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The Contribution of Local Researchers

• First Online: 10 October 2021

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• Jacob Phillipps 5  

Part of the book series: Rethinking Peace and Conflict Studies ((RCS))

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This chapter demonstrates the benefits that local researchers afford to the decision-making of receptive international practitioners. Strategic communication and the building of positive, informal, working relationships with international practitioners is critical for local researchers, and provides a means to strengthen the political compass or anthropological knowledge of international practitioners. Three case studies of researcher-practitioner interaction reveal the critical importance of the nature of the individual and the everyday agency and experience of international practitioners and local researchers. The outcome of researcher-practitioner engagement, whether it results in a contribution to practitioner learning or decision-making, is largely determined by the personalities and attitudes of those involved. Yet, the insights provided in this chapter indicate that following engagement with local research, international SSR practitioners may consider local context in greater depth and think more critically about SSR implications.

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Phillipps, J. (2022). The Contribution of Local Researchers. In: Local Researchers and International Practitioners . Rethinking Peace and Conflict Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-82661-1_7

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Literature Review

What is a Literature Review?

It is…. a systematic and critical analysis of the literature on a specific topic. It describes trends, quality, relationships, inconsistencies and gaps in the research; and it details how the works enhance your understanding of the topic at large.

It is NOT…. simply an annotated bibliography that summarizes and/or assesses each article. There is not one, correct way to approach and write a literature review. It can be a stand-alone paper or part of a thesis/dissertation. Format and requirements can vary between disciplines, purpose and intended audience.

A literature review is an overview of existing literature (books, articles, dissertations, conference proceedings, and other sources) in a particular scholarly area. With a lit review, you will:

• Gather information about your topic, including the sources used by others who have previously conducted research
• Find out if your specific research question has already been answered
• Find out what areas or perspectives have not yet been covered by others on your topic
• Analyze and evaluate existing information

The literature review will assist you in considering the validity and scope of your research question so that you can do the necessary revision and fine tuning to it. It provides the foundation to formulate and present strong arguments to justify your chosen research topic.

• How to Write a Literature Review  (University of California, Santa Cruz)

Check out these books from the library for further guidance:

• Després, Carole. "The meaning of home: literature review and directions for future research and theoretical development." Journal of architectural and planning research 8, no.2, (Summer 1991): 96-155.
• Steiner, Frederick R. "Philadelphia, the holy experiment: A literature review and analysis." Ekistics , 49, (1982): 298-305.

Reckoning with Authorities

As you are developing your Lit Review, part of your objective is to identify the leading authorities within the field or who address your topic or theme. Some tips for identifying the scholars:

Old Fashioned Method:

• Keep notes on footnotes and names as you read articles, books, blogs, exhibition catalogs, etc. Are there names or works that everyone references? Use the catalog to track these reference down.
• Consider looking for state of the field articles often found either in a discipline's primary journal or in conference proceedings - keynote speakers.
• Look for book reviews.

Publication Metrics:

• These resources include information about the frequency of citations for an article/author.
• These resources are not specifically for Architecture or Planning. Remember therefore to be critical and careful about the assumptions you make with regard to the results!

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February 11, 2021

Local authors, local stories: The benefits of reading #OwnVoices authors who share your community

It’s a special moment the first time you really see yourself in a book. Stories touch our hearts most when we not only see ourselves reflected in the characters we’re reading about but also when we can imagine ourselves in their proverbial shoes.

Unfortunately, for too many young readers, engaging with books that showcase someone like them is not the norm. The #OwnVoices movement is trying to change this reality by highlighting books with diverse characters written by authors who share those same identities. These books enable children to see themselves in both the book characters and connect with an authentic shared experience. #OwnVoices stories can be even more powerful when written by authors who live in the same local community and depict that community in their writing.

Local stories mirror lived experiences

Authors writing about their own communities help bring a specific neighborhood, city, or area to a larger stage in an authentic way. These authors have lived experiences in their communities and deeply understand the culture, challenges, joys, and stories that make them unique. This extra insight means that authors can represent their communities with a healthy mix of respect and criticism, portraying characters with the complexity they deserve. 

