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Systematic review article, conceptualising primary-secondary school transitions: a systematic mapping review of worldviews, theories and frameworks.

• 1 School of Education and Social Work, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
• 2 School of Education, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
• 3 School of Education, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom

There is continued interest internationally in primary-secondary school transitions. Fourteen literature reviews of primary-secondary transitions have been published over the last 20 years, however none of them have systematically analysed primary-secondary school transition ontology, i.e., researchers’ worldviews, theories/models and frameworks. This is a major gap in these reviews and the papers published in this area; this is of concern as it is difficult to trust the robustness of a study if its foundation, such as researchers’ conceptualisation of transitions, is not visible. Therefore, using the Evidence for Policy and Practice Information and Co-ordinating Centre (EPPI-Centre) approach, we undertook a systematic mapping review, of empirical studies published internationally between 2008 and 2018. Our objectives were to explore researchers’ and research participants’ conceptualisation of transitions, the conceptual framework used by the researchers and their discourse about transitions. Of the 96 studies included in this systematic mapping review, most had not clearly defined transition, and even when conceptualisation was explicit, it did not underline the research design or frame the findings. Most researchers adopted previously used theoretical frameworks.These theoretical frameworks can be beneficial; however, as the researchers did not adapt or develop them in the context of transitions research, it limits a meta-theoretical understanding of transitions. Further, the majority did not report study participants’conceptualisation of transitions. Similarly, a large number of researchers adopted a negative discourse about primary-secondary school transitions, with some using a mixed discourse and only two papers had a primarily positive discourse. This systematic mapping review is original and significant as it is the first study to provide a review of school transitions ontology and offers unique insights into the conceptual and methodological gaps that international transitions researchers should address.

Introduction

Internationally there is continued and increasing interest by governments and researchers in how primary-secondary school transitions in late childhood or early adolescence, impact children’s educational and wellbeing outcomes ( Symonds and Galton, 2014 ; Jindal-Snape and Cantali, 2019 ; Jindal-Snape et al., 2020 ). The timing of this ‘mid-schooling’ transition ( Youngman, 1986 ) differs depending on the education system: in two tier systems, such as in Scotland, children transfer once from primary to secondary school, whereas in three tier systems, such as in the United States, children transfer twice, from elementary to middle or junior high school and then to high school. Regardless of each country’s tier system, in all cases, children transfer from primary education to secondary education ( Eurydice, 2018 ). We used the terms primary and secondary in this review as well as the term mid-schooling transition, to create a definition that holds across education systems internationally.

In the past two decades there have been at least 14 reviews of empirical research on primary-secondary school transitions ( Anderson et al., 2000 ; Benner, 2011 ; Topping, 2011 ; Hanewald, 2013 ; Hughes et al., 2013 ; Symonds and Galton, 2014 ; Cantali, 2017 ; Galton and McLellan, 2017 ; Pearson et al., 2017 ; Evans et al., 2018 ; van Rens et al., 2018 ; Jindal-Snape et al., 2020 ); and as books ( Akos et al., 2005 ; Howe and Richards, 2011 ; Symonds, 2015 ). In principle, they provide a solid evidence base for researchers to build on. Only a handful of these are published within the period 2008–2018 ( Hanewald, 2013 ; Hughes et al., 2013 ; Pearson et al., 2017 and meet Garrard (2016) criteria for systematic reviews as identified by Jindal-Snape et al. (2020) . Although this map of the research skyline helps researchers build upwards empirically, the field’s foundations have not yet been systematically examined. As such, this leaves researchers without a clear understanding of how primary-secondary school transitions have been conceptualised. The current study aims to address this gap by providing the first mapping review of primary-secondary school transitions ontology: defined as researchers’ worldviews, theories/models and frameworks ( Overton, 2015 ). This study makes an original and significant contribution to the field of primary-secondary transitions research internationally; this transition ontology will also be relevant to other educational transitions (e.g., transitions to primary school).

Emerging Conceptualisations of Primary-Secondary School Transitions

Primary-secondary school transitions research has existed since at least the 1960s ( Symonds and Galton, 2014 ), and across the sixty-year period has remained focussed on children’s outcomes, children’s experiences of school organisation, and transition supports ( Galton and McLellan, 2017 ; Jindal-Snape et al., 2020 ). Within the field, especially in England, the term transfer has also been used to describe moving from one school to another, whilst the term transition has been reserved to describe the more gradual process of moving between years within the same school ( Galton et al., 2000 ). However, Jindal-Snape, (2016) has defined transitions as the ongoing psychological, social and educational adaptations due to moving between, and within, schools. In other cases, across the world, authors have used the term primary-secondary transitions without differentiating between these two conceptualisations.

As children experience their first term in the secondary school, they can report initial positive perceptions that are soon replaced by more negative accounts, and this is described by Hargreaves (1984) as ‘the honeymoon period’. On the other hand, a longitudinal study carried out across three school years, found that children’s positive expectations and ‘reality’ stayed the same during this move and negative experiences declined over time ( Jindal-Snape and Cantali, 2019 ).

Another useful concept emerging from the research is that of environmental continuity and discontinuity, which refers to the elements of school culture and organisation that are similar or different (e.g., disrupted) across transition ( Galton et al., 1999 ). This concept has been used in combination with Galton’s ‘Five Bridges’ of school administration, pedagogy, curriculum, social organisation and children’s self-management ( Galton et al., 1999 ; Symonds, 2015 ), to identify, for example, discontinuities in pedagogical practices between primary-secondary schools in Scotland ( Jindal-Snape and Foggie, 2008 ). It also examines curricular continuities created by primary and secondary schools working together to provide ‘bridging units’ in science subjects in England ( Galton et al., 2003 ; Galton, 2010 ).

A higher-level concept regarding discontinuity is of primary-secondary school transition as a ‘status passage’ ( Measor and Woods, 1984 ), where young people’s behaviour is expected to alter in the new environment. Here, the young person graduates from one status to another as they pass through a passage of discontinuity. The use of this notion in school transition research originated from the status passage research of Glaser and Strauss (1971) . With school transition typically occurring during the pubertal window of age 8–14 years, school transitions have been described as a Western status passage with overarching similarities to the adolescence initiation ceremonies practiced in some indigenous non-Western cultures ( Symonds, 2015 ). These ceremonies typically involve segregation (e.g., a separating oneself from a social group), transition (the ritual, e.g., stomach binding), and incorporation (re-entering the community with a change in status, e.g., as an adolescent or adult) ( Goldstein and Blumenkrantz, 2019 ). When young people change schools, they ‘become’ a different type of pupil (e.g., a ‘secondary pupil’ or a ‘senior school pupil’) ( Symonds, 2015 ).

The continuity and discontinuity concept is also central to Eccles et al. (1993) Stage-Environment Fit theory that predicts changes in children’s wellbeing (in particular motivation to learn) as a function of the fit or misfit between their current stage of psychological and social development, and the environmental discontinuity or continuity they experience in the secondary school. For example, early adolescents (age 10–14 years) typically desire more autonomy, but they rarely receive it when teachers are stricter in the transfer secondary school compared to the associated primary school ( Eccles et al., 1993 ) which is known as the ‘transfer paradox’ ( Hallinan and Hallinan, 1992 ); although others have found this to be a misconception which changed when children moved to secondary school ( Jindal-Snape and Cantali, 2019 ). Other concepts that tie in with continuities and discontinuities are Noye's (2006) notion of school transition acting as a prism to diffract children’s experiences, and Symond's (2015) response that school transition also acts as a lens to focus children on aspects of themselves that are brought into the spotlight as they change schools.

School transitions have also been conceptualised as a distinct time period characterised by qualitatively different phases. Nicholson (1984) transitions cycle was originally designed for occupational psychology and has been repurposed for primary-secondary school transitions research by several researchers ( Jindal-Snape, 2016 ; Symonds and Hargreaves, 2016 ; Galton and McLellan, 2017 ). The transitions cycle consists of four phases: preparation for transfer whilst in the feeder school, initial encounters made in the transfer school, adaptation to the transfer school and stabilisation of psychology and behaviour across time. Common to the first phase of preparation, children are found to experience ‘eager anticipation’ ( Rudduck, 1996 ) about the transfer, which presents an interesting combination of the emotions of anxiety and happiness ( Galton and McLellan, 2017 ).

Finally, the breadth and complexity of transitions is identified in Jindal-Snape’s Multiple and Multi-dimensional Transitions (MMT) Theory which is based on research findings from participants and significant others across ages and educational and life stages (e.g., Jindal-Snape and Foggie, 2008 ; Jindal-Snape, 2016 ; Gordon et al., 2017 ; Jindal-Snape et al., 2019 ). MMT Theory emphasises that children experience multiple transitions at the same time, in multiple domains (e.g., social, academic) and multiple contexts (e.g., school, home). These multiple transitions impact each other and can trigger transitions for other people (e.g., friends, parents, teachers) and vice versa, meaning that transition overall is a multi-dimensional process ( Jindal-Snape, 2016 ; Gordon et al., 2017 ). Using the Rubik’s cube analogy, if each colour is one child’s dynamic ecosystem, a slight change in one dimension will trigger changes in other dimensions. Further, it will trigger change and accompanying transitions for other children and their significant others. It acknowledges the complex and dynamic nature of transitions and does not see transitions as linear but as continuously evolving ( Jindal-Snape, 2016 ; Jindal-Snape, 2018 ). It also highlights that these transitions are situated in, and interact with, ever-changing complex systems, e.g., policy, curriculum, or recently, the pandemic.

Studying Conceptualisations of Primary-Secondary School Transitions

The different concepts that have emerged from research on primary-secondary school transitions have increased researchers’ sensitivity to nuanced aspects of changing schools. However, except for primary-secondary school transitions being defined as the transfer from one school to another ( Galton et al., 1999 ), or as an ongoing process of psychological, social and educational adaptation occurring due to changes in context, interpersonal relationships and identity, which can be simultaneously exciting and worrying for an individual and others in their lives, and which requires ongoing additional support ( Jindal-Snape, 2018 ), none of these concepts make sense of transitions in absolute terms. What is school transition as a phenomenon? What are its defining features? Is school transition simply three phases of adaptation (encounter, preparation and adaptation) that happen sequentially as children change schools, or is it far more complex than that, as indicated by MMT Theory ( Jindal-Snape, 2016 )? Without clarity on what primary-secondary school transitions are there is less chance for the field to make systematic progress towards understanding its implications for children and significant others. In addition, this presents fewer opportunities to make a positive difference to children’s transition experiences and educational and wellbeing outcomes.

Therefore, it is crucial that we provide a framework of ontology to advance the field. Just as empirical studies often use conceptual frameworks to organise and understand their data, studies of theory can also use frameworks for mapping and understanding conceptualisations. Overton's (2015) multi-level framework of scientific paradigms indicates how a domain of inquiry (in this case, primary-secondary school transitions) can be conceptualised at different levels of formality and complexity. At the lowest level are common-sense observations, such as those a parent, teacher, child or even researcher might use to intuitively explain school transition and children’s experiences. Above this are more formal models and theories that seek to explain processes. We have divided these into two types ( Figure 1 ). Firstly, organisational frameworks such as the Five Bridges ( Galton et al., 1999 ) help to identify characteristics of a phenomenon, but do not predict or explain processes within it. Secondly, testable models and theories that seek to explain how a process operates, such as the MMT theory ( Jindal-Snape, 2016 ). Above these are mid-range meta-theories that set out the broad conditions of a phenomenon, i.e., whether it is embodied, biopsychosocial, transactional or dialectic. At the highest level are ontological worldviews such as whether there can be testable relations between parts of a process (i.e., the mechanistic premise of Cartesian dualism) or whether a process is non-linear and irrevocably meshed as understood by process-relational theorists.

FIGURE 1 . Authors’ naïve framework of school transitions ontology.

Importantly for the current study, Overton's (2015) framework enables us to systematically map different conceptualisations of school transition into a hierarchy of ontologies to identify strengths, gaps and potential for theoretical development. It allows for viewpoints from different people, including participants, practitioners and researchers, to be located at specific levels and assessed in terms of formality and complexity. Figure 1 illustrates the school transition worldviews, theories/models and frameworks known to the four authors before conducting the systematic review (i.e., naïve structure) identifying where these are placed in a hierarchy of ontology, to illustrate the types of findings we might expect from the proposed systematic mapping review.

A further issue of interest is the discourse used by researchers when writing about school transitions. What types of discourse are used to frame primary-secondary school transitions and how might these be linked to the conceptualisations? Are transitions seen as more positive or negative for children, teachers, schools and families? Discourses used in research can be linked to a particular world view, for example the rejection of deficit models that seek to identify causes of weakness in favour of strengths-based perspectives that focus on identifying how people can function in optimal ways ( Reeve, 2015 ). They can also be culturally relative, such as research that prioritises influences on the individual self (for example, Ecological Systems Theory), which can be in contrast to other indigenous psychological models where the self is conceptualised as an offshoot of the family or ancestors ( Shute and Slee, 2015 ).

These considerations of transition conceptualisation and discourse led to four research questions that frame the current study, in the context of primary-secondary school transitions.

1 How have primary-secondary school transitions been conceptualised by researchers in the literature? Here we seek to clarify the type and range of conceptualisations of school transition, locating these on Overton's (2015) framework to understand their level of formality.

2 How have these transitions been conceptualised by participants in the research literature? Like the first question, the second question aims to uncover the type, range and formality of conceptualisations of transitions used by research participants. By investigating this we can identify similarities and differences between conceptualisations used by researchers and their participants.

3 What theoretical frameworks are used within primary-secondary school transitions research? Following our review of the concepts emerging from the primary-secondary school transitions research, it is also of interest to map the different frameworks, models and theories that are used in conjunction with school transitions as a concept. These are not conceptualisations of transitions per se, but rather help explain different qualities and aspects of the transition experience, for example Stage-Environment Fit ( Eccles et al., 1993 ) and Multiple and Multi-dimensional Transitions theories ( Jindal-Snape, 2016 ; Jindal-Snape et al., 2019 ).

4 What type of discourse about school transitions do researchers use? Finally, our interest in how conceptualisations are framed from cultural, historical and social perspectives leads us to investigate whether the researchers used a positive, neutral, mixed or negative discourse about school transitions.

Methodology

To answer these questions, we drew on 96 papers retrieved for a commissioned systematic literature review which analysed empirical papers published between 2008 and 2018 that focussed on primary-secondary school transitions ( Jindal-Snape et al., 2020 ). The rationale for utilising this time period was the existence of a relatively low number of literature reviews (n=9) and systematic literature reviews (n=3) focusing on primary-secondary transitions. Furthermore, it was difficult to reach conclusions given the different foci, inclusion/exclusion criteria and time periods of the reviews. The present paper uses different research questions from the original systematic review to analyse the retrieved papers. It employs a systematic mapping approach ( Gough et al., 2019 ) where the focus is on conceptualisation and discourse surrounding transitions rather than study findings.

Systematic Literature Review Approach

We used the Evidence for Policy and Practice Information and Co-ordinating Centre ( EPPI-Centre, 2010 ) approach to systematic literature reviews ( Figure 2 ). The process outlined in Steps 1–3 and 5 was used for the Jindal-Snape et al. (2020) review. Step 4 describes the approach taken to analyse the 96 papers against the four research questions which form the focus of this paper; Steps 6–7 are also particular to this paper.

FIGURE 2 . Systematic literature review process based on EPPI-centre approach.

Scoping the Review

We started by developing explicit inclusion and exclusion criteria for specifying which literature to include in the review. These included relevance, recency, transparency and reliability/validity (See Table 1 ).

TABLE 1 . Criteria for Inclusion.

Searching for Studies

We searched multiple online databases and our search returned 4,635 records for screening (2,444 from three core databases in the Web of Science (WoS) - Science Citation Index Expanded, Social Sciences Citation Index, Arts and Humanities Citation Index; 679 from the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC); 662 from the British Education Index (BEI); 569 from PsycINFO; and 281 from Applied Social Sciences Index and Abstracts (ASSIA). We also found a further 17 records through searching of other sources, such as references in the papers and contacting known researchers in the area. This gave a total of 4,652 records for screening (see Figure 2 ). We also scanned the contents of key journals in the field, such as the British Educational Research Journal.

Screening Studies

Each paper was screened against the inclusion criteria developed when scoping the review ( Table 1 ). By appraising each study against the same criteria and recording the results, the basis for the review’s conclusions have been made transparent. Our screening process, comprising reading and cross-reading of abstracts by all authors was conducted according to our inclusion and exclusion criteria and resulted in 4,434 records being excluded for one of five main reasons: it was not a study that was focussed on transition between primary and secondary school; it did not report any empirical data; it was not published in full in the English language; it was a book or dissertation; or it was a report of a review, overview or discussion piece. This left 218 papers and their abstracts were reviewed by the authors; resulting in rejection of another 37 papers. A full read of all 181 papers led to further rejection due to the lack of meaningful fit with the research questions. This resulted in 96 studies for the review (see Figure 3 ).

