college essay on sexism

• The University Of Chicago

• Visitors & Fellows
• BFI Employment Opportunities
• Big Data Initiative
• Chicago Experiments Initiative
• Health Economics Initiative
• Industrial Organization Initiative
• International Economics and Economic Geography Initiative
• Macroeconomic Research Initiative
• Political Economics Initiative
• Price Theory Initiative
• Ronzetti Initiative for the Study of Labor Markets
• Becker Friedman Institute China
• Becker Friedman Institute Latin America
• Macro Finance Research Program
• Program in Behavioral Economics Research
• Development Innovation Lab
• Energy Policy Institute at the University of Chicago
• TMW Center for Early Learning + Public Health
• UChicago Scholars
• Visiting Scholars
• Saieh Family Fellows

This essay provides a review of two important recent books on economic growth: How the World Became Rich by Mark Koyama and Jared Rubin and Slouching Towards Utopia, by J. Bradford DeLong. Each book is noteworthy for its erudition and...

This paper characterizes the transition dynamics of a continuous-time neoclassical production economy with capital accumulation in which households face idiosyncratic income risk and cannot commit to repay their debt. Therefore, even though a full set of contingent claims that pay...

Using a century of data, we show that Treasury convenience yield and inflation comove positively during the inflationary 1970s-1980s, but negatively pre-WWII and post-2000. An inflation decomposition reveals that higher supply inflation predicts higher convenience, while lower demand inflation follows...

• View All caret-right

Upcoming Events

2024 ai in social science conference, economic theory conference honoring phil reny, 2024 women in empirical microeconomics conference, past events, bfi student lunch series – the impact of incarceration on employment, earnings, and tax filing, macro financial modeling meeting spring 2012, modeling financial sector linkages to the macroeconomy, research briefs.

Interactive Research Briefs

• Media Mentions
• Press Releases
• Search Search
• The Effects of Sexism on American Women: The Role of Norms vs. Discrimination
• Sexism experienced during formative years stays with girls into adulthood
• These background norms can influence choices that women make and affect their life outcomes
• In addition, women face different levels of sexism and discrimination in the states where they live as adults
• Sexism varies across states and can have a significant impact on a woman’s wages and labor market participation, and can also influence her marriage and fertility rates

What type of life experiences will these women have in terms of the work they do and the wages they earn? Will they get married and, if so, how young? If they have children, when will they start to raise a family? How many children will they have? According to the authors of the new BFI working paper, “The Effects of Sexism on American Women: The Role of Norms vs. Discrimination,” the answers to those questions depend crucially on where women are born and where they choose to live their adult lives.

Kerwin Kofi Charles, professor at the Harris School of Public Policy, and his colleagues employ a novel approach that examines how prevailing sexist beliefs shape life outcomes for women. Essentially, they find that sexism affects women through two channels: one is their own preferences that are shaped by where they grow up, and the other is the sexism they experience in the place they choose to live as adults.

On average, not all states are average The average American woman’s socioeconomic outcomes have improved dramatically over the past 50 years. Her wages and probability of employment, relative to the average man’s, have risen steadily over that time. She is also marrying later and bearing children later, as well as having fewer total children. However, these are national averages and these phenomena do not hold in all states across America. Indeed, the gap between men and women that existed in a particular state 50 years ago is largely the same size today. In other words, if a state exhibited less gender discrimination 50 years ago, it retains that narrower gap today; a state that exhibited more discrimination in 1970 has a similarly wide gap today. Much research over the years has focused on broad national trends when measuring sexism and its effect on women’s lives. A primary contribution of this paper is that it documents cross-state differences in women’s outcomes and incorporates non-market factors, like cultural norms. The focus of the authors’ analysis are the four outcomes described above: wages, employment, marriage, and fertility. Of the many forms sexism might take, the authors focus on negative or stereotypical beliefs about whether women should enter the workplace or remain at home. Specifically, sexism prevails in a market when residents believe that:

• women’s capacities are inferior to men;

• families are hurt when women work;

• and men and women should adhere to strict roles in society.

These cultural norms are not only forces that occur to women from external sources, but they are forces that also exist within women, and are strongly affected by where a woman is raised. For example, a girl may grow up within a culture that prizes stay-at-home mothers over working moms, as well as early marriages and large families. These are what the authors describe as background norms, and they are able to estimate the influence of these background norms throughout adulthood by comparing women who were born in one place and moved to different places, and those who were born in different places and moved to the same place. Once a woman reaches adulthood and chooses a place to live, she is then influenced by discrimination in the labor market and by what the authors term residential sexism, or those current norms that they experience in their new hometown. On the question of who engages in sexist behavior, men and/ or women, the authors are clear: men are the purveyors of discrimination in the market (whether women are hired for or promoted to certain jobs), and women determine norms (or residential sexism) that influence such outcomes as marriage and fertility.

The authors conduct a number of rigorous tests based on a broad array of data to reach their conclusions about women’s wages, their labor force participation relative to men, and the ages at which women aged 20-40 married and had their first child. For example, their information on sexism comes from the General Social Survey (GSS), which is a nationally representative survey that asks respondents various questions, among others, about their attitudes or beliefs about women’s place in society.

Sexism affects women through two channels: one is their own preferences that are shaped by where they grow up, and the other is the sexism they experience in the place they choose to live as adults.

The authors reveal how prevailing sexist beliefs about women’s abilities and appropriate roles affect US women’s socioeconomic outcomes. Studying adults who live in one state but who were born in another, they show that sexism in a woman’s state of birth and in her current state of residence both lower her wages and likelihood of labor force participation, and lead her to marry and bear her first child sooner. The sexism a woman experiences where she was raised, or background sexism, affects a woman’s outcomes even after she is an adult living in another place through the influence of norms that she internalized during her formative years. Further, the sexism present where a woman lives (residential sexism) affects her non-labor market outcomes through the influence of prevailing sexist beliefs of other women where she lives. By contrast, residential sexism’s effects on her labor market outcomes seem to operate chiefly through the mechanism of market discrimination by sexist men. Finally, and importantly, the authors find sound evidence that prejudice-based discrimination, undergirded by prevailing sexist beliefs that vary across space, may be an important driver of women’s outcomes in the US.

CLOSING TAKEAWAY By studying adults who were born in one place but live in another, the authors reveal the effects of sexism on women’s outcomes in the market through discrimination (wages and jobs), as well as in non-market settings through cultural norms (marriage and fertility).

• Kerwin Kofi Charles
• Harris Professor Kerwin Charles draws connections between workplace and birthplace among American women
• New economic research from Harris School of Public Policy’s Kerwin Kofi Charles, an affiliated scholar of BFI’s Ronzetti Initiative for the Study of Labor Markets, looks at “How Sexism Follows Women from the Cradle to the Workplace”
• Research from Harris School of Public Policy’s Kerwin Kofi Charles, an affiliated scholar of BFI’s Ronzetti Initiative for the Study of Labor Markets, cited in discussion on the growing wage gap between white and black men

The Effects of Sexism on American Women: The Role of Norms vs. Discrimination

We study how reported sexism in the population affects American women. Fixed-effects and TSLS estimates show that higher prevailing sexism where she was born (background sexism) and where she currently lives (residential sexism) both lower a woman's wages, labor force participation and ages of marriage and childbearing. We argue that background sexism affects outcomes through the influence of previously-encountered norms, and that estimated associations regarding specific percentiles and male versus female sexism suggest that residential sexism affects labor market outcomes through prejudice-based discrimination by men, and non-labor market outcomes through the influence of current norms of other women.

We thank seminar participants at the NBER, ASSA Meetings, University of Chicago, UC-Berkeley, Iowa State University, American University, Princeton University, Purdue University, the University of Michigan and many colleagues for helpful comments and discussions. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

MARC RIS BibTeΧ

Download Citation Data

Mentioned in the News

More from nber.

In addition to working papers , the NBER disseminates affiliates’ latest findings through a range of free periodicals — the NBER Reporter , the NBER Digest , the Bulletin on Retirement and Disability , the Bulletin on Health , and the Bulletin on Entrepreneurship  — as well as online conference reports , video lectures , and interviews .

Writing about Gender and Sexuality

View in pdf format.

As our language evolves alongside our understanding of gender and sexuality, it is important for writers to make informed choices about their language and to take responsibility for those choices. Accurate terminology and phrasing are important in writing about people respectfully and in crafting effective arguments that your audience can trust. This handout includes writing practices and language tips to help writers discuss various identities respectfully and without perpetuating stereotypes.

The following resources explain important terms you might use when discussing gender and/or sexuality:

• GLAAD Media Reference Guide: GLAAD Media Reference Guide - 10th Edition
• National Center for Transgender Equality: Understanding Transgender People: The Basics
• Grammarly: 33 LGBTQIA+ Terms You Should Know
• APA Style: Gender - APA Style

Best Practices

Know the difference between “sex” and “gender”.

“Sex” and “gender” are not synonyms! “Sex” refers to the classification of a person as male, female, or intersex based on biological characteristics. “Gender” refers to a range of social and cultural identities characterized by varying expressions of masculinity and femininity. These differences impact the language you should use. For example, use “women” instead of “females” when referring to the social group, as the word “females” does not include all women.

Use gender-neutral terms to reference general categories of people

Some terms, like “fireman” or “stewardess,” are unnecessarily gendered, exclusive, and stereotypical. Additionally, terms that assume masculinity as the default, such as “mankind,” reinforce problematic hierarchies of gender. Replace terms like these with non-gendered alternatives, such as “humankind” instead of “mankind,” “firefighter” instead of “fireman,” and “flight attendant” instead of “stewardess.” (1)

Only note gender or sexuality when necessary and relevant

Mentioning someone’s gender or sexuality when it is not relevant is reductive and distracting. Make sure you indicate gender or sexuality only when discussing that particular identity. For example, only use “women firefighters” if you are specifically discussing women in that profession.

Don’t use adjectives as nouns

Using adjectives as nouns is not only grammatically incorrect, it is often demeaning to the people you are describing. For example, use “transgender people” or “gay people,” not “transgenders” or “gays.”

Avoid language that implies a gender binary

Discussing gender as a binary of men and women is both inaccurate and exclusive. Replace this with inclusive language. For example:

• Say “all genders” instead of “both genders” when applicable.
• Use “another gender” or “another sex” instead of “opposite sex.”
• Use gender-neutral pronouns instead of “he or she” or variations such as “s/he.”

Using Gender-Neutral Pronouns

Singular pronouns: when to use “they/them/theirs”.

To reference a specific individual, always use their identified pronouns. Formal styles of academic writing widely support the use of “they/them/theirs” to refer to non-binary and gender non-conforming individuals.

To reference a generic or hypothetical person, “they” is widely used informally but is not encouraged in formal writing. For example, using the sentence “The participant followed their instructions.” to refer to a generic participant can be confusing, as your reader might think you are referring to a specific individual. To maintain inclusivity and gender neutrality without using “they/them/theirs” as generic singular pronouns, try the following strategies from the APA (2) :

• Rephrase to eliminate gender pronouns: “The participant followed the provided instructions.”
• Use plural nouns with plural pronouns: “ Participants followed their instructions.”
• Replace a possessive pronoun with an article: “The participant followed the instructions.”
• Omit the pronoun: “The participant followed instructions .”

