new classical influences were of a great benefit as they polished the earlier sturdiness and roughness of English.
• The abundance of Output: In the Elizabethan Era, there was an abundance of literary output. Pamphlets and treatises were freely written and literary discussions slowly grew in importance and frequency.
• The New Romanticism: The romantic desires of the remote, the wonderful and the beautiful were nurtured during the Elizabethan Era, which can be considered as the first and the greatest romantic epoch. On one hand, there was a rejection of the old and the past in general, which was termed too ‘rigid’ for an adventurous age. Also, there was a daring and resolute spirit of adventure in literary as well as other regions.
• The Development of Drama: Drama had to overcome many difficulties in the Elizabethan Age. One was the closure of the theatres between the years 1590 to 1593. This problem was solved in 1594 by the licensing of two troupes. There were a lot of difficulties because of which the theatres had to closed in 1589. There was a considerable amount of puritanical opposition and anti-drama literature. Despite all these difficulties, the theatre managed to reach a splendid consummation, especially for Shakespeare.
• Development of poetry and prose: Poetic production was of great and original beauty even though it wasn’t as popular as drama. Prose also rose to a position of first-rate importance and was acquiring a universal application.

What is the effect of Elizabethan era literature on readers?

Although readership was very limited in the Elizabethan era, poetic and prose works were still read. The poetry of Philip Sydney and prose works of Bacon became very famous among scholars. Shakespeare’s works were not published in his lifetime.

Elizabethan Literature Themes

Generally viewed as the greatest period of English literature, the Elizabethan era literature was vastly influenced by the impact of the Renaissance. It was also greatly influenced by the exploration of the unknown parts of the words and new geographical as well as scientific discoveries.

It was also influenced by the subjects of Greek literature and the antiquity. They helped to throw light on the previously dark places of interest in terms of literature.

The Elizabethan era literature was also marked by the abundance of translation works that were done. Several important foreign texts were translated into English which became extremely popular. For example, Aristotle’s Orlando Furioso was translated into English by Sir John Harrington and Tasso’s Terusalom Liberata was translated by Richard Carew.

Despite borrowing from other places, Elizabethan literature was highly original in quality. Shakespeare borrowed heavily from foreign literature, yet remained startlingly original in style and presentation.

Spenser introduced the ‘Spenserian stanza’ and demonstrated inventiveness in poetry.

Why was the Elizabethan age called the Golden age of literature?

Queen Elizabeth’s reign became the golden era for production of literary works because she herself was a great patron of art and literature. During her reign, some new forms of poetry were introduced, first English essays and novels were written and dramas saw a surge of a huge production.

Types of Literature in the Elizabethan Era

The Elizabethan era witnessed the flourishing of a vast variety of literary works: Poetry flushed in terms of sonnets, dramatic blank verse and the Spenserian stanza.

It was the golden age of drama that established itself with Marlowe and reached greater heights with Shakespeare.

Prose also reached remarkable heights with the publication of historical journals, political pamphlets, literary criticism, translations of Holy Scriptures etc.

Characteristics of Elizabethan Drama

Some of the general features of Elizabethan drama were:

Asides for private conversations and Soliloquies became popular to engage the audience. Shakespeare wrote his plays in verses. Iambic Pentameter with five two-syllable units, also called “feet”, were a popular device. Blank verses were also widely used.

The plays were usually restricted to characters who belonged to the noble class and aristocracy. Elizabethan dramatists, especially Shakespeare, also popularised the use of insults and abuse through his plays to indicate verbal duelling.

Elizabethan era Poetry and Prose

What were the characteristics of Elizabethan poetry?

The general characteristics of Elizabethan poetry were:

They were written in Iambic Pentameter. The rhythm used to be abab cdcd efef gg. The Sonnet became the dominant form of poetry. The descriptive and narrative lyric poem also became popular.

The characteristics of Elizabethan prose were:

The prose could be divided into two categories – fiction and non-fiction. The fictions were usually romantic. The works of non-fiction had more variety and used to be straight forward in nature. Most political and critical works were non-fiction.

What did the writers of Elizabethan age accomplish?

Elizabethan age became the golden age of poetry and drama. Writers such as Shakespeare, Marlowe, Spenser, Sydney wrote the finest poetry and drama that went on to influence writers all over the world for generation to come.

There was also a vast variety of remarkable prose in the form of pamphlets, scriptures, essays etc.

The Age of Shakespeare

William Shakespeare was undoubtedly the greatest writer that emerged in the Elizabethan era. For more information on Shakespeare and his works click on the link.

How did Shakespeare’s poetry impact Elizabethan Literature?

Although Shakespeare was mostly famous for his plays, he also wrote a considerable number of sonnets which were popular as well. They were conventional in style but new in subject and presentation.

Major Literary Figures of the Elizabethan Era

The major literary figures of the Elizabethan Era were:

• Edmund Spenser
• Sir Philip Sidney
• William Shakespeare
• Christopher Marlowe

There were other figures who contributed to the literary scene at that time, but they were not as influential as the above five stalwarts.

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History of English Literature

English prose in the elizabethan age.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH PROSE IN THE ELIZABETHAN AGE

Although the Elizabethan age is called The Golden Age of English poetry and drama, it should also be regarded as a glorious age of English prose, for English prose was set on the track of glory by such great prose writers as Lyly, Greene, Lodge, Nashe, Deloney and Dekker with Sir Philip Sidney on the forefront.

At the outset, the Elizabethan prose turned to be translation of foreign books, especially the Italian Novella or Short romantic stories like Palace of Pleasure by William, Tragical Discourses by Geoffrey Fenton. Petite Palace by George Petite, an original writing published in 1576, was a collection of legendary tales. The most interesting of the early Elizabethan prose fiction was The Adventures of Master FJ by George Gascoigne. It was published in 1573.

Of the original prose writers of the Elizabethan age, John Lyly was the most famous. In 1578, the publication of his curious book, Euphues, the Anatomy of Wit and its sequel entitled Euphues and his England   in 1580 created a sensation. Although the books contained love stories with thin plots, they were intended to be read as books of conduct for aristocratic youths. Through these two books Lyly introduced an inimitable and unique style known as Euphuism marks him as a pioneer. The beauty of the style lies in the perfect use of balanced phrases, intricate alliteration, classical allusion, and ornate epithets.

Sir Philip Sidney’s Arcadia, the first pastoral romance in English, was modeled on the Spanish pastoral Romance. Sidney’s Arcadia may better be called a piece of poetry in the form of prose. However, it could exert great influence upon the drama of the age.

 In imitation of Lyly, Robert Greene wrote short novels ---  Mamillia (1583), The Mirror of Modesty and The Card of Fancy . His most popular romance Pandosto provided Shakespeare with the plot of The Winter’s Tale. Pandosto is marked by better narratives, shorter soliloquies and lesser Euphuism than other books. Greene modeled his Menaphon (1589) on Sidney’s Arcadia . Perhaps the best of Greene’s Euphuistic romance is To His Love published in 1589.

Thomas Lodge became famous for his euphuistic romance Rosalinde , the source of Shakespeare’s As You Like It . Although Lodge imitated Greene’s style of romantic tale, he surpassed his master by introducing masculine material borrowed from Chaucer.

  Thomas Dekker was famous for his realistic portrayal of contemporary life. His prose works include  Bellman of London ; Lantern and Candlelight ; The Seven Deadly Sins of London ; News from Hell brought by the Devil’s Carrier , all published between 1606 and 1608. We should note that Dekker’s characters are all idealized vagabonds.        

Thomas Nash should be regarded as the first writer of what is called travelogue for his famous book The Unfortunate Traveler or The Life of Jack Wilton . The story relates the life of Jack Wilton, a page in the reign of Henry VIII who becomes an adventurer.

Thomas Deloney is remembered for his famous prose work Gentle Craft, Jack of Newbery and Thomas of Reading . These books tell the stories of weavers and shoemakers of his time.

 As the age was intellectually very sound, it inspired a number of scholars to write non-fictional prose, Raphael Holinshed wrote his famous Chronicles which is a compilation of English, Scottish, and Irish history deriving from a variety of earlier sources. Thomas North published his scholarly translation of Plutarch’s Lives . Both the books were the source of Shakespeare’s history plays. In this age Richard Hakluyt published his Principal Navigations, Voyages, (Traffiques) and Discoveries of the English Nation .