FIGURE 3 . PRISMA flow diagram of study selection.

Describing and Mapping the Studies

For the purposes of this mapping review, the 96 papers were randomly assigned to the four authors of this paper (24 each) by sorting them into a random order and assigning them in sequential blocks of 24. Papers written by any of the authors were assigned to one of the other authors. In line with the four research questions, we developed an initial coding scheme for categorising key elements of the papers. This included geographic location and theoretical perspective (if any) on primary-secondary school transitions that were tested for relevance by each author coding the first five studies. After discussion on the results of this initial coding, a final set of codes was developed that addressed the research questions more comprehensively. These were a) reference details b) journal impact factor c) journal focus (e.g., special educational needs), d) discipline of the researchers (e.g., developmental psychology), e) setting/school year (e.g., last year of primary school to first year of secondary school), f) paper topic (e.g., quality of life and school transition), g) transition conceptualisation (whether a definition of school transition was explicitly stated or implicitly suggested in the paper by the researcher/s and what that definition entailed), h) discourse tone (whether the discourse used to discuss transition by the researchers was positive, negative or neutral/mixed), i) theories/conceptual frameworks (e.g., Stage-Environment Fit), and j) participants’ conceptualisation of school transition (whether reported or not, and what it was if reported).

The authors read each paper and coded them, using the system outlined above, into a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet and shared their analysis with one another. At this point, the authors, as a team, reviewed the results to identify where further classification systems would help answer the research questions. The results for g) transition conceptualisation were diverse, so a set of codes were inductively developed for these data by the authors, using key terms written in the publications as the basis for salient codes (e.g., transition as ‘change’; transition as ‘status/rite of passage’). Each author returned to their papers to check they fitted with these inductive codes for transition conceptualisation. The codes and their content are described in more detail in the results section. To provide further quality assurance of this analytic process, the final results were analysed numerically and qualitatively by the first author and checked by the second author for accuracy.

Quality and Evidence Appraisal

An adapted version of the EPPI-Centre Weight of Evidence (WoE) judgments were applied to each of the included studies, whereby the ‘methodological relevance’ referred to the study rather than to the research questions of the systematic review (note that this refers to the questions in Jindal-Snape et al., 2020 ). Three components were assessed in order to help derive an overall weighting of evidence score (see Table 2 ).

TABLE 2 . Criteria for judging ‘weight of evidence’.

There was variability in the WoE ratings across the 96 papers. Thirty studies (31%) were found to be excellent across all three criteria of methodological quality, methodological relevance and topic relevance. Some studies had excellence ratings in more than one criterion and 85 (86%) studies were found to be excellent or good for topic relevance. In light of this, we included all 96 papers, especially as our focus for this paper was on conceptualisation and theoretical frameworks.

Synthesising Study Findings

A systematic mapping review was undertaken which aimed to provide a picture of the current state of knowledge, in relation to the four research questions, and thus enhance future primary-secondary transitions research ( Gough et al., 2019 ). The results of this mapping exercise are presented numerically and as narrative below. Narrative Empirical Synthesis ( EPPI-Centre, 2010 ) was used to bring together the results of the mapping exercise. This mapping provides an accessible combination of results from individual studies in a structured narrative.

Conclusions/Recommendations

The conclusions and recommendations focussed on explaining how the worldviews, theories, models and frameworks found in the systematic review mapped onto Overton's (2015) framework of ontology, to illustrate prevalence and coverage. This allowed the authors to identify gaps in school transition ontology and possible connections between conceptualisations, to drive the field forwards.

We followed our profession’s code of practice (General Teaching Council for Scotland, Health and Care Professions Council) and were governed by our Universities’ research ethics guidelines. The team are committed to ethical analysis of the literature and reporting.

Data from the 96 papers are presented here, although not all papers have been explicitly referred to. Results are presented under themes related to the research questions.

Conceptualisation of Primary-Secondary School Transitions by Researchers

Of the 96 papers, 86 paper author/s provided some insight into their conceptualisation of primary to secondary school transitions. In some cases, we needed to infer what the conceptualisation was based on the researchers’ broader conceptual framework, research design and/or type of data presented. The lack of explicit conceptualisation and operationalisation of the key term could lead to misunderstandings for future researchers. As described in the methodology section, we conducted an inductive thematic analysis of the transition conceptualisations and found ten overarching themes. Please note that in some cases researchers were not clear about their own conceptualisation and referred to multiple conceptualisations and theories across their paper so the numbers do not add to 86 (see Figure 4 ).

FIGURE 4 . Conceptualisation of transitions (in percentage).

Transition as change. Fifty four papers referred to transition as change; these were change in social relationships, pedagogical approaches (e.g., Mackenzie et al., 2012 ), change in academic demands (e.g., Kingdon et al., 2017 ), change in the environment (e.g., Waters et al., 2014a ) and organisation (e.g., Arens et al., 2013 ), change related to developmental stages e.g., ( Arens et al., 2013 ; Vasquez-Salgado and Chavira, 2014 ; Andreas and Jackson, 2015 ), and systemic changes (e.g., Strnadova et al., 2016 ).

Normative life transition. Forty one papers conceptualised primary-secondary school transitions as a normative life transition; 13 papers presented it as a normative life event e.g., ( Neal et al., 2016 ).

Transition as a normative period in school career. Twenty papers conceptualised primary-secondary transitions as a normative period in a child’s school career (e.g., Burchinal et al., 2008 ; Weiss and Baker-Smith, 2010 ; Brewin and Statham, 2011 ). This conceptualisation is perhaps not surprising as most of the authors of these papers came from an education or psychology (mainly developmental and educational) background apart from one statistician and one medic.

Multiple transitions. Author/s of eleven papers referred to multiple transitions, i.e., children/young people experiencing multiple changes at the same time, such as moving from one educational setting to another, differences in school culture and structure, significant biological, psychological and social changes, and change in teachers (e.g., Knesting et al., 2008 ; Serbin et al., 2013 ; Lofgran et al., 2015 ).

Transition as disruption/risk. Eight papers referred to transition as disruptive and highlighted the risk factors for children e.g., ( Maher, 2010 ; Mackenzie et al., 2012 ; Keay et al., 2015 ).

Transition as discontinuity. Six papers referred to transition as a time of discontinuity, both curricular and relational (e.g., Rainer and Cropley, 2015 ; Makin et al., 2017 ). However, these could be seen to be similar to the first category of transition as change.

Life course perspective. Three papers used a life course conceptualisation taken from Elder’s Theory (1998) ( Benner and Wang, 2014 ; Fortuna, 2014 ; Witherspoon and Ennett, 2011 ).

Transition as a rite of passage. In three papers, transition was conceptualised as a rite of passage ( Bailey and Baines, 2012 ; Rainer and Cropley, 2015 ; West et al., 2010 ).

Transition as a turning point. Three papers discussed transitions as turning points ( Langenkamp, 2010 ; Andreas and Jackson, 2015 ; Scanlon et al., 2016 ).

Transfer as a paradox. One paper seemed to conceptualise it as the transfer paradox, although it does not name it as such ( Rainer and Cropley, 2015 ).

Conceptualisation of Primary-Secondary School Transitions by Research Participants

It is not clear from any papers whether the researchers asked participants how they conceptualised transitions. However, one can start making assumptions about what participant/s might consider, and/or found, transition to be from 12 papers which presented qualitative data. Of these 12 papers, six were based on studies undertaken in the United Kingdom ( Jindal-Snape and Foggie, 2008 ; Dismore and Bailey, 2010 ; Keay et al., 2015 ; Neal and Frederickson, 2016 ; Peters and Brooks, 2016 ; Makin et al., 2017 ), three in Australia ( Maher, 2010 ; Mackenzie et al., 2012 ; Strnadova et al., 2016 ) and one each in South Africa ( Mudaly and Sukhdeo, 2015 ), United States ( Ellerbrock and Kiefer, 2013 ), and Ireland ( Scanlon et al., 2016 ). Most of the studies were small scale, primarily focussing on interview data from a small group of children, parents and/or teachers, ranging from 6 to 23 participants (please note that the latter numbers include only four pupils and the rest are professionals in Ellerbrock and Kiefer, 2013 ).

Participants’ conceptualisations included an understanding of transitions being a period of change, particularly systemic level and relationship changes, change in pedagogical approaches and curriculum, and the transfer paradox of being excited and concerned. For example, in Makin et al. (2017) study, children with an autism spectrum condition recognized difficulty adjusting to the new environment, a loss of social support and change in identity.

Similarly, Peters and Brooks (2016) reported that their participants, i.e., parents of children with Asperger and high functioning autism in England, discussed changes to routines, environment and relationships. Peters and Brook's (2016) conceptualise primary-secondary transition to be a milestone which includes substantial changes. However, it is interesting to consider the relationship between Peter and Brooks (2016) own conceptualisation and that of their participants, while also considering the potential for bias in questions asked.

Further, although most papers in this review collected data from pupils, parents and/or teachers, only these 12 papers have presented data in a way that an informed assumption about their conceptualisation was possible. It is not clear whether any of the 96 papers we reviewed directly ascertained participants’ conceptualisation; a mismatch in conceptualisation might lead to incorrect interpretation of the data.

Theoretical Conceptual Frameworks Used in Primary-Secondary School Transitions Research

Thirty three papers used a theoretical framework that was not explicitly about transition as a phenomenon, to explain complex processes occurring during primary-secondary school transitions. Of these papers, 11 were from the United States, seven from Australia, seven from the United Kingdom (in England, Scotland and Wales but not Northern Ireland), two each from Canada and Israel, and one each from Finland, Germany, Peru and South Africa. Not all 33 papers are cited here, for brevity.

One might assume that journals with high impact factor would insist that the papers include a clear theoretical framework of transitions. However, there was no support for this assumption as the 33 papers were published in journals with a range of impact factors. Seven were in journals that had no impact factor, three had impact factors below 1, eight were between 1.3 and 1.5, three had impact factors between 1.8 and 1.9, four were between 2.1 and 2.9, seven were between three and four and one had an impact factor of 4.1 ( Waters et al., 2014b in Journal of Adolescent Health ).

The theoretical frameworks used were mainly mentioned in the introduction sections; however this did not mean that they necessarily underpinned the studies. This could suggest that the authors mentioned a theory when writing a paper rather than the theoretical framework influencing the design of their study. The most prevalent theoretical frameworks were Stage-Environment Fit Theory ( Eccles and Midgley, 1989 ) (n=10) which was used to provide reasons for young people not engaging with learning in secondary schools; Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory ( Bronfenbrenner, 1993 ) (n=8) which was used to explain the context of transitions, although Brewin and Statham (2011) also used it as a framework for data collection and analysis; Life Course Theory ( Elder, 1998 ) (n=5) which was used to highlight that transitions are a normative life transition; and Self-determination Theory ( Ryan and Deci, 2000 ) which was used to explore the role and development of participants’ autonomy, relatedness and competence across transition. None of the papers have critiqued the theory/ies and/or their application in the context of primary-secondary school transitions. Below we discuss these most common theoretical frameworks in more detail to understand the extent to which they underpinned the research and the links with researchers’ conceptualisation of transitions.

Stage-Environment Fit Theory. This theory was referred to in 10 studies across a decade and the timeline of this review, i.e., 2008 to 2018. The principal authors had a background in either developmental or educational psychology. These studies were conducted in the United States (n=6), United Kingdom (n=2), Germany (n=1) and Israel (n=1). Nine of the papers conceptualised transition as a normative life transition and therefore it is not surprising that they used Stage-Environment Fit Theory. Author(s) of five studies focussed on the negative aspects of primary-secondary transitions, whereas four concentrated on both negative and positive features, and one had a neutral discourse. This theory emphasises the mismatch between the adolescent’s developmental stage and associated needs, compared to the demands of the secondary school environment ( Benner and Graham, 2009 ). Although the theory was created to explain psychological development across the middle school transition, it does not explain school transition as a process per say. Rather it can be used to refer to any systemic change in environment and how this connects to change in a person’s psychology, depending on the person’s stage of development.

Interestingly, like other theories, Stage-Environment Fit Theory was only mentioned once in some papers in the introduction section to provide a background to the ‘problem’ (e.g., Benner and Graham, 2009 ; Kingery et al., 2011 ; Arens et al., 2013 ; Benner and Wang, 2014 ). Witherspoon and Ennett (2011) refer to the theory as part of their theoretical framework and then in the discussion. Knesting et al. (2008) did not refer to the theory but used Eccles and Midgley (1989) work to highlight the differences in the primary and secondary school environment. Madjar and Chohat (2017) used it as a framework to draw a hypothesis for their study; however they did not return to it in the results or discussion. On the other hand, Neal et al. (2016) referred to it at the start and then returned to it in the discussion to state that their findings were similar to the research behind the theory. Similarly, Ellerbrock and Kiefer (2013) use it as the theory underpinning their study in the case study approach they took. Symonds and Hargreaves (2016) and Zoller Booth and Gerard (2014) are the only two studies fully underpinned by this theory.

Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory. Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory ( Brofenbrenner, 1989 ) was used in four papers in Australia ( Waters et al., 2014a ; Waters et al., 2014b ; Strnadova and Cumming, 2014 ; Strnadova et al., 2016 ), three papers in the United Kingdom ( Brewin and Statham, 2011 ; Hannah and Topping, 2013 ; Mandy et al., 2016a ), and one in United States ( Booth and Sheehan, 2008 ). As our review covered papers from 2008 to 2018, it is interesting to note that the year of publication was in a narrower time period; four papers are from 2014 (two from the same researchers), and one each from 2011 to 2013. Four (United Kingdom, n=3; Australia, n=1) of the papers focussed on young people with additional support needs.

Hannah and Topping (2013) used this theory to design their transition programme which they evaluated, rather than using it for research. As mentioned earlier, Brewin and Statham (2011) organised their findings around the ecosystems; they reported that it was a useful way of showing the factors, and their interaction, that had an impact on looked after children’s transitions. Waters et al. (2014a) used the theory to explain the role of contexts in human development, with school being such a context; whereas in ( Waters et al., 2014b ) they use the Ecological Systems Theory to conceptualise the support systems of young people as they move to secondary school. Similarly, Strnadova and Cumming (2014) , Strnadova et al. (2016) , and Booth and Sheehan (2008) used the theory to understand transitions and relationships in the ecosystems of young people moving to secondary school. Four of the papers had a negative discourse, one both ( Hannah and Topping, 2013 ) and one neutral ( Strnadova and Cumming, 2014 ). It is interesting to note that although Booth and Sheehan (2008) , and Strnadova and Cumming used the same theory, they used different discourses about transition.

Life Course Theory. The researchers who conceptualised primary-secondary transitions to be a normative life and/or school career transition used Elder's (1998) Life Course Theory to explain their conceptualisation (n=5). This is the only theory that includes transitions as one of its features. Two papers were based on research conducted in Canada, and three from the United States; two papers from the United States have the same primary author who has a background in developmental psychology ( Benner and Graham, 2009 ; Benner et al., 2017 ), another with background in clinical psychology ( Kingdon et al., 2017 ), one primary author in education ( Witherspoon and Ennett, 2011 ) and one in sociology ( Felmlee et al., 2018 ). They published in the highest impact factor journals in the context of this literature review ranging from 1.304 to 3.8. Benner and colleagues conceptualised transitions as negative in the main and have focussed on the disruptions and challenges that primary-secondary transitions cause for children and young people, although they also mentioned some positives ( Benner and Graham, 2009 ). Similarly, Felmlee et al. (2018) and Kingdon et al. (2017) have used a negative discourse; whereas Witherspoon and Ennett (2011) have focussed on both positive and negative aspects of transitions. None of these researchers have presented participants’ voice.

Self-determination theory. Ryan and Deci's (2000) self-determination theory was used in four papers, one each from Australia, Finland, Peru and the United Kingdom, published in journals with an impact factor ranging from 0.3 to 3.2. These papers focussed on positive aspects of psychology including school connectedness, school belonging, school attendance, quality of life, wellbeing and autonomy. Despite their use of positive constructs, all papers used a negative discourse about primary-secondary school transitions. We review our findings on discourse in more detail below.

Discourse Used by Researchers

The discourse about transitions is very important as it can give messages, both spoken and unspoken, about what to expect when making a transition. The researchers’ discourse also gives an insight into their beliefs about primary-secondary school transitions, which might influence their research questions, and questions asked of their participants. Therefore, we analysed the papers to understand the discourse by looking carefully at the introduction/framing of their study, results, discussion and conclusions. We found that the narrative was, in the main, more explicit in the introduction section of the papers rather than throughout.