For young readers, books written by local authors set in local communities act as a mirror for their own lived experiences. These books offer an opportunity for children to make connections to both themselves and their immediate surroundings. 

Even stories depicting a slice of normal life can demonstrate to young readers that their experiences are worthy of appearing in literature and that their struggles and accomplishments are not only real, but are shared with others. Reading about characters doing ordinary things like exploring the block, visiting relatives, or going to school is highly relatable, and it can be very validating for children to meet characters that live, look, or act just like they do.

Books written by local authors depicting local settings aren’t just illustrative though, they’re simply fun to read! Recognizing the name of a familiar street, laughing at a joke only locals would understand, or imagining a special food unique to a neighborhood is thrilling to experience while reading and helps any reader become even more invested in the story and its characters.

Local authors inspire young storytellers

Beyond offering an important mirror into children’s own experiences, exposing young readers to local authors can also help children expand their career aspirations.

Award-winning author Jacqueline Woodson reflects, “I didn’t know that Black women could write books, and I didn’t know why I didn’t know this,”  in a video highlighting the need for diverse children’s books .

Seeing people who grew up in similar situations and are now succeeding as authors can send a powerful message to young readers and show that they too can pursue a career in storytelling.

How to find local authors

If you are interested in adding local #OwnVoices authors to your young reader’s library, here are some great ways to discover local authors in your community:

• Visit independent bookstores—Independent bookstores spend a lot of time curating book recommendations, including those written by local authors. These stores are also embedded within the local literacy scene, and can often recommend both established and up-and-coming authors.
• Explore your local library—Many libraries offer a specific section dedicated to local authors and illustrators. Explore this section, or ask a librarian to recommend must-read local books within the library’s collection. 
• Attend a local literary event—Whether online or in-person, local author talks, discussion panels, or community conversations are great ways to not only hear from local authors you already know but also to discover new ones. Local bookstores, libraries, universities, and even coffee shops routinely sponsor these events. 
• Google your community—Don’t forget about Google! Search for local authors calling your city home, local historical events that may have inspired books, or existing book lists compiled by area blogs and organizations.

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Reviewing literature for research: Doing it the right way

Shital amin poojary.

Department of Dermatology, K J Somaiya Medical College, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

Jimish Deepak Bagadia

In an era of information overload, it is important to know how to obtain the required information and also to ensure that it is reliable information. Hence, it is essential to understand how to perform a systematic literature search. This article focuses on reliable literature sources and how to make optimum use of these in dermatology and venereology.

INTRODUCTION

A thorough review of literature is not only essential for selecting research topics, but also enables the right applicability of a research project. Most importantly, a good literature search is the cornerstone of practice of evidence based medicine. Today, everything is available at the click of a mouse or at the tip of the fingertips (or the stylus). Google is often the Go-To search website, the supposed answer to all questions in the universe. However, the deluge of information available comes with its own set of problems; how much of it is actually reliable information? How much are the search results that the search string threw up actually relevant? Did we actually find what we were looking for? Lack of a systematic approach can lead to a literature review ending up as a time-consuming and at times frustrating process. Hence, whether it is for research projects, theses/dissertations, case studies/reports or mere wish to obtain information; knowing where to look, and more importantly, how to look, is of prime importance today.

Literature search

Fink has defined research literature review as a “systematic, explicit and reproducible method for identifying, evaluating, and synthesizing the existing body of completed and recorded work produced by researchers, scholars and practitioners.”[ 1 ]

Review of research literature can be summarized into a seven step process: (i) Selecting research questions/purpose of the literature review (ii) Selecting your sources (iii) Choosing search terms (iv) Running your search (v) Applying practical screening criteria (vi) Applying methodological screening criteria/quality appraisal (vii) Synthesizing the results.[ 1 ]

This article will primarily concentrate on refining techniques of literature search.

Sources for literature search are enumerated in Table 1 .