There was another great scholar who contributed a great deal to the enrichment of English prose. He was Francis Bacon (1561-1626). He was the first to introduce in English the literary genre, known as the Essay, innovated by the French philosopher Montaigne. Bacon was both a scholar and a creative genius with a unique style of his own. Bacon was the first to introduce the intellectual, impersonal, reflective essays in a style which is inimitable. Brevity is the soul of Bacon’s essay. The words chosen by him are crisp and pithy. His sentences though small, speak volumes. It may be said that the Elizabethan intellectual prose finds its culmination in Bacon.

 Richard Hooker's masterly work Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Policy is one of the greatest of the non-fictional prose works of the Elizabethan age. It began appearing volume by volume in 1594 and continued till the author's death. It was the first book in England which used English for a serious philosophic discussion. Hooker was a Protestant who combined the piety of a saint with the simplicity of a child. His purpose in writing the book was to defend the Church of England and to support certain principles of Church government.

A basic characteristic common to almost all Elizabethan prose is the nearness of their prose to poetry. It is colourful, blazing, rhythmic, indirect, prolix, and convoluted. The Renaissance spirit of humanism, liberalism and romanticism found full play in the growth and development of English prose in the Elizabethan Age.

Literary Theory and Criticism

Home › History of English Literature › A Brief History of English Literature

A Brief History of English Literature

By NASRULLAH MAMBROL on July 18, 2018 • ( 14 )

OLD ENGLISH LITERATURE

The Old English language or Anglo-Saxon is the earliest form of English. The period is a long one and it is generally considered that Old English was spoken from about A.D. 600 to about 1100. Many of the poems of the period are pagan, in particular Widsith and Beowulf.

The greatest English poem, Beowulf is the first English epic. The author of Beowulf is anonymous. It is a story of a brave young man Beowulf in 3182 lines.  In this epic poem, Beowulf sails to Denmark with a band of warriors to save the King of Denmark, Hrothgar.  Beowulf saves Danish King Hrothgar from a terrible monster called Grendel. The mother of Grendel who sought vengeance for the death of her son was also killed by Beowulf. Beowulf was rewarded and became King. After a prosperous reign of some forty years, Beowulf slays a dragon but in the fight he himself receives a mortal wound and dies. The poem concludes with the funeral ceremonies in honour of the dead hero. Though the poem Beowulf is little interesting to contemporary readers, it is a very important poem in the Old English period because it gives an interesting picture of the life and practices of old days.

The difficulty encountered in reading Old English Literature lies in the fact that the language is very different from that of today. There was no rhyme in Old English poems. Instead they used alliteration.

Besides Beowulf , there are many other Old English poems. Widsith, Genesis A, Genesis B, Exodus, The Wanderer, The Seafarer, Wife’s Lament, Husband’s Message, Christ and Satan, Daniel, Andreas, Guthlac, The Dream of the Rood, The Battle of Maldon etc. are some of the examples.

Two important figures in Old English poetry are Cynewulf and Caedmon. Cynewulf wrote religious poems and the four poems, Juliana, The Fates of the Apostles, Christ and Elene are always credited with him. Caedmon is famous for his Hymn.

Alfred enriched Old English prose with his translations especially Bede’s Ecclesiastical History. Aelfric is another important prose writer during Old English period. He is famous for his Grammar, Homilies and Lives of the Saints. Aelfric’s prose is natural and easy and is very often alliterative.

Middle English Literature

Geoffrey Chaucer Poet Geoffrey Chaucer was born circa 1340 in London, England. In 1357 he became a public servant to Countess Elizabeth of Ulster and continued in that capacity with the British court throughout his lifetime.  The Canterbury Tales became his best known and most acclaimed work. He died in 1400 and was the first to be buried in Westminster Abbey’s Poet’s Corner.

Chaucer’s first major work was ‘The Book of the Duchess’, an elegy for the first wife of his patron John of Gaunt. Other works include ‘Parlement of Foules’, ‘The Legend of Good Women’ and ‘Troilus and Criseyde’. In 1387, he began his most famous work, ‘The Canterbury Tales’, in which a diverse group of people recount stories to pass the time on a pilgrimage to Canterbury.

William Langland ,   (born  c.  1330—died  c.  1400), presumed author of one of the greatest examples of Middle English alliterative poetry, generally known as  Piers Plowman,  an allegorical work with a complex variety of religious themes. One of the major achievements of  Piers Plowman  is that it translates the language and conceptions of the cloister into symbols and images that could be understood by the layman. In general, the language of the poem is simple and colloquial, but some of the author’s imagery is powerful and direct.

PERIODS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DRAMA

In Europe, as in Greece, the drama had a distinctly religious origin. The first characters were drawn from the New Testament, and the object of the first plays was to make the church service more impressive, or to emphasize moral lessons by showing the reward of the good and the punishment of the evil doer. In the latter days of the Roman Empire the Church found the stage possessed by frightful plays, which debased the morals of a people already fallen too low. Reform seemed impossible; the corrupt drama was driven from the stage, and plays of every kind were forbidden. But mankind loves a spectacle, and soon the Church itself provided a substitute for the forbidden plays in the famous Mysteries and Miracles.

MIRACLE AND MYSTERY PLAYS

In France the name miracle was given to any play representing the lives of the saints, while the mystère represented scenes from the life of Christ or stories from the Old Testament associated with the coming of Messiah. In England this distinction was almost unknown; the name Miracle was used indiscriminately for all plays having their origin in the Bible or in the lives of the saints; and the name Mystery, to distinguish a certain class of plays, was not used until long after the religious drama had passed away.

The earliest Miracle of which we have any record in England is the Ludus de Sancta Katharina, which was performed in Dunstable about the year 1110. It is not known who wrote the original play of St. Catherine, but our first version was prepared by Geoffrey of St. Albans, a French schoolteacher of Dunstable. Whether or not the play was given in English is not known, but it was customary in the earliest plays for the chief actors to speak in Latin or French, to show their importance, while minor and comic parts of the same play were given in English.

For four centuries after this first recorded play the Miracles increased steadily in number and popularity in England. They were given first very simply and impressively in the churches; then, as the actors increased in number and the plays in liveliness, they overflowed to the churchyards; but when fun and hilarity began to predominate even in the most sacred representations, the scandalized priests forbade plays altogether on church grounds. By the year 1300 the Miracles were out of ecclesiastical hands and adopted eagerly by the town guilds; and in the following two centuries we find the Church preaching against the abuse of the religious drama which it had itself introduced, and which at first had served a purely religious purpose. But by this time the Miracles had taken strong hold upon the English people, and they continued to be immensely popular until, in the sixteenth century, they were replaced by the Elizabethan drama.

The early Miracle plays of England were divided into two classes: the first, given at Christmas, included all plays connected with the birth of Christ; the second, at Easter, included the plays relating to his death and triumph. By the beginning of the fourteenth century all these plays were, in various localities, united in single cycles beginning with the Creation and ending with the Final Judgment. The complete cycle was presented every spring, beginning on Corpus Christi day; and as the presentation of so many plays meant a continuous outdoor festival of a week or more, this day was looked forward to as the happiest of the whole year.

Probably every important town in England had its own cycle of plays for its own guilds to perform, but nearly all have been lost. At the present day only four cycles exist (except in the most fragmentary condition), and these, though they furnish an interesting commentary on the times, add very little to our literature. The four cycles are the Chester and York plays, so called from the towns in which they were given; the Towneley or Wakefield plays, named for the Towneley family, which for a long time owned the manuscript; and the Coventry plays, which on doubtful evidence have been associated with the Grey Friars (Franciscans) of Coventry. The Chester cycle has 25 plays, the Wakefield 30, the Coventry 42, and the York 48. It is impossible to fix either the date or the authorship of any of these plays; we only know certainly that they were in great favor from the twelfth to the sixteenth century. The York plays are generally considered to be the best; but those of Wakefield show more humor and variety, and better workmanship. The former cycle especially shows a certain unity resulting from its aim to represent the whole of man’s life from birth to death. The same thing is noticeable in Cursor Mundi , which, with the York and Wakefield cycles, belongs to the fourteenth century.

After these plays were written according to the general outline of the Bible stories, no change was tolerated, the audience insisting, like children at “Punch and Judy,” upon seeing the same things year after year. No originality in plot or treatment was possible, therefore; the only variety was in new songs and jokes, and in the pranks of the devil. Childish as such plays seem to us, they are part of the religious development of all uneducated people. Even now the Persian play of the “Martyrdom of Ali” is celebrated yearly, and the famous “Passion Play,” a true Miracle, is given every ten years at Oberammergau.