For further reading on the grammar of the “singular they,” see the following resources:

• APA Style: The Use of Singular “They” in APA Style
• Grammarly: Singular They: Why to Use They as a Singular Pronoun

Pronoun use to avoid

Although the following options for generic singular pronouns were used in the past, they are currently not encouraged in formal writing, as they can be confusing, misleading, and inaccurate:

• Use of “he/him/his” as the default generic pronoun
• Alternating use of “he/him/his” and “she/her/hers” pronouns
• Use of “s/he,” “(s)he,” or other variations

Writing about Transgender People

When writing about transgender people, use the following tips to guide you:

• Use the individual’s current name and pronouns at all times, even when referring to their past, when they may have gone by a different name or pronoun. For example, if you are writing about a transgender woman named Jane, you might write “Before her transition, Jane felt…”.
• Use the phrase “transgender woman” or “transgender man” if you must indicate that they are transgender. Do not use language that refers to the individual as anything other than their identified gender.
• Use “transgender” instead of “transsexual” unless the individual identifies with that term, as “transgender” is more inclusive.

Writing about LGBTQ+ People

Be careful of the language you use to discuss LGBTQ+ people, as it may be linked to misleading, harmful, and homophobic rhetoric. Use the following tips to guide you:

• Use “sexual orientation,” not “sexual preference.”
• Use “identified pronouns” or simply “pronouns,” not “preferred pronouns.”
• Use “identities,” not “lifestyles.”
• Use “gay” or “lesbian” instead of “homosexual,” which has derogative connotations.
• Use umbrella terms like “the LGBTQ+ community” instead of “sexual minorities.”

Umbrella Terms

Use the standard umbrella terms of LGBT, LGBTQ+, and LGBTQIA+, as well as phrases like “the LGBTQ+ community,” when you cannot be more specific about the group of people you are referring to. Remember that the experiences and identities of people in the LGBTQ+ community vary widely, so work to avoid over-generalizing.

The term “queer” can apply to individuals and also can be used as an umbrella term (i.e. “the queer community”). Although many LGBTQ+ people have reclaimed it, the word has been used as a derogatory slur in the past and should be used with caution. Only use “queer” when referring to disciplines like “queer studies” and to groups or individuals who self-identify with this term, or if you identify with it yourself.

Writing with Outdated/Problematic Sources

When working with outdated sources, consider paraphrasing quotes or acknowledging that the authors’ language reflects the terminology of their time. Note that this does not apply to intentionally harmful and derogatory language, no matter how commonly it was used at the time.

When analyzing or referencing a source that uses harmful language (slurs, violent rhetoric, etc.), either:

• Explain that the author or character uses harmful language without stating it verbatim. For example: “The author uses a homophobic slur when discussing [context of the quote], indicating that [analysis].”
• Acknowledge its offensive nature in your analysis if you must quote the harmful language verbatim.

Do not change the quote or omit harmful language without acknowledging it. If you must use outdated and problematic sources, it is best to acknowledge any harmful language or rhetoric and discuss how it impacts the use and meaning of the text in your analysis.

Note that if you do need to use dated terminology to discuss the subjects in a historical context, continue to use contemporary language in your own discussion and analysis.

If you are still unsure of what language to use, consult your professor, classmates, Writing Center tutors, or current academic readings in the discipline for more guidance.

As we have noted, language is complex and constantly evolving. We will update this resource to reflect changes in language use and guidelines. We also welcome suggestions for revisions to this handout. Please contact the Writing Center with any questions or suggestions.

By Emily Brewer ’21. Adapted from prior Writing Center resources “Writing about Gender and Sexuality” and “Avoiding Sexist Language.”

Thank you to the following people who contributed to earlier versions of this resource: M. E. Ficarra ’15, Olivia Valcarce ’15, Sharon Williams, Jennifer Klein ’93, Krista Hesdorfer ’14, Amit Taneja, Allen Harrison, and Professors Joyce Barry, Benjamin DiCicco-Bloom, Cara Jones, and Yvonne Zylan.

(1) Hamilton, Mykol, Nancy Henley and Barrie Thorne. “Womanspeak and Manspeak: Sex Differences and Sexism in Communication, Verbal and Nonverbal.” Beyond Sex Roles edition 2, Alice G. Sargent (ed.) New York: West Publishing Company, 1984. Pages 168-185.

(2) American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Gender . American Psychological Association. https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/bias-free-language/gender.

Tutor Appointments

Peer tutor and consultant appointments are managed through TracCloud (login required). Find resources and more information about the ALEX centers using the following links.

Office / Department Name

Nesbitt-Johnston Writing Center

Contact Name

Jennifer Ambrose

Writing Center Director

Help us provide an accessible education, offer innovative resources and programs, and foster intellectual exploration.

Site Search

Addressing Sexism in STEM Is On A New Journey

In a new book, tc’s marie miville and colleagues examine enduring sexism and real-world strategies for success leveraged by women in science, technology, engineering and math.

Since the 1970s, which marked the era of a new feminist movement and the federal Title IX requiring equal opportunities for women in higher education, there have undeniably been more opportunities for women to teach or launch successful careers in the so-called STEM fields — science, technology, engineering and math — in which a female presence had once been nearly invisible.

Yet to the women who’ve been on the cutting edge of progress in the STEM professions, the storyline of that half century is still dominated by the routine, frustrating obstacles of a culture that continues to be dominated by men. For TC’s Marie L. Miville , Professor of  Psychology and Education  and Vice Dean for Faculty Affairs , these structural barriers are epitomized by the story she was told by a female professor who landed a prestigious university post and then wasn’t told when department meetings were held – or even given a key to its offices.

Miville, a leading authority on gender and racial differences in academia, said “there are individual success stories, laws that have been passed, and all sorts of scholarship and fellowship programs that have occurred in the last 50 years that have given a lot of individual girls and women a boost up. But sometimes girls and women are finding that still the glass ceiling — some of those structures — are still stubbornly there.”

The tension between the green shoots of progress for women in the STEM fields and the deep structural barriers that remain in place and have discouraged some from pursuing career dreams are at the heart of a new book by Miville and three female co-authors.

Marie L. Miville, Professor of Psychology and Education and Vice Dean for Faculty Affairs, and her latest book. (Photos courtesy of TC Archives and Springer) 

Women And The Challenge of STEM Professions: Thriving In a Chilly Climate , published by Springer, is indeed an overview of the many hurdles faced by female scientists, mathematicians and engineers — particularly in the campus environment — in areas such as advancement, or simply achieving recognition for their work. But the book also places an upbeat emphasis on success stories and positive strategies of women who’ve launched fulfilling careers and found happiness despite those lingering barriers.

Miville said in an interview that the project came about during the depths of the pandemic. It started with discussions she’d been having with Patricia Arredondo, a psychologist based at Arizona State University, around statistics showing that many girls who start their schooling with an interest in the STEM fields eventually abandon them by college, despite the decades-long push for female empowerment.

Miville and Arredondo would go on to strengthen the project’s ties to TC, bringing on alumna Christina Capodilupo — a member of the President’s Advisory Council and an adjunct assistant professor specializing in data research — and then one of Miville’s doctoral students, Tatiana Vera. Vera not only helped organize the effort but brought a much needed youthful perspective about the lingering roadblocks faced by women entering the field. Miville said both the presence of three Latina co-authors — versed in the ways that racial and cultural issues can intersect with gender — and their grounding in psychology aimed to bring some fresh perspectives to the ongoing conversation about the slow pace of progress for women in STEM.

The book’s core case could certainly be made through statistics. It notes that the number of U.S. women in engineering has not increased since the early 2000s and the rate of female deans, department heads, and faculty at universities has hovered at barely more than one-third. But at the center of the book is a focus on the experiences of 10 women and the ups and downs of their careers in STEM.

For example, a postdoctoral researcher named Emma told the authors she felt discouraged from pursuing a traditional career in STEM: “I would have scientific ideas, talk about them with my PI, get little feedback on whether or not they were good. But then I’d hear that they were using those ideas that I had talked about and were being done by someone. I was like, wait a minute. I talked about that with him.”

But Emma also reported finding her path forward with the help of mentorship, which the book finds often was critical for those women who do ultimately find satisfaction in their STEM careers. Other best practices described in the book include strategies for more assertiveness and for overcoming the negativity of their male colleagues whose competitiveness often has the effect of stifling female empowerment.

“I hope girls and women and all the readers take away a hopefulness from the stories that they read,” Miville said of the book. “So it is challenging – but also not just possible but very likely that you can successfully navigate your own pathway to success, wherever that takes you.”

— Will Bunch

Tags: Psychology Counseling & Clinical Psychology Psychology STEM / STEAM Women/maternal studies

Programs: Clinical Psychology

Departments: Counseling & Clinical Psychology

Published Monday, Sep 26, 2022

Teachers College Newsroom

Address: Institutional Advancement 193-197 Grace Dodge Hall

Box: 306 Phone: (212) 678-3231 Email: views@tc.columbia.edu

• Madigan Library
• Research Guides
• Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion

Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion: Sexism

• Racism | Ethnic Oppression
• Classism | Socioeconomic Status
• Ableism | Neurodiversity
• Religious Oppression
• LGBTQIA Oppression
• Food Inequity
• Land Acknowledgments
• Additional Terms
• Penn College Resources

Sexism  is not simply prejudice, but rather the combination of prejudice and institutional power. Anyone, regardless of sex or gender, can have sexist prejudices, biases, or tendencies. However, in the United States, being male means having institutional power and privilege; therefore, sexism here is the systemized discrimination of women due to the societal belief that maleness is superior. Sexism in America is systemic because it plays a role in our institutions and society, whether we recognize it or not. To truly understand sexism is to also understand how it is embedded in institutional and cultural systems, rather than focusing on an individual's thinking or actions. 

Women may sometimes be a party to systemic sexism, without intending to act in that manner. and simply because sexism is so ingrained in our institutions, cultures, and societies. For example, a female hiring manager who hires a man over a woman in a position that requires some physical labor.

Masculinity is not something that is often discussed when talking about sexism; however, the way that men are defined by societal stereotypes and expectations very much plays a role in the continuation of sexism today. From a young age, many males receive messages from society, family, educators, and the media on what it means to be a man and how men are expected to think, behave, and feel. Because of this, in order to curb the issue of sexism in today's society, many believe that it begins with redefining the idea of masculinity.

• Other Online Resources

Covers social issues and includes pro and con viewpoint articles, reference articles, full-text magazines, academic journals, newspapers, primary source documents, government and organizational statistics, multimedia, and links to pertinent websites.

Multidisciplinary, full-text mainstream periodicals, gray literature, and alternative press on critical issues and events of women's lives from around the globe. Includes literature from leading research institutes and grass roots organizations that is rarely indexed.

Explores cultural differences and contributions and influences in the global community.

Scholarly journals and magazines covering topics including gender studies, family and marital issues, and more.

Search 16 ProQuest social science databases at once.