Sources for literature search

PubMed is currently the most widely used among these as it contains over 23 million citations for biomedical literature and has been made available free by National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), U.S. National Library of Medicine. However, the availability of free full text articles depends on the sources. Use of options such as advanced search, medical subject headings (MeSH) terms, free full text, PubMed tutorials, and single citation matcher makes the database extremely user-friendly [ Figure 1 ]. It can also be accessed on the go through mobiles using “PubMed Mobile.” One can also create own account in NCBI to save searches and to use certain PubMed tools.

PubMed home page showing location of different tools which can be used for an efficient literature search

Tips for efficient use of PubMed search:[ 2 , 3 , 4 ]

Use of field and Boolean operators

When one searches using key words, all articles containing the words show up, many of which may not be related to the topic. Hence, the use of operators while searching makes the search more specific and less cumbersome. Operators are of two types: Field operators and Boolean operators, the latter enabling us to combine more than one concept, thereby making the search highly accurate. A few key operators that can be used in PubMed are shown in Tables ​ Tables2 2 and ​ and3 3 and illustrated in Figures ​ Figures2 2 and ​ and3 3 .

Field operators used in PubMed search

Boolean operators used in PubMed search

PubMed search results page showing articles on donovanosis using the field operator [TIAB]; it shows all articles which have the keyword “donovanosis” in either title or abstract of the article

PubMed search using Boolean operators ‘AND’, ‘NOT’; To search for articles on treatment of lepra reaction other than steroids, after clicking the option ‘Advanced search’ on the home page, one can build the search using ‘AND’ option for treatment and ‘NOT’ option for steroids to omit articles on steroid treatment in lepra reaction

Use of medical subject headings terms

These are very specific and standardized terms used by indexers to describe every article in PubMed and are added to the record of every article. A search using MeSH will show all articles about the topic (or keywords), but will not show articles only containing these keywords (these articles may be about an entirely different topic, but still may contain your keywords in another context in any part of the article). This will make your search more specific. Within the topic, specific subheadings can be added to the search builder to refine your search [ Figure 4 ]. For example, MeSH terms for treatment are therapy and therapeutics.

PubMed search using medical subject headings (MeSH) terms for management of gonorrhea. Click on MeSH database ( Figure 1 ) →In the MeSH search box type gonorrhea and click search. Under the MeSH term gonorrhea, there will be a list of subheadings; therapy, prevention and control, click the relevant check boxes and add to search builder →Click on search →All articles on therapy, prevention and control of gonorrhea will be displayed. Below the subheadings, there are two options: (1) Restrict to medical subject headings (MeSH) major topic and (2) do not include MeSH terms found below this term in the MeSH hierarchy. These can be used to further refine the search results so that only articles which are majorly about treatment of gonorrhea will be displayed

Two additional options can be used to further refine MeSH searches. These are located below the subheadings for a MeSH term: (1) Restrict to MeSH major topic; checking this box will retrieve articles which are majorly about the search term and are therefore, more focused and (2) Do not include MeSH terms found below this term in the MeSH hierarchy. This option will again give you more focused articles as it excludes the lower specific terms [ Figure 4 ].

Similar feature is available with Cochrane library (also called MeSH), EMBASE (known as EMTREE) and PsycINFO (Thesaurus of Psychological Index Terms).

Saving your searches

Any search that one has performed can be saved by using the ‘Send to’ option and can be saved as a simple word file [ Figure 5 ]. Alternatively, the ‘Save Search’ button (just below the search box) can be used. However, it is essential to set up an NCBI account and log in to NCBI for this. One can even choose to have E-mail updates of new articles in the topic of interest.

Saving PubMed searches. A simple option is to click on the dropdown box next to ‘Send to’ option and then choose among the options. It can be saved as a text or word file by choosing ‘File’ option. Another option is the “Save search” option below the search box but this will require logging into your National Center for Biotechnology Information account. This however allows you to set up alerts for E-mail updates for new articles

Single citation matcher

This is another important tool that helps to find the genuine original source of a particular research work (when few details are known about the title/author/publication date/place/journal) and cite the reference in the most correct manner [ Figure 6 ].