THE MORAL PERIOD OF THE DRAMA

The second or moral period of the drama is shown by the increasing prevalence of the Morality plays. In these the characters were allegorical personages,–Life, Death, Repentance, Goodness, Love, Greed, and other virtues and vices. The Moralities may be regarded, therefore, as the dramatic counterpart of the once popular allegorical poetry exemplified by the Romance of the Rose . It did not occur to our first, unknown dramatists to portray men and women as they are until they had first made characters of abstract human qualities. Nevertheless, the Morality marks a distinct advance over the Miracle in that it gave free scope to the imagination for new plots and incidents. In Spain and Portugal these plays, under the name auto , were wonderfully developed by the genius of Calderon and Gil Vicente; but in England the Morality was a dreary kind of performance, like the allegorical poetry which preceded it.

To enliven the audience the devil of the Miracle plays was introduced; and another lively personage called the Vice was the predecessor of our modern clown and jester. His business was to torment the “virtues” by mischievous pranks, and especially to make the devil’s life a burden by beating him with a bladder or a wooden sword at every opportunity. The Morality generally ended in the triumph of virtue, the devil leaping into hell-mouth with Vice on his back.

The best known of the Moralities is “Everyman,” which has recently been revived in England and America. The subject of the play is the summoning of every man by Death; and the moral is that nothing can take away the terror of the inevitable summons but an honest life and the comforts of religion. In its dramatic unity it suggests the pure Greek drama; there is no change of time or scene, and the stage is never empty from the beginning to the end of the performance. Other well-known Moralities are the “Pride of Life,” “Hyckescorner,” and “Castell of Perseverance.” In the latter, man is represented as shut up in a castle garrisoned by the virtues and besieged by the vices.

Like the Miracle plays, most of the old Moralities are of unknown date and origin. Of the known authors of Moralities, two of the best are John Skelton, who wrote “Magnificence,” and probably also “The Necromancer”; and Sir David Lindsay (1490-1555), “the poet of the Scotch Reformation,” whose religious business it was to make rulers uncomfortable by telling them unpleasant truths in the form of poetry. With these men a new element enters into the Moralities. They satirize or denounce abuses of Church and State, and introduce living personages thinly disguised as allegories; so that the stage first becomes a power in shaping events and correcting abuses.

THE INTERLUDES

It is impossible to draw any accurate line of distinction between the Moralities and Interludes. In general we may think of the latter as dramatic scenes, sometimes given by themselves (usually with music and singing) at banquets and entertainments where a little fun was wanted; and again slipped into a Miracle play to enliven the audience after a solemn scene. Thus on the margin of a page of one of the old Chester plays we read, “The boye and pigge when the kinges are gone.” Certainly this was no part of the original scene between Herod and the three kings. So also the quarrel between Noah and his wife is probably a late addition to an old play. The Interludes originated, undoubtedly, in a sense of humor; and to John Heywood (1497?-1580?), a favorite retainer and jester at the court of Mary, is due the credit for raising the Interlude to the distinct dramatic form known as comedy.

Heywood’s Interludes were written between 1520 and 1540. His most famous is “The Four P’s,” a contest of wit between a “Pardoner, a Palmer, a Pedlar and a Poticary.” The characters here strongly suggest those of Chaucer.  Another interesting Interlude is called “The Play of the Weather.” In this Jupiter and the gods assemble to listen to complaints about the weather and to reform abuses. Naturally everybody wants his own kind of weather. The climax is reached by a boy who announces that a boy’s pleasure consists in two things, catching birds and throwing snowballs, and begs for the weather to be such that he can always do both. Jupiter decides that he will do just as he pleases about the weather, and everybody goes home satisfied.

All these early plays were written, for the most part, in a mingling of prose and wretched doggerel, and add nothing to our literature. Their great work was to train actors, to keep alive the dramatic spirit, and to prepare the way for the true drama.

ELIZABEHAN POETRY AND PROSE

After the death of Geoffrey Chaucer in 1400, a century has gone without great literary outputs. This period is known as Barren Age of literature.

Even though there are many differences in their work, Sir Thomas Wyatt and the Earl of Surrey are often mentioned together. Sir Thomas Wyatt introduced the Sonnet in England whereas Surrey wrote the first blank verse in English.

Thomas Wyatt followed the Italian poet Petrarch to compose sonnets. In this form, the 14 lines rhyme abbaabba (8) + 2 or 3 rhymes in the last six lines.

The Earl of Surrey’s blank verse is remarkable. Christopher Marlow, Shakespeare, Milton and many other writers made use of it.

Tottel’s Songs and Sonnets (1557) is the first printed anthology of English poetry. It contained 40 poems by Surrey and 96 by Wyatt. There were 135 by other authors. Some of these poems were fine, some childish.

In 1609, a collection of Shakespeare’s 154 sonnets was printed. These sonnets were addressed to one “Mr. W.H.”. The most probable explanation of the identity of “W.H.” is that he was William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke.

Other people mentioned in the sonnets are a girl, a rival poet, and a dark-eyed beauty.  Shakespeare’s two long poems, Venus and Adonis, The Rape of Lucrece are notable.

One of the most important poets of Elizabethan period is Edmund Spenser (1552-1599). He has been addressed “the poets’ poet”. His pastoral poem, The Shepeard’s Calendar (1579) is in 12 books, one for each month of the year. Spenser’s Amoretti, 88 Petrarchan sonnets clebrates his progress of love. The joy of his marriage with Elizabeth Boyle is expressed in his ode Epithalamion. His Prothalamion is written in honour of the double marriage of the daughters of the Earl of Worester. Spenser’s allegorical poem, The Faerie Queene is his greatest achievement.  Spenser invented a special metre for The Faerie Queene . The verse has nine lines and the rhyme plan is ababbcbcc. This verse is known as the ‘Spenserian Stanza’.

Sir Philip Sidney is remembered for his prose romance, Arcadia . His critical essay Apology for Poetry, sonnet collection Astrophel and Stella are elegant.

Michael Drayton and Sir Walter Raleigh are other important poets of Elizabethan England. Famous Elizabethan dramatist Ben Jonson produced fine poems also.

The University Wits John Lyly, Thomas Kyd, George Peele, Thomas Lodge, Robert Green, Christopher Marlow, and Thomas Nash also wrote good number of poems. John Lyly is most widely known as the author of prose romance entitled Euphues. The style Lyly used in his Euphues is known as Euphuism. The sentences are long and complicated. It is filled with tricks and alliteration. Large number of similes are brought in.

John Donne’s works add the beauty of Elizabethan literature. He was the chief figure of Metaphysical Poetry. Donne’s poems are noted for its originality and striking images and conceits. Satires, Songs and Sonnets, Elegies, The Flea, A Valediction: forbidding mourning, A Valediction: of weeping etc. are his famous works.

Sir Francis Bacon is a versatile genius of Elizabethan England. He is considered as the father of English essays. His Essays first appeared in 1597, the second edition in 1612 and the third edition in 1625. Besides essays, he wrote The Advancement of Learning, New Atlantis and History of Henry VII.

Bacon’s popular essays are Of Truth, Of Friendship, Of Love, Of Travel, Of Parents and Children, Of Marriage and Single Life, Of Anger, Of Revenge, Of Death, etc.

Ben Jonson’s essays are compiled in The Timber or Discoveries. His essays are aphoristic like those of Bacon. Jonson is considered as the father of English literary criticism.

Many attempts were carried out to translate Bible into English. After the death of John Wycliff, William Tyndale tried on this project. Coverdale carried on the work of Tyndale. The Authorized Version of Bible was published in 1611.

ELIZABETHAN DRAMA

The English dramas have gone through great transformation in Elizabethan period. The chief literary glory of the Elizabethan age was its drama. The first regular English comedy was Ralph Roister Doister written by Nicholas Udall. Another comedy Gammar Gurton’s Needle is about the loss and the finding of a needle with which the old woman Gammar Gurton mends clothes.

The first English tragedy was Gorboduc , in blank verse. The first three acts of Gorboduc writtern by Thomas Norton and the other two by Thomas Sackville.