Titles covering Art, Architecture, Design, History, Philosophy, Music, Literature, Theatre and Cultural Studies.

Focuses on broad issues, such as war, genocide, terrorism, human rights, poverty, famine, globalization, world trade, nuclear proliferation, and global warming, as well as more specific events and topics in the news.

Containing hearings and committee prints, legislative histories on the landmark legislations, CRS and GAO reports, briefs from major Supreme Court cases, and publications from the Commission on Civil Rights.

Primary sources for the historical study of sex, sexuality, and gender. Examines sexual norms over time, health, developments of sex education, the rise of sexology, gender roles, social movements and activism, erotica, and many others.

Tomorrow Makers: A Penn College Podcast

Coming to you from the campus of Pennsylvania College of Technology in Williamsport, PA, this tomorrow-minded podcast dives into impactful topics like diversity and inclusion and engaging societal and cultural considerations. Stories explore how we learn, live, work, and play at Penn College and across the world. Through authentic dialogue with faculty, students, staff, and industry experts, our goal is to spark meaningful conversations that satisfy the curiosity that connects us all. Each unique episode taps into our guest’s “passion project” or area of expertise. 

Battle Tactics for your Sexist Workplace

Yes, your workplace is sexist. Let's laugh/cry together while figuring out what we can do about it. We break down how sexism works in the modern workplace. And with help from some badass experts, we bring you real tactics you can use to fight back. 

• 5 seemingly harmless things that are actually sexist This short article provides some examples of how common occurrences are actually perpetuating systemic sexism.
• The trap of masculinity: How sexism impacts boys and men This worksheet from the Anti-Defamation League, while targeted toward middle and high school-aged students, provides resources and questions to help individuals think critically about how stereotypes and beliefs surrounding masculinity contribute to the issue of sexism today.
• Understanding Prejudice Social Psychology Network more... less... Welcome to UnderstandingPrejudice.org, a web site for students, teachers, and others interested in the causes and consequences of prejudice. In these pages you will find more than 2,000 links to prejudice-related resources, as well as searchable databases with hundreds of prejudice researchers and social justice organizations.
• Drawn to art: Ten tales of inspiring women artists

In the interest of full disclosure, the creator of and collaborators for this guide identify with some, but not all of the oppressed identities presented here. As members of the Penn College community, we strive to encourage diversity, inclusion, awareness, equality, and equity. While I have made an attempt to collect and present some of the more timely, relevant, and quality resources on the topics of oppression, I recognize that my collaborators and I are still susceptible to our own implicit biases, privilege, and perspectives. Given our own limited experiences, any thoughts, comments, or suggestions, particularly from members of any marginalized populations, are sincerely welcomed and greatly appreciated.

• << Previous: Racism | Ethnic Oppression
• Next: Classism | Socioeconomic Status >>
• Last Updated: May 30, 2024 5:46 PM
• URL: https://pct.libguides.com/anti-oppression

• History & Society
• Science & Tech
• Biographies
• Animals & Nature
• Geography & Travel
• Arts & Culture
• Games & Quizzes
• On This Day
• One Good Fact
• New Articles
• Lifestyles & Social Issues
• Philosophy & Religion
• Politics, Law & Government
• World History
• Health & Medicine
• Browse Biographies
• Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates
• Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates
• Environment
• Fossils & Geologic Time
• Entertainment & Pop Culture
• Sports & Recreation
• Visual Arts
• Demystified
• Image Galleries
• Infographics
• Top Questions
• Britannica Kids
• Saving Earth
• Space Next 50
• Student Center
• Introduction
• Sexism and feminism
• Sexism and the men’s movement
• Examples of sexism
• Who were some early feminist thinkers and activists?
• What is intersectional feminism?
• How have feminist politics changed the world?

Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.

• Pressbooks @ Howard Community College - Feminism and Sexism
• Social Sciences LibreTexts - Feminism and Sexism
• Healthline - How to Recognize and Address Sexism — and When to Get Support
• Boston University - Sexism
• National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - Insights into Sexism: Male Status and Performance Moderates Female-Directed Hostile and Amicable Behaviour
• European Institute for Gender Equality - Sexism at work: how can we stop it?
• Table Of Contents

Recent News

sexism , prejudice or discrimination based on sex or gender, especially against women and girls. Although its origin is unclear, the term sexism emerged from the “second-wave” feminism of the 1960s through ’80s and was most likely modeled on the civil rights movement ’s term racism (prejudice or discrimination based on race). Sexism can be a belief that one sex is superior to or more valuable than another sex. It imposes limits on what men and boys can and should do and what women and girls can and should do. The concept of sexism was originally formulated to raise consciousness about the oppression of girls and women, although by the early 21st century it had sometimes been expanded to include the oppression of any sex, including men and boys, intersex people, and transgender people.

Sexism in a society is most commonly applied against women and girls. It functions to maintain patriarchy , or male domination, through ideological and material practices of individuals, collectives , and institutions that oppress women and girls on the basis of sex or gender . Such oppression usually takes the forms of economic exploitation and social domination. Sexist behaviours, conditions, and attitudes perpetuate stereotypes of social (gender) roles based on one’s biological sex. A common form of socialization that is based in sexist concepts teaches particular narratives about traditional gender roles for males and females. According to such a view, women and men are opposite, with widely different and complementary roles: women are the weaker sex and less capable than men, especially in the realm of logic and rational reasoning. Women are relegated to the domestic realm of nurturance and emotions and, therefore, according to that reasoning, cannot be good leaders in business, politics, and academia . Although women are seen as naturally fit for domestic work and are superb at being caretakers, their roles are devalued or not valued at all when compared with men’s work.

The extreme form of sexist ideology is misogyny , the hatred of women. A society in which misogyny is prevalent has high rates of brutality against women—for example, in the forms of domestic violence , rape , and the commodification of women and their bodies. Where they are seen as property or as second-class citizens, women are often mistreated at the individual as well as the institutional level. For example, a woman who is a victim of rape (the individual or personal level) might be told by a judge and jury (the institutional level) that she was culpable because of the way she was dressed.

Essays on Sexuality for College Admissions

Hello all! With the upcoming admissions season coming along, I’d like to start a discussion about writing an essay about your sexuality (if not for me, for others in the future). While it can potentially be a shallow essay that shows nothing about your character (like other topics), can essays about sexuality be moving? Even if they are common according to “experts”, does that mean they must inherently be avoided? Finally, what makes an essay about sexuality strong? I understand that many people have strong opinions on writing about your sexuality as your main topic, but that does not mean that essays about sexuality will never be compelling. What I am curious about is what makes about what has become a “cliche” topic in the eyes of many cc users stand out, and looking at what has caused the belief in many that the topic is overused.

oh please no.

Do a search on CC for essay sexuality & you will get 100+ pages of results. Adolescence/young adulthood is when most humans come to terms with sexuality (in general & in particular). It can be a big part of the teen years for many students. If there are challenges in that arena- from orientation to harassment to violence- that can be one of the bigger life aspects that a student has dealt with. Result: many, many essays on the topic.

Of course they can be moving or compelling. Of course they don’t have to be avoided. What makes an essay about sexuality shallow or strong is the same thing as makes any college admissions essay shallow or strong: what does it show about the applicant? Will it say to the AdComm reader ‘oh, this person should definitely come be a part of our community’. Because an admission essay is never really about the topic- it’s a vehicle for a student to show something interesting about themselves.

And that is a big part about why sexuality issues are so hard to do well: it is definitionally so personal that it is hard to write well about something so close in time and in heart that it is rare to have meaningful perspective. To make it original and fresh for an AO who is reading literally hundreds / thousands of essays, is harder again.

So please. If you want to write an essay about your sexuality, focus on you not the story. Show, don’t tell. Consider that the person reading it has probably read hundreds of essays about teenagers coming to terms with some aspect of sexuality and really just wants to get a sense of whether you are somebody who would be good to have on campus.

The problem is that your sexuality isn’t what the adcoms want to learn about you. It’s not, “Oh, here’s an ABC person!” It’s about the attributes they want to see, the qualities they want in their class, and more. And "compelling"isn’t about sad or the trials or uncertainties you endure(d) or how you came to your conclusions. Not that story.

Try to remember, it’s an essay in the college app, not an essay for English, where the teacher assigned you to write something “revealing.”

@collegemom3717 Are you saying it should always be avoided? The very first thing you said was “Oh please no”, but then seemed to backpedal, saying they could be compelling. This seems to be the general CC consensus. I understand that there are a lot of cliche “I struggled because I am gay” essays, but does that mean that essays on sexuality should be completely avoided? When you google anything related to writing essays on homosexuality, the overall response is very negative, but these all appear like they are all about coming out. Just like other essay topics, there are wrong and right ways to write about this topic. You have seemed to highlight the wrong ways: focusing on a story, just trying to talk about your sexuality, and writing a sob story. While there is a large pile of these cliche essays, instead of always pushing others away from writing about it, promote the RIGHT way of writing about it. What makes an essay about sexuality strong? There are successful ones that may focus on daily interactions or stereotypes, but still make it obvious that woe is not me! You claimed sexuality is “definitionally so personal”, but I have found that sexuality really is not something so deeply personal as you claim it is. If a writer is successfully able to keep the topic seem light, is it still something that will emit an “Oh please no” from you? And truthfully, if one is not able to talk about their essay topic openly, should they write it all? Maybe this is the most important question to think about when debating your essay topic, especially if you want to write about your sexuality.

@lookingforward I definitely understand that. This is not a ruveal! Instead, should someone talk about how it impacts their daily interactions? How they OVERCAME an issue, rather than discussing the issue itself? Even if an essay on being LGBT is cliche, that does not mean its doomed from the get-go. Just like an essay about cultures, it can still be an amazing essay.

Colleges want to learn what makes you a unique addition to their campus-- how you will contribute to the campus community. We’re in a time when your sexuality doesn’t do that-- lots of kids are homosexual, lots of kids are bi, lots of kids are transgender. I realize it’s part of who you are, just as my 5’4" height is part of me. But colleges aren’t looking for that . You can write a great essay, but it won’t tell them what they want to know.

So can you use the essay?: Sure, you can use any essay you want.

But in the opinion of the people here, will it help your application? Probably not.

Really? This is all you’ve got? Honestly a very trendy, P.C. topic. The previous poster said it well…this is a contribution to a community? Most people could care less what others do behind closed doors.

College apps are a bunch of what appear to be individual pieces that together form a greater picture. It’s all colleges will have to base their decision on, so I’d make sure it’s unified. Each piece should contribute something to whatever you want that picture to be. Writing about your sexuality isn’t bad, but I’d consider if it’s the best use of that space. Is there something more relevant to your overall story that you can show there?

You asked about this on another thread. This is just not relevant to what adcoms look for. They hope to be inclusive, but are looking for attributes in candidates, the qualities that they know work for them. That’s so far beyond descriptors or basics of identity. It’s really up to the applicants to look for and understand what those qualities are.