Single citation matcher: Click on “Single citation matcher” on PubMed Home page. Type available details of the required reference in the boxes to get the required citation

Full text articles

In any search clicking on the link “free full text” (if present) gives you free access to the article. In some instances, though the published article may not be available free, the author manuscript may be available free of charge. Furthermore, PubMed Central articles are available free of charge.

Managing filters

Filters can be used to refine a search according to type of article required or subjects of research. One can specify the type of article required such as clinical trial, reviews, free full text; these options are available on a typical search results page. Further specialized filters are available under “manage filters:” e.g., articles confined to certain age groups (properties option), “Links” to other databases, article specific to particular journals, etc. However, one needs to have an NCBI account and log in to access this option [ Figure 7 ].

Managing filters. Simple filters are available on the ‘search results’ page. One can choose type of article, e.g., clinical trial, reviews etc. Further options are available in the “Manage filters” option, but this requires logging into National Center for Biotechnology Information account

The Cochrane library

Although reviews are available in PubMed, for systematic reviews and meta-analysis, Cochrane library is a much better resource. The Cochrane library is a collection of full length systematic reviews, which can be accessed for free in India, thanks to Indian Council of Medical Research renewing the license up to 2016, benefitting users all over India. It is immensely helpful in finding detailed high quality research work done in a particular field/topic [ Figure 8 ].

Cochrane library is a useful resource for reliable, systematic reviews. One can choose the type of reviews required, including trials

An important tool that must be used while searching for research work is screening. Screening helps to improve the accuracy of search results. It is of two types: (1) Practical: To identify a broad range of potentially useful studies. Examples: Date of publication (last 5 years only; gives you most recent updates), participants or subjects (humans above 18 years), publication language (English only) (2) methodological: To identify best available studies (for example, excluding studies not involving control group or studies with only randomized control trials).

Selecting the right quality of literature is the key to successful research literature review. The quality can be estimated by what is known as “The Evidence Pyramid.” The level of evidence of references obtained from the aforementioned search tools are depicted in Figure 9 . Systematic reviews obtained from Cochrane library constitute level 1 evidence.

Evidence pyramid: Depicting the level of evidence of references obtained from the aforementioned search tools

Thus, a systematic literature review can help not only in setting up the basis of a good research with optimal use of available information, but also in practice of evidence-based medicine.

Source of Support: Nil.

Conflict of Interest: None declared.

Research Methods

• Getting Started
• Literature Review Research
• Research Design
• Research Design By Discipline
• SAGE Research Methods
• Teaching with SAGE Research Methods

Literature Review

• What is a Literature Review?
• What is NOT a Literature Review?
• Purposes of a Literature Review
• Types of Literature Reviews
• Literature Reviews vs. Systematic Reviews
• Systematic vs. Meta-Analysis

Literature Review  is a comprehensive survey of the works published in a particular field of study or line of research, usually over a specific period of time, in the form of an in-depth, critical bibliographic essay or annotated list in which attention is drawn to the most significant works.

Also, we can define a literature review as the collected body of scholarly works related to a topic:

• Summarizes and analyzes previous research relevant to a topic
• Includes scholarly books and articles published in academic journals
• Can be an specific scholarly paper or a section in a research paper

The objective of a Literature Review is to find previous published scholarly works relevant to an specific topic

• Help gather ideas or information
• Keep up to date in current trends and findings
• Help develop new questions

A literature review is important because it:

• Explains the background of research on a topic.
• Demonstrates why a topic is significant to a subject area.
• Helps focus your own research questions or problems
• Discovers relationships between research studies/ideas.
• Suggests unexplored ideas or populations
• Identifies major themes, concepts, and researchers on a topic.
• Tests assumptions; may help counter preconceived ideas and remove unconscious bias.
• Identifies critical gaps, points of disagreement, or potentially flawed methodology or theoretical approaches.
• Indicates potential directions for future research.