Negative discourse about transition. Sixty papers (not all cited to aid brevity) highlighted negative aspects of transitions. The settings of these studies are detailed in Table 3 . These included the premise and argument based on previous literature that transitions were disruptive, challenged children’s psychological wellbeing ( Poorthuis et al., 2014 ), led to a decline in science self-efficacy scores ( Lofgran et al., 2015 ; no comparison was made with self-efficacy in other subjects) and in achievement ( Serbin et al., 2013 ; Vasquez-Salgado and Chavira, 2014 ; Mudaly and Sukhdeo, 2015 ), led to high dropout rates ( McIntosh et al., 2008 ), caused stress and anxiety ( Peters and Brooks, 2016 ), and were especially challenging for children with ASD ( Mandy et al., 2016b ; Tso and Strnadova, 2017 ). There does not seem to be a pattern in terms of which countries the research was conducted in, as the countries with a larger number of papers using negative discourse about transition also had a larger number of published studies overall. However, it can be said that in the case of countries with single papers 100% of papers had a negative (also Ireland, n=3, 100%) discourse seeking to address a problem during transitions as compared to 74% from the United States and 53% from Australia and the United Kingdom.

TABLE 3 . Type of discourse and setting of studies.

Mixed or neutral discourse about transition. Twenty-five papers made a reference to both negative and positive aspects of transitions; however, of these 15 highlighted more negative aspects than positives. Nine papers had a neutral discourse as they primarily focussed on other aspects such as the impact of school attachment and family involvement on negative behaviours ( Frey et al., 2009 ), experience of children in PE ( Rainer and Cropley, 2015 ), impact of school attachment and family involvement on negative behaviours during adolescence ( Dann, 2011 ), and teachers’ perceptions of transition practices for children with developmental disabilities moving from primary to secondary school ( Strnadova and Cumming, 2014 ).

Positive discourse about transition. Two papers primarily focussed on the positive impact of transitions; one each from Israel and the United Kingdom. Madjar and Chohat (2017) investigated self-efficacy in school transitions and the impact of perception of teachers' mastery goals on transition self-efficacy. Data were collected two months after starting grade 6 (last year of primary school), two months prior to finishing sixth grade, and two months after starting seventh grade in Israel. They considered primary-secondary school transitions to be part of a normative school career and proposed the concept of transition self-efficacy and developed a scale to measure it, which they saw as aligning to Stage-Environment Fit Theory ( Eccles et al., 1993 ). Neal and Frederickson (2016) cited previous literature that described transitions of children with ASD as being problematic. However, they themselves took a strength-based approach to understand the positive experiences of six children with ASD who had successful transitions in the United Kingdom. They highlighted that with appropriate support children with ASD could have successful transitions and positive experiences.

The way that researchers conceptualise school transitions has important implications for their research designs, study findings and implications used to inform future research, policy and practice. However, to date, school transition worldviews, theories/models and frameworks have not been studied systematically. The current study undertook a systematic mapping review of 96 papers published between 2008 and 2018 that were empirical studies of primary-secondary school transitions. The four authors, working collaboratively, analysed these papers using systematic methods of sorting, coding and synthesising to identify 1) researchers’ conceptualisations of primary-secondary school transitions, 2) research participants’ conceptualisations of school transitions, 3) theoretical frameworks used to explain processes during school transitions and 4) the discourse used by researchers to frame primary-secondary school transitions.

The results demonstrated a clear lack of conceptualisation of transition as a phenomenon either by researchers or participants. Rather than work their studies out of a complex theoretical perspective on transition as a phenomenon, researchers used popular conceptual frameworks to explain processes surrounding transition. These included Stage-Environment Fit Theory ( Eccles et al., 1993 ), Ecological Systems Theory ( Bronfenbrenner, 1979 ), Life Course Theory ( Elder, 1998 ) and Self-determination Theory ( Ryan and Deci, 2000 ). Finally, the discourse surrounding transitions was predominantly negative, with only two of the 96 papers focusing on positive aspects of transition.

Researchers’ and Participants’ Conceptualisations of Primary-Secondary School Transitions

The most common conceptualisation of transition by researchers and participants was of transition as simply ‘change’. Researchers and participants also both mentioned the paradox of feeling excited and anxious during transition, identified in many other studies of transition (see Galton and McLellan (2017) for a summary). Other conceptualisations of transitions came from the researchers and fitted into two broad categories: more views of transition as change (including discontinuity, turning point, and disruption) and transition as a life-event (including transition as a normative period in school or life and transition as a rite of passage).

The conceptualisations of transitions as change were not specified with any degree of formality, and mainly reflected the literal meaning of the word transition. These are therefore best placed within the bottom level of the scientific paradigm framework described by Overton (2015) , where people make common sense observations of an everyday phenomenon ( Figure 5 ). The conceptualisations of primary-secondary school transitions as a life event are more formalised, as these take their notion from somewhere other than the literal meaning of the word transition. The notion of transition as a life event comes originally from anthropology (e.g., transition as a rite of passage; Benedict, 1938 ) and then from sociological ethnographies of school transition ( Measor and Woods, 1984 ) and from Life Course Theory ( Elder, 1998 ). Given its broad application across specific models and frameworks, and positionality of transition as a passage during which the person transforms, transition as a life event can be seen as a mid-range meta-theory in Overton's (2015) framework ( Figure 5 ). However, this leaves a gap as no specific frameworks of transition as a phenomenon were identified in the systematic mapping review to bridge the gap between the naive conceptualisation of transition as change and the higher-level conceptualisation of transition as a life event.

FIGURE 5 . Results mapped against Overton's (2015) framework

Theoretical Frameworks Used in Transitions Research

The main theoretical frameworks used to explain processes surrounding school transition could be located in the level of specific testable theories and models ( Overton, 2015 ), between common sense observations and mid-range meta-theory ( Figure 5 ). These were Stage-Environment Fit ( Eccles et al., 1993 ), Self-determination Theory ( Ryan and Deci, 2000 ) and Ecological Systems Theory ( Bronfenbrenner, 1979 ). Each of the main theoretical frameworks outline how change can occur and were used to examine the adaptions in individual psychology across school transition; this was in relation to changes in person and the environment. Life Course Theory, being a broader perspective with no predictive qualities, was placed slightly above these in the level of mid-range meta-theory. Interestingly, there was no explicit link made by the researchers between any of the specific models/theories and Life Course theory, although it is quite possible that these could be combined to give a more detailed perspective on how processes occurring during transitions (e.g., through person-environment fit directed towards fulfilling basic psychological needs) might create the qualities of transition as ongoing impacting subsequent development in the life-course. None of these theories were explicitly transitions theories and had been borrowed from elsewhere. There was no attempt to critique the usability of these theories in transitions research. This might be due to the theories being mentioned in the introduction section without really underpinning the majority of studies.

Discourse Used to Frame Primary-Secondary School Transitions

The predominantly negative discourse about transition as being disruptive, a risk factor and promoting negative development appears to have no clear geographic origin in the reviewed papers nor links with any specific conceptualisation of transition or related conceptual framework. However, of the 96 studies, only four were from outside of Europe, North America and Australia. Of those within these latter countries, none were conducted with indigenous populations or by indigenous researchers (i.e., Aboriginal or Native American/First Nations). This means that nearly all the studies were from Western locales and perspectives. In non-Western cultures, but also historically in Western cultures, rites of passage are central to socially constructed notions of childhood and adulthood, marking a graduation from dependent child into fully functional member of society ( Schlegel and Barry, 1991 ). After the person has gone through the rite of passage, they are given more responsibilities and in some cases more resources, that conceivably could mark the transition as a positive experience, and is a celebration of social, physical and psychological maturity.

However, although primary-secondary school transitions in Western cultures acts similarly as a rite of passage where children ‘graduate’ from primary to secondary schooling ( Symonds, 2015 ), it is interesting to note that researchers mainly situate this in a negative discourse. Possibly this relates to repeated empirical findings of declining attitudes and attainment at transition (for reviews see Benner, 2011 ; Jindal-Snape et al., 2020 ; Symonds and Galton, 2014 ).

This could suggest that the repeated findings of negative trajectories mainly in the United Kingdom and United States might have something to do with the quality of lower-secondary education in those countries. On the other hand, the negative trajectories might be due to research designs that measured educational and wellbeing outcomes immediately before and after the move to secondary schools which did not capture the process of adaptation in the new environment. Further, it is not clear what type of questions participants were asked and their impact (see Jindal-Snape and Cantali, 2019 , for an example of questions), or in the case of standardised scales, whether the timing of their administration was optimal. This belief is also supported by qualitative research reporting positive aspects of primary-secondary transitions that have been observed when studying holistic transitions ( Jindal-Snape and Foggie, 2008 ), identity development (e.g., Measor and Woods, 1984 ; Symonds, 2015 ) and by meta-analyses of studies of friendship quality where children report having a greater number of better suited and supportive after moving to secondary school transition ( Symonds and Galton, 2014 ). Overall, studies of positive aspects of primary-secondary school transitions are in the minority, a situation which is not helped by the continual use of negative discourses to frame transitions and research designs.

This is the first study that has attempted to understand the conceptualisations of primary-secondary school transitions through an analysis of previously published empirical studies. It has provided unique insights into (or lack of) researchers’ and participants’ conceptualisations of transitions theoretical frameworks and the discourses these might be situated in. This led to the identification of conceptual and methodological gaps in international literature. Firstly, most researchers, irrespective of the country of origin, did not clearly define what transitions meant in the specific context of their studies, and even when some conceptualisation was explicit, especially the theoretical framework, it did not necessarily underline the research design or frame the findings. For a field of research that is at least 60 years old, this finding from research conducted between 2008 and 2018, is surprising. This study, therefore, is well-placed to make a significant contribution to future research in this area. Secondly, the majority of researchers had not indicated their study participants’ conceptualisation of transitions. In the absence of these conceptualisations, it is difficult to determine the robustness of the findings and interpretation. Therefore, it is important that researchers make explicit their and their participants’ conceptualisations of transitions. In addition, acknowledge how their understanding changes over time. Thirdly, using Overton (2015) framework, it is clear that most researchers have adopted previously used conceptualisations and theoretical frameworks of transitions; the empirical studies in 2008–2018 did not use some of the other previously available frameworks (e.g., Five Bridges, Galton et al., 1999 , see Figure 1 ). Thus, we are no further forward in terms of a meta-theory/world view (See Figure 5 ). This has implications for international research in terms of clear theorisation of primary-secondary transitions prior to conducting a study; considering new/revised theories based on the findings; having a research design that is in line with the conceptualisation (making clear how and why) and theory; and exploring participants’ conceptualisation of transitions. Further, it is important that as an international transitions research community, we work towards richer conceptualisations and understanding of transitions. This also includes a robust critique of theories that have been borrowed from elsewhere and a refining/development of theories relevant to primary-secondary school transitions.

The negative discourse in the majority of the papers was unexpected. It could be that most researchers focussed on transitions as a problematic issue to study and this in turn had an impact on the framing of the study, and potentially on the questions asked and results presented. Potentially, this could lead to a cycle of (negative) self-fulfilling prophecy. Therefore, future international research should shift the discourse, at least towards a more balanced view of transition experiences and their impact on a range of outcomes including educational and wellbeing outcomes.

Limitations

Although we undertook a systematic literature review and there was cross-checking by team members, it is possible that we have missed and/or rejected some crucial literature, including that written in other languages. Further, as this study focussed on a review of empirical studies, it is possible that we have missed a more nuanced conceptualisation of transitions in discursive literature. Therefore, it will be useful to conduct another literature review to explore conceptualisations and theories used in non-empirical literature.

Author Contributions

DJ-S conceived and designed the systematic literature review and systematic mapping review. DJ-S and JS organised the dataset. All authors equally contributed to the review of papers, completed the grid which formed the basis of analysis, undertook analysis and undertook cross-checks throughout. DJS wrote the first draft of Methodology and Results. JS wrote the first draft of Introduction and Discussion. EH and WB edited the manuscript. All authors contributed to manuscript revision, read and approved the submitted version. DJ-S and JS are joint-first authors.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Keywords: primary-secondary school transitions, conceptualisation, theory, discourse, ontology, systematic mapping review

Citation: Jindal-Snape D, Symonds JE, Hannah EFS and Barlow W (2021) Conceptualising Primary-Secondary School Transitions: A Systematic Mapping Review of Worldviews, Theories and Frameworks. Front. Educ. 6:540027. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2021.540027

Received: 03 March 2020; Accepted: 08 February 2021; Published: 17 March 2021.

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Copyright © 2021 Jindal-Snape, Symonds, Hannah and Barlow. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Divya Jindal-Snape, [email protected]

This article is part of the Research Topic

Transitions Through Education

Improving primary to secondary school transitions: A systematic review of school-based interventions to prepare and support student social-emotional and educational outcomes

• Manchester Institute of Education
• Murdoch Children's Research Institute
• University of Melbourne
• Deakin University
• National University of Singapore (NUS)

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• Student Support Social Sciences 100%
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T1 - Improving primary to secondary school transitions: A systematic review of school-based interventions to prepare and support student social-emotional and educational outcomes

AU - Beatson, Ruth

AU - Quach, Jon

AU - Canterford, Louise

AU - Farrow , Paige

AU - Bagnall, Charlotte

AU - Hockey, Paul

AU - Phillips, Elissa

AU - Patton, George

AU - Olsson, Craig

AU - Ride , Jemimah

AU - McKay Brown, Lisa

AU - Roy, Alasdair

AU - Mundy, Lisa

PY - 2023/7/28

Y1 - 2023/7/28

N2 - The transition from primary to secondary school is characterised by multiple substantial changes in children's physical, organisational, social, and pedagogical environments. Adjusting to these changes can be difficult, and problems doing so can have serious and wide-ranging long-term consequences. Currently it is not clear for educators, policy makers and researchers which programs and practices to prepare and support students are most efficacious, feasible to deliver, and suitable for different student populations. This review systematically identified and evaluated published experimental and quasi-experimental studies of school-based interventions to improve student social-emotional (i.e., peer-relationships, self-concept, mental health) and educational (i.e., school engagement, academic achievement) outcomes following primary-secondary transition. Searches were conducted across five bibliographic databases (ERIC, ERC, PsycINFO, CINAHL and Web of Science Core Collections), several program databases and research registers, in February 2022. A total of 26 studies met inclusion criteria. Overall, the review found most interventions had positive effects on at least one relevant transition adjustment outcome. However, there is a need for replication across different educational contexts, consistent measurement of outcomes, and use of more rigorous evaluation methods. The evidence presented in this review will inform decisions about the design or selection, implementation and further evaluation of primary-secondary transition interventions. In turn, this should lead to better social-emotional and educational outcomes for students, and may reduce some of the inequities exacerbated by a difficult transition to secondary school.

AB - The transition from primary to secondary school is characterised by multiple substantial changes in children's physical, organisational, social, and pedagogical environments. Adjusting to these changes can be difficult, and problems doing so can have serious and wide-ranging long-term consequences. Currently it is not clear for educators, policy makers and researchers which programs and practices to prepare and support students are most efficacious, feasible to deliver, and suitable for different student populations. This review systematically identified and evaluated published experimental and quasi-experimental studies of school-based interventions to improve student social-emotional (i.e., peer-relationships, self-concept, mental health) and educational (i.e., school engagement, academic achievement) outcomes following primary-secondary transition. Searches were conducted across five bibliographic databases (ERIC, ERC, PsycINFO, CINAHL and Web of Science Core Collections), several program databases and research registers, in February 2022. A total of 26 studies met inclusion criteria. Overall, the review found most interventions had positive effects on at least one relevant transition adjustment outcome. However, there is a need for replication across different educational contexts, consistent measurement of outcomes, and use of more rigorous evaluation methods. The evidence presented in this review will inform decisions about the design or selection, implementation and further evaluation of primary-secondary transition interventions. In turn, this should lead to better social-emotional and educational outcomes for students, and may reduce some of the inequities exacerbated by a difficult transition to secondary school.

U2 - 10.1016/j.edurev.2023.100553

DO - 10.1016/j.edurev.2023.100553

M3 - Article

SN - 0034-6543

JO - Review of Educational Research

JF - Review of Educational Research

• Open access
• Published: 04 February 2022

Mathematics and science across the transition from primary to secondary school: a systematic literature review

• Tandeep Kaur   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4208-7787 1 ,
• Eilish McLoughlin   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7991-7134 2 &
• Paul Grimes   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6705-9566 1  

International Journal of STEM Education volume  9 , Article number:  13 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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This study presents the findings from a systematic review of literature (1990–2020) of mathematics and science transition from primary to secondary education. The purpose of this review was to explore factors that influence students’ experiences of mathematics and science transition from primary to secondary school, implications of these experiences and measures that have been used to support students during these transitions. In total, 73 publications related to mathematics transition and 47 publications related to science transition were analysed. Synthesis of findings identified three factors, namely student self-regulation, school and academic related, and social factors that contribute to shaping students’ positive or negative experiences of mathematics and science transitions. The review findings suggest that no single factor can be attributed to influence students’ experiences of mathematics and science transition and an interplay between various factors contributes to these experiences. The implications of difficult transition experiences were identified as shifts in students’ academic achievement, attitudes towards mathematics and science and constructs related to identity development. Recommendations for future research are proposed to address gaps identified in current literature.