Imagine applying for, say, state Scholars Bowl, where the reviewers don’t know you, the competition is high, and you need to write something about why you belong on the team. Would you expect to get a spot with an answer about your sexual identity and that journey? Or would you try to understand the assets, skills, attitudes, and energies the team needs, and present something that shows that, in some nice narrative? Shows, not just tells.

It matters whether your response shows them you get it. It’s not as simple as contributing a different perspective or some experience only some others had. Think this through carefully. For the competitive holistic colleges, your essay can show much about your understanding of their wants and how you match that. Or not. Any one piece of the app or supps that stumbles can affect chances.

As I said: the same things that make any essay strong. And, I agree that an essay about sexuality can be moving / powerful / interesting / whatever. However, I am also saying that that a lot of students try and it is hard to achieve.

Your post & comments read as though you want somebody to say “of course! writing about your sexuality can be a great topic for a college essay”.

How you write an essay and what you can tell about yourself through the essay is more important that the topic of the essay. That said, sexuality is not an uncommon essay theme. When you write your essay keep in mind that the idea is to tell something about yourself that can’t be find elsewhere on the application and that will make admissions officers want to have you on campus.

Skip to content

Challenging sexism and gender stereotypes in education

• Research Review

• Behaviour |
• Diversity |

What is sexism?

Psychologists and experts on sex discrimination have studied sexism to understand its underlying causes, how it is exhibited, the behaviour it encompasses and its impact on people. We know that sexism can be exhibited in different ways. Sometimes it is very obvious, blatant and involves hostile behaviour, such as verbal abuse or sexual harassment. It can also be more subtle or even covert, making it less easy to identify and challenge.

Sexist language and sexist bullying in schools

Little research exists on sexism targeted at children or young people in education settings. This has changed recently in light of growing evidence of sexist language and sexist bullying in school communities (Girlguiding, 2018; NEU and UK Feminista, 2017; House of Commons Women and Equalities Committee, 2016; The Department for Children, Schools and Families, 2009). This includes, but is not limited to:

• comments to reinforce gender stereotypes that typically stem from beliefs about the inferiority of a sex
• comments that seek to demean, ridicule, intimidate, isolate or harm others, innuendo, lewd comments, sexual remarks about clothing, spreading rumours about a person’s sexual reputation, sexualized name calling or sexually abusive terms, sexual jokes or taunting
• comments or sexual remarks on a person’s bodily appearance, sexual objectification – treating a person or parts of their body just as an object of sexual desire or a commodity without concern for their personality or dignity
• transphobic bullying that often stems from a hatred or fear of people who are transgender.

What do we know from research?

In 2017 the National Education Union (NEU) and UK Feminista commissioned research into pupils’ and teachers’ experiences and views of sexism in schools. Anonymous surveys went to pupils and staff, and discussion groups were conducted with secondary pupils. Surveys were completed by 1,508 secondary school pupils and 1,634 teachers at secondary and primary schools in England and Wales. The findings revealed that gender stereotyping is a typical feature of school culture, and use of misogynist language is commonplace in schools:

• thirty-four per cent of primary school teachers witnessed gender stereotyping on a weekly basis in schools and 54 per cent on a termly basis
• thirty-six per cent of females, compared to 15 per cent of males in mixed-sex secondary schools, felt that they had been treated differently because of their gender
• forty-five per cent of primary school teachers experienced or witnessed sexist language at least on a termly basis; 15 per cent on at least a weekly basis, and the majority (77 per cent) said that this involved boys making inappropriate comments to girls
• sixty-four per cent of teachers in mixed-sex secondary schools heard sexist language on at least a weekly basis and 29 per cent on a daily basis
• sixty-six per cent of female pupils and 37 per cent of male pupils in mixed-sex sixth forms had experienced or witnessed sexist language in school
• only six per cent of pupils reported sexist language to a teacher
• only 27 per cent of secondary school teachers said they would feel confident tackling a sexist incident if they experienced or witnessed it in school.

Evidence from another poll of 16-18-year-olds found that 71 per cent of boys and girls said they hear sexual name-calling, such as ‘slut’ or ‘slag’ used towards girls at school daily or a few times a week (End Violence Against Women, 2010).

Teachers and pupils reported poor knowledge of how to tackle this damaging behaviour. Only 22 per cent of female pupils in mixed-secondary schools thought their school took sexism seriously enough. Seventy-eight per cent of secondary pupils didn’t know if their school had a policy to tackle the problem. Similarly, 64 per cent of secondary teachers were unaware or unsure of policies or practices. Only 20 per cent had received training on how to recognise and tackle sexism in initial training and 20 per cent through CPD (NEU and UK Feminista, 2017).

It can be difficult to know how to respond to sexist language. It is sometimes dismissed as ‘banter’. By downgrading the problem or ignoring it, we inadvertently reinforce the view that sexist language is acceptable. Ignoring the problem normalises it.

Challenging unacceptable language

There are many ways you can challenge unacceptable language. The following examples have been recommended by the Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF) (2009, p. 28):

• Dismissive response
• “I’m not going to listen to language like that.”
• Questioning response
• “What makes you think that?”
• “What do you mean by that?”
• “Let’s talk about why people think like that.”
• Confronting response
• “Language like that is not acceptable.”
• “A lot of people would find that offensive.”
• Personal response
• “I‚’m not happy with what you said.”
• “I find that language really offensive.”
• “What you’ve said really disturbs me.”
• Organisational response
• “The school doesn’t tolerate language like that.”

Watch your language!

Findings from research by the NEU and UK Feminista (2017) also show that in interactions with pupils, teachers’ sometimes inadvertently reinforced gender stereotypes in the comments they made to students. For example, a female student was told it was okay to fail mathematics because girls are better at expressive lessons. Boys in one school were regularly told to ‘man-up.’ Boys were often allocated class tasks such as lifting tables or boxes, while girls were told to leave those jobs for the boys and sort out books instead.

Act on your own gender stereotypes to transform your practice

The school environment is a good place to communicate messages about gender equality to counter sexism and sexist language. By reflecting on your own deep-rooted beliefs, values and practice, you can identify and act on your own gender stereotypes.

• Treat sexist language in the learning environment as unacceptable at all times. Use codes of conduct to communicate norms and expected behaviour. Involve children in this activity.
• Refrain from using sexist language yourself.
• Present curricular subjects equally to pupils in terms of their relative difficulty and refrain from making remarks about how easy or difficult a subject is or whether a child is suited to it because of their gender. This also applies when offering praise or encouragement.
• Expose pupils to counter stereotypical role models, for example, diversify wall displays with a gender balance of portraits of people, such as male and female alumni, famous scientists, mathematicians, historical figures, sports people. Include positive examples of counter stereotype role models in lesson planning. Involve pupils sourcing and producing this material.
• Create an inclusive learning environment by encouraging pupils to listen to and respect each-other. Encourage diverse perspectives to be heard and give then equal airtime.
• Listen to pupils who raise issues. Be sensitive to their circumstances. If you don’t know how to deal with their issue, seek help from someone who can help or advise you.
• Avoid tokenism when constructing teams or group work. Don’t use pupils to manage behaviour in class, for example, by sitting girls next to boys to prevent boys from misbehaving.

All schools should have a policy to counter sexism that includes the use of sexist language. While many schools have such policies, research suggests teachers are not fully aware of school policy. Have you read the policy in your school?

• Department for Children, Schools and Families (2009) Guidance for schools on preventing and responding to sexist, sexual and transphobic bullying Safe to Learn: Embedding anti-bullying work in schools. Nottingham: DCSF Publications.
• Department for Education (2018) Sexual Violence and Sexual Harassment between children in schools and colleges. Advice for governing bodies, proprietors, headteachers, principals, senior leadership teams and designated safeguarding leads. Available at: www.gov.uk/government/publications (accessed 8 April 2021).
• End Violence Against Women (2010) YouGov Poll Exposes High Levels Sexual harassment in Schools. Available at: https://www.endviolenceagainstwomen.org.uk/yougov-poll-exposes-high-levels-sexual-harassment-in-schools/ (accessed 8 April 2021).
• Girlguiding (2018) We see the big picture Girls' Attitudes Survey 2018. Available at: https://www.girlguiding.org.uk/globalassets/docs-and-resources/research-and-campaigns/girls-attitudes-survey-2018.pdf (accessed 8 April 2021).
• House of Commons Women and Equalities Committee (2016) Sexual harassment and sexual violence in schools - Third Report of Session 2016-17. Available at: https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201617/cmselect/cmwomeq/91/91.pdf (accessed 8 April 2021).
• Department for Education (2018) Keeping Children Safe in Education. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/keeping-children-safe-in-education--2 (accessed 8 April 2021).
• National Education Union (NEU) and UK Feminista (2017) It's Just Everywhere. Available: https://www.teachers.org.uk/sites/default/files2014/ije-booklet_one-page-version_07.12.17.pdf (accessed 8 April 2021).
• NSPCC (2018) Childline sees over 3,000 counselling sessions about peer sexual abuse. Available: https://www.nspcc.org.uk/what-we-do/news-opinion/childline-sees-over-3000-counselling-sessions-peer-sexual-abuse/ (accessed 8 April 2021).

Other content you may be interested in

Education Reading Groups: Tips and advice

How interleaving can help students retain maths knowledge

The potential of digital technology in education and its impact on approaches to online teaching

Reflecting on initial teacher training: Where are we and where should we be?

The Terror of Error

Online, distance and home learning: Selected reading

The Early Career Framework: Useful links, resources and guidance

Improving critical thinking skills for student teachers’ transition into schools

Self-directed learning, autonomy and distance learning.

Digital technology in education: Selected reading

Pears Pavillion Corum Campus 41 Brunswick Square London WC1N 1AZ

[email protected] 020 3433 7624

Feminist Identity in College Women

• Living reference work entry
• First Online: 13 January 2021
• Cite this living reference work entry

• Carly K. Friedman 2 &
• Melanie M. Ayres 3  

43 Accesses

Feminist identity is support of equal rights for women and men. It may include private and public acceptance of the feminist label.

Description

College is where many young women are exposed to feminist viewpoints, or support for gender equality , for the first time in much depth. This may occur through experiences in women’s and gender studies or other courses as well as interactions with other students and mentors. As a consequence, some college women develop a feminist identity. Research finds that feminist identification is related to various aspects of women’s well-being.

Models of Feminist Identity

Researchers have varied in how they conceptualize and measure feminist identity. At least three different approaches can be noted. One of them is the stage model, which posits that women transition through a series of stages toward a feminist identity (see Downing Hansen 2002 ). Although there are different stage models, they similarly characterize feminist identity as a...

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Institutional subscriptions

Anderson, K. J. (2010). Benign bigotry: The psychology of subtle prejudice . New York: Cambridge University Press.

Google Scholar  

Anderson, K. J. (2012). Is feminism good for women? In P. K. Lundberg-Love, K. L. Nadal, & M. A. Paludi (Eds.), Women and mental disorders (pp. 1–15). Santa Barbara: Praeger.

Anderson, K. J., Kanner, M., & Elsayegh, N. (2009). Are feminists man haters? Feminists’ and nonfeminists’ attitudes toward men. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33 (2), 216–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2009.01491.x .