The University Wits contributed hugely for the growth of Elizabethan drama. The University Wits were young men associated with Oxford and Cambridge. They were fond of heroic themes. The most notable figures are Christopher Marlow, Thomas Kyd, Thomas Nash, Thomas Lodge, Robert Greene, and George Peele.

Christopher Marlow was the greatest of pre-Shakespearean dramatist. Marlow wrote only tragedies. His most famous works are  Edward II, Tamburlaine the Great, The Jew of Malta, The Massacre at Paris, and Doctor Faustus. Marlow popularized the blank verse. Ben Jonson called it “the mighty line of Marlow”.

Thomas Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy is a Senecan play. It resembles Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Its horrific plot gave the play a great and lasting popularity.

The greatest literary figure of English, William Shakespeare was born at Stratford-on-Avon on April 26, 1564. He did odd jobs and left to London for a career. In London, he wrote plays for Lord Chamberlain’s company. Shakespeare’s plays can be classified as the following

1.The Early Comedies: in these immature plays the plots are not original. The characters are less finished and the style lacks the genius of Shakespeare. They are full of wit and word play. Of this type are The Comedy of Errors, Love’s Labour’s Lost, and The Two Gentlemen of Verona.

2.The English Histories: These plays show a rapid maturing of Shakespeare’s technique. His characterization has improved. The plays in this group are Richard II, Henry IV and Henry V.

3. The Mature Comedies: The jovial good humour of Sir Toby Belch in Twelfth Night, the urban worldywise comedy of Touchstone in As You Like It, and the comic scenes in The Merchant of Venice, Much Ado About Nothing etc. are full of vitality. They contain many comic situations.

4.The  Sombre Plays: In this group are All’s Well that Ends Well, Measure for Measure, and Trolius and Cressida . These plays show a cynical attitude to life and are realistic in plot.

5. The Great Tragedies : Hamlet, Othello, Macbeth , and King Lear are the climax of Shakespeare’s art. These plays stand supreme in intensity of emotion, depth of psychological insight, and power of style.

6. The Roman Plays: Julius Caesar, Antony and Cleopatra, Coriolanus etc. follow the great tragic period. Unlike Marlow, Shakespeare is relaxed in the intensity of tragedy.

7. The Last Plays: The notable last plays of Shakespeare are Cymbeline, The Winter’s Tale, and The Tempest.

The immense power and variety of Shakespeare’s work have led to the idea that one man cannot have written it all; yet it must be true that one man did. Thus Shakespeare remains as the greatest English dramatist even after four centuries of his death.

Other dramatist who flourished during the Elizabethan period is Ben Jonson. He introduced the “comedy of humours’’, which portrays the individual as dominated by one marked characteristic. He is best known for his Every Man  in his Humour. Other important plays of Jonson are Every Man out of his Humour, Volpone or the Fox, and The Alchemist,

John Webster’s The White Devil and The Duchess of Malfi are important Elizabethan dramas. Thomas Dekker, Thomas Middleton, Thomas Heywood, Beaumont and Fletcher etc. are other noted Elizabethan playwrights.  

John Milton and His Time

John Milton (1608- 1674) was born in London and educated at Christ’s College, Cambridge. After leaving university, he studied at home. Milton was a great poet, polemic, pamphleteer, theologian, and parliamentarian. In 1643, Milton married a woman much younger than himself. She left Milton and did not return for two years. This unfortunate incident led Milton to write two strong pamphlets on divorce. The greatest of all his political writings is Areopagitica, a notable and impassioned plea for the liberty of the press.

Milton’s early poems include On Shakespeare, and On Arriving at the Age of Twenty-three. L’Allegro( the happy man and Il Penseroso (the sad man) two long narrative poems.  Comus is a masque written by Milton when he was at Cambridge.

His pastoral elegy Lycidas is on his friend, Edward King who drowned to death on a voyage to Ireland. Milton’s one of the sonnets deals with the theme of his blindness.

Milton is remembered for his greatest epic poem Paradise Lost. Paradise Lost contained twelve books and published in 1677. Milton composed it in blank verse. Paradise Lost covers the rebellion of Satan(Lucifer) in heaven and his expulsion. Paradise Lost contains hundreds of remarkable lines. Milton coined many words in this poem.

Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes are other two major poems of Milton.

Milton occupies a central position in English literature. He was a great Puritan and supported Oliver Cromwell in the Civil War. He wrote many pamphlet in support of parliament.

LYRIC POETS DURING MILTON’S PERIOD (THE CAVALIER POETS)

Milton’s period produced immense lyric poetry. These lyrical poets dealt chiefly with love and war.

Richard Lovelace’s Lucasta contains the best of his shorter pieces. His best known lyrics, such as To Althea, from Prison and To Lucasta, going in the Wars, are simple and sincere.

Sir John Suckling was a famous wit at court. His poems are generous and witty. His famous poem is  Ballad upon a Wedding.

Robert Herrick wrote some fresh and passionate lyrics. Among his best known shorter poems are To Althea, To Julia, and Cherry Ripe.

Philip Massinger and John Ford produced some notable in this period.

Many prose writers flourished during Milton’s age. Sir Thomas Browne is the best prose writer of the period. His ReligioMedici is a curious mixture of religious faith and scientific skepticism. Pseudodoxia Epidemica, or Vulgar Errors is another important work.

Thomas Hobbes’s Leviathan, Thomas Fuller’s The History of the Holy War are other important prose works during this period. Izaac Walton’s biography of John Donne is a very famous work of Milton’s period. His Compleat Angler discusses the art of river fishing.

RESTORATION DRAMA AND PROSE

The Restoration of Charles II (1660) brought about a revolution in English literature. With the collapse of the Puritan Government there sprang up activities that had been so long suppressed. The Restoration encouraged levity in rules that often resulted in immoral and indecent plays.

John Dryden (1631-1700)

Dryden is the greatest literary figure of the Restoration. In his works, we have an excellent reflection of both the good and the bad tendencies of the age in which he lived. Before the Restoration, Dryden supported Oliver Cromwell. At the Restoration, Dryden changed his views and became loyal to Charles II. His poem Astrea Redux (1660) celebrated Charles II’s return.

Dryden’s Annus Mirabilis( Miracle Year) describes the terrors of Great Fire in London in 1666. Dryden appeared as the chief literary champion of the monarchy in his famous satirical allegory, Abasalom and Achitophel. John Dryden is now remembered for his greatest mock-heroic poem, Mac Flecknoe. Mac Flecknoe is a personal attack on his rival poet Thomas Shadwell.

Dryden’s other important poems are Religio Laici, and The Hind and the Panther.

John Dryden popularized heroic couplets in his dramas. Aurengaxebe, The Rival Ladies, The Conquest of Granada, Don Sebastian etc. are some of his famous plays.

His dramatic masterpiece is All for Love. Dryden polished the plot of Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra in his All for Love.

As a prose writer, Dryden’s work, An Essay on Dramatic Poesie is worth mentioning.

John Bunyan’s greatest allegory, The Pilgrim’s Progress, The Holy War, 

Comedy of Manners

Restoration period produced a brilliant group of dramatists who made this age immortal in the history of English literature. These plays are hard and witty, comic and immoral. It was George Etheredge who introduced Comedy of Manners. His famous plays are She Would if She Could, The Man of Mode and Love in a Tub.

William Congreve is the greatest of Restoration comedy writers. His Love for Love, The Old Bachelor, The Way of the World and The Double Dealer are very popular.

William Wycherley is another important Restoration comedy playwright. His Country Wife, and Love in a Wood are notable plays.

Sir John Vanbrugh’s best three comedies are The Provoked Wife, The Relapse and The Confederacy.

ENGLISH POETS, 1660-1798

ALEXANDER POPE (1688-1744)

Alexander Pope was the undisputed master of both prose and verse. Pope wrote many poems and mock-epics attacking his rival poets and social condition of England. His Dunciad is an attack on dullness. He wrote An Essay on Criticism ( 1711) in heroic couplets. In 1712, Pope pubished The Rape of the Lock,  one of the most brilliant poems in English language. It is a mock-heroic poem dealing with the fight of two noble families.

An Essay on Man, Of the Characters of Women, and the translation of Illiad and Odyssey are his other major works.

Oliver Goldsmith wrote two popular poems in heroic couplets. They are The Traveller and The Deserted Village.

James Thompson is remembered for his long series of descriptive passages dealing with natural scenes in his poem The Seasons. He wrote another important poem The Castle of Indolence.