Introduction

Education systems all over the world place a large emphasis on STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) education. STEM education is recognised as an essential foundation not only for responsible citizenship, but also for twenty-first century challenges (Bybee, 2013 ; Maass et al., 2019 ). However, there are some concerns about lower student achievement in STEM subjects (Fraser et al., 2012 ), low uptake of STEM at the advanced level (Mullis et al., 2012 ; Perkins et al., 2013 ) and a shortage of STEM professionals affecting countries’ economic prosperity (Bybee, 2013 ; Department of Education and Skills [DES], 2017 ; Kelley & Knowles, 2016 ). While initiatives for promoting STEM education are undertaken internationally, the policy reforms are still in their embryonic stage (Anderson et al., 2020 ). As such, there is still an uncertainty about the understanding of effective STEM practices and related curricular supports (Maass et al., 2019 ). Many education systems still grapple with the challenge of preparing students for applying STEM learning to real-life problems (Bybee, 2013 ; Ritz & Fan, 2015 ).

With an aim to inform gaps and identify measures to promote greater participation and interest of students in STEM learning, this review focuses on exploring students’ experiences of two of the STEM disciplines—mathematics and science—across the transition from primary to secondary school. The sections below present an overview of literature on mathematics and science education in schools and on the challenges and opportunities for integrating mathematics and science learning. The last section discusses mathematics and science education through the lens of transition from primary to secondary school.

Mathematics education

The current landscape of mathematics education research draws a complex picture of mathematics as a discipline. While mathematics equips learners with skills required to understand the world around us through modelling both abstract and concrete problems (DES, 2017 ), the subject is criticised for curricular discontinuities at various education levels, resulting in gaps in student learning. As a result, many students feel disinterested in mathematics and very few students study mathematics at an advanced level or are interested in STEM related careers (West et al., 2010 ). Furthermore, many students suffer from anxiety in mathematics and lower self-esteem. In a large UK study by Devine et al ( 2018 ), 11% of primary school (8- to 9-year-old) and secondary school (12- to 13-year-old) students scored above average for ‘moderate anxiety’ on a maths anxiety rating scale. According to the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2015 results, one in five pupils had serious difficulties in developing sufficient mathematics or science skills (European commission, 2018 ; OECD, 2016 ).

Surprisingly, the anxiety related to mathematics appears as an age-old issue despite much research in this regard. Guillen (1984, p. 2) described mathematics anxiety as ‘unabashed humility that mathematics evokes in hundreds of millions of people’ (as cited in Deieso & Fraser, 2019 ). Those who suffer from mathematics anxiety experience intense fear and worry while working with mathematics which impacts their cognitive development (Klee & Miller, 2019 ). What is most concerning is that mathematics anxiety may begin at an early age and can have long-lasting impact (Aarnos & Perkkila, 2012 ; Field et al., 2019 ; Ramirez et al., 2013 ).

A large body of research also highlights decline in attitudes towards mathematics with progress in levels of education (Deieso & Fraser, 2019 ; Mudaly & Sukhdeo, 2015 ; Paul, 2014 ; Widlund et al., 2018 ). It appears that despite many curricular and education reforms in mathematics, students still lack appreciation for mathematics and the picture of mathematics as a difficult subject remains unchanged. The PISA results for 2018 showed that on average across OECD countries, mean performance in mathematics and science did not change over the past two decades (OECD, 2019a ). The report also revealed that on average across OECD countries, around one in four 15-year-olds did not attain a minimum level of proficiency in mathematics. These results suggest that a lot more needs to be done in relation to improvement in students’ mathematics learning and attainment.

Science education

One of the most significant concerns in science education internationally is the declining numbers of students studying science at the advanced level and considering it for future careers (De Witt et al., 2014 ; Lyons & Quinns, 2010 ; Potvin & Hasni, 2014 ). The low uptake of science and aspirations for science-related careers has often been attributed to students’ attitudes and their perceived utility of school science (DeWitt & Archer, 2015 ; Regan & DeWitt, 2015 ; Tai et al., 2006 ). Negative attitudes may decrease the likelihood of choosing science for future careers (Barmby et al., 2008 ; DeWitt & Archer, 2015 ). However, it is also possible that positive science attitudes may sometimes not translate to science aspirations for the future (Jenkins & Nelson, 2005 ). Archer et al. ( 2010 ) termed this phenomenon as the ‘being–doing divide’ articulating the disparity between ‘enjoyment doing science’ and ‘becoming a scientist’.

A substantial body of research has raised concerns about lack of student interest and engagement in science (Anderhag et al., 2016 ; Osborne et al., 2003 ; Patrick & Mantzicopoulos, 2015 ; Potvin & Hasni, 2014 ; Tytler & Osborne, 2012 ). It has been noted that a decline in students’ attitudes towards school science occurs during adolescence (Barmby et al., 2008 ; Tytler & Osborne, 2012 ). The most recent findings of the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2019 for science achievement of pupils in fourth and eighth grades in 64 participating countries also indicated that eighth grade students were less positive about learning science than fourth-grade students. The results indicated that overall, 38% of eighth graders were not confident in science which was twice the percentage of fourth graders who so reported. Furthermore, in countries teaching separate science subjects in eighth grade, students were much less positive and confident in learning Chemistry and Physics than Biology and Earth sciences (Mullis et al., 2020 ).

Research also highlights significant gender differences in science interest and attitudes with boys showing more preference for science as compared to girls (Barmby et al., 2008 ; Jenkins & Nelson, 2005 ). Similar differences have been noted in relation to the career expectations. Even the academically high achieving girls are less likely to choose STEM careers in comparison to boys (Clewell & Campbell, 2002 ; Wang et al., 2013 ). The PISA 2018 results indicated that on average across OECD countries, only 14% of girls who were top performers in science or mathematics reported that they expect to work as an engineer or science professional compared with 26% of top-performing boys who so reported (OECD, 2019b ).

Addressing these concerns require effective measures to promote science interest in young students, especially the age group of 10–14 years, the age reported as a critical period for the formation of science aspirations of young children (DeWitt & Archer, 2015 ; Lindahl, 2007 ; Tai et al., 2006 ; Tytler & Osborne, 2012 ).

Integrated learning of Mathematics and Science

More recent research advocates the integration of STEM subjects to promote greater understanding of these subjects in real-world contexts (e.g. Margot & Kettler, 2019 ; McLoughlin et al., 2020 ). Integrated STEM curricula allow the development of twenty-first century skills such as problem-solving and creativity, enabling students to appreciate and apply the learning to novel and unfamiliar situations (Honey et al., 2014 ). There have been various interpretations of STEM integration with debates on multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approaches. A broad definition by Honey et al. ( 2014 ) contextualises integration as “working in the context of complex phenomena or situations on tasks that require students to use knowledge and skills from multiple disciplines” (p. 52). Kelley and Knowles ( 2016 ) define integrated STEM education as “the approach to teaching the STEM content of two or more STEM domains, bound by STEM practices within an authentic context for the purpose of connecting these subjects to enhance student learning” (p. 3). A common element in these interpretations is manifested in making transparent and meaningful connections between the subjects and real-world contexts to foster authentic student learning. Explicit connections between these two subjects offer opportunities to promote students’ understanding and motivation for learning (English, 2016 ). A positive impact of the integration of mathematics and science on students’ achievement has also been reported (Hurley, 2001 ). However, the complexity of such a process of integration has been realised by researchers (Honey et al., 2014 ; Kelley & Knowles, 2016 ). In particular, a lack of flexibility in the secondary education curriculum has been noted (Honey et al., 2014 ). Some researchers have also pointed to the inequitable representation of the four disciplines in integrated STEM education; for example, criticisms around the underrepresentation of mathematics in STEM have been raised (English, 2016 ; Fitzallen, 2015 ). In fact, the STEM acronym is often used in reference to the science discipline only (English, 2016 ). Additionally, there may be challenges in relation to the integration approaches as the research on STEM integration in relation to curriculum and student learning outcomes is still in a developmental stage (English, 2016 ; Honey et al., 2014 ).

McLoughlin et al. ( 2020 ) propose an integrated approach to STEM Education to develop a range of STEM competences through addressing and solving real-world problems. The researchers emphasise the importance of innovative curriculum and pedagogical approaches for achieving STEM learning outcomes across the domains of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values. Kelley and Knowles ( 2016 ) suggest a greater focus on pedagogical practices along with an increased awareness of research findings on latest initiatives. However, the impact of integration on desired learning outcomes depends on whether these subjects are integrated completely throughout the lesson or one of these dominates in the lesson (Honey et al., 2014 ).

Mathematics and science education through the lens of transition from primary to secondary school

Transition from primary to secondary school has been described as the most challenging phase for students in their education. This transition involves significant changes in many aspects, such as, adjusting to new school environments, increased workload, change in teaching practices, friendship worries, experiences of bullying and higher expectations of secondary school teachers (Evangelou et al., 2008 ; Hammond, 2016 ; Jindal-Snape & Foggie, 2008 ; Keay et al., 2015 ; Paul, 2014 ; West et al., 2010 ; Zeedyk et al., 2003 ). Positive experiences of primary to secondary school transition reported by students include making more friends, greater autonomy and freedom and challenging work in secondary school (Mackenzie et al., 2012 ; Mudaly & Sukhdeo, 2015 ; Symonds & Hargreaves, 2016 ).

Sdrolias and Triandafillidis ( 2008 ) comment that transition is both an opportunity and a problem. The experiences of transition, if negative, may impact not only on students’ academic achievement, but also on their psychological well-being and can affect their self-esteem and self-concept (Symonds & Galton, 2014 ; Yao et al., 2018 ; Zeedyk et al., 2003 ). Although these transition issues span across all the curricular disciplines, mathematics and science seem to be the most affected subjects. Studies have reported a significant decline in students’ interest in mathematics and science as they progress to secondary education (Logan & Skamp, 2008 ; Martin et al., 2015 ; Murphy et al., 2016 ; Varley et al., 2013 .). As a result, motivation and interest for learning mathematics and science may decrease and students develop negative attitudes towards these subjects (Hasni et al., 2017 ; Martin et al., 2015 ; Paul, 2014 ; Tröbst et al., 2016 ; Yao et al., 2018 ). These attitudes strongly associate with their aspirations to study these subjects and may bring a significant dip in academic achievement (Barmby et al., 2008 ; DeWitt & Archer, 2015 ; Widlund et al., 2018 ). Moreover, negative transition experiences also impact on students' emotional health and well-being, e.g. mathematics anxiety increases as students transition to secondary school (Suren & Kandemir, 2020 ). Such negative transition experiences can strongly impede the development of students’ mathematical and scientific identities and impact on their academic progression in these subjects.

Scope of this review

While many systematic reviews have explored general transition from primary to secondary school (for example, Jindal-Snape et al., 2019 ; McGee et al., 2003 ; Mumford & Birchwood, 2020 ; Topping, 2011 ; van Rens et al., 2018 ), a comprehensive literature review specifically looking at transitions in the context of mathematics and science does not exist. This is particularly important given the international focus on increasing students’ understanding and participation in mathematics and science, and more recently a focus on adopting integrated approaches to STEM teaching and learning (DES, 2017 ). To address this gap, this review focuses specifically on mathematics and science in the transition from primary to secondary school, and explores the measures indicated in literature for supporting students in their transition in these two subjects.

The key objective of this systematic review is to explore and compare the breadth of research on school transitions in mathematics and science. To achieve this, the review seeks to address the following research questions:

What factors influence students’ experiences of mathematics transition from primary to secondary school?

What factors influence students’ experiences of science transition from primary to secondary school?

What are the implications of the factors that influence students' experiences in mathematics across the transition from primary to secondary school?

What are the implications of the factors that influence students' experiences in science across the transition from primary to secondary school?

What measures have been used to support students in their mathematics and science transitions from primary to secondary school?

Methodology

A qualitative review of research on mathematics and science transition from primary to secondary school published during the period 1990–2020 was conducted. This systematic review was conducted in the following 4 stages, adapted from those proposed by Tranfield et al. ( 2003 ). A brief description of the steps involved in each stage is given in Table 1 .

Multiple electronic databases were searched for relevant literature on primary to secondary school transition. The databases searched for the review were Academic Search Complete, Education research complete, British Education Index, Education Research Information Center (ERIC), and PsycINFO via EBSCOhost and Web of Science. The search involved the use of several keywords in combination. An example of a search string is

(school trans*) AND (primary or elementary or junior or post-primary or secondary or middle or grade 7 or grade 8).

Consideration was given to include the multitude of terms used interchangeably in literature. For example, the following string was used to search for the factors influencing transition.

(issue* OR factor* OR predictor* OR determin* OR concern* OR impact* OR influenc* OR characteristic* OR effect* OR affect* OR challeng* OR barrier* OR support* OR hinder* OR intervention)

The following inclusion criteria was adopted for the search (Table 2 ).

The initial search yielded 6817 results. These results were then filtered for English language spanning the time 1990–2020 which gave 5075 results. The removal of duplicates from these results yielded 3736 publications. The first step of filtration involved the screening of titles and abstracts of these 3736 publications for their inclusion or exclusion according to the review protocol. The title and abstract screening yielded 758 results. A manual search of literature resulted in 17 additional publications for inclusion. This gave 775 publications for review at the first stage. Figure  1 illustrates the number of publications yielded at each stage of the search process.

Stages of search process for systematic review

The final 775 publications obtained after the screening of titles and abstracts were classified by disciplines. As the main focus of this review is on mathematics and science transitions, studies in other disciplines, e.g. History, Music, Physical education and Visual Arts were all grouped under ‘other disciplines’. Thus, the final classification of studies was reported under five discipline groups—Mathematics, Science, Multidisciplinary (including Mathematics and Science), Other disciplines (excluding Mathematics and Science) and General (non-discipline specific) (in Table 3 ).

These 775 studies were screened to identify research trends relating to transitions between primary and second level. In the first step, open coding was conducted, and initial codes were determined as a result of this process. These initial codes were chosen to reflect the primary focus of each study. Similar initial codes were combined to identify nine distinct codes, as shown in Table 3 . For example, the initial codes of teacher content knowledge, teacher collaboration, teachers’ beliefs and perspectives were combined to form the final code Teachers’ influence .

As illustrated in Table 3 , most of the research on transition across primary to secondary school focuses on general aspects and were not discipline focused. There is notably a greater number of research studies focussing on transition in mathematics ( N  = 98) than science ( N  = 49). Also, the majority of the studies report on students’ self-regulation and internalization, such as self-esteem, self-confidence, motivation, attitudes and constructs related to identity development. The code labelled as socio background, family and externalization has the second highest number of research publications in the selected set of literature and includes factors based on relationships with parents and peers, social background, race, ethnicity and socio-economic status (SES).

The next stage of the review involved screening the full text of each publication classified under the disciplines of Mathematics, Science, and Multidisciplinary (including Mathematics and Science). All of the publications coded as Mathematics ( N  = 98), Science ( N  = 49) or Multidisciplinary including Mathematics and Science ( N  = 25), were further screened to map them to the research questions 1–5 of this review. As the focus of the review was on transitions in mathematics and science, it was decided that studies that focussed only on specific or specialised contexts (e.g. special education needs, ethnic groups) would not be included as these findings may not be generalisable. From the 25 studies coded as Multidisciplinary (including Mathematics and Science) , 9 studies met the inclusion criteria for the review. None of these 9 studies addressed an integrated learning approach to mathematics and science. Therefore, relevant findings pertaining to both disciplines were extracted from these studies and discussed in relation to transitions in mathematics or science. This screening process resulted in the identification of 73 publications on mathematics transition and 47 publications on science transition that met the review criteria. This formed the corpus of studies that are discussed in this review. The final stage of the review process was to read the full text of each publication. The findings of each of these studies were extracted and analysed in relation to each research question. Some studies addressed more than one research question. In such cases, the studies were coded for all relevant research questions 1–5.

In relation to research questions 1 and 2, initial factors that influence students’ experiences of mathematics/science transition from primary to secondary school were identified. Similar factors were grouped together to form three distinct categories of factors—(i) student self-regulation, (ii) school and academic related and (iii). social factors. For example, factors relating to students’ self-esteem, self-confidence, motivation, etc., were grouped together to form the category Student Self-Regulation (see Tables 6 and 7 ). A similar process was used to identify the implications of these factors in relation to research questions 3 and 4 (see Tables 8 and 9 ).

The next section presents an overview of research on transitions in mathematics and science and the findings in relation to each of the research questions 1–5.

An overview of the trends in research publications on transitions in mathematics and science is presented followed by the review findings from research questions 1 to 5.

Overview of research on transitions in mathematics

The 73 studies identified were analysed to explore research publication trends. Figure  2 illustrates an upward trend in the number of publications in mathematics transition from the year 1990 to 2020 for the selected sample of 73 papers.