Article   Google Scholar  

Ayres, M. M., Friedman, C. K., & Leaper, C. (2009). Individual and situational factors related to young women’s likelihood of confronting sexism in their everyday lives. Sex Roles, 61 (7), 449–460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9635-3 .

Baca Zinn, M., & Dill, B. (1996). Theorizing difference from multiracial feminism. Feminist Studies, 22 (2), 321–331. https://doi.org/10.2307/3178416 .

Backus, F. R., & Mahalik, J. R. (2011). The Masculinity of Mr. Right: Feminist identity and heterosexual women’s ideal romantic partners. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35 (2), 318–326. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684310392357 .

Bargad, A., & Hyde, J. S. (1991). Women’s studies: A study of feminist identity development in women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 15 (2), 181–201. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1991.tb00791.x .

Bay-Cheng, L. Y., & Zucker, A. N. (2007). Feminism between the sheets: Sexual attitudes among feminists, nonfeminists, and egalitarians. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31 (2), 157–163. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00349.x .

Blakemore, J. E. O., Lawton, C. A., & Vartaian, L. R. (2005). I can’t wait to get married: Gender differences in drive to marry. Sex Roles, 53 (5), 327–335. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-6756-1 .

Boisner, A. D. (2003). Race and women’s identity development: Distinguishing between feminism and womanism among black and white women. Sex Roles, 49 (5), 211–218. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024696022407 .

Borowsky, H., Eisenberg, M., Bucchianeri, M., Piran, N., & Neumark-Sztainer, D. (2016). Feminist identity, body image, and disordered eating. Eating Disorders, 24 (4), 297–311. https://doi.org/10.1080/10640266.2015.1123986 .

Bryant-Davis, T., & Comas-Díaz, L. (2016). Womanist and mujerista psychologies: Voices of fire, acts of courage (Psychology of women book series). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Book   Google Scholar  

Cash, T. F., Ancis, J. R., & Strachan, M. D. (1997). Gender attitudes, feminist identity, and body images among college women. Sex Roles, 36 (7), 433–447. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02766682 .

Chadwick, C., & DeBlaere, C. (2019). The power of sisterhood. The moderating role of womanism in the discrimination-distress link among women of color in the United States. Sex Roles, 81 (5), 326–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0991-8 .

Chow, E. (1987). The development of feminist consciousness among Asian American women. Gender & Society, 1 (3), 284–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124387001003004 .

Conlin, S. E., & Heesacker, M. (2018). The association between feminist self-labeling and gender equality activism: Exploring the effects of scale language and identity priming. Current Psychology, 37 (1), 334–342. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-016-9517-0 .

Daniels, E., Zurbriggen, E., & Monique Ward, L. (2020). Becoming an object: A review of self-objectification in girls. Body Image, 33 , 278–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2020.02.016 .

DeBlaere, C., & Bertsch, K. N. (2013). Perceived sexist events and psychological distress of sexual minority women: The moderating role of womanism. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37 (2), 167–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684312470436 .

Dionne, M., Davis, C., Fox, J., & Gurevich, M. (1995). Feminist ideology as a predictor of body dissatisfaction in women. Sex Roles, 33 (3), 277–287. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01544615 .

Downing Hansen, N. (2002). Reflections on feminist identity development: Implications for theory, measurement, and research. The Counseling Psychologist, 30 (1), 87–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000002301005 .

Downing, N. E., & Roush, K. L. (1985). From passive acceptance to active commitment: A model of feminist identity development for women. The Counseling Psychologist, 13 (4), 695–709. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000085134013 .

Eisele, H., & Stake, J. (2008). The differential relationship of feminist attitudes and feminist identity to self-efficacy. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32 (3), 233–244. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00432.x .

Erchull, M., Liss, J., Wilson, M., Bateman, K., Peterson, A., & Sanchez, L. (2009). The feminist identity development model: Relevant for young women today? Sex Roles, 60 (11–12), 832–842. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9588-6 .

Fingeret, M. C., & Gleaves, D. H. (2004). Sociocultural, feminist, and psychological influences on women’s body satisfaction: A structural modeling analysis. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28 (1), 370–380. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2004.00154.x .

Fischer, A. R., Tokar, D. M., Mergl, M. M., Good, G. E., Hill, M. S., & Blum, S. A. (2000). Assessing women’s feminist identity development: Studies of convergent, discriminant, and structural validity. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24 (1), 15–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2000.tb01018.x .

Fitz, C. C., & Zucker, A. N. (2014). Feminist with benefits: College women’s feminist beliefs buffer sexual well-being amid hostile (not benevolent) sexism. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38 (1), 7–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684313504736 .

Foster, M. D. (2000). Positive and negative responses to personal discrimination: Does coping make a difference? The Journal of Social Psychology, 140 (1), 93–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224540009600448 .

Frederick, J. K., & Stewart, A. J. (2018). “I became a lioness”: Pathways to feminist identity among women’s movement activists. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 42 (3), 263–278. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684318771326 .

Friedman, C. K., & Ayres, M. M. (2013). Feminist activism among young sexual-minority and heterosexual women. Journal of Homosexuality, 60 (12), 1726–1744. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2013.824335 .

Harnois, C. E. (2005). Different paths to different feminism? Bridging multiracial feminist theory and quantitative sociological gender research. Gender & Society, 19 (6), 809–828. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243205280026 .

Hartwell, L. P., Erchull, M. J., & Liss, M. (2014). Desire for marriage and children: A comparison of feminist and non-feminist women. Gender Issues, 31 , 102–122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-014-9120-3 .

Henley, N. M., Meng, K., O’Brien, D., McCarthy, W. J., & Sockloskie, R. J. (1998). Developing a scale to measure the diversity of feminist attitudes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22 (3), 317–348. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1998.tb00158.x .

Hurt, M. M., Nelson, J. A., Turner, D. L., Haines, M. E., Ramsey, L. R., Erchull, M. J., et al. (2007). Feminism: What is it good for? Feminine norms and objectification as the link between feminist identity and clinically relevant outcomes. Sex Roles, 57 (5), 355–363. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9272-7 .

Hurtado, A., & Sinha, M. (2016). Beyond machismo: Intersectional latino masculinities . Austin: University of Texas Press.

Kelly, M. (2015). Feminist identity, collective action, and individual resistance among contemporary U.S. feminists. Women’s Studies International Forum, 48 , 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/wsif.2014.10.025 .

Klar, M., & Kasser, T. (2009). Some benefits of being an activist: Measuring activism and its role in psychological well-being. Political Psychology, 30 (5), 755–777. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2009.00724.x .

Le, T. P., Kuo, L., & Yamasaki, V. (2020). Gendered racial microaggressions, feminism, and Asian American women’s eating pathology: An intersectional investigation. Sex Roles. Advanced online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-01100-5 .

Leaper, C., & Arias, D. M. (2011). College women’s feminist identity: A multidimensional analysis with implications for coping with sexism. Sex Roles, 64 (7), 475–490. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9936-1 .

Liss, M., & Erchull, M. J. (2010). Everyone feels empowered: Understanding feminist self-labeling. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34 (1), 85–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2009.01544.x .

Liss, M., O'Connor, C., Morosky, E., & Crawford, M. (2001). What makes a feminist? Predictors and correlates of feminist social identity in college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25 (2), 124–133. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-6402.00014 .

McGuire, K. M., Berhanu, J., Davis, C. H. F., III, & Harper, S. R. (2014). In search of progressive black masculinities: Critical self-reflections on gender identity development among black undergraduate men. Men and Masculinities, 17 (3), 253–277. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X13514055 .

Moradi, B., & Grzanka, P. (2017). Using intersectionality responsibly: Toward critical epistemology, structural analysis, and social justice activism. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64 (5), 500–513. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000203 .

Moradi, B., & Subich, L. M. (2002). Perceived sexist events and feminist identity development attitudes: Links to women’s psychological distress. The Counseling Psychologist, 30 (1), 44–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000002301003 .

Moradi, B., Subich, L. M., & Phillips, J. C. (2002). Revisiting feminist identity development theory, research and practice. The Counseling Psychologist, 30 (1), 6–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000002301002 .

Murnen, S., & Smolak, K. (2009). Are feminist women protected from body image problems? A meta-analytic review of relevant research. Sex Roles, 60 (3–4), 186–197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9523-2 .

Myaskovsky, L., & Wittig, M. A. (1997). Predictors of feminist social identity among college women. Sex Roles, 37 (11), 861–883. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02936344 .

Nelson, J. A., Liss, M., Erchull, M. J., Hurt, M. M., Ramsey, L. R., Turner, D. L., et al. (2008). Identity in action: Predictors of feminist self-identification and collective action. Sex Roles, 58 (9), 721–728. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9384-0 .

Paynter, A., & Leaper, C. (2016). Heterosexual dating double standards in undergraduate women and men. Sex Roles, 75 (7–8), 393–406. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0628-8 .

Peretz, T. (2018). Seeing the invisible knapsack: Feminist men’s strategic responses to the continuation of male privilege in feminist spaces. Men and Masculinities . Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X18784990 .

Radke, H. R. M., Hornsey, M. J., & Barlow, F. K. (2018). Changing versus protecting the status quo: Why men and women engage in different types of action on behalf of women. Sex Roles, 79 (9), 505–518. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0884-2 .

Redford, L., Howell, J. L., Meijs, M. H. J., & Ratliff, K. A. (2018). Implicit and explicit evaluations of feminist prototypes predict feminist identity and behavior. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 21 (1), 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430216630193 .

Riquelme, A.R., Carretero-Dios, H., Megías, J.L., & Romero-Sánchez, M. (2020). Joking for gender equality: Subversive humor against sexism motivates collective action in men and women with weaker feminist identity. Sex Roles. Advanced online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01154-w .

Robnett, R., & Anderson, K. (2017). Feminist identity among women and men from four ethnic groups. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 23 (1), 134–142. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000095 .

Robnett, R. D., Anderson, K. J., & Hunter, L. E. (2012). Predicting feminist identity: Associations between gender-traditional attitudes, feminist stereotyping, and ethnicity. Sex Roles, 67 (3), 143–157. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0170-2 .

Rudman, L. A., & Fairchild, K. (2007). The F word: Is feminism incompatible with beauty and romance? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31 (2), 125–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00346.x .

Rudman, L. A., & Phelan, J. E. (2007). The interpersonal power of feminism: Is feminism good for romantic relationships? Sex Roles, 57 (11), 787–799. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9319-9 .

Sabik, N. J., & Tylka, T. L. (2006). Do feminist identity styles moderate the relation between perceived sexist events and disordered eating? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30 (1), 77–84. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2006.00264.x .

Saunders, K. J., & Kashubeck-West, S. (2006). The relations among feminist identity development, gender-role orientation, and psychological well-being in women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30 (2), 199–211. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2006.00282.x .

Schick, V. R., Zucker, A. N., & Bay-Cheng, L. (2008). Safer, better sex through feminism: The role of feminist ideology in women’s sexual well-being. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32 (3), 225–232. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00431.x .