All content in this section is from Literature Review Research from Old Dominion University 

Keep in mind the following, a literature review is NOT:

Not an essay 

Not an annotated bibliography  in which you summarize each article that you have reviewed.  A literature review goes beyond basic summarizing to focus on the critical analysis of the reviewed works and their relationship to your research question.

Not a research paper   where you select resources to support one side of an issue versus another.  A lit review should explain and consider all sides of an argument in order to avoid bias, and areas of agreement and disagreement should be highlighted.

A literature review serves several purposes. For example, it

• provides thorough knowledge of previous studies; introduces seminal works.
• helps focus one’s own research topic.
• identifies a conceptual framework for one’s own research questions or problems; indicates potential directions for future research.
• suggests previously unused or underused methodologies, designs, quantitative and qualitative strategies.
• identifies gaps in previous studies; identifies flawed methodologies and/or theoretical approaches; avoids replication of mistakes.
• helps the researcher avoid repetition of earlier research.
• suggests unexplored populations.
• determines whether past studies agree or disagree; identifies controversy in the literature.
• tests assumptions; may help counter preconceived ideas and remove unconscious bias.

As Kennedy (2007) notes*, it is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers. First, there are the primary studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies that summarize and offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the original studies. Third, there are the perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are shared informally that become part of the lore of field. In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of knowledge that is cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the primary studies and secondary literature reviews.

Given this, while literature reviews are designed to provide an overview and synthesis of pertinent sources you have explored, there are several approaches to how they can be done, depending upon the type of analysis underpinning your study. Listed below are definitions of types of literature reviews:

Argumentative Review      This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are used to to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews.

Integrative Review      Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses. A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication.

Historical Review      Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical reviews are focused on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future research.

Methodological Review      A review does not always focus on what someone said [content], but how they said it [method of analysis]. This approach provides a framework of understanding at different levels (i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches and data collection and analysis techniques), enables researchers to draw on a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection and data analysis, and helps highlight many ethical issues which we should be aware of and consider as we go through our study.

Systematic Review      This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyse data from the studies that are included in the review. Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?"

Theoretical Review      The purpose of this form is to concretely examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review help establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.

* Kennedy, Mary M. "Defining a Literature."  Educational Researcher  36 (April 2007): 139-147.

All content in this section is from The Literature Review created by Dr. Robert Larabee USC

Robinson, P. and Lowe, J. (2015),  Literature reviews vs systematic reviews.  Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 39: 103-103. doi: 10.1111/1753-6405.12393

What's in the name? The difference between a Systematic Review and a Literature Review, and why it matters . By Lynn Kysh from University of Southern California

Systematic review or meta-analysis?

A  systematic review  answers a defined research question by collecting and summarizing all empirical evidence that fits pre-specified eligibility criteria.

A  meta-analysis  is the use of statistical methods to summarize the results of these studies.

Systematic reviews, just like other research articles, can be of varying quality. They are a significant piece of work (the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination at York estimates that a team will take 9-24 months), and to be useful to other researchers and practitioners they should have:

• clearly stated objectives with pre-defined eligibility criteria for studies
• explicit, reproducible methodology
• a systematic search that attempts to identify all studies
• assessment of the validity of the findings of the included studies (e.g. risk of bias)
• systematic presentation, and synthesis, of the characteristics and findings of the included studies

Not all systematic reviews contain meta-analysis. 

Meta-analysis is the use of statistical methods to summarize the results of independent studies. By combining information from all relevant studies, meta-analysis can provide more precise estimates of the effects of health care than those derived from the individual studies included within a review.  More information on meta-analyses can be found in  Cochrane Handbook, Chapter 9 .

A meta-analysis goes beyond critique and integration and conducts secondary statistical analysis on the outcomes of similar studies.  It is a systematic review that uses quantitative methods to synthesize and summarize the results.

An advantage of a meta-analysis is the ability to be completely objective in evaluating research findings.  Not all topics, however, have sufficient research evidence to allow a meta-analysis to be conducted.  In that case, an integrative review is an appropriate strategy. 

Some of the content in this section is from Systematic reviews and meta-analyses: step by step guide created by Kate McAllister.