Trend in published research on mathematics transition (1990–2020)

However, most of the selected studies focused on students’ negative experiences of transition which echoes the findings from other literature reviews on transitions (e.g. Jindal-Snape et al., 2019 ). The majority of these studies focussed on the cause–effect relationship between variables for the issues related to transition. Only three studies addressed measures to support student learning across mathematics transitions. From the 73 studies selected for review, around 36% ( N  = 26) of the studies were conducted in the European context, 30% ( N  = 22) of the studies were conducted in the US and the remaining 34% ( N  = 25) spanned diverse international regions. Table 4 shows a summary of the selected set of studies on mathematics transition in terms of their primary focus, research design and research approach.

As depicted in Table 4 , more than 60% of the studies ( N  = 47) studies employed a longitudinal design where students were followed over their transition to secondary school for duration of time ranging from 3 months to 4 years. A cross-sectional research design was used in 26 studies which included seven studies on teachers’ perspectives around transition. The research method used in the majority of the studies (around 70%, N  = 50) was quantitative, with the most common tool of data collection as participants’ self-reported questionnaires. Although the reliability of surveys self-reported by students has been questioned in the literature, large sample sizes of participants recruited in most of the longitudinal studies explain this trend. From the remaining studies, 8 studies used qualitative methods of research and 15 studies adopted a mixed methods approach to support their findings from the quantitative analysis. While the majority of studies collected data from students, studies collecting parents’ views are very few. Figure  3 shows the distribution of participants in study samples.

Distribution of participants in study samples in mathematics transition

Overview of research on transitions in science

47 studies focused on science transition from primary to secondary school were identified. The trend in publication of research on science transition from 1990 till 2020 is shown in Fig.  4 .

Trend in published research on science transition (1990–2020)

The graph suggests that there has been an increasing attention in research on primary–secondary science transition since 2000. From the 47 studies reviewed in science, 23 studies were conducted in the European context—14 from the UK, 3 from Ireland, 2 from Northern Ireland, 3 from Germany and 1 from Sweden. From the remaining 24 studies, 9 studies were conducted in the US and 15 studies spanned diverse international regions. Table 5 displays a summary of the selected studies on science transition in terms of their primary focus, research design and research approach.

In contrast with the trends in mathematics transition research, more studies employed a cross-sectional research design here (Table 5 ). A cross-sectional research design was used in 29 studies and there is a balanced proportion of studies using quantitative, qualitative and mixed method approaches for data collection and analysis. Also, the majority of the studies investigated the domain of curriculum, content and pedagogy. This included investigation of the effects of cooperative learning in science, students’ understanding for the concepts of Energy, Heat and Matter and the effect of instructional practices on students’ science interest and cognitive development across transition. The participant sample mostly consisted of either students or a mix of students and teachers. Figure  5 shows the distribution of participants in the studies selected for review on science transition.

Distribution of participants in study samples in science transition

Research Question 1. What factors influence students’ experiences of mathematics transition from primary to secondary school?

As described in the methodology section, the review identified three broad categories of factors that influence students’ experiences of mathematics transition from primary to secondary school. These are—(i) student self-regulation, (ii) school and academic related and (iii) social factors. The category of student self-regulation includes factors related to behaviours, beliefs and/or emotions that could influence an individual’s experiences (positive or negative) in transitions. For example, emotions or feelings about self, school belongingness, motivation, and engagement. The school and academic factors include aspects relating to curriculum and content, school and classroom learning environment, instructional and pedagogical practices, teachers’ knowledge base and school culture. The third category considers social factors, related to home and family environment and relationships.

A total of 58 studies were identified that report on the factors influencing mathematics transition from primary to secondary school. Table 6 provides an overview of the 9 factors identified under the three categories explained above.

Student self-regulation factors

Many studies reported negative self-image portrayed by students as they transition to secondary school. As a result, negative attitudes may develop towards mathematics (Silverthorn et al., 2005 ). These negative attitudes are accompanied by fear of guilt and rejection impacting students’ willingness to engage in mathematics and/or ask for assistance (Mudaly & Sukhdeo, 2015 ) and are reported to be more prevalent in low-performing students (Smyth et al., 2004 ).

Skilling et al. ( 2020 ) investigated high- and low-achieving students’ beliefs about mathematics learning and their experiences to explore shifts in their engagement levels as they transition to secondary school. They reported that ‘engaged’ students believed mathematics to be important for their future education and valued mathematics learning. These students had a preference for understanding over performance and had high levels of self-efficacy. In contrast, ‘disengaged’ students placed a lower value on mathematics learning and rated performance over understanding. Such students exhibited lower self-efficacy and negative emotions such as mathematics anxiety.

Beliefs of self-abilities such as self-efficacy, self-esteem and self-confidence that contribute to a sense of mathematical identity, shape positive or negative experiences of transition (Martin et al., 2015 ; Mudaly & Sukhdeo, 2015 ). Higher self-efficacy and valuing of mathematics are positively associated not only with engagement in secondary school mathematics (Martin et al., 2015 ), but also contributes to students’ academic well-being and educational aspirations (Widlund et al., 2018 ). In a qualitative study by Darrragh ( 2013 ), excerpts from secondary students’ interviews reflected a link between confidence of performing in mathematics and a sense of belonging in the class. Students reported a lack of belonging in the early stages of transition but gradually adjusted to ‘fit’ in the new environment, similar to what has been reported by other studies also (e.g. Mudaly & Sukhdeo, 2015 ).

Mathematics anxiety is the most researched construct that influences identity formation during primary–secondary transition. Studies report that mathematics anxiety increases as students progress to secondary school. However, it gets stabilised or drops to the initial levels towards the end of the first year of transition (Darragh, 2013 ; Gasco Txabarri et al.,  2014a ; Madjar et al., 2018 ; Mudaly & Sukhdeo, 2015 ). Klee and Miller ( 2019 ) in a longitudinal study in the US, explored group-based trajectories in mathematics anxiety at different time points from elementary to junior high school and found that there is no one common pattern of mathematics anxiety and it may constantly increase, decrease, fluctuate or even remain constant at all time points. Gender differences in mathematics anxiety have also been reported by some studies with girls experiencing higher math anxiety and lower self-efficacy than boys (Deieso & Fraser, 2019 ; Klee & Miller, 2019 ; Madjar et al., 2018 ).

School-related and academic factors

Studies have reported both positive and negative influences of school settings and culture on transition experiences of students. For example, those who transitioned between the schools showed greater mathematics anxiety in comparison to those who did not, i.e. remained in the same school after transition (Madjar et al., 2018 ). Some studies, on the contrary, found that institutional changes such as school culture and school size have little or no impact on students’ mathematics progress as they transition to secondary school (Kieffer, 2013 ; Rice, 2001 ). Carmichael ( 2015 ) highlighted that the impact of school settings on mathematics achievement affects adversely only when the change is accompanied by significant curricular changes. Other influential factors related to school settings include larger class size in secondary school and fewer opportunities for student–teacher interaction (Mudaly & Sukhdeo, 2015 ), excitement to be in a new school and being taught by specialist maths teachers (e.g. Bicknell & Hunter, 2012 ).

Factors related to curriculum and content include increased workload in mathematics (more class work and homework), pace of study, lesser time for correctional work, longer duration of classes and independent academic performance (Attard, 2012 ; Mudaly & Sukhdeo, 2015 ). These factors however may not contribute much to the difficulties associated with transition. Mudaly and Sukhdeo ( 2015 ) noted that despite increased workload reported by secondary students, they preferred high school for greater independence and freedom. In fact, it is the didactical practices and not the increased content/workload that pose challenges to students (Attard, 2012 ; Mudaly & Sukhdeo, 2015 ).

A large number of studies investigated factors related to classroom environment and its implications on students’ mathematics learning. Findings from these studies suggest that aspects of classroom environment such as time for teacher–student interaction, teacher enthusiasm, perceived autonomy, class competition and perceived class performance are significantly related with secondary students’ mathematics learning (Eccles et al., 1993 ; Fryer & Oga-Baldwin, 2019 ; Lazarides et al., 2020 ; Mackay, 2006 ; Martin et al., 2015 ). In a longitudinal study in Cyprus, Athanasiou and Philippou ( 2010 ) followed 331 students over a period of two consecutive school years. The researchers reported that those who experienced a decline in aspects such as teacher friendliness, cooperation and interaction, after transition to a secondary school, reflected negative self-esteem and declined motivation. This incongruence between student-expected and the actual mathematics classroom environment has also been highlighted in other studies (Athanasiou & Philippou, 2006 , 2008 ; Bicknell & Hunter, 2012 ; Eccles et al., 1993 ; Friedel et al., 2010 ; Martin et al., 2015 ). A comparison of classroom perceptions of 541 primary and secondary school students in Australia showed that secondary students perceived lesser involvement in mathematics classroom which resulted in deteriorated attitudes toward mathematics, decreased enjoyment and increased mathematics anxiety (Deieso & Fraser, 2019 ).

Recent focus of research has however shifted on teachers’ knowledge base (gap) and instructional and pedagogical practices employed in mathematics classrooms. A 2019 study on Irish teachers’ views about issues related to primary–secondary transition highlighted a lack of knowledge of each other’s curriculum and a lack of communication between teachers at both levels (Prendergast et al., 2019 ). A mismatch of pedagogical practices such as, different teaching practices, fast-paced teaching, and lack of drilling and revision in secondary school mathematics teaching has also been highlighted (Attard, 2012 ; Mudaly & Sukhdeo, 2015 ; Paul, 2014 ; Powell et al., 2006 ). Another inconsistency is noted in the use of teaching aids in primary and secondary mathematics classrooms. For example, a recent study by O'Meara, Johnson and Leavy ( 2020b ) found that the use of manipulatives in mathematics teaching is more frequent in primary classrooms than in the secondary classrooms. In their study, manipulatives were defined as ‘concrete materials, and their virtual equivalents, that foster learning by engaging students physically and visually’ (p.837). The researchers noted significant differences between primary and secondary teachers’ confidence in the use of manipulatives. Similar results were reported in a 1997 Australian study that compared primary and secondary mathematics teachers’ views on the usage of manipulatives in mathematics (Howard et al., 1997 ).

Social factors

Within the social factors, the role of relationships is the most researched. Positive relationship with peers has been recognised as a source of support that can enable successful transition for students (Ma & Xu, 2004 ). Also, being accompanied by old friends after transition to a new school facilitated positive transition experiences in mathematics (Bicknell & Hunter, 2012 ).

Student–teacher relationships is another influential construct that shapes students’ experiences of mathematics transition. The quality of relationships with teachers has been found to have a direct influence on students' mathematics engagement and achievement (Attard, 2011 , 2013 ; Semeraro et al., 2020 ). Positive relationships with teachers also help to develop students’ socio-emotional skills and motivation for mathematics learning (Semeraro et al., 2020 ; Stroet et al., 2015 ). Additionally, secondary teachers’ emphasis on mastery goals was found to promote higher self-efficacy in students (Friedel et al., 2010 ).

The reviewed studies also suggest that parental factors and home environment are strong predictors of mathematics engagement and achievement across transition. Using a secondary analysis of data from a national longitudinal study in the UK, Evans and Field ( 2020b ) found that positive relationship with parents, level of parents’ education and their school involvement play an influential role in mathematics attainment at the transition (at age 11). Additionally, parental emotional support, e.g. students’ perceptions of their parents’ valuing of mathematics is reported to be consistently associated with shifts in mathematics engagement (Martin et al., 2015 ). Furthermore, parents’ own aspirations and their competence beliefs strongly impact their children’s experiences of mathematics learning during the transitional phase (Becker & Neumann, 2018 ; Gniewosz et al., 2012 ; Pesu et al., 2018 ). Greater emphasis by parents on ‘mastery goals’ (the extent to which children perceive an emphasis on learning and understanding) contributes to increased self-efficacy and motivation for mathematics learning (Friedel et al., 2010 ). Additionally, parents’ involvement in non-school-related activities also influenced students’ mathematics progress from primary to secondary school (Rice, 2001 ; Smyth et al., 2004 ). Other home-related factors such as number of siblings and socio-economic status were reported to have only a little effect on transition experiences (Rice, 2001 ).

Research Question 2. What factors influence students’ experiences of science transition from primary to secondary school?

28 studies were identified that addressed the factors influencing students’ experiences of science transition. Table 7 lists the factors identified within the 3 categories described above.

Studies identified in this category suggest that as students transition to secondary school, they may acquire negative attitudes towards science and feel less motivated to engage in science learning (Bae & DeBusk-Lane, 2018 ). Hasni et al. ( 2017 ) noted that secondary students generally consider science subjects to be more important than social sciences and arts but less important than mathematics and English. Furthermore, boys considered science to be easier compared with other subjects, than girls. Gender differences have also been noted in relation to science aspirations for the future, with higher science aspirations expressed by boys than girls (DeWitt et al., 2014 ). The preferences and interest in science is also related to students’ academic performance at the school level (Bae & DeBusk-Lane, 2018 ; Ohle et al., 2015 ). Studies also suggest a close link between students’ science interest and classroom practices. In a UK study, Braund and Driver ( 2005 ) noted a link between science interest and practical work done in science class. It was noted that primary school students enjoyed practical work in science and expected secondary school science to be more enjoyable in terms of experimentation and hands-on activities. While the style of instruction influences situational interest which is temporary, it has implications for the development of individual interest which is a long term and stable construct (Trobst et al., 2016 ).

Research has also noted a correlation between positive self-perceptions of ability and science achievement (Silverthorn et al., 2005 ). Self-regulating factors such as the ability to adjust and stress management also influence students’ experiences of transition to secondary school. The transition phase is found to be generally easier for those with good social and emotional adaptability skills (Jordan et al., 2010 ).

Within the school-related factors, the majority of the studies explored aspects of science classroom environment, instructional practices, and specific topics of science curriculum. 22 studies reported on school-related factors.

A positive correlation between classroom learning environment and students’ science attitudes has been reported (Wang & Lin, 2009 ). However, studies highlight a mismatch between student-expected and the actual learning environment in secondary science classrooms (Campbell, 2001 ; Saat, 2010 ; Speering & Rennie, 1996 ; Wang & Lin, 2009 ). These studies reported students’ negative experiences of science transition on account of their perceived dissatisfaction with the traditional learning environment and lack of practical teaching approaches in secondary school science classrooms. Gender differences in how the learning environment is perceived by students has also been highlighted. For instance, while boys prioritised activities in secondary school, girls were more concerned about their relationships with friends and teachers (Ferguson & Fraser, 1998 ).

12 out of 22 studies explored the role of instructional practices in shaping students’ experiences of science transition from primary to secondary school. Evidence from these studies suggest the importance of conducting practical experiments and inquiry-based hands-on activities to enhance students’ interest and engagement in science (Logan & Skamp, 2008 ; Trobst et al., 2016 ; Varley et al., 2013 ). However, lack of such opportunities for students, e.g. ‘a dominance of prescribed, teacher-directed practical work over independently planned pupil investigations’ (Varley et al., 2013 , p.284), excessive note copying reported by secondary students (Logan & Skamp, 2008 ), lesser use of manipulative skills for science instruction (Fadzil & Saat, 2014a , 2014b ) and teacher-centred learning in secondary classroom (Wang & Lin, 2009 ) is highlighted. Research has noted that formal teaching methods impede the growth of conceptual knowledge and understanding of the relevance of science in daily life (Saat, 2010 ). Pedagogies that provide opportunities for active classroom participation and social communication (with peers and teachers) instil greater positive attitudes towards science learning (Wang & Lin, 2009 ).

A smaller number of studies also explored students’ acquisition of content knowledge for specific topics such as heat, matter or energy concepts and the progression of their understanding in these concepts as they move from primary to secondary school (Nakhleh et al., 2005 ; Opitz et al., 2015 ; Saat, 2010 ). These studies highlight a lack of conceptual understanding in science and a gap between students’ general knowledge and scientific knowledge as they transition to secondary school. Only one study (Ohle et al., 2015 ) from the review investigated teachers’ content knowledge (CK) in physics and explored its impact on students’ interest. Teachers’ self-interest in physics positively predicted their content knowledge of physics. However, no association was found between teachers’ CK and students’ interest in physics.

Only six studies reported on factors related to home and family environment and relationships with peers and teachers. Three studies investigated the factors related to home and family environment (Morgan et al., 2016 ; Senler & Sungur, 2009 ). Findings from these studies suggest that factors such as quality of parenting, parental involvement in school activities, parents’ education, and the level of family income are the key factors influencing children’s science-related beliefs and their science achievement. Furthermore, parents’ attitudes towards school science impacts their children’s science aspirations for the future (DeWitt & Archer, 2015 ). However, positive parental attitudes may not always translate to positive science aspirations of children—an important factor is whether or not parents work in science-related jobs (DeWitt & Archer, 2015 ).