Seabrook, R. C., Ward, L. M., Cortina, L. M., Giaccardi, S., & Lippman, J. R. (2017). Girl power or powerless girl? Television, sexual scripts, and sexual agency in sexually active young women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 41 (2), 240–253. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684316677028 .

Stoiko, R. R., & Strough, J. (2017). ‘Choosing’ the patriarchal norm: Emerging adults’ marital last name change attitudes, plans, and rationales. Gender Issues, 34 , 295–315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-017-9183-z .

Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., & Ferguson, M. J. (2001). Everyday sexism: Evidence for its incidence, nature, and psychological impact from three daily diary studies. Journal of Social Issues, 57 (1), 31–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00200 .

Swirsky, J. M., & Angelone, D. J. (2014). Femi-nazis and bra burning crazies: A qualitative evaluation of contemporary beliefs about feminism. Current Psychology, 33 (3), 229–245. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-014-9208-7 .

Velez, B., Cox, R., Polihronakis, C., & Moradi, B. (2018). Discrimination, work outcomes, and mental health among women of color: The protective role of womanist attitudes. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 65 (2), 178–193. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000274 .

Watson, L. B., Flores, M. J., Grotewiel, M., Brownfield, J. M., Aslan, S., & Farrell, M. (2018). How do feminist-identified women cope with discrimination? A feminist standpoint and grounded theory study. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 42 (3), 291–312. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684318777722 .

Weis, A. S., Redford, L., Zucker, A. N., & Ratliff, K. A. (2018). Feminist identity, attitudes toward feminist prototypes, and willingness to intervene in everyday sexist events. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 42 (3), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684318764694 .

White, A. M. (2008). Ain’t I a feminist?: African American men speak out on fatherhood, friendship, forgiveness, and freedom . Albany: State University of New York Press.

Wing, A. (2003). Critical race feminism: A reader (Second edition/foreword to second edition by Richard Delgado; foreword to first edition by Derrick Bell. ed., Critical America). New York: New York University Press.

Yoder, J. D., Perry, R. L., & Saal, E. I. (2007). What good is a feminist identity? Women’s feminist identification and role expectation for intimate and sexual relationships. Sex Roles, 57 (5), 365–372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9269-2 .

Yoder, J. D., Tobias, A., & Snell, A. F. (2011). When declaring “I am a feminist” matters: Labeling is linked to activism. Sex Roles, 64 (1), 9–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9890-3 .

Zucker, A. N. (2004). Disavowing social identities: What it means when women say, “I’m not a feminist, but…”. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28 (4), 423–435. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2004.00159.x .

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Biological Sciences, St. Mary’s University, San Antonio, TX, USA

Carly K. Friedman

University of Wisconsin River Falls, River Falls, WI, USA

Melanie M. Ayres

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Dipartimento di Scienze Statistiche, Sapienza Università di Roma, Roma, Italy

Filomena Maggino

Section Editor information

Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA

Youngmee Kim

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Cite this entry.

Friedman, C.K., Ayres, M.M. (2021). Feminist Identity in College Women. In: Maggino, F. (eds) Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_4133-2

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_4133-2

Received : 05 July 2020

Accepted : 15 November 2020

Published : 13 January 2021

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-319-69909-7

Online ISBN : 978-3-319-69909-7

eBook Packages : Springer Reference Social Sciences Reference Module Humanities and Social Sciences Reference Module Business, Economics and Social Sciences

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

“girl power”: gendered academic and workplace experiences of college women in engineering.

1. Introduction

2. literature review, 2.1. academic persistence for women in stem, 2.2. career persistence for women in stem, 3. conceptual framework, 4.1. sample, 4.2. data collection and analysis, 4.3. data trustworthiness, 4.4. limitations, 5.1. academic environments, 5.1.1. “i don’t think my education is any different”.

In the classroom there’s less females than there are males. But I don’t think my education is any different than a male’s education. I think sometimes boys will be boys and they’re like “oh, and I mean you’re not gonna want to do a manufacturing job. You’re not gonna want to do that. That’s more of a male’s job.” Obviously it’s not. (Jessica)

5.1.2. “Being Underestimated Constantly”

One time I was explaining to everyone how I thought this thing was, and then this guy stood up and he said, “I think you’re right, but your reasoning is wrong” … Honestly, if it’s another guy, he would be like, “Okay, it’s fine” but if it’s another girl, then he would try to be condescending about it. (Madu)

I had a girl tell me, “I thought you were going to be one of those of those girls that just hangs out with a bunch of guys and gets all their answers” … I’ve heard guys say that. “Oh, she hangs out with all guys. She gets all the answers from them.”

5.1.3. “You Don’t Want to Be Seen as Getting Advantages”

I was doing recruiting … we had to talk to the students and then pass a sign-out sheet, and there was a group of girls sitting together and one of them wanted to sign up, but the other one was like, “No. don’t do it.” So, there’s this like—it’s just so frustrating ‘cause it’s really seen as like a sign of weakness or that they’re giving something up because there is kind of a mentality that sometimes a girl only got the job because she’s a girl. So, a lot of women feel like if you’re in [a women’s organization] then you get some sort of advantages … you don’t want to be seen as getting advantages.

I think my experience and what I’ve been exposed to and the opportunities that I have been exactly the same. Honestly even more because they do have a lot of women in engineering events … I have a lot of guy friends who are like, “Wait I can’t come to that?” I’m like, “Sorry.”

5.2. Workplace Environments

5.2.1. “oh, you’re a girl”.

Sometimes when I go to industry, like when I go to a co-op or intern, people just made comments, says like, “Oh, you’re a girl. You don’t know that stuff. You can’t—” Those little stuff bothered me, but at school, I never really experienced that.

She got the girl interns together and told us that some of our bosses that were men expressed an interest in her talking to us about our behaviors and who we interacted with and being careful about how we dressed and not wearing makeup to work.

I think that they initially underestimate you and they respect you more even if I did the same thing as a boy ... they think I accomplish more because I am inherently unable to do it because I’m a girl or something like that.

5.2.2. “There’s a Lot of Sexism”

It was a little weird because the guys make jokes and things like that. And even just on the construction site being a female, you get some comments here and there, and it’s like, really? I’m just trying to do my job.

5.2.3. Benefits of “Girl Power”

I think you benefit from seeing people who look like you around you, even if it’s just a male or female. Because I walk into a room of females, I’m like, “Oh yeah, girl power.” Like, “We in here, we doing it.”

6. Discussion

6.1. implications for practice, 6.2. future research, 7. conclusions, author contributions, conflicts of interest.