Edward Young produced a large amount of literary work of variable quality. The Last Day, The Love of Fame, and The Force of Religion are some of them.

Robert Blair ’s fame is chiefly dependent on his poem The Grave. It is a long blank verse poem of meditation on man’s morality.

Thomas Gray (1716-1771) is one of the greatest poets of English literature. His first poem was the Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College. Then after years of revision, he published his famous Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard. Its popularity had been maintained to the present day. Other important poems of Thomas Gray are Ode on a Favourite Cat, The Bard and The Progress of Poesy.

William Blake (1757-1827) is both a great poet and artist. His two collections of short lyrics are Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience. His finest lyric is The Tiger.

Robert Burns is known as the national poet of Scotland. A Winter Night, O My Love is like a Red Red Rose, The Holy Fair etc. are some of his major poems.

William Cowper, William Collins, and William Shenstone are other notable poets before the Romanticism.

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY PROSE

DANIEL DEFOE (1659-1731)

Daniel Defoe wrote in bulk. His greatest work is the novel Robinson Crusoe. It is based on an actual event which took place during his time. Robinson Crusoe is considered to be one of the most popular novels in English language. He started a journal named The Review. His A Journal of the Plague Year deals with the Plague in London in 1665.

Sir Richard Steele and Joseph Addison worked together for many years. Richard Steele started the periodicals The Tatler, The Spectator, The Guardian, The English Man, and The Reader. Joseph Addison contributed in these periodicals and wrote columns. The imaginary character of Sir Roger de Coverley was very popular during the eighteenth century.

Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) is one of the greatest satirists of English literature. His first noteworthy book was The Battle of the Books . A Tale of a Tub is a religious allegory like Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress. His longest and most famous work is Gulliver’s Travels. Another important work of Jonathan Swift is A Modest Proposal.

Dr. Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) is very much famous for his Dictionary (1755). The Vanity of Human Wishes is a longish poem by him. Johnson started a paper named The Rambler. His The Lives of the Poets introduces fifty-two poets including Donne, Dryden, Pope, Milton, and Gray. Most of the information about Johnson is taken from his friend James Boswell’s biography Life of Samuel Johnson.

Edward Gibbon is famous for the great historical work, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. His Autobiography contains valuable material concerning his life.

Edmund Burke is one of the masters of English prose. He was a great orator also. His speech On American Taxation is very famous.  Revolution in France and A Letter to a Noble Lord are his notable pamphlets.

The letters of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Earl of Chesterfield, Thomas Gray and Cowper are good prose works in Eighteenth century literature.

The Birth of English Novel

The English novel proper was born about the middle of the eighteenth century. Samuel Richardson (1689-1761) is considered as the father of English novel. He published his first novel Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded in 1740. This novel is written in the form of letters. Thus Pamela is an ‘epistolary novel’. The character Pamela is a poor and virtuous woman who marries a wicked man and afterwards reforms her husband. Richardson’s next novel Clarissa Harlowe was also constructed in the form of letters. Many critics consider Clarissa as Richardson’s masterpiece. Clarissa is the beautiful daughter of a severe father who wants her to marry against her will. Clarissa is a very long novel.

Henry Fielding (1707-1754) is another important novelist. He published Joseph Andrews in 1742. Joseph Andrews laughs at Samuel Richardson’s Pamela. His greatest novel is Tom Jones . Henry Fielding’s last novel is Amelia.

Tobias Smollett wrote a ‘picaresque novel’ titled The Adventures of Roderick Random. His other novels are The Adventures of Ferdinand and Humphry Clinker.

Laurence Sterne is now remembered for his masterpiece Tristram Shandy which was published in 1760. Another important work of Laurence Sterne is A Sentimental journey through France and Italy. These novels are unique in English literature. Sterne blends humour and pathos in his works.

Horace Walpole is famous both as a letter writer and novelist. His one and only novel The Castle of Otranto deals with the horrific and supernatural theme.

Other ‘terror novelists’ include William Beckford and Mrs Ann Radcliffe.

EARLY NINTEENTH CENTURY POETS (THE ROMANTICS)

The main stream of poetry in the eighteenth century had been orderly and polished, without much feeling for nature. The publication of the first edition of the Lyrical Ballads in 1798 came as a shock. The publication of Lyrical Ballads by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge was the beginning of the romantic age. They together with Southey are known as the Lake Poets, because they liked the Lake district in England and lived in it.

William Wordsworth ((1770-1850) was the poet of nature. In the preface to the second edition of the Lyrical Ballads, Wordsworth set out his theory of poetry. He defined poetry as “the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings and emotions”. His views on poetical style are the most revolutionary.

In his early career as a poet, Wordsworth wrote poems like An Evening Walk and Descriptive Sketches. The Prelude is the record of his development as a poet. It is a philosophical poem. He wrote some of the best lyric poems in the English language like The Solitary Reaper, I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud, Ode on the Itimations of Immorality, Resolution and Independence etc. Tintern Abbey is one of the greatest poems of Wordsworth.

Samuel Tylor Coleridge (1772-1814) wrote four poems for The Lyrical Ballads. The Rime of the Ancient Mariner is the most noteworthy. Kubla Khan, Christabel, Dejection an Ode, Frost at Midnight etc. are other important poems. Biographia Literaria is his most valuable prose work. Coleridge’s lectures on Shakespeare are equally important.

Lord Byron’s Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage was based on his travels. Don Juan ranks as one of the greatest of satirical poems. The Vision of Judgment is a fine political satire in English.

PB Shelley (1792-1822) was a revolutionary figure of Romantic period. When Shelley was studying at Oxford, he wrote the pamphlet The Necessity of Atheism which caused his expulsion from the university. Queen Mab, The Revolt of Islam and Alastor are his early poems. Prometheus Unbound is a combination of the lyric and the drama. Shelley wrote some of the sweetest English lyrics like To a Skylark, The Cloud, To Night etc. Of his many odes, the most remarkable is  Ode to the West Wind. Adonais is an elegy on the death of John Keats.

John Keats (1795-1821) is another great Romantic poet who wrote some excellent poems in his short period of life. His Isabella deals with the murder of a lady’s lover by her two wicked brothers. The unfinished epic poem Hyperion is modelled on Milton’s Paradise Lost. The Eve of St Agnes is regarded as his finest narrative poem. The story of Lamia is taken from Burton’s Anatomy of Melancholy. Endymion, Ode to a Nightingale, Ode on a Grecian Urn, Ode to Psyche, Ode on Melancholy and Ode to Autumn are very famous . His Letters give give a clear insight into his mind and artistic development.

Robert Southey is a minor Romantic poet. His poems, which are of great bulk, include Joan of Arc, Thalaba, and The Holly-tree. 4

LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY POETS (Victorian Poets)

Alfred Lord Tennyson (1809-92) is a chief figure of later nineteenth century poetry. His volume of Poems contain notable poems like The Lady of Shalott, The Lotos-Eaters, Ulysses, Morte d’ Arthur. The story of Morte d’ Arthur is based on Thomas Malory’s poem Morte d’ Arthur. In Memoriam(1850) caused a great stir when it first appeared. It is a very long series of meditations upon the death of Arthur Henry Hallam, Tennyson’s college friend, who died at Vienna in 1833. In Memoriam is the most deeply emotional, and probably the greatest poetry he ever produced. Maud and Other Poems was received with amazement by the public. Idylls of the King, Enoch Arden, Harold etc. are his other works.

Robert Browning (1812-89) is an English poet and playwright whose mastery of dramatic monologues made him one of the foremost Victorian poets.  He popularized ‘dramatic monologue’. The Ring and the Book  is an epic-length poem in which he justifies the ways of God to humanity  Browning is popularly known by his shorter poems, such as  Porphyria’s Lover ,  Rabbi Ben Ezra ,  How They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix , and  The Pied Piper of Hamelin . He married Elizabeth Barrett, another famous poet during the Victorian period. Fra Lippo Lippi Andrea Del Sarto and My Last Duchess are famous dramatic monologues.

Matthew Arnold  (1822-1888) was an English poet and cultural critic who worked as an inspector of schools. He was the son of Thomas Arnold, the famed headmaster of Rugby School. Arnold is sometimes called the third great Victorian poet, along with Alfred Lord Tennyson and Robert Browning. Arnold valued natural scenery for its peace and permanence in contrast with the ceaseless change of human things. His descriptions are often picturesque, and marked by striking similes. Thyrsis, Dover Beach and The Scholar Gipsy are his notable poems.