Peer relationships were also found to be very influential in promoting positive transition experiences. Investigating the role of cooperative learning strategies in science across the transition, Thurston et al. ( 2010a ) noted that ‘Pupils tended to focus peer relationships on pupils with whom they worked, rather than more generally with the class’ (p. 30). Two studies (Ferguson & Fraser, 1998 ; Speering & Rennie, 1996 ) reported on the influence of student–teacher relationships on students’ experiences of science transition. These studies reported that change in student–teacher relationship was the most difficult one for students when they moved to secondary school. Secondary school students felt a lack of personal interaction with their teachers and reported decreased motivation for learning. These relationship concerns were more prominent in girls, reporting higher levels of dissatisfaction than boys.

Research Question 3. What are the implications of the factors that influence students' experiences in mathematics across the transition from primary to secondary school?

A total number of 41 studies were identified that explored the impact of factors that influence students’ mathematics transition to secondary school. Table 8 shows the implications of transition evidenced in the reviewed studies.

The most prominent impact of students’ (negative) transition experiences, as evidenced from the review, is on students’ mathematics achievement. Nearly 40% of the studies reviewed under this section reported a significant dip in mathematics achievement as students transition to secondary school. It has been asserted that trajectories in mathematics achievement follow a rise–hold–loss pattern, meaning that students show higher mathematics achievement in primary school, remain neutral in middle school and the achievement levels decline in high school (Lee, 2010 ). Evidence from reviewed studies also suggest that transition solely cannot be associated with declined achievement rather various other contextual factors may come into play. A significant (though small) effect of the impact of mathematics attitudes, school affect, teacher characteristics and working memory on mathematics attainment trajectories have been established (Evans & Field, 2020a ; Evans et al., 2020 ). Carmichael ( 2015 ) reported only a small effect of transition on mathematics achievement after controlling for factors of age, sex and parental wealth. Changes in curriculum and pedagogical practices rather than the move to a different school was reported as a major factor that influences students’ academic achievement.

Another significant impact of primary–secondary transition that emerged from the review is a shift in students’ attitudes and motivation in mathematics. More than half of the studies reported a decline in attitudes relating to motivation and engagement and beliefs of mathematics self-abilities in secondary school students. It has been noted that secondary school students show decreased persistence, lesser positive attitudes to mathematical inquiry, describe mathematics as less valuable and perceive lesser enjoyment in mathematics than primary school students (Deieso & Fraser, 2019 ; Pajares & Graham, 1999 ). Martin et al. ( 2015 ) reported significant decline in students’ mathematics engagement after transition, but the decline was found to be associated with student, home and classroom factors rather than the transition itself.

Studies also provide evidence of the impact of transition on aspects related to the development of mathematical identities of students. For example, decline in self-concept and confidence (Darragh, 2013 ; Widlund et al., 2018 ), incline in negative self-esteem (Athanasiou & Philippou, 2010 ) and increased mathematics anxiety (Madjar et al., 2018 ) after transition to secondary school have been noted. A significant influence on students’ self-efficacy beliefs was found to be predicted by students’ perceptions of their teachers’ and parents’ emphasis on mastery and performance goals (Friedel et al., 2010 ). Gender seems to play a significant role in the development of mathematical identities. It is documented that girls experience greater decline in self-esteem resulting in higher levels of mathematics anxiety than boys (Ma & Xu, 2004 ; Madjar et al., 2018 ; Suren & Kandemir, 2020 ). Evidence also suggests that mathematics anxiety not only influences the school transitional phase, but it can have long-lasting consequences. Findings from a recent UK study by Field et al. ( 2019 ) report that pre-transition levels of anxiety and changes during transition are significant predictors of mathematics anxiety at age 18. Additionally, this study reported that mathematics attainment (prior to transition and its trajectories across the transition) also predicts later mathematics anxiety.

Research Question 4. What are the implications of the factors that influence students' experiences in science across the transition from primary to secondary school?

19 publications in science transition were mapped with this research question to explore the implications of students’ transition experiences in science. The review studies provided evidence for significant decline in science achievement when students transition from primary to secondary school (Alspaugh, 1998 ; Bae & DeBusk-Lane, 2018 ; Morgan et al., 2016 ; Powell et al., 2006 ; Rice, 1997 , 2001 ). A longitudinal study by Morgan et al. ( 2016 ) in the US reported that large science achievement gaps emerge at an early age and persist till the end of eight grade. In their study, student’s prior general knowledge emerged as the strongest predictor of these achievement gaps in science. Parental influences such as home environment and the quality of parenting were also associated with academic achievement (ibid). Table 9 lists the implications of science transition evidenced in the reviewed literature.

The review studies also report a shift in students’ attitudes and engagement in science as they transition from primary to secondary school. For instance, science interest and motivation decline significantly in secondary school (Anderhag et al., 2016 ; Hasni et al., 2017 ; Reid & Skryabina, 2003 ; Speering & Rennie, 1996 ; Trobst et al., 2016 ; Varley et al., 2013 ). Anderhag et al. ( 2016 ), however, argued that there is a possibility that there is no loss of interest when students enter secondary school rather the interest was not even developed in the first instance. The researchers criticised heavy reliance of research on interviews and questionnaires, doubting the reliability of results. In contrast, Logan and Skamp ( 2008 ), in their longitudinal study of students’ science engagement in Australia, found that most of the students in secondary school showed positive attitudes towards science. This was attributed to students’ perceived enjoyment in practical science work and use of new laboratory equipment in secondary school. However, they also acknowledged the possibility of the ‘Hawthorne effect’ where ‘ the researcher may have influenced student interest by giving credence to student voice…helping students see the value in school science .’ (pp. 516–517).

Evidence also highlights the effect of transition experiences on constructs related to the development of students’ scientific identities. Lofgran et al. ( 2015 ) measured science self-efficacy of students at two transition points—from elementary to middle school and from middle to high school in the US. Their analysis found gradual declines in self-efficacy scores as students progressed from elementary to middle school, with significant declines observed in the ninth grade (high school). Considerable differences in students’ science aspirations before and after transition have also been noted (Speering & Rennie, 1996 ). On the other hand, it has been argued that there is a disconnect between attitudes to school science and aspirations for future science. Positive science attitudes in school may not necessarily translate to future aspirations for science-related careers (DeWitt et al., 2014 ). Martin et al. ( 2020 ) also noted that decreased science engagement was evident only in school and not in terms of students’ aspirations for choosing science careers or science-related activities outside school. Additionally, consistent findings were noted in terms of gender differences in various constructs of identity development. Girls’ attitudes seem to be particularly affected after their transition to secondary school. For example, girls expressed lesser science self-efficacy (Lofgran et al., 2015 ), greater declines in science interest (Barmby et al., 2008 ; Reid & Skryabina, 2003 ; Speering & Rennie, 1996 ; Trobst et al., 2016 ) and lower science aspirations than boys (DeWitt et al., 2014 ; Speering & Rennie, 1996 ).

Research Questions 5: What measures have been used to support students in mathematics and science transitions from primary to secondary school?

From a total of 73 publications on mathematics transition selected for the review, only three could be mapped with this research question (Table 10 ). In comparison, review studies on science transition included a greater proportion of studies focused on measures to facilitate transition experiences of students. 11 out of 47 selected publications in science provide evidence of measures taken for supporting students across primary to secondary school transition (Table 11 ). The studies mapped with this section are listed in Tables 10 and 11 .

Two approaches to these measures were identified: a) theoretical measures and b) empirical measures.

Theoretical measures

One study on mathematics transition by Cantley et al. ( 2020 ) addressed transition via theoretical measures. The authors provide a framework for analysing continuity in student learning across mathematics transition from primary to secondary school. The framework models five hierarchical levels— Implemented curriculum, Pedagogy, School, Society and Civilisation for transition from primary to secondary level mathematics. While the first two levels ensure didactical continuity in students’ learning experiences, the third, fourth and fifth levels in the model would operate differently in different contexts.

Empirical measures

These include measures such as an intervention or an experiment focused on content and pedagogical practices and the effectiveness is measured via participants’ experiences before and after the intervention. All but one study mapped with this research question addressed transition via these measures. In mathematics, two studies report on the evaluation of a professional development programme for teachers—one of which focused on enhancing formative assessment practices to encourage student engagement and persistence and the other focused on effective teaching strategies for transition to algebra. In contrast, studies in science mostly investigated the effectiveness of bridging units in the form of small lessons/tasks to facilitate the gap between primary and secondary science. Positive impacts of these interventions in terms of students’ attitudes to science and teachers’ confidence were reported.

Although STEM integration has been increasingly emphasised in international education policies, no studies in this review reported on measures integrating mathematics and science learning to address the challenges in relation to transition between primary and second level.

This review identified three key factors that influence students’ experiences in mathematics and science across their transition from primary to secondary school— student self-regulation factors , school and academic related factors , and social factors . Findings suggest that students’ experiences of transition in these subjects cannot be attributed to any single factor as various contextual factors may come into play. For example, mathematics attainment trajectories from primary to secondary school are impacted by a multitude of factors such as mathematics attitudes, school affect, teacher characteristics and working memory (Evans & Field, 2020a ; Evans et al., 2020 ). Figure  6 summarises the factors that have been found to influence the experiences of students across mathematics and science transition from primary to secondary school (Research Questions 1 &2).

Factors influencing students’ experiences of mathematics and science transition

The most common focus of research in both the disciplines appears to be in the category of school-related factors wherein classroom learning environment is the most investigated. A major inconsistency lies in curricular and pedagogical practices employed in primary and secondary classrooms. While students expect secondary classroom learning to be more hands-on and activity-oriented, it is not always the case. This incongruence between student-expected and the actual classroom environment negatively impacts student engagement and motivation in mathematics and science learning. Also, the majority of the studies report negative experiences of students and factors contributing to positive experiences are relatively less discussed, confirming similar findings from previous reviews on general transition from primary to secondary school (Bharara, 2020 ; Jindal-Snape et al., 2019 ).

The review found relatively less research on the social factors, i.e., the role of relationships, family and home environment in science than mathematics. Availability of less literature in science than mathematics on family-related factors was also noted by Goos et al. ( 2020 ) in their study on gender balance in STEM. Nonetheless, this review provides ample evidence to suggest that family and friends play an influential role in students’ interface with mathematics and science as they transition to their secondary school.

The implications of the factors that affect students' experiences of mathematics and science across this transition (Research Questions 3 & 4) are illustrated in Fig.  7 .

Implications of mathematics and science transition experiences of students

A significant impact of these combined factors is a shift in students’ attitudes and motivation in learning. More than half of the studies in this review presented evidence of a decrease in student motivation and engagement and an increase in negative attitudes towards mathematics and science among secondary school students. The reviewed studies also indicate that students’ performance in mathematics and science declines as they transition to their secondary school which echoes the findings from other reviews on general transition (Jindal-Snape et al., 2019 ; McGee et al., 2003 ). One striking observation is that while many studies in mathematics address mathematics anxiety and investigate it as a factor as well as an impact of transition, no studies in science bring up the issue of science anxiety although decreased science interest and engagement have been reported. This is noteworthy as psychological well-being is an important factor in the development of students’ mathematics and scientific identities and requires further research.

Whilst many studies in this review addressed research questions 1–4, studies that reported on effective measures to support mathematics and science transitions (research question 5) are limited, highlighting the need for further research in this area. Furthermore, these measures reported in the reviewed studies have dealt with mathematics and science disciplines separately. An integrated approach for the teaching and learning of mathematics and science disciplines emerged as a gap in the literature on school transition.

It is also interesting to note that even though separate analyses of the studies reviewed in mathematics and science were conducted, similar findings were obtained in relation to the factors that influence students’ experiences in these two subjects and the implications of these factors. This presents a strong rationale for the integration of mathematics and science to address the challenges faced by students in these two subjects across the transition.

Recommendations and conclusions

Findings of this review clearly indicate that most of the existing research identifies that mathematics and science transitions from primary to secondary school are associated with many challenges and negative experiences of students. These negative experiences act as barriers to students’ learning and result in disengagement and disinterest for these subjects. The findings of this systematic review offer recommendations for policy and curriculum development, learning environment, teacher education and curriculum structure.

i) Increased curricular and pedagogical continuity

Addressing the negative factors identified in this study requires a greater focus on the continuity between primary and secondary curricula. This continuity needs to be explicitly presented in curricular specifications at both primary and secondary level. Improved coherence in learning and teaching approaches at both levels can support student engagement in mathematics and science. In addition, increased alignment between primary and secondary curricula can also improve pedagogical continuity across this transition.

ii) Positive learning environments

This review highlights the influence of student self-regulation skills on their experiences of mathematics and science learning across transitions. Creating a supportive learning environment is a significant factor for the development of student’s key skills and attitudes, such as motivation and resilience for learning, and beliefs of self-esteem and self-concept (Athanasiou & Philippou, 2010 ). Learning environments where students do not worry about making mistakes increase students’ enjoyment and self-confidence (Kaur & Prendergast, 2021 ), promote a growth mindset and foster resilience for learning (Fraser, 2018 ). Therefore, greater consideration should be given to creating and promoting positive learning environments that help develop students’ self-regulating skills to support their transition from primary to secondary school.

iii) A greater focus on teacher collaboration and professional learning

Establishing professional learning communities that bring together primary and secondary mathematics and science teachers could lead to increased collaboration and communication between teachers and enable sharing of instructional and pedagogical practices. Findings of this review suggest that school-related factors, such as communication and collaboration between teachers, curricular and pedagogical inconsistencies have significant influence on mathematics and science transitions. Further research is needed to examine the impact of greater continuity between curricular and pedagogical approaches used in primary and secondary classrooms.

iv) Addressing social factors

Interventions that focus on addressing social factors such as peer relationships, parental influences and student–teacher relationships are needed. These may include measures such as increased parental involvement and measures that provide greater emotional support to students. Promoting student and teacher engagement in reflective practices may also help to develop positive identities of students.

Contributions and implications for future research

As noted in this review, integrated learning approaches in mathematics and science for addressing the challenges of primary–secondary transition are under researched. Future research is needed to explore how integration between mathematics and science disciplines at the school level can facilitate smooth transitions from primary to secondary education. Further studies are needed to examine the impact of explicit connections between mathematics and science for promoting student interest and engagement in these subjects. Further research is also needed to examine student learning when explicit connections are made between mathematics and science.

The findings also suggest a dearth of international comparative studies on mathematics and science transitions from primary to secondary school. The reviewed literature contained only one cross-border study by O'Meara et al. ( 2020a ) where teachers’ perceptions of mathematical knowledge for teaching at the transition were examined cross sectionally from Northern Ireland and Republic of Ireland. It is recommended that future research focuses on international comparisons of the challenges and positive experiences of students and teachers across primary–secondary school transition. Such studies will promote international collaboration to share examples and evidence of best practices to support students during their transition phase. Additionally, the reviewed literature discussed negative experiences more than the positive experiences. Future research should also capture students’ experiences or perceptions of what worked well to support their transition journey meaningfully.

There are potential limitations in the generalisability or transferability of findings of this review. The review included studies that were published in English language only. Studies in other languages may have significant findings which could be a potential lack of evidence to the results. Another limitation is that even though the search strings were applied carefully for database searches, some relevant studies could have been left. Also, while utmost attention and objectivity was ensured by the researchers during the selection and analysis of studies, there is a possibility that some significant studies may have been missed. The findings of the current study should be interpreted in light of these limitations. Despite these limitations, the breadth of the research reviewed provided a broad understanding of the landscape of mathematics and science transitions from primary to secondary school. It is hoped that the findings of this review will inform further research and planning of measures/interventions to support transitions across primary–secondary mathematics and science. Finally, this review did not include studies which focused on mathematics and science transition experiences of specialised or vulnerable young people. This could be an area of future research.

Availability of data and materials

Studies selected for this review can be found through reverse citation lookup. The following databases were used to find studies within the review: Academic Search Complete, Education research complete, British Education Index, Education Research Information Center (ERIC), and PsycINFO via EBSCOhost, Web of Science and Google Scholar.

Abbreviations

Content knowledge

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

Programme for International Student Assessment

Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics

Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study

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All authors contributed to the design and execution of this study. Search terms were agreed upon by all authors and TK performed database searches with agreed-upon search terms. The identification of themes, selection of publications and coding process was carried out collaboratively by TK, EM and PG. TK led on the analysis of selected publications with support of EM and PG and findings were discussed and agreed by all authors. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Kaur, T., McLoughlin, E. & Grimes, P. Mathematics and science across the transition from primary to secondary school: a systematic literature review. IJ STEM Ed 9 , 13 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-022-00328-0

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The transition from primary to secondary school: Teachers’ perspectives

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The transition from primary school to secondary school has long been recognised as one of the most challenging times in a young adolescent students’ education, particularly in regard to their academic achievement. Research evidence from the last 30 years has identified a consistent pattern in students’ academic achievement across transition, suggesting that student achievement stalls or even declines in the first year of secondary school. The focus of this research was to identify teachers’ perceptions of the best practices to prepare students for a successful transition to secondary school. The findings were based on 12 one-on-one interviews with primary (Year 6) and secondary (Year 7) teachers. Teachers’ responses were analysed qualitatively through a process of thematic analysis. Findings from the research identified three key methods which primary and secondary school teachers believed were essential for facilitating successful transition experiences for students: curriculum continuity and awareness, communication between primary and secondary schools, and adequate teacher support.