• Amelink, Catherine T., and Elizabeth G. Creamer. 2010. Gender differences in elements of the undergraduate experience that influence satisfaction with the engineering major and the intent to pursue engineering as a career. Journal of Engineering Education 99: 81–92. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Amon, Mary J. 2017. Looking through the glass ceiling: A qualitative study of STEM women’s career narratives. Frontiers in Psychology 8: 1–10. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Anicha, Cali L., Canan Bilen-Green, Ann Burnett, Karen Froelich, and Sandra Holbrook. 2017. Institutional transformation toward a diversity-positive campus culture. Journal of Women Minorities in Science and Engineering 23: 147–67. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Beyer, Sylvia. 2008. Predictors of female and male compute science students’ grades. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering 14: 377–409. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Beyer, Sylvia. 2014. Why are women underrepresented in Computer Science? Gender differences in stereotypes, self-efficacy, values, and interests and predictors of future CS course-taking and grades. Computer Science Education 24: 153–92. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Beyer, Sylvia. 2016. Low awareness of occupational segregation and the gender gap: No changes over a 16-year span. Current Psychology , 1–17. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Blair-Loy, Mary. 2013. The Persistence of Male Power and Prestige in the Professions: Report on the Professions of Law, Medicine, and Science and Engineering . New York: Center for Research on Gender in the Professions (CRGP), March. [ Google Scholar ]
• Buse, Kathleen, Diana Bilimoria, and Sheri Perelli. 2013. Why they stay: Women persisting in US engineering careers. Career Development and International 18: 139–54. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Canney, Nathan E., and Angela R. Bielefeldt. 2015. Gender differences in the social responsibility attitudes of engineering students and how they change over time. Journal of Women Minorities in Science and Engineering 21: 215–37. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cha, Youngjoon. 2013. Overwork and the persistence of gender segregation in occupations. Gender and Society 27: 158–84. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chamberlain, Lindsey J., Martha Crowley, Daniel Tope, and Randy Hodson. 2008. Sexual harassment in organizational Context. Work Occupation 35: 262–95. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chen, Xianglei, and Thomas Weko. 2009. Students Who Study Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) in Postsecondary Education. U.S. Department of Education NCES 2009-161. July. Available online: http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2009/2009161.pdf (accessed on 9 January 2018).
• Corbett, Christianne, and Catherine Hill. 2015. Solving the Equation . Washington: American Association of Women, Available online: http://www.aauw.org/aauw_check/pdf_download/show_pdf.php?file=solving-the-equation (accessed on 9 January 2018).
• Crenshaw, Kimberle. 1991. Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review 43: 1241–99. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Deemer, Eric D. 2015. Women’s science major satisfaction: Regulatory focus and the critical mass hypothesis. Journal of Career Development 42: 60–71. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Eagan, M. Kevin, Jr., Sylvia Hurtado, Mitchell J. Chang, Gina A. Garcia, Felisha A. Herrera, and Juan C. Garibay. 2013. Research programs making a difference in science education: The impact of undergraduate research programs. American Journal Educational Research 50: 683–713. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Fetterman, David M. 2008. Emic/etic distinction. In The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods . Edited by Lisa Given. Thousand Oaks: Sage. [ Google Scholar ]
• Flax, Jane. 1996. Women do theory. In Multicultural Experiences, Multicultural Theories . Edited by Mary F. Rogers. New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 17–20. [ Google Scholar ]
• Fouad, Nadya A., Romilia Singh, Kevin Cappaert, Wen-Hsin Chang, and Min Wan. 2016. Comparison of women engineers who persist in or depart from engineering. Jouranl of Vocational Behavior 92: 79–93. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Frehill, Lisa M., Nicole M. DiFabio, and Susan T. Hill. 2008. Confronting the New American Dilemma: Underrepresented Minorities in Engineering: A Data-Based Look at Diversity . White Plains: National Action Council for Minorities in Engineering. [ Google Scholar ]
• Garibay, Juan C., Bryce E. Hughes, M. Kevin Eagan, and Sylvia Hurtado. 2013. Beyond the Bachelor’s: What Influences STEM Post-Baccalaureate Pathways. Paper presented at Association for Institutional Research Annual Forum, Long Beach, CA, USA, May 18–22. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gayles, Joy G., and Frim Ampaw. 2016. To stay or leave: Factors that impact undergraduate women’s persistence in science majors. NASPA Journal about Women in Higher Education 9: 133–51. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Glick, Peter, and Susan T. Fiske. 2001. An ambivalent alliance. Hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifications for gender inequality. American Psychologist 56: 109–18. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Goldin, Claudia. 2014. A pollution theory of discrimination: Male and female differences in occupations and earnings. In Human Capital Theory: The American Record . Edited by Leah P. Boustan, Carola Frydman and Robert A. Margo. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 313–48. [ Google Scholar ]
• Greenwald, Anthony G., and Mahzarin R. Banaji. 1995. Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. American Psychology Association 102: 4–27. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Greenwald, Anthony G., and Linda H. Krieger. 2006. Implicit bias: Scientific foundations. California Law Review 94: 945–67. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Guba, Egon G., and Yvonna S. Lincoln. 1994. Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In Handbook of Qualitative Research . Edited by Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln. Thousand Oaks: Sage. [ Google Scholar ]
• Haines, Valerie A., Jean E. Wallace, and M. Elizabeth Cannon. 2001. Exploring the gender gap in engineering: A respecification and test of the hypothesis of cumulative advantages and disadvantages. Journal of Engineering Education 90: 677–84. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hall, Roberta M., and Bernice R. Sandler. 1982. The Classroom Climate: A Chilly One for Women? Project on the Status and Education of Women, February. Washington: Association of American Colleges. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hall, Roberta M., and Bernice R. Sandler. 1984. Out of the Classroom: A Chilly Campus Climate for Women? Project on the Status and Education of Women, October. Washington: Association of American Colleges. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hatmaker, Deneen M. 2013. Engineering identity: Gender and professional identity negotiation among women engineers. Gender Work Organization 20: 382–96. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Heilman, Madeline E. 2012. Gender stereotypes and workplace bias. Research Organization Behavior 32: 113–35. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hekman, Susan. 1997. Truth and method: Feminist standpoint theory revisited. Signs 22: 341–65. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hewlett, Sylvia A. 2008. Off-ramps and on-ramps: Keeping talented women on the road to success. Human Resource Management International Digest 16. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hewlett, Sylvia A., Carolyn B. Luce, Lisa J. Servon, Laura Sherbin, Peggy Shiller, Eytan Sosnovich, and Karen Sumberg. 2008. The Athena Factor: Reversing the Brain Drain in Science, Engineering, and Technology . Boston: Harvard Business Review, pp. 1–100. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hewlett, Sylvia A., Laura Sherbin, Fabiola Dieudonne, Christina Fargnoli, and Catherine Fredman. 2014. Athena Factor 2.0: Accelerating Female Talent in Science, Engineering and Technology . New York: Center for Talent Innovation. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hong, Lu, and Scott E. Page. 2004. Groups of diverse problem solvers can outperform groups of high-ability problem solvers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 101: 16385–89. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Hughes, Roxanne M. 2010. Doctoral dissertation, Florida State University. Available online: http://diginole.lib.fsu.edu/islandora/object/fsu%3A254222 (accessed on 9 January 2018).
• Hughes, Roxanne. 2015. An investigation into the longitudinal identify trajectories of women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Journal of Women Minorities in Science and Engineering 21: 181–213. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hunt, Jennifer. 2016. Why do women leave science and engineering? ILR Review 69: 199–226. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hunter, Rosemary. 2006. Discrimination in IT organisations. Labour Industry 16: 91–108. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hyllegard, Karen H., Karen Rambo-Hernandez, and Jennifer Paff Ogle. 2017. Fashion FUNdamentals: Building middle school girls’ self-esteem and interest in STEM. Journal of Women Minorities in Science and Engineering 23: 87–99. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ibarra, Herminia. 1999. Professional selves: Experimenting with image and identity in professional adaptation. Administrative Science Quarterly 44: 764–91. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Intemann, Kristen. 2010. 25 years of feminist empiricism and standpoint theory: Where are we now? Hypatia 25: 778–96. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Johnson, Dawn R. 2011. Women of color in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). New Directions for Institutional Research 152: 75–85. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Johnson, Burke, and Larry B. Christensen. 2000. Educational Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches . Boston: Allyn and Bacon. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kahn, Shulamit, and Donna K. Ginther. 2015. Are recent cohorts of women with engineering bachelors less likely to stay in engineering? Frontiers in Psychology 6: 1–15. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Kezar, Adrianna, and Elizabeth Holcombe. 2017. Creating a Unified Community of Support: Increasing Success for Underrepresented Students in STEM: A Final Report on the CSU STEM Collaboratives Project. Available online: https://pullias.usc.edu/csustemcollab/creating-a-unified-community-of-support-increasing-success-for-underrepresented-students-in-stem/ (accessed on 9 January 2018).
• Lichtenstein, Gary, Heidi G. Loshbaugh, Brittany Claar, Helen L. Chen, Kristyn Jackson, and Sheri Sheppard. 2009. An engineering major does not (necessarily) an engineer make: Career decision making among undergraduate engineering majors. Journal of Engineering Education 98: 227–34. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lincoln, Yvonna S., and Egon G. Guba. 1985. Naturalistic Inquiry . Thousand Oaks: Sage. [ Google Scholar ]
• Litzler, Elizabeth, and Jacob Young. 2012. Understanding the risk of attrition in undergraduate engineering: Results from the project to assess climate in engineering. Journal of Engineering Education 101: 319–45. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Marra, Rose M., Kelly A. Rodgers, Demei Shen, and Barbara Bogue. 2009. Women engineering students and self-efficacy: A multi-year, multi-institution study of women engineering student self-efficacy. Journal of Engineering Education 98: 27–38. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• McCann, Carole R., and Seung-kyung Kim. 2017. Feminist Theory Reader: Local and Global Perspectives , 4th ed. New York: Routledge. [ Google Scholar ]
• McLaughlin, Heather, Christopher Uggen, and Amy Blackstone. 2012. Sexual harassment, workplace authority, and the paradox of power. American Sociological Review 77: 625–47. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• McPherson, Ezella. 2017. Oh you are smart: Young, gifted, African American women in STEM majors. Journal of Women Minorities in Science and Engineering 23: 1–14. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Merriam, Sharan B. 1998. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education , 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. [ Google Scholar ]
• Merriam, Sharan B. 2009. Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation , 3rd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. [ Google Scholar ]
• Milkman, Katherine L., Modupe Akinola, and Dolly Chugh. 2015. What happens before? A field experiment exploring how pay and representation differentially shape bias on the pathway into organizations. Journal of Applied Psychology 100: 1678–712. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Morris, LaDonna K., and Larry G. Daniel. 2008. Perceptions of a chilly climate: Differences in traditional and non-traditional majors for women. Research in Higher Education 49: 256–73. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Moss-Racusin, Corinne A., John F. Dovidio, Victoria L. Brescoll, Mark J. Graham, and Jo Handelsman. 2012. Science faculty’s subtle gender biases favor male students. Proceedings of the National Academy Science USA 109: 16474–79. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• National Research Council and National Academy of Engineering [NRC/NAE]. 2014. Career Choices of Female Engineers: A Summary of a Workshop . Washington: The National Academies Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• National Science Board. 2016. Science and Engineering Indicators. Available online: https://nsf.gov/statistics/2016/nsb20161/uploads/1/nsb20161.pdf (accessed on 9 January 2018).
• National Science Foundation. 2017. Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering. Available online: www.nsf.gov/statistics/wmpd/ (accessed on 9 January 2018).
• Neumann, Maureen D., Sandra A. Latham, and Maureen Fitzgerald-Riker. 2016. Resisting cultural expectations: Women remaining as civil and environment engineering majors. Journal of Women Minorities in Science and Engineering 22: 139–58. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Office of Science and Technology Policy. 2016. Women in STEM. Available online: https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/administration/eop/ostp/women (accessed on 9 January 2018).
• Powell, Abigail, and Katherine J. C. Sang. 2015. Everyday experiences of sexism in male-dominated professions: A Bourdieusian perspective. Sociology 49: 919–36. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Powell, Abigail, Barbara Bagilhole, and Andrew Dainty. 2009. How women engineers do and undo gender: Consequences for gender equality. Gender, Work & Organization 16: 411–28. [ Google Scholar ]
• Powell, Abigail, Andrew Dainty, and Barbara Bagilhole. 2011. A poisoned chalice? Why UK women in engineering and technology students may receive more ‘help’ than their male peers. Gender and Education 23: 585–99. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Reilly, Erin D., Kadie Rackley, and Germine H. Awad. 2016. Perceptions of male and female STEM aptitude: The moderating effect of benevolent and hostile sexism. Journal of Career Development 44: 159–73. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rhoton, Laura A. 2011. Distancing as a gendered barrier: Understanding women scientists’ gender practices. Gender & Society 25: 696–716. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ro, Hyuan K. 2011. An Investigation of Engineering Students’ Post-Graduation Plans Inside or Outside of Engineering. Doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, USA. Available online: http://search.proquest.com/docview/902152680 (accessed on 9 January 2018).
• Ropers-Huilman, Rebecca, and Kelly Winters. 2011. Feminist methodology in higher education. Journal of Higher Education 82: 667–90. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sargent, John F., Jr. 2014. The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce: Recent, Current, and Projected Employment, Wages, and Unemployment. Congressional Research Service Report No. R43061. Available online: https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R43061.pdf (accessed on 9 January 2018).
• Sassler, Sharon, Katherine Michelmore, and Kristin Smith. 2017. A Tale of two majors: Explaining the gender gap in STEM employment among computer science and engineering degree holders. Social Sciences 6: 1–26. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sax, Linda J., Allison Kanny, Tiffani A. Riggers-Piehl, Hannah Whang, and Laura N. Paulson. 2015. “But I’m not good at math”: The changing salience of mathematical self-concept in shaping women’s and men’s STEM aspirations. Research in Higher Education 56: 813–42. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sax, Linda J., Hilary B. Zimmerman, Jennifer M. Blaney, Brit Toven-Lindsey, and Kathleen J. Lehman. 2017. Diversifying undergraduate computer science: The role of department chairs in promoting gender and racial diversity. Journal of Women Minorities in Science and Engineering 23: 101–19. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sheppard, Sheri, Shannon Gilmartin, Helen L. Chen, Krista Donaldson, Gary Lichtenstein, Özgur Eriş, Micah Lande, and George Toye. 2010. Exploring the Engineering Student Experience: Findings from the Academic Pathways of People Learning Engineering Survey (Technical Report CAEE-TR-10-01). Available online: http://www.engr.washington.edu/caee (accessed on 9 January 2018).
• Smith, Kathleen N., and Joy G. Gayles. 2017. “Setting up for the next big thing”: Undergraduate women engineering students’ postbaccalaureate career decisions. Journal of College Student Development 58: 1201–17. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Stainback, Kevin, Thomas N. Ratliff, and Vincent J. Roscigno. 2011. The context of workplace sex discrimination: Sex composition, workplace culture, and relative power. Social Forces 89: 1165–88. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Stake, Robert E. 2005. Qualitative case studies. In The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research , 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, pp. 433–66. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tatum, Beverly D. 1997. Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria . New York: Basic Books. [ Google Scholar ]
• Wang, Ming-Te, and Jessica Degol. 2013. Motivational pathways to STEM career choices: Using expectancy-value perspective to understand individual and gender differences in STEM fields. Development Review 33: 304–40. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Wijeyesinghe, Charmaine L., and Susan R. Jones. 2014. Intersectionality, identity, and systems of power and inequality. In Intersectionality and Higher Education: Theory, Research, and Praxis . Bern: Peter Lang, pp. 9–19. [ Google Scholar ]
• Winters, Katherine, Holly Matusovich, and Cheryl Carrico. 2012. So How Did That Go for You? Early Career Engineers’ Success in Meeting Goals Set as Undergraduate Seniors . Starkville: American Society of Engineering Education, April. [ Google Scholar ]
• Woodcock, Anna, and Diana Bairaktarova. 2015. Gender-biased self-evaluations of first-year engineering students. Journal of Women Minorities in Science and Engineering 21: 255–69. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wylie, Alison. 2003. Why standpoint matters. In Science and Other Cultures: Issues in Philosophies of Science and Technology . Edited by Robert Figueroa and Sandra Harding. New York: Routledge. [ Google Scholar ]
• Wynn, Alison T., and Shelley J. Correll. 2017. Gendered perceptions of cultural and skill alignment in technology companies. Social Sciences 6: 1–28. [ Google Scholar ]
• Xu, Yonghong J. 2013. Career outcomes of STEM and non-STEM college graduates: Persistence in majored-field and influential factors in career choices. Research in Higher Education 54: 349–82. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Xu, Yonghong J. 2015. Focusing on women in STEM: A longitudinal examination of gender-based earning gap of college graduates. Journal of Higher Education 86: 489–523. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Xu, Yonghong J. 2017. Attrition of women in STEM: Examining job/major congruence in the career choices of college graduates. Journal of Career Development 44: 3–19. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yin, Robert K. 2014. Case Study Research: Design and Methods , 5th ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. [ Google Scholar ]