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Local/Global Literatures and Cultures

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Organizer: Yuji Kato

We now live in a world where local literatures and cultures cannot be separate from the global political, economic, and cultural influences that infiltrate urban and provincial areas of all regions partly due to the information network enabled by the internet as Jean François Lyotard predicted in The Postmodern Condition. At a time in which nationalism is gaining power again, some writers and artists may find cozy niches in the frameworks of national, regional, or ethnic cultures, resisting the infiltration of global influences. Others may find ways to get away from such frameworks in search of global approaches to literature and culture even if being global does not necessarily mean being universal.  However, we cannot define the interactions between the local and the global simply in terms of such binary oppositions. As some writers such as William Faulkner and Kazuo Ishiguro have shown, literature can be local and global. Writers such as Edgar A. Poe and Kobo Abe successfully sought universal approaches to literature without local specificity. In films, music, and art, the interaction of the local and the global has been the basis for almost all directors, musicians, and artists at least for the past 100 years.  For example, Yasujiro Ozu’s films incorporated the styles and patterns of Hollywood films and influenced directors of the West in their turn after the 1970s. Indian, Vietnamese, Chinese, and Korean film directors also have set their films in the spaces between their homeland and other, often Western, nations. As a consequence, we cannot even conceive of such genres as Asian, European, or American films now. Jazz and hip hop are certainly the national cultures of the United States, but they are not local cultures of the nation anymore, having been listened to and played in other areas of the world to form local traditions. Critical perspectives offered by such Western critical theories as gender studies, feminism, and postcolonialism also have local and global significance, calling forth receptions and reactions particular to each area and culture. The trends toward globalization may help highlight and re-create local literatures and cultures, or the characteristics of the local culture may be dwarfed or eliminated in favor of more global perspectives. Yet, the interactions of the local and the global are inevitable in our contemporary world and need scrutiny. We invite papers from scholars from varied academic disciplines and backgrounds to shed light on the interactions between the local and the global in past and contemporary literatures and cultures and to examine the problematics in their complex and multifaceted manifestations from our current perspectives in the multicultural environment of the ACLA annual meeting at a time in which we face the crisis of political, economic, and cultural disruptions in Europe and elsewhere. 

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For students from the Philippines, by students from the Philippines. For strand, course, and admission questions, please post on r/CollegeAdmissionsPH

What to do when there's little local literature or none at all on your research topic?

I'm wondering if you guys keep going with a research topic when there's hardly any local literature on it or none at all?

My research topic is about the decline of students’ curiosity, and I swearrrrr, I've searched high and low, but really can't find any existing related local literature on this. Sabi kasi ng research teacher ko, it's okay, but not having any local literature can be a real challenge. So now, iniisip ko if should I give up or should I just keep chasing pavements like Adele? *Sorry

Pero seriously, do you guys push forward with such research topics kahit na may ganong problem kayo, or do you switch to a different topic? If you continue, how do you do it? How do you make it work?

Conducting a Literature Review

• Literature Review
• Developing a Topic
• Planning Your Literature Review
• Developing a Search Strategy
• Managing Citations
• Critical Appraisal Tools
• Writing a Literature Review

Developing a Research Question

One of the hardest parts of a literature review is to develop a good research question.  You don't want a research question that is so broad it encompasses too many research areas, and can't be reasonably answered. 

Defining your topic may require an initial review of literature on your topic to get a sense of the scope about your topic.   Select a topic of interest, and do a preliminary search to see what kinds of research is being done and what is trending in that topic area.  This will give you a better sense of the topic, and help you focus your research question

In specifying your topic or research question, you should think about setting appropriate limitations on the research you are seeking. Limiting, for example, by time, personnel, gender, age, location, nationality etc. results in a more focused and meaningful topic. 

You may start with a general question:  

Why did the chicken cross the road? 

This question is so general that you could be gathering relevant research for days. 

A more precise research question might be:  

What are some of the environmental factors that occurred in New Jersey between January and June 2021 that would cause a chicken to cross Route 3?  