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Hopwood, B., Hay, I. & Dyment, J. The transition from primary to secondary school: Teachers’ perspectives. Aust. Educ. Res. 43 , 289–307 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-016-0200-0

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Received : 03 July 2015

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-016-0200-0

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UCL Psychology and Language Sciences

School Transition and Adjustment Research Study (STARS)

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'STARS' is a research study based at UCL and Cardiff University which aimed to find out what helps children make a successful move to secondary school

Why was the study done?

Some children settle in to secondary school easily whilst others find it difficult. We are interested in finding out about children's experiences of moving to secondary school. Our results help us understand the circumstances under which children experience both success and difficulties in making the change from primary to secondary school. This information will help schools and other educational professionals to provide support for pupils. Resources for schools and teachers can be downloaded from this website.

What did we do?

The study followed a group of around 2000 pupils from South-East England, UK as they made the transition from primary school to secondary school. It collected information from pupils, parents and teachers throughout the transition period and asked about pupils’ well-being, academic achievement, and their views about school and relationships with friends and teachers. We looked at how pupils changed and adapted to secondary school over the course of the study.

Summary of some key findings

We first developed a reliable way of measuring a successful transition. A successful transition involved functioning well in two areas: 1) being academically and behaviourally involved in school and 2) feeling a sense of belonging to school. These two domains can be measured by primary-school teacher reports on a 4-item questionnaire called the Secondary Transition Adjustment Research Tool; ‘START.’

Most children had some concerns about moving to secondary school which reduced once they started secondary school. Concerns about friendships, discipline and homework reduced more slowly. Friendships changed considerably across the transition to secondary school. Parents appeared to have a good idea of the sorts of things their children were likely to need help with over the transition to secondary school.

There was no single group of children who were especially vulnerable to a poor transition. Instead, there were a range of risk and protective factors that were associated with transition success. Taken together, results suggest that an effective approach to supporting pupils through transition might involve a combination of strategies delivered to all pupils that aim to deal with common concerns with additional strategies for vulnerable individuals delivered on a case by case basis according to the individual’s needs.

Findings relating to strategies employed by primary and secondary schools to support transition

Primary and secondary schools differed in the strategies that they implemented to help support children over transition. Different strategies were associated with better functioning in different domains. In particular, the use of systemic strategies at primary school which involve building links and continuity between primary and secondary school (e.g. bridging units - work projects that children begin in primary school and complete in secondary school) was related to lower school anxiety.

A number of secondary school strategies were associated with better academic progression between Year 6 and Year 7. In the evaluation of our research, all of these strategies were rated as 6 high in acceptability by teachers not involved in STARS.

A range of practices that secondary schools employed to support friendships was identified given that this was an area of persistent concern for pupils.

Where can I find out more?

You can  download the report of the main findings from STARS  on this website. The report also includes a list of the scientific publications from STARS.  Resources for teachers, pupils and parents  can be downloaded from this website.

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• Volume 3, Issue 1
• Regular use of fish oil supplements and course of cardiovascular diseases: prospective cohort study
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• Ge Chen 1 ,
• Zhengmin (Min) Qian 2 ,
• Junguo Zhang 1 ,
• Shiyu Zhang 1 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7003-6565 Zilong Zhang 1 ,
• Michael G Vaughn 3 ,
• Hannah E Aaron 2 ,
• Chuangshi Wang 4 ,
• Gregory YH Lip 5 , 6 and
• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3643-9408 Hualiang Lin 1
• 1 Department of Epidemiology , Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou , China
• 2 Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College for Public Health and Social Justice , Saint Louis University , Saint Louis , Missouri , USA
• 3 School of Social Work, College for Public Health and Social Justice , Saint Louis University , Saint Louis , Missouri , USA
• 4 Medical Research and Biometrics Centre , Fuwai Hospital, National Centre for Cardiovascular Diseases, Peking Union Medical College , Beijing , China
• 5 Liverpool Centre for Cardiovascular Science , University of Liverpool and Liverpool Heart and Chest Hospital , Liverpool , UK
• 6 Department of Clinical Medicine , Aalborg University , Aalborg , Denmark
• Correspondence to Dr Hualiang Lin, Department of Epidemiology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, China; linhualiang{at}mail.sysu.edu.cn

Objective To examine the effects of fish oil supplements on the clinical course of cardiovascular disease, from a healthy state to atrial fibrillation, major adverse cardiovascular events, and subsequently death.

Design Prospective cohort study.

Setting UK Biobank study, 1 January 2006 to 31 December 2010, with follow-up to 31 March 2021 (median follow-up 11.9 years).

Participants 415 737 participants, aged 40-69 years, enrolled in the UK Biobank study.

Main outcome measures Incident cases of atrial fibrillation, major adverse cardiovascular events, and death, identified by linkage to hospital inpatient records and death registries. Role of fish oil supplements in different progressive stages of cardiovascular diseases, from healthy status (primary stage), to atrial fibrillation (secondary stage), major adverse cardiovascular events (tertiary stage), and death (end stage).

Results Among 415 737 participants free of cardiovascular diseases, 18 367 patients with incident atrial fibrillation, 22 636 with major adverse cardiovascular events, and 22 140 deaths during follow-up were identified. Regular use of fish oil supplements had different roles in the transitions from healthy status to atrial fibrillation, to major adverse cardiovascular events, and then to death. For people without cardiovascular disease, hazard ratios were 1.13 (95% confidence interval 1.10 to 1.17) for the transition from healthy status to atrial fibrillation and 1.05 (1.00 to 1.11) from healthy status to stroke. For participants with a diagnosis of a known cardiovascular disease, regular use of fish oil supplements was beneficial for transitions from atrial fibrillation to major adverse cardiovascular events (hazard ratio 0.92, 0.87 to 0.98), atrial fibrillation to myocardial infarction (0.85, 0.76 to 0.96), and heart failure to death (0.91, 0.84 to 0.99).

Conclusions Regular use of fish oil supplements might be a risk factor for atrial fibrillation and stroke among the general population but could be beneficial for progression of cardiovascular disease from atrial fibrillation to major adverse cardiovascular events, and from atrial fibrillation to death. Further studies are needed to determine the precise mechanisms for the development and prognosis of cardiovascular disease events with regular use of fish oil supplements.

• Health policy
• Nutritional sciences
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Data availability statement

Data are available upon reasonable request. UK Biobank is an open access resource. Bona fide researchers can apply to use the UK Biobank dataset by registering and applying at http://ukbiobank.ac.uk/register-apply/ .

This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported (CC BY 4.0) license, which permits others to copy, redistribute, remix, transform and build upon this work for any purpose, provided the original work is properly cited, a link to the licence is given, and indication of whether changes were made. See:  https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjmed-2022-000451

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WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ON THIS TOPIC

Findings of the effects of omega 3 fatty acids or fish oil on the risk of cardiovascular disease are controversial

Most previous studies focused on one health outcome and did not characterise specific cardiovascular disease outcomes (eg, atrial fibrillation, myocardial infarction, stroke, heart failure, and major adverse cardiovascular events)

Whether fish oil could differentially affect the dynamic course of cardiovascular diseases, from atrial fibrillation to major adverse cardiovascular events, to other specific cardiovascular disease outcomes, or even to death, is unclear

WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS

In people with no known cardiovascular disease, regular use of fish oil supplements was associated with an increased relative risk of atrial fibrillation and stroke

In people with known cardiovascular disease, the beneficial effects of fish oil supplements were seen on transitions from atrial fibrillation to major adverse cardiovascular events, atrial fibrillation to myocardial infarction, and heart failure to death

HOW THIS STUDY MIGHT AFFECT RESEARCH, PRACTICE, OR POLICY

Regular use of fish oil supplements might have different roles in the progression of cardiovascular disease

Further studies are needed to determine the precise mechanisms for the development and prognosis of cardiovascular disease events with regular use of fish oil supplements

Introduction

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death worldwide, accounting for about one sixth of overall mortality in the UK. 1 2 Fish oil, a rich source of omega 3 fatty acids, containing eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, has been recommended as a dietary measure to prevent cardiovascular disease. 3 The UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence recommends that people with or at high risk of cardiovascular disease consume at least one portion of oily fish a week, and the use of fish oil supplements has become popular in the UK and other western countries in recent years. 4 5

Although some epidemiological and clinical studies have assessed the effect of omega 3 fatty acids or fish oil on cardiovascular disease and its risk factors, the findings are controversial. The Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality systematically reviewed 37 observational studies and 61 randomised controlled trials, and found evidence indicating the beneficial effects of higher consumption of fish oil supplements on ischaemic stroke, whereas no beneficial effect was found for atrial fibrillation, major adverse cardiovascular events, myocardial infarction, total stroke, or all cause death. 6 In contrast, the Reduction of Cardiovascular Events with Icosapent Ethyl-Intervention Trial (REDUCE-IT) reported a decreased risk of major adverse cardiovascular events with icosapent ethyl in patients with raised levels of triglycerides, regardless of the use of statins. 7 Most of these findings, however, tended to assess the role of fish oil at a certain stage of cardiovascular disease. For example, some studies restricted the study population to people with a specific cardiovascular disease or at a high risk of cardiovascular disease, 8 9 whereas others evaluated databases of generally healthy populations. 10 All of these factors might preclude direct comparison of the effects of omega 3 fatty acids on atrial fibrillation events or on further deterioration of cardiovascular disease. Few studies have fully characterised specific cardiovascular disease outcomes or accounted for differential effects based on the complex disease characteristics of participants. Hence, in this study, we hypothesised that fish oil supplements might have harmful, beneficial, or no effect on different cardiovascular disease events in patients with varying health conditions.

Most previous studies on the association between fish oil and cardiovascular diseases generally focused on one health outcome. Also, no study highlighted the dynamic progressive course of cardiovascular diseases, from healthy status (primary stage), to atrial fibrillation (secondary stage), major adverse cardiovascular events (tertiary stage), and death (end stage). Clarifying this complex pathway in relation to the detailed progression of cardiovascular diseases would provide substantial insights into the prevention or treatment of future disease at critical stages. Whether fish oil could differentially affect the dynamic course of cardiovascular disease (ie, from atrial fibrillation to major adverse cardiovascular events, to other specific cardiovascular disease outcomes, or even to death) is unclear.

To deal with this evidence gap, we conducted a longitudinal cohort study to estimate the associations between fish oil supplements and specific clinical cardiovascular disease outcomes, including atrial fibrillation, major adverse cardiovascular events, and all cause death in people with no known cardiovascular disease or at high risk of cardiovascular disease for the purpose of primary prevention. We also assessed the modifying effects of fish oil supplements on the disease process, from atrial fibrillation to other outcomes, in people with known cardiovascular disease for the purpose of secondary prevention.

The UK Biobank is a community based cohort study with more than half a million UK inhabitants aged 40-69 years at recruitment. 11–13 Participants were invited to participate in this study if they were registered with the NHS and lived within 35 km of one of 22 Biobank assessment centres. Between 1 March 2006 and 31 July 2010, a baseline survey was conducted, based on a touch screen questionnaire and face-to-face interviews, to collect detailed personal, socioeconomic, and lifestyle characteristics, and information on diseases. 11–13

We excluded patients who had a diagnosis of atrial fibrillation (n=8326), heart failure (n=2748), myocardial infarction (n=11 949), stroke (n=7943), or cancer (n=48 624) at baseline; who withdrew from the study during follow-up (n=1299); or who had incomplete or outlier data for the main information (n=11 748). Because we focused only on a specific sequence of progression of cardiovascular disease (ie, from healthy status to atrial fibrillation, to major adverse cardiovascular events, and then to death), we excluded 1983 participants with other transition patterns. The remaining 415 737 participants were included in this analysis ( figure 1 ).

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Flowchart of selection of participants in study. The count of diagnosed diseases does not equate to the total number of individuals, because each person could have multiple diagnoses

Determining use of fish oil supplements

Information on regular use of fish oil supplements was collected from a self-reported touchscreen questionnaire during the baseline survey. 14 15 Each participant was asked whether they regularly used any fish oil supplement. Trained staff conducted a verbal interview with participants, asking if they were currently receiving treatments or taking any medicines, including omega 3 or fish oil supplements. Based on this information, we classified participants as regular users of fish oil supplements and non-users.

Follow-up and outcomes

Participants were followed up from the time of recruitment to death, loss to follow-up, or the end date of follow-up (31 March 2021), whichever came first. Incident cases of interest, including atrial fibrillation, heart failure, stroke, and myocardial infarction, were identified by linkage to death registries, primary care records, and hospital inpatient records. 11 Information on deaths was obtained from death registries of the NHS Information Centre, for participants in England and Wales, and from the NHS Central Register Scotland, for participants in Scotland. 11 Outcomes were defined by a three character ICD-10 (international classification of diseases, 10th revision) code. In this study, atrial fibrillation was defined by ICD-10 code I48, and major adverse cardiovascular events was determined by a combination of heart failure (I50, I11.0, I13.0, and I13.2), stroke (I60-I64), and myocardial infarction (I21, I22, I23, I24.1, and I25.2) codes.

We collected baseline data on age (<65 years and ≥65 years), sex (men and women), ethnic group (white and non-white), Townsend deprivation index (with a higher score indicating higher levels of deprivation), smoking status (never, previous, and current smokers), and alcohol consumption (never, previous, and current drinkers). Data for sex were taken from information in UK Biobank rather than from patient reported gender. Baseline dietary data were obtained from a dietary questionnaire completed by the patient or by an interviewer. The questionnaire was established for each nation (ie, England, Scotland, and Wales) to assess an individual's usual food intake (oily fish, non-oily fish, vegetables, fruit, and red meat). Diabetes mellitus was defined by ICD-10 codes E10-E14, self-reported physician's diagnosis, self-reported use of antidiabetic drugs, or haemoglobin A1c level ≥6.5% at baseline. Hypertension was defined by ICD-10 code I10 or I15, self-reported physician's diagnosis, self-reported use of antihypertensive drugs, or measured systolic and diastolic blood pressure ≥130/85 mm Hg at baseline. Information on other comorbidities (obesity (ICD-10 code E66), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (J44), and chronic renal failure (N18)) was extracted from the first occurrence (UKB category ID 1712). Information on the use of drugs, including antihypertensive drugs, antidiabetic drug, and statins, was extracted from treatment and drug use records. Biochemistry markers were measured immediately at the central laboratory from serum samples collected at baseline. Binge drinking was defined as consumption of ≥6 standard drinks/day for women or ≥8 standard drinks/day for men. Detailed information on alcohol consumption and binge drinking in the UK Biobank was reported previously. 16

Statistical analysis

Characteristics of participants are summarised as number (percentages) for categorical variables and mean (standard deviation (SD)) for continuous variables. Comparisons between regular users of fish oil supplements and non-users were made with the χ 2 test or Student's t test.

We used a multi-state regression model to assess the role of regular use of fish oil supplements in the temporal disease progression from healthy status to atrial fibrillation, to major adverse cardiovascular events, and subsequently to death. The multi-state model is an extension of competing risks survival analysis. 17–19 The model allows simultaneous estimation of the role of risk factors in transitions from a healthy state to atrial fibrillation (transition A), healthy state to major adverse cardiovascular events (transition B), healthy state to death (transition C), atrial fibrillation to major adverse cardiovascular events (transition D), atrial fibrillation to death (transition E), and major adverse cardiovascular events to death (transition F) (transition pattern I, figure 2 ). The focus on these six transitions rather than on all possible health state transitions was preplanned and evidence based. If participants entered different states on the same date, we used the date of the theoretically previous state as the entry date of the latter state minus 0.5 days.

Numbers of participants in transition pattern I, from baseline to atrial fibrillation, major adverse cardiovascular events, and death

We further examined the effects of regular use of fish oil supplements on other pathways. For example, we divided major adverse cardiovascular events into three individual diseases (heart failure, stroke, and myocardial infarction), resulting in three independent pathways (transition patterns II, III, and IV, online supplemental figures S1–S3 ). All models were adjusted for age, sex, ethnic group, Townsend deprivation index, consumption of oily fish, consumption of non-oily fish, smoking status, alcohol consumption, obesity, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, chronic renal failure, and use of statins, antidiabetic drugs, and antihypertensive drugs.

Supplemental material

We conducted several sensitivity analyses for the multi-state analyses of transition pattern A: additionally adjusting for setting (urban and rural), body mass index (underweight, normal, overweight, and obese), and physical activity (low, moderate, and high) in the model; adjusting for binge drinking rather than alcohol consumption; additionally adjusting for other variables of dietary intake (consumption of vegetables, fruit, and red meat); calculating participants' entry date into the previous state with different time intervals (0.5 years, one year, and two years); excluding participants who entered different states on the same date; excluding events occurring in the first two years of follow-up; restricting the follow-up date to 31 March 2020 to evaluate the influence of the covid-19 pandemic; and the use of the inverse probability weighted method to deal with biases between the regular users and non-users of fish oil supplements. Also, we conducted grouped analyses for sex, age group, ethnic group, smoking status, consumption of oily fish, consumption of non-oily fish, hypertension, and drug use, to examine effect modification. The interactions were tested with the likelihood ratio test. All analyses were carried out with R software (version 4.0.3), and the multi-model analysis was performed with the mstate package. A two tailed P value <0.05 was considered significant.