Dante Gabriel Rossetti was an English poet, illustrator, painter and translator in the late nineteenth century England. Rossotti’s poems were criticized as belonging to the ‘Fleshy School’ of poetry. Rossetti wrote about nature with his eyes on it.

Elizabeth Barrett Browning, wife of Robert Browning wrote some excellent poems in her volume of Sonnets from the Portuguese.

AC Swinburne followed the style of Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Swinburne’s famous poems works are Poems and Ballads and tristram of Lyonesse.

Edward Fitzgerald translated the Rubaiyat of the Persian poet Omar Khayyam. Fitzgerald’s translation is loose and did not stick too closely to the original.

Rudyard Kipling and Francis Thompson also wrote some good poems during the later nineteenth century.

Nineteenth Century Novelists  (Victorian Novelists)

Jane Austen 1775-1817 is one of the greatest novelists of nineteenth century English literature. Her first novel Pride and Prejudice (1813) deals with the life of middle class people. The style is smooth and charming. Her second novel Sense and Sensibility followed the same general lines of Pride and Prejudice. Northanger Abbey, Emma, Mansfield Park, and Persuasion are some of the other famous works. Jane Austen’s plots are skillfully constructed. Her characters are developed with minuteness and accuracy.

Charles Dickens (1812-1870) is considered as one of the greatest English novelists. Dickens has contributed some evergreen characters to English literature. He was a busy successful novelist during his lifetime. The Pickwick Papers and Sketches by Boz are two early novels. Oliver Twist, Nicholas Nickleby , David Copperfield, Hard Times, A Tale of Two Cities and Great Expectations are some of the most famous novels of Charles Dickens. No English novelists excel Dickens in the multiplicity of his characters and situations. He creates a whole world people for the readers. He sketched both lower and middle class people in London.

William Makepeace Thackeray was born in Calcutta and sent to England for education. William Thackeray is now chiefly remembered for his novel The Vanity Fair. While Dickens was in full tide of his success, Thackeray was struggling through neglect and contempt to recognition. Thackeray’s genius blossomed slowly. Thackeray’s characters are fearless and rough. He protested against the feeble characters of his time. The Rose and the Ring, Rebecca and Rowena, and The Four Georges are some of his works.

The Bront ë s Charlotte, Emily, and Anne were the daughters of an Irish clergy man Patrick Bront ë, who held a living in Yorkshire. Charlotte Bront ë ’ s first novel, The Professor failed to find a publisher and only appeared after her death. Jane Eyre is her greatest novel. the plot is weak and melodramatic. This was followed by Shirley and Villette. Her plots are overcharged and she is largely restricted to her own experiments.

Emily Brontë wrote less than Charlottë. Her one and only novel Wuthering Heights (1847) is unique in English literature. It is the passionate love story of Heathcliff and Catherine.

Anne Bronte ’s two novels, Agnes Grey and The Tenant of Wildfell Hall are much inferior to those of her sisters, for she lacks nearly all their power and intensity.

George Eliot (1819-1880) is the pen-name of Mary Ann Evans. Adam Bede was her first novel. Her next novel, The Mill on the Floss is partly autobiographical. Silas Marner is a shorter novel which gives excellent pictures of village life. Romola, Middle March and Daniel Deronda are other works of George Eliot.

Thomas Hardy (1840-1928) published his first work Desperate Remedies anonymously. Under the Greenwood Tree, one of the lightest and most appealing of his novels established him as a writer. It was set in the rural area he was soon to make famous as Wessex. Far From the Madding Crowd is a tragi-comedy set in Wessex. The rural background of the story is an integral part of the novel, which reveals the emotional depths which underlie rustic life. The novel, The Return of the Native is a study of man’s helplessness before the mighty Fate. The Mayor of Casterbridge also deals with the theme of Man versus Destiny. Tess of the D’Urbervilles and Jude the Obscure aroused the hostility of conventional readers due to their frank handling of sex and religion. At the beginning Tess of the D’Urbervilles was rejected by the publishers. The outcry with the publication of Jude the Obscure led Hardy in disgust to abandon novel writing. Thomas Hardy’s characters are mostly men and women living close to the soil.

Mary Shelley , the wife of Romantic poet PB Shelley is now remembered as a writer of her famous novel of terror, Frankestein. Frankestein can be regarded as the first attempt at science fiction. The Last Man is Mary Shelley’s another work.

Edgar Allan Poe was a master of Mystery stories. Poe’s powerful description of astonishing and unusual events has the attraction of terrible things. Some of his major works are The Mystery of Marie Roget, The Murders in the Rue Morgue, The Fall of the House of Usher and The Mystery of Red Death.

Besides poetry collections like The Lady of the Last Ministrel, Marmion, The Lady of the Lake, and The Lord of the Isles, Sir Walter Scott produced enormous number of novels. Waverly, Old Mortality, The Black Dwarf, The Pirate, and Kenilworth are some of them. He was too haste in writing novels and this led to the careless, imperfect stories. He has a great place in the field of historical novels.

Frederick Marryat ’s sea novels were popular in the nineteenth century. His earliest novel was The Naval Officer. All his best books deal with the sea. Marryat has a considerable gift for plain narrative and his humour is entertaining. Peter Simple, Jacob Faithful and Japhet in Search of His Father are some of his famous works.

R.L. Stevenson ’s The Tr easure Island, George Meredith ’s The Egoist, Edward Lytton ’s The Last Days of Pompeii, Charles Reade ’s Mask and Faces, Anthony Trollope ’s The Warden, Wilkie Collins ’s The Moonstone, Joseph Conard ’s Lord Jim, Nathaniel Hawthrone ’s The Scarlet Letter etc. are some of other famous works of nineteenth century English literature.

Other Nineteenth Century Prose

Charles Lamb is one of the greatest essayists of nineteenth century. Lamb started his career as a poet but is now remembered for his well-known Essays of Elia. His essays are unequal in English. He is so sensitive and so strong. Besides Essays of Elia, other famous essays are Dream Children and Tales from Shakespeare. His sister, Mary Lamb also wrote some significant essays.

William Hazlitt ’s reputation chiefly  rests on his lectures and essays on literary and general subjects. His lectures, Characters of Shakespeare’s Plays, The English Poets and The English Comic Writers are important.

Thomas De Quincey ’s famous work is Confessions of an English Opium Eater. It is written in the manner of dreams. His Reminiscences of the English Lake Poets contain some good chapters on Wordsworth and Coleridge.

Thomas Carlyle is another prose writer of nineteenth century. His works consisted of translations, essays, and biographies. Of these the best are his translation of Goethe’s Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship, his The Life of Schiller, and his essays on Robert Burns and Walter Scott.

Thomas Macaulay (Lord Macaulay) wrote extensively. He contributed for The Encyclopedia of Britannica and The Edinburgh Review. His History of England is filled with numerous and picturesque details.

Charles Darwin is one of the greatest names in modern science. He devoted almost wholly to biological and allied studies. His chief works are The Voyage of the Beagle, Origin of Species, and The Descent of Man.

John Ruskin ’s works are of immense volume and complexity. His longest book is Modern Painters. The Seven Lamps of Architecture, and The Stones of Venice expound his views on artistic matters. Unto this Last is a series of articles on political economy.

Samuel Butler , the grandson of Dr. Samuel Butler was inspired by the Darwinian theory of evolution. Evolution Old and New, Unconcious Memory, Essays on Life, Art and Science, The Way of All Flesh etc. rank him as one of the greatest prose writers of ninteenth century. He was an acute and original thinker. He exposed all kinds of reliogious, political, and social shams and hypocrisies of his period.

Besides being a great poet, Mathew Arnold also excelled as an essayist. His prose works are large in bulk and wide in range. Of them all his critical essays are probably of the greatest value. Essays in Criticism, Culture and Anarchy, and Literature and Dogma have permanent value.

Lewis Carroll , another prose writer of ninteenth century is now remembered for her immortal work, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland. Ever since its publication, this novel continues to be popular among both the children and adult readers.

Chapter 13 Twentieth-century novels and other prose

The long reign of Queen Victoria ended in 1901. There was a sweeping social reform and unprecedented progress. The reawakening of a social conscience was found its expression in the literature produced during this period.