This research question is specific about a number of variables like time, geography, etc.  

Some Questions to Ask

Some questions to think about as you develop your literature review:

• What is known about the subject?
• Are there any gaps in the knowledge of the subject?
• Have areas of further study been identified by other researchers that you may want to consider?
• Who are the significant research personalities in this area?
• Is there consensus about the topic?
• What aspects have generated significant debate on the topic?
• What methods or problems were identified by others studying in the field and how might they impact your research?
• What is the most productive methodology for your research based on the literature you have reviewed?
• What is the current status of research in this area?
• What sources of information or data were identified that might be useful to you?
• How detailed? Will it be a review of ALL relevant material or will the scope be limited to more recent material, e.g., the last five years.
• Are you focusing on methodological approaches; on theoretical issues; on qualitative or quantitative research?
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Chapter2 Local and Foreign Literature:

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Choosing a Review Type

For guidance related to choosing a review type, see:

• "What Type of Review is Right for You?" - Decision Tree (PDF) This decision tree, from Cornell University Library, highlights key difference between narrative, systematic, umbrella, scoping and rapid reviews.
• Reviewing the literature: choosing a review design Noble, H., & Smith, J. (2018). Reviewing the literature: Choosing a review design. Evidence Based Nursing, 21(2), 39–41. https://doi.org/10.1136/eb-2018-102895
• What synthesis methodology should I use? A review and analysis of approaches to research synthesis Schick-Makaroff, K., MacDonald, M., Plummer, M., Burgess, J., & Neander, W. (2016). What synthesis methodology should I use? A review and analysis of approaches to research synthesis. AIMS Public Health, 3 (1), 172-215. doi:10.3934/publichealth.2016.1.172 More information less... ABSTRACT: Our purpose is to present a comprehensive overview and assessment of the main approaches to research synthesis. We use "research synthesis" as a broad overarching term to describe various approaches to combining, integrating, and synthesizing research findings.
• Right Review - Decision Support Tool Not sure of the most suitable review method? Answer a few questions and be guided to suitable knowledge synthesis methods. Updated in 2022 and featured in the Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2022.03.004

Types of Evidence Synthesis / Literature Reviews

Literature reviews are comprehensive summaries and syntheses of the previous research on a given topic.  While narrative reviews are common across all academic disciplines, reviews that focus on appraising and synthesizing research evidence are increasingly important in the health and social sciences.  

Most evidence synthesis methods use formal and explicit methods to identify, select and combine results from multiple studies, making evidence synthesis a form of meta-research.  

The review purpose, methods used and the results produced vary among different kinds of literature reviews; some of the common types of literature review are detailed below.

Common Types of Literature Reviews 1

Narrative (literature) review.

• A broad term referring to reviews with a wide scope and non-standardized methodology
• Search strategies, comprehensiveness of literature search, time range covered and method of synthesis will vary and do not follow an established protocol

Integrative Review

• A type of literature review based on a systematic, structured literature search
• Often has a broadly defined purpose or review question
• Seeks to generate or refine and theory or hypothesis and/or develop a holistic understanding of a topic of interest
• Relies on diverse sources of data (e.g. empirical, theoretical or methodological literature; qualitative or quantitative studies)

Systematic Review

• Systematically and transparently collects and categorize existing evidence on a question of scientific, policy or management importance
• Follows a research protocol that is established a priori
• Some sub-types of systematic reviews include: SRs of intervention effectiveness, diagnosis, prognosis, etiology, qualitative evidence, economic evidence, and more.
• Time-intensive and often takes months to a year or more to complete 
• The most commonly referred to type of evidence synthesis; sometimes confused as a blanket term for other types of reviews

Meta-Analysis

• Statistical technique for combining the findings from disparate quantitative studies
• Uses statistical methods to objectively evaluate, synthesize, and summarize results
• Often conducted as part of a systematic review