Patient and public involvement

Patients and/or the public were not involved in the design, or conduct, or reporting, or dissemination plans of this research. Participants were involved in developing the ethics and governance framework for UK Biobank and have been engaged in the progress of UK Biobank through follow-up questionnaires and additional assessment visits. UK Biobank keeps participants informed of all research output through the study website ( https://www.ukbiobank.ac.uk/explore-your-participation ), participant events, and newsletters.

A total of 415 737 participants (mean age 55.9 (SD 8.1) years; 55% women), aged 40-69 years, were analysed, and 31.4% (n=1 30 365) of participants reported regular use of fish oil supplements at baseline ( figure 1 ). Table 1 shows the characteristics of regular users (n=130 365) and non-users (n=285 372) of fish oil supplements. In the group of regular users of fish oil supplements, we found higher proportions of elderly people (22.6% v 13.9%), white people (95.1% v 94.2%), and women (57.6% v 53.9%), and higher consumption of alcohol (93.1% v 92.0%), oily fish (22.1% v 15.4%), and non-oily fish (18.0% v 15.4%) than non-users. The Townsend deprivation index (mean −1.5 (SD 3.0) v −1.3 (3.0)) and the proportion of current smokers (8.1% v 11.4%) were lower in regular users of fish oil supplements. Online supplemental table S1 provides more details on patient characteristics and online supplemental table S2 compares the basic characteristics of included and excluded people.

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Baseline characteristics of study participants grouped by use of fish oil supplements

Over a median follow-up time of of 11.9 years, 18 367 participants had atrial fibrillation (transition A) and 17 826 participants had major adverse cardiovascular events (transition B); 14 902 participants died without having atrial fibrillation or major adverse cardiovascular events (transition C). Among patients with incident atrial fibrillation, 4810 developed major adverse cardiovascular events (transition D) and 1653 died (transition E). Among patients with incident major adverse cardiovascular events, 5585 died during follow-up (transition F, figure 2 ). In separate analyses for individual diseases (transition patterns II, III, and IV, online supplemental figures S1–S3 ), in patients with atrial fibrillation, 3085 developed heart failure, 1180 had a stroke, and 1415 had a myocardial infarction. During follow-up, 2436, 2088, and 2098 deaths occurred in patients with heart failure, stroke, and myocardial infarction, respectively.

Multi-state regression results

Table 2 shows the different roles of regular use of fish oil supplements in transitions from healthy status to atrial fibrillation, to major adverse cardiovascular events, and then to death. For individuals in the primary stage (healthy status), we found that the use of fish oil supplements had a harmful effect on the transition from health to atrial fibrillation, with an adjusted hazard ratio of 1.13 (95% CI 1.10 to 1.17, transition A). The hazard ratio for transition B (from health to major adverse cardiovascular events) was 1.00 (95% CI 0.97 to 1.04) and for transition C (from health to death) was 0.98 (0.95 to 1.02).

Hazard ratios (95% confidence intervals) for each transition, for different transition patterns for progressive cardiovascular disease by regular use of fish oil supplements

For individuals in the secondary stage (atrial fibrillation) at the beginning of the study, regular use of fish oil supplements decreased the risk of major adverse cardiovascular events (transition D, hazard ratio 0.92, 95% CI 0.87 to 0.98), and had a borderline protective effect on the transition from atrial fibrillation to death (transition E, 0.91, 0.82 to 1.01). For transition F, from major adverse cardiovascular events to death, after adjusting for covariates, the hazard ratio was 0.99 (0.94 to 1.06, transition pattern I, table 2 ).

We divided major adverse cardiovascular events into three individual diseases (ie, heart failure, stroke, and myocardial infarction) and found that regular use of fish oil supplements was marginally associated with an increased risk of stroke in people with a healthy cardiovascular state (hazard ratio 1.05, 95% CI 1.00 to 1.11), whereas a protective effect was found in transitions from healthy cardiovascular states to heart failure (0.92, 0.86 to 0.98). For patients with atrial fibrillation, we found that the beneficial effects of regular use of fish oil supplements were for transitions from atrial fibrillation to myocardial infarction (0.85, 0.76 to 0.96), and from atrial fibrillation to death (0.88, 0.81 to 0.95) for transition pattern IV. For patients with heart failure, we found a protective effect of regular use of fish oil supplements on the risk of mortality (0.91, 0.84 to 0.99) (transition patterns II, III, and IV, table 2 ).

Stratified and sensitivity analyses

We found that age, sex, smoking, consumption of non-oily fish, prevalent hypertension, and use of statins and antihypertensive drugs modified the associations between regular use of fish oil supplements and the transition from healthy states to atrial fibrillation ( online supplemental figure S4 ). We found that the association between regular use of fish oil supplements and risk of transition from healthy states to major adverse cardiovascular events was greater in women (hazard ratio 1.06, 95% CI 1.00 to 1.11, P value for interaction=0.005) and non-smoking participants (1.06, 1.06 to 1.11, P value for interaction=0.001) ( online supplemental figure S4 ). The protective effect of regular use of fish oil supplements on the transition from healthy states to death was greater in men (hazard ratio 0.93, 95% CI 0.89 to 0.98, P value for interaction=0.003) and older participants (0.91, 0.86 to o 0.96, P value for interaction=0.002) ( online supplemental figures S5 and S6 ). The results were not substantially changed in the sensitivity analyses ( online supplemental table S3 ).

Principal findings

Our study characterised the regular use of fish oil supplements on the progressive course of cardiovascular disease, from a healthy state (primary stage), to atrial fibrillation (secondary stage), major adverse cardiovascular events (tertiary stage), and death (end stage). In this prospective analysis of more than 400 000 UK adults, we found that regular use of fish oil supplements could have a differential role in the progression of cardiovascular disease. For people with a healthy cardiovascular profile, regular use of fish oil supplements, a choice of primary prevention, was associated with an increased risk of atrial fibrillation. For participants with a diagnosis of atrial fibrillation, however, regular use of fish oil supplements, as secondary prevention, had a protective effect or no effect on transitions from atrial fibrillation to major adverse cardiovascular events, atrial fibrillation to death, and major adverse cardiovascular events to death. When we divided major adverse cardiovascular events into three individual diseases (ie, heart failure, stroke, and myocardial infarction), we found associations that could suggest a mildly harmful effect between regular use of fish oil supplements and transitions from a healthy cardiovascular state to stroke, whereas potential beneficial associations were found between regular use of fish oil supplements and transitions from atrial fibrillation to myocardial infarction, atrial fibrillation to death, and heart failure to death.

Comparison with other studies

Primary prevention.

The cardiovascular benefits of regular use of fish oil supplements have been examined in numerous studies but the results are controversial. Extending previous reports, our study estimated the associations between regular use of fish oil supplements and specific clinical cardiovascular disease outcomes in people with no known cardiovascular disease. Our findings are in agreement with the results of several previous randomised controlled trials and meta-analyses. The Long-Term Outcomes Study to Assess Statin Residual Risk with Epanova in High Cardiovascular Risk Patients with Hypertriglyceridaemia (STRENGTH) reported that consumption of 4 g/day of marine omega 3 fatty acids was associated with a 69% higher risk of new onset atrial fibrillation in people at high risk of cardiovascular disease. 20 A meta-analysis of seven randomised controlled trials showed that users of marine omega 3 fatty acids supplements had a higher risk of atrial fibrillation events, with a hazard ratio of 1.25 (95% CI 1.07 to 1.46, P=0.013). 21 The Vitamin D and Omega-3 Trial (VITAL Rhythm study), a large trial of omega 3 fatty acids for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease in adults aged ≥50 years, however, found no effects on incident atrial fibrillation, major adverse cardiovascular events, or cardiovascular disease mortality among those treated with 840 mg/day of marine omega 3 fatty acids compared with placebo. 10 22

One possible explanation for the inconsistent results in these studies is that adverse effects might be related to dose and composition. Higher doses of omega 3 fatty acids used in previous studies might have had an important role in causing an adverse effect on atrial fibrillation. 21 One study found that high concentrations of fish oil altered cell membrane properties and inhibited Na-K-ATPase pump activity, whereas a low concentration of fish oil minimised peroxidation potential and optimised activity. 23 In another study, individuals with atrial fibrillation or flutter had higher percentages of total polyunsaturated fatty acids, and n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, on red blood cell membranes than healthy controls. 24

In terms of composition of omega 3 fatty acids, a recent meta-analysis showed that eicosapentaenoic acid alone can be more effective at reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease than the combined effect of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. 25 Similar outcomes were reported in the INSPIRE study, which showed that higher levels of docosahexaenoic acid reduced the cardiovascular benefits of eicosapentaenoic acid when given as a combination. 26 Another possible explanation is that age, sex, ethnic group, smoking status, dietary patterns, and use of statins and antidiabetic drugs by participants might modify the effects of regular use of fish oil supplements on cardiovascular disease events. Despite these differences in risk estimates, our findings do not support the use of fish oil or omega 3 fatty acid supplements for the primary prevention of incident atrial fibrillation or other specific clinical cardiovascular disease events in generally healthy individuals. Caution might be warranted when fish oil supplements are used for primary prevention because of the uncertain cardiovascular benefits.

Secondary prevention

Our large scale cohort study assessed the role of regular use of fish oil supplements on the disease process, from atrial fibrillation to more serious cardiovascular disease stages, to death, in people with known cardiovascular disease. Contrary to the observations for primary prevention, we found associations that could suggest beneficial effects between regular use of fish oil supplements and most cardiovascular disease transitions. No associations were found between regular use of fish oil supplements and transitions from atrial fibrillation to death, or from major adverse cardiovascular events to death.

Consistent with our hypothesis, the Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell'Infarto Miocardico (GISSI) Prevenzione study reported an association between administration of low dose prescriptions of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and reduced cardiovascular events in patients with recent myocardial infarction. 27 A meta-analysis of 16 randomised controlled trials also reported a tendency towards a greater beneficial effect for secondary prevention in patients with cardiovascular disease. 28 Why patients with previous atrial fibrillation benefit is unclear. These findings indicate that triglyceride independent effects of omega 3 fatty acids might in part be responsible for the benefits in cardiovascular disease seen in previous trials. 29–31 No proven biological mechanism for this explanation exists, however, and the dose and formulation of omega 3 fatty acids used in clinical practice are not known.

For the disease process, from cardiovascular disease to death, our findings are consistent with the results of secondary prevention trials of omega 3 fatty acids, which have mostly shown a weak or neutral preventive effect in all cause mortality with oil fish supplements. The GISSI heart failure trial (GISSI-HF), conducted in 6975 patients with chronic heart failure, reported that supplemental omega 3 fatty acids reduced the risk of all cause mortality by 9% (hazard ratio 0.91, 95% CI 0.833 to 0.998, P=0.041). 32 Zelniker et al showed that omega 3 fatty acids were inversely associated with a lower incidence of sudden cardiac death in patients with non-ST segment elevation acute coronary syndrome. 33 A meta-analysis found that use of omega 3 supplements of ≤1 capsule/day was not associated with all cause mortality, but among participants with a risk of cardiovascular disease, taking a higher dose was associated with a reduction in cardiac death and sudden death. 28 Individuals who might benefit the most from fish oil or omega 3 fatty acid supplements are possibly more vulnerable individuals, such as those with previous cardiovascular diseases and those who can no longer live in the community. How fish oil supplements stop further deterioration of cardiovascular disease is unclear, but the theory that supplemental omega 3 fatty acids might protect the coronary artery is biologically plausible, suggesting that omega 3 fatty acids have anti-inflammatory and anti-hypertriglyceridaemia effects, contributing to a reduction in thrombosis and improvement in endothelial function. 34–41 Nevertheless, the effects of omega 3 fatty acids vary according to an individual's previous use of statins, which might partly explain the different effects of fish oil supplements in people with and without cardiovascular disease.

Many studies of omega 3 fatty acids, including large scale clinical trials and meta-analyses, have not produced entirely consistent results. 21 25 42 Our study mainly explored the varied potential effects of regular use of fish oil supplements on progression of cardiovascular disease, offering an initial overview of this ongoing discussion. Our findings suggest caution in the use of fish oil supplements for primary prevention because of the uncertain cardiovascular benefits and adverse effects. Further studies are needed to determine whether potential confounders modify the effects of oil fish supplements and the precise mechanisms related to the development and prognosis of cardiovascular disease events.

Strengths and limitations of this study

The strengths of our study were the large sample size, long follow-up period, which allowed us to analyse clinically diagnosed incident diseases, and complete data on health outcomes. Another strength was our analytical strategy. The multi-state model gives less biased estimates than the conventional Cox model, and distinguished the effect of regular use of fish oil supplements on each transition in the course of cardiovascular disease.

Our study had some limitations. Firstly, as an observational study, no causal relations can be drawn from our findings. Secondly, although we adjusted for multiple covariates, residual confounding could still exist. Thirdly, information on dose and formulation of the fish oil supplements was not available in this study, so we could not evaluate potential dose dependent effects or differentiate between the effects of different fish oil formulations. Fourthly, the use of hospital inpatient data for determining atrial fibrillation events could have excluded some events triggered by acute episodes, such as surgery, trauma, and similar conditions, resulting in underestimation of the true risk because undiagnosed atrial fibrillation is a common occurrence. 43 Fifthly, most of the participants in this study were from the white ethnic group and whether the findings can be generalised to other ethnic groups is not known. Finally, our study did not consider behavioural changes in populations with different cardiovascular profiles because of limited information, and variations in outcomes for different cardiovascular states merits further exploration.

Conclusions

This large scale prospective study of a UK cohort suggested that regular use of fish oil supplements might have differential roles in the course of cardiovascular diseases. Regular use of fish oil supplements might be a risk factor for atrial fibrillation and stroke among the general population but could be beneficial for disease progression, from atrial fibrillation to major adverse cardiovascular events, and from atrial fibrillation to death. Further studies are needed to determine whether potential confounders modify the effects of oil fish supplements and the precise mechanisms for the development and prognosis of cardiovascular disease events.

Ethics statements

Patient consent for publication.

Consent obtained directly from patients.

Ethics approval

The UK Biobank study obtained ethical approval from the North West Multicentre Research ethics committee, Information Advisory Group, and the Community Health Index Advisory Group (REC reference for UK Biobank 11/NW/0382). Participants gave informed consent to participate in the study before taking part.

Acknowledgments

This study was conducted with UK Biobank Resource (application No: 69550). We appreciate all participants and professionals contributing to UK Biobank.

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Supplementary materials

Supplementary data.

This web only file has been produced by the BMJ Publishing Group from an electronic file supplied by the author(s) and has not been edited for content.

• Data supplement 1
• Data supplement 2

GYL and HL are joint senior authors.

Contributors HL supervised the whole project and designed the work. GC and HL directly accessed and verified the underlying data reported in the manuscript. GC contributed to data interpretation and writing of the report. ZQ, SZ, JZ, ZZ, MGV, HEA, CW, and GYHL contributed to the discussion and data interpretation, and revised the manuscript. All authors had full access to all of the data in the study and had final responsibility for the decision to submit for publication. The corresponding author attests that all listed authors meet authorship criteria and that no others meeting the criteria have been omitted. HL is the guarantor. Transparency: The lead author (guarantor) affirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study being reported; that no important aspects of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned (and, if relevant, registered) have been explained.

Funding This work was supported by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (grant No INV-016826). Under the grant conditions of the foundation, a creative commons attribution 4.0 generic license has already been assigned to the author accepted manuscript version that might arise from this submission. The funder had no role in considering the study design or in the collection, analysis, interpretation of data, writing of the report, or decision to submit the article for publication.

Competing interests All authors have completed the ICMJE uniform disclosure form at www.icmje.org/disclosure-of-interest/ and declare: support from Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation for the submitted work; no financial relationships with any organisations that might have an interest in the submitted work in the previous three years; no other relationships or activities that could appear to have influenced the submitted work.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

Supplemental material This content has been supplied by the author(s). It has not been vetted by BMJ Publishing Group Limited (BMJ) and may not have been peer-reviewed. Any opinions or recommendations discussed are solely those of the author(s) and are not endorsed by BMJ. BMJ disclaims all liability and responsibility arising from any reliance placed on the content. Where the content includes any translated material, BMJ does not warrant the accuracy and reliability of the translations (including but not limited to local regulations, clinical guidelines, terminology, drug names and drug dosages), and is not responsible for any error and/or omissions arising from translation and adaptation or otherwise.

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