Rudyard Kipling was born in Bombay but soon moved to Lahore. He worked as a news reporter in Lahore. Kipling was a prolific and versatile writer. His insistent proclamation of the superiority of the white races, his support for colonization, his belief in the progress and the value of the machine etc. found an echo on the hearts of many of his readers. His best-known prose works include Kim, Life’s Handicap, Debits and Credits, and Rewards and Fairies. He is now chiefly remembered for his greatest work, The Jungle Book.

E.M Forster wrote five novels in his life time. Where Angels Fear to Tread has well-drawn characters. Other novels are The Longest Journey, A Room with a View, Howards End, and A Passage to India. A Passage to India is unequal in English in its presentation of the complex problems which were to be found in the relationship between English and native people in India. E.M Forster portrayed the Indian scene in all its magic and all its wretchedness.

H.G Wells began his career as a journalist. He started his scientific romances with the publication of The Time Machine. The Invisible Man, The War of the Worlds, The First Men in the Moon and The Food of the Gods are some of his important science romances. Ann Veronica, Kipps and The History of Mr Polly are numbered among his sociological novels.

D.H Lawrence was a striking figure in the twentieth century literary world. He produced over forty volumes of fiction during his period. The White Peacock is his earliest novel. The largely autobiographical and extremely powerful novel was Sons and Lovers. It studies with great insight the relationship between a son and mother. By many, it is considered the best of all his works. Then came The Rainbow, suppressed as obscene, which treats again the conflict between man and woman. Women in Love is another important work. Lady Chatterley’s Lover is a novel in which sexual experience is handled with a wealth of physical detail and uninhibited language.  Lawrence also excelled both as a poet and short story writer.

James Joyce is a serious novelist, whose concern is chiefly with human relationships- man in relation to himself, to society, and to the whole race. He was born in Dublin, Ireland. His first work, Dubliners, is followed by a largely autobiographical novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. It is an intense account of a developing writer. The protagonist of the story, Stephen Dedalus is James Joyce himself. The character Stephen Dedalus appears again in his highly complex novel, Ulysses published in 1922. Joyce’s mastery of language, his integrity, brilliance, and power is noticeable in his novel titled Finnefan’s Wake.

Virginia Woolf famed both as a literary critic and novelist. Her first novel, The Voyage Out is told in the conventional narrative manner. A deeper study of characters can be found in her later works such as Night and Day, Jacob’s Room, To the Lighthouse, Mrs. Dalloway and Orlando. In addition to her novels, Virginia Woolf wrote a number of essays on cultural subjects. Woolf rejected the conventional concepts of novel. She replaced emphasis on incident, external description, and straight forward narration by using the technique “ Stream of Consciousness ”. James Joyce and Virginia Woolf popularized this writing technique.

George Orwell became a figure of outstanding importance because of Animal Farm. It is a political allegory on the degeneration of communist ideals into dictatorship. Utterly different was Nineteen Eighty-Four on the surveillance of state over its citizen. Burmese Days and The Road to Wigan Pier are other works.

William Golding deals with man’s instinct to destroy what is good, whether it is material or spiritual.  His best known novel is Lord of the Flies . The Scorpion God, The Inheritors and Free Fall are other notable works.

Somerset Maugham was a realist who sketched the cosmopolitan life through his characters. The Moon and Sixpence, Mrs. Craddock and The Painted Veil are some of his novels. His best novel is Of Human Bondage. It is a study in frustration, which had a strong autobiographical element.

Kingsly Amis ’s Lucky Jim, Take a Girl like You, One Fat Englishman , and Girl are notable works in the twentieth century.

Twentieth Century Drama

After a hundred years of insignificance, drama again appeared as an important form in the twentieth century. Like the novelists in the 20 th century, most of the important dramatists were chiefly concerned with the contemporary social scene. Many playwrights experimented in the theatres. There were revolutionary changes in both the theme and presentation.

John Galsworthy was a social reformer who showed both sides of the problems in his plays. He had a warm sympathy for the victims of social injustice. Of his best-known plays The Silver Box deals with the inequality of justice, Strife with the struggle between Capital and Labour, Justice with the meaninglessness of judiciary system.

George Bernard Shaw is one of the greatest dramatists of 20 th century. The first Shavian play is considered to be Arms and the Man. It is an excellent and amusing stage piece which pokes fun at the romantic conception of the soldier. The Devil’s Disciple, Caesar and Cleopatra, and The Man of Destiny are also noteworthy. Man and Superman is Shaw’s most important play which deals the theme half seriously and half comically. Religion and social problems are again the main topics in Major Barbara. The Doctor’s Dilemma is an amusing satire. Social conventions and social weaknesses were treated again in Pygmalion , a witty and highly entertaining study of the class distinction. St Joan deals with the problems in Christianity. The Apple Cart, Geneva, The Millionaire, Too True to be Good and On the Rocks are Shaw’s minor plays.

J M Synge was the greatest dramatist in the rebirth of the Irish theatre. His plays are few in number but they are of a stature to place him among the greatest playwrights in the English language. Synge was inspired by the beauty of his surroundings, the humour, tragedy, and poetry of the life of the simple fisher-folk in the Isles of Aran. The Shadow of the Glen is a comedy based on an old folktale, which gives a good romantic picture of Irish peasant life. It was followed by Riders to the Sea, a powerful, deeply moving tragedy which deals with the toll taken by the sea in the lives of the fisher-folk of the Ireland. The Winker’s Wedding and The Well of the Saints are other notable works.

Samuel Beckett, the greatest proponent of Absurd Theatre is most famous for his play, Waiting for Godot. It is a static representation without structure or development, using only meandering, seemingly incoherent dialogue to suggest despair of a society in the post-World War period. Another famous play by Beckett is Endgame.

Harold Pinter was influenced by Samuel Beckett. His plays are quite short and set in an enclosed space. His characters are always in doubt about their function, and in fear of something or someone ‘outside’. The Birthday Party, The Dumb Waiter, A Night Out, The Homecoming and Silence are his most notable plays.

James Osborne’ s Look Back in Anger gave the strongest tonic to the concept of Angry Young Man . Watch it Come Down, A Portrait of Me, Inadmissible Evidence etc. are his other major works.

T.S Eliot wrote seven dramas. They are Sweeney Agonistes, The Rock, Murder in the Cathedral, The Family Reunion, The Cocktail Party, The Confidential Clerk and The Elder Statesman.

Juno and the Paycock, The Plough and the Stars, and The Silver Tassie marked Sean O’Casey out as the greatest new figure in the inter-War years. His own experience enabled him to study the life of the Dublin slums with the warm understanding.

Another leading playwright of 20 th century was Arnold Wesker. Wesker narrated the lives of working class people in his plays. Roots, Chicken Soup with Barley and I’m Talking about Jerusalem are his famous works.

Bertolt Brecht, J.B Priestley, Somerset Maugham, Christopher Fry, Peter Usinov, Tom Stoppard, Bernard Kops, Henry Livings, Alan Bennett et al are other important playwrights of twentieth century English literature.

Chapter 15 Twentieth Century Poetry

The greatest figure in the poetry of the early part of the Twentieth century was the Irish poet William Butler Yeats. Like so many of his contemporaries, Yeats was acutely conscious of the spiritual barrenness of his age. W.B Yeats sought to escape into the land of ‘faery’ and looked for his themes in Irish legend. He is one of the most difficult of modern poets. His trust was in the imagination and intuition of man rather than in scientific reasoning. Yeats believed in fairies, magic, and other forms of superstition. He studied Indian philosophy and Vedas. An Irish Seaman Foresees His Death, The Tower, The Green Helmet etc. are his major poems.

With possible excepion of Yeats, no twentieth century poet has been held in such esteem by his fellow-poets as T.S Eliot. Eliot’s first volume of verse, Prufrock and Other Observations portrays the boredom, emptiness, and pessimism of its days. His much discussed poem The Waste Land(1922) made a tremendous impact on the post-War generation, and it is considered one of the important documents of its age. The poem is difficult to understand in detail, but its general aim is clear. The poem is built round the symbols of drought and flood, representing death and rebirth. The poem progresses in five movements, “The Burial of the Dead”, “The Game of the Chess”, “The Fire Sermon”, “Death by Water”, and “What the Thunder Said”.  Eliot’s poem Ash Wednesday is probably his most difficult. Obscure images and symbols and the lack of a clear, logical structure make the poem difficult.