Share and Cite

Smith, K.N.; Gayles, J.G. “Girl Power”: Gendered Academic and Workplace Experiences of College Women in Engineering. Soc. Sci. 2018 , 7 , 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci7010011

Smith KN, Gayles JG. “Girl Power”: Gendered Academic and Workplace Experiences of College Women in Engineering. Social Sciences . 2018; 7(1):11. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci7010011

Smith, Kathleen N., and Joy Gaston Gayles. 2018. "“Girl Power”: Gendered Academic and Workplace Experiences of College Women in Engineering" Social Sciences 7, no. 1: 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci7010011

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

• Undergraduate
• High School
• Architecture
• American History
• Asian History
• Antique Literature
• American Literature
• Asian Literature
• Classic English Literature
• World Literature
• Creative Writing
• Linguistics
• Criminal Justice
• Legal Issues
• Anthropology
• Archaeology
• Political Science
• World Affairs
• African-American Studies
• East European Studies
• Latin-American Studies
• Native-American Studies
• West European Studies
• Family and Consumer Science
• Social Issues
• Women and Gender Studies
• Social Work
• Natural Sciences
• Pharmacology
• Earth science
• Agriculture
• Agricultural Studies
• Computer Science
• IT Management
• Mathematics
• Investments
• Engineering and Technology
• Engineering
• Aeronautics
• Medicine and Health
• Alternative Medicine
• Communications and Media
• Advertising
• Communication Strategies
• Public Relations
• Educational Theories
• Teacher's Career
• Chicago/Turabian
• Company Analysis
• Education Theories
• Shakespeare
• Canadian Studies
• Food Safety
• Relation of Global Warming and Extreme Weather Condition
• Movie Review

Admission Essay

• Annotated Bibliography
• Application Essay
• Article Critique
• Article Review
• Article Writing
• Book Review
• Business Plan
• Business Proposal
• Capstone Project
• Cover Letter
• Creative Essay
• Dissertation
• Dissertation - Abstract
• Dissertation - Conclusion
• Dissertation - Discussion
• Dissertation - Hypothesis
• Dissertation - Introduction
• Dissertation - Literature
• Dissertation - Methodology
• Dissertation - Results
• GCSE Coursework
• Grant Proposal
• Marketing Plan
• Multiple Choice Quiz
• Personal Statement
• Power Point Presentation
• Power Point Presentation With Speaker Notes
• Questionnaire
• Reaction Paper
• Research Paper
• Research Proposal
• SWOT analysis
• Thesis Paper
• Online Quiz
• Literature Review
• Movie Analysis
• Statistics problem
• Math Problem
• All papers examples
• How It Works
• Money Back Policy
• Terms of Use
• Privacy Policy
• We Are Hiring

Sexism, Essay Example

Pages: 5

Words: 1322

Hire a Writer for Custom Essay

Use 10% Off Discount: "custom10" in 1 Click 👇

You are free to use it as an inspiration or a source for your own work.

Sexism is a term used to indicate discrimination or the prejudiced faced by person based on the persons sex. Thoman, Dustin, Paul White, Niwako Yamawaki, and Hirofumi Koishi indicated that the attitude of the sexist has its origin for the stereotypes that existed traditionally in the gender roles of the people in the society (10). As a result, sexism can include the feeling that people of particular sex are superior or better than the other sex. For instance, a person seeking for a job may encounter discriminatory hiring practises because she is a woman. In such most societies, when a lady is hired for a certain job, they tend to receive unequal treatment or compensation when compared to the men working in the same capacity.  The other extreme form of sexism may include sexual harassment, rape and similar type of sexual violence especially targeted towards the female gender.

The origin of the term as used currently can be traced to the Pauline Leet who coined the word in 1965 in which she compared sexism to the racism. In her contribution that was titled, ”women and the undergraduate” she argued that both the sexist and the racists act as if all that has not happened will never happen and therefore coming to a conclusion about someone’s value based on the irrelevant factors like sex and skin colour. Sexism is judging people by the sex when the sex does not matter really. It is used to keep the sex in power established and entrenched in power Watson, Robinson, Dispenza, & Nazari, (233).

Historically, until the 20 th century, the US and English law in general was based on a system of covertures in which during the marriage, the husband and the wife become one person in legal resulting in the suspension of the legal existence of the woman during the marriage. As a consequence, the women in the US were not legally defined as persons until 1975 while the married women in France received the right to work without their husband permission in 1965, it is important to note that in many countries around the globe; the women still loose significant rights when they get married. For instance, in Iraq, the husbands had the right to punish their wives. This is not a criminal act but is similar to parents or teacher disciplining the children within regulation of the customs and laws.

Sexism in any given society is driven by the gender stereotypes that consist of the beliefs about the characteristics of men and women. Numerous empirical studies have shown that men are socially valued and more competent that the women in undertaking different activities. In one such study done in the US, the diverse sample of the people surveyed consistently rated the category of the men as being hire that the category of the woman.

According to another survey, it has been found that stereotype against the women has actually contributed to the lowering of the women’s performance in mathematics test. This is a self fulfilling stereotype that women have inferior quantitative skills when compared to the men. The women and men’s perceptions of those abilities are then affected as it results in the men rating their own tasks ability higher than that of the women who perform in the same level (Thoman, Dustin, Paul White, Niwako Yamawaki, and Hirofumi Koishi, 9). Such gender based biases affects the women and men’s education and career decisions.

Occupational sexism is  refers to the discriminatory practises and actions based on the sex that occurs in the work place. The most common form of the occupational sexism is the wage discrimination. According to the organisation for the Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), as much has the employment of the female has greatly expanded and the wage gap has also tremendously narrowed, when compared with the male counterpart, the female still have 20 percent less chance of being employed and when they are finally employed, they are paid 17% less that the male with the same qualification. Despite the establishment if the anti discrimination and equality of employment laws,  the implementation of the Law is very difficult in many countries including the western nations.

According to Fortin Nicole Gender stereotypes play very crucial role in encouraging stereotypes in the society. This mainly comes from the gender roles, which are the behaviours that the society associates with each of the genders. For example, in the united state, while the male are expected to be decisive, direct, stoic, strong, athletic, brave and driven, the women on the other hand are culturally expected to be not only emotional, weak and nurturing but affectionate and home oriented (428). OECD therefore argues that the women’s labour market is influences by learned cultural and social values that may be seen as discriminatory towards women by stereotyping certain lifestyle and work as being for men or women. This is because the women educational and career choice may be dictated in part by the expectations that certain job opportunities are not open to the people of their gender. In the US, the women formed about 87 percent of all the people employed in the child care industry and 86 percent of the people working in the health aide sector.

Professional discrimination still exists against women in the work place although there has been a slow improvement. A study done in 2007 indicated that for every $1.00 earned by the men annually, the median pay for the women was $ 0.78. the people that contend the wage gap argues that the difference in the pay between the male and the female is not based on sexism in the work place but is a product of the career choice and the working house differences between the male and females.

Watson, Robinson, Dispenza, & Nazari argue that another form of sexism in the society is portrayed by the sexual objectification of women in advertisement and promotion of items. Objectification can be defined as the treatment of women as an object that is viewed primarily as a source of sexual gratification or to bring about sexual appeal (232). While there are laws that govern advertising in western countries, this only regulate the obscenity of the adverts and prevent indecent poses but does not avert objectification of the women. While in some countries like Norway and Denmark that has not banned Nudity in advertising relevant products, other countries like Israel has continue to ban nudity and makes a reference to the sexual objectification of the women.

Pornography is another practise that contributes to the sexism by not only objectifying women but also portraying them in submissive roles. it has also been noted that some types of pornography contribute to the violence against the women by producing scenes that present women has being dominated, humiliated and coerced. As a form of sexism, pornography depict women as continually available and willing to engage in sexual act with any man and in accordance to their terms and promote rape myth as it desensitises people to violence against the women. This is because it creates a feeling that the lady consented no matter what was said.

Sexism is driven by the consisted desire of one gender to exercise full power over the victim. Studies have shown that the perpetrators of rape for instance have not only hatred towards the women but also get pleasure in inflicting physical and psychological trauma on the victims.

There is continual need to promote gender equality in the different aspects of life so as to eliminate discrimination and violence against women.

Works cited

Thoman, Dustin, Paul White, Niwako Yamawaki, and Hirofumi Koishi. “Variations of Gender–math Stereotype Content Affect Women’s Vulnerability to Stereotype  Threat.” Sex Roles 58.9-10 (2008): 702-12. Print.

Fortin, Nicole, “Gender Role Attitudes and the Labour Market Outcomes of Women Across OECD Countries”, Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 2005, 21, 416–438.

Watson, L., Robinson, D., Dispenza, F., & Nazari, N., African American women’s sexual objectification experiences: A qualitative study. Psychology of Women Quarterly, (2012)36, 227-239

Stuck with your Essay?

Get in touch with one of our experts for instant help!

Mental Health Nurse Practitioner Program, Admission Essay Example

Before the War, Essay Example

Time is precious

don’t waste it!

Plagiarism-free guarantee

Privacy guarantee

Secure checkout

Money back guarantee

Related Essay Samples & Examples

Voting as a civic responsibility, essay example.

Pages: 1

Words: 287

Utilitarianism and Its Applications, Essay Example

Words: 356

The Age-Related Changes of the Older Person, Essay Example

Pages: 2

Words: 448

The Problems ESOL Teachers Face, Essay Example

Pages: 8

Words: 2293

Should English Be the Primary Language? Essay Example

Pages: 4

Words: 999

The Term “Social Construction of Reality”, Essay Example

Words: 371