W.H Auden was an artist of great virtuosity, a ceaseless experimenter in verse form, with a fine ear for the rhythm and music of words. He was modern in tone and selection of themes. Auden’s later poems revealed a new note of mysticism in his approach to human problems. He was outspokingly anti-Romantic and stressed the objective attitude.

Thomas Hardy began his career as a poet. Though he was not able to find a publisher, he continued to write poetry. Hardy’s verses consist of short lyrics describing nature and natural beauty. Like his novels, the poems reveal concern with man’s unequal struggle against the mighty fate. Wessex Poems, Winter Words, and Collected Poems are his major poetry works.

G.M Hopkins is a unique figure in the history of English poetry. No modern poet has been the centre of more controversy or the cause of more misunderstanding. He was very unconventional in writing technique. He used Sprung-rhythm, counterpoint rhythm, internal rhythms, alliteration, assonance, and coinages in his poems.

Dylan Thomas was an enemy of intellectualism in verse. He drew upon the human body, sex, and the Old Testament for much of his imagery and complex word-play. His verses are splendidly colourful and musical. Appreciation of landscape, religious and mystical association, sadness and quietness were very often selected as themes for his verses.

Sylvia Plath and her husband Ted Hughes composed some brilliant poems in the 20 th century. Plath’s mental imbalance which brought  her to suicide can be seen in her poetry collections titled Ariel, The Colossus, and Crossing the Water. Ted Hughes was a poet of animal and nature. His major collection of poetry are The Hawk in the Rain, Woodwo, Crow, Crow Wakes and Eat Crow.

R.S Thomas, Philip Larkin, Kingsley Amis, Peter Porter, Seamus Heaney et al are also added the beauty of 20 th century English poetry.

The First World War brought to public notice many poets, particularly among the young men of armed forces, while it provided a new source of inspiration for writers of established reputation. Rupert Brooke, Slegfried Sassoon, and Wilfred Owen are the major War poets. Rupert Brooke ’s famous sonnet “If I should die, think only this of me” has appeared in so many anthologies of twentieth century verse. Brooke turned to nature and simple pleasures for inspiration. Sassoon wrote violent and embittered poems. Sassoon painted the horrors of life and death in the trenches and hospitals. Wilfred Owen was the greatest of the war poets. In the beginning of his literary career, Owen wrote in the romantic tradition of John Keats and Lord Tennyson. Owen was a gifted artist with a fine feeling for words. He greatly experimented in verse techniques.

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Tags: A Brief History of English Literature , Comedy of Manners , EARLY NINTEENTH CENTURY POETS , EIGHTEENTH CENTURY PROSE , ELIZABEHAN POETRY AND PROSE , ELIZABETHAN DRAMA , Geoffrey Chaucer , Interlude , John Milton and His Time , LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY POETS , Literary Criticism , Literary Theory , Middle English Literature , Miracle plays , Morality plays , Nineteenth Century Novelists , Nineteenth Century Prose , OLD ENGLISH LITERATURE , POETS DURING MILTON’S PERIOD , RESTORATION DRAMA AND PROSE , Romanticism , The Birth of English Novel , THE CAVALIER POETS , Twentieth Century Drama , Twentieth Century Poetry , Victorian Literature , Victorian Novelists , War Poets , William Langland

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hi there, this is brief, if you want to read the original lengthy version please read David Daiches’ book the critical history of English Literature.

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Elizabethan england.

Portrait of a Woman

Nicholas Hilliard

Portrait of Walter Devereux (1539–1576), First Earl of Essex

British Painter

Ewer from Burghley House, Lincolnshire

Henry Frederick (1594–1612), Prince of Wales, with Sir John Harington (1592–1614), in the Hunting Field

Robert Peake the Elder

Standing salt with cover

Armor Garniture of George Clifford (1558–1605), Third Earl of Cumberland

Made under the direction of Jacob Halder

Portrait of a Young Man, Probably Robert Devereux (1566–1601), Second Earl of Essex

James Voorhies Department of European Paintings, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

October 2002

Elizabeth I, daughter of King Henry VIII (r. 1509–47) and Anne Boleyn (ca. 1507–1536), ascended to the throne as queen of England (r. 1558–1603) with a fine balance of vigor and restraint that brought with it the official establishment of Protestantism in the Church of England (1558); the defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588); domestic peace in a previously divided country; and a flourishing environment for the humanities. Elizabeth I’s admiration for the arts, along with England’s economic buoyancy during her reign, provided ripe conditions for the production of enduring hallmarks in the visual, decorative, and performing arts.

During the age of Elizabeth, painting was dominated by portraiture , particularly in the form of miniatures, while elaborate textiles and embroidery prevailed in the decorative arts, and sculpture found its place within the confines of tomb and architectural decoration. Elizabeth I’s favored court painter, the Englishman Nicholas Hilliard (ca. 1547–1619), is best known for his miniature paintings. Following the tradition associated with Hans Holbein the Younger (1497/98–1543), Hilliard’s style emphasized distinctive line and reduced shadow. His Portrait of a Young Man, Probably Robert Devereux (1566–1601), Second Earl of Essex ( 35.89.4 ), delicately portrays the sitter with extraordinary attention to intricate patterning and fine line representing the precious, jewel-like objects sought after in Elizabethan England. Intended for private viewing, portrait miniatures were highly personal and intimate objects that often depicted lovers or mistresses. Isaac Oliver (ca. 1565–1617) studied under Hilliard, and together they became influential painters of miniature portraits.

Although painters of miniatures were en vogue with Elizabeth I, artists such as Robert Peake the Elder (ca. 1551–1619), Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger (Flemish, 1561–1635/36), John de Critz (before 1551–1642), and George Gower (1540–1596) also received commissions from the Crown, employing mild variations of the style developed by Hilliard and Oliver. In Henry Frederick (1594–1612), Prince of Wales, with Sir John Harington (1592–1614), in the Hunting Field  ( 44.27 ), Peake applies his light palette to a hunting scene in a highly decorative, patterned, and relatively flat format. Knowledgeable about European Mannerism and familiar with the artistic trends of the School of Fontainebleau , these artists made large-scale, full-length paintings that portray the noble class in richly decorative costumes with armor , embroidery, ruffs, hunting gear, weapons, and lace .

In the decorative arts, demand for domestic silver significantly increased during the mid-sixteenth century because of rapid growth in population and subsequent expansion of the middle and upper classes. The Museum’s silver salt ( 52.134.a-e ), characteristic of Elizabethan plate, is decorated with a melody of embossed sculptural vegetal forms, fruit, grotesque figures, and strapwork, topped with a figure finial to help vertically emphasize its placement on a table. These intricate designs of foliage and patterning were also applied to suits of armor ( 32.130.6 ) and domestic textiles, exemplified by the Metropolitan’s purse ( 1986.300.1 ), which is embroidered with colored silks and threads of gold and silver.

Voorhies, James. “Elizabethan England.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/liza/hd_liza.htm (October 2002)

Further Reading

Glanville, Philippa. Silver in Tudor and Early Stuart England . London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 1990.

Murdoch, John, et al. The English Miniature . Exhibition catalogue. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981.

Piper, David. The English Face . Rev. ed.. London: National Portrait Gallery, 1992.

Additional Essays by James Voorhies

• Voorhies, James. “ Europe and the Age of Exploration .” (October 2002)
• Voorhies, James. “ Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) .” (October 2004)
• Voorhies, James. “ Francisco de Goya (1746–1828) and the Spanish Enlightenment .” (October 2003)
• Voorhies, James. “ Paul Cézanne (1839–1906) .” (October 2004)
• Voorhies, James. “ School of Paris .” (October 2004)
• Voorhies, James. “ Art of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries in Naples .” (October 2003)
• Voorhies, James. “ Alfred Stieglitz (1864–1946) and His Circle .” (October 2004)
• Voorhies, James. “ Fontainebleau .” (October 2002)
• Voorhies, James. “ Post-Impressionism .” (October 2004)
• Voorhies, James. “ Domestic Art in Renaissance Italy .” (October 2002)
• Voorhies, James. “ Surrealism .” (October 2004)

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List of Rulers

• List of Rulers of Europe
• France, 1400–1600 A.D.
• Great Britain and Ireland, 1400–1600 A.D.
• Great Britain and Ireland, 1600–1800 A.D.
• Iberian Peninsula, 1400–1600 A.D.
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Artist or Maker

• Greenwich, Royal Workshops
• Halder, Jacob
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