Scoping Review

• Systematically and transparently collects and categorizes existing evidence on a broad question of scientific, policy or management importance
• Seeks to identify research gaps, identify key concepts and characteristics of the literature and/or examine how research is conducted on a topic of interest
• Useful when the complexity or heterogeneity of the body of literature does not lend itself to a precise systematic review
• Useful if authors do not have a single, precise review question
• May critically evaluate existing evidence, but does not attempt to synthesize the results in the way a systematic review would 
• May take longer than a systematic review

Rapid Review

• Applies a systematic review methodology within a time-constrained setting
• Employs methodological "shortcuts" (e.g., limiting search terms and the scope of the literature search), at the risk of introducing bias
• Useful for addressing issues requiring quick decisions, such as developing policy recommendations

Umbrella Review

• Reviews other systematic reviews on a topic
• Often defines a broader question than is typical of a traditional systematic review
• Most useful when there are competing interventions to consider

1. Adapted from:

Eldermire, E. (2021, November 15). A guide to evidence synthesis: Types of evidence synthesis. Cornell University LibGuides. https://guides.library.cornell.edu/evidence-synthesis/types

Nolfi, D. (2021, October 6). Integrative Review: Systematic vs. Scoping vs. Integrative. Duquesne University LibGuides. https://guides.library.duq.edu/c.php?g=1055475&p=7725920

Delaney, L. (2021, November 24). Systematic reviews: Other review types. UniSA LibGuides. https://guides.library.unisa.edu.au/SystematicReviews/OtherReviewTypes

Further Reading: Exploring Different Types of Literature Reviews

• A typology of reviews: An analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies Grant, M. J., & Booth, A. (2009). A typology of reviews: An analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies. Health Information and Libraries Journal, 26 (2), 91-108. doi:10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x More information less... ABSTRACT: The expansion of evidence-based practice across sectors has lead to an increasing variety of review types. However, the diversity of terminology used means that the full potential of these review types may be lost amongst a confusion of indistinct and misapplied terms. The objective of this study is to provide descriptive insight into the most common types of reviews, with illustrative examples from health and health information domains.
• Clarifying differences between review designs and methods Gough, D., Thomas, J., & Oliver, S. (2012). Clarifying differences between review designs and methods. Systematic Reviews, 1 , 28. doi:10.1186/2046-4053-1-28 More information less... ABSTRACT: This paper argues that the current proliferation of types of systematic reviews creates challenges for the terminology for describing such reviews....It is therefore proposed that the most useful strategy for the field is to develop terminology for the main dimensions of variation.
• Are we talking the same paradigm? Considering methodological choices in health education systematic review Gordon, M. (2016). Are we talking the same paradigm? Considering methodological choices in health education systematic review. Medical Teacher, 38 (7), 746-750. doi:10.3109/0142159X.2016.1147536 More information less... ABSTRACT: Key items discussed are the positivist synthesis methods meta-analysis and content analysis to address questions in the form of "whether and what" education is effective. These can be juxtaposed with the constructivist aligned thematic analysis and meta-ethnography to address questions in the form of "why." The concept of the realist review is also considered. It is proposed that authors of such work should describe their research alignment and the link between question, alignment and evidence synthesis method selected.
• Meeting the review family: Exploring review types and associated information retrieval requirements Sutton, A., Clowes, M., Preston, L., & Booth, A. (2019). Meeting the review family: Exploring review types and associated information retrieval requirements. Health Information & Libraries Journal, 36(3), 202–222. doi: 10.1111/hir.12276

Integrative Reviews

"The integrative review method is an approach that allows for the inclusion of diverse methodologies (i.e. experimental and non-experimental research)." (Whittemore & Knafl, 2005, p. 547).

• The integrative review: Updated methodology Whittemore, R., & Knafl, K. (2005). The integrative review: Updated methodology. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 52 (5), 546–553. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.2005.03621.x More information less... ABSTRACT: The aim of this paper is to distinguish the integrative review method from other review methods and to propose methodological strategies specific to the integrative review method to enhance the rigour of the process....An integrative review is a specific review method that summarizes past empirical or theoretical literature to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a particular phenomenon or healthcare problem....Well-done integrative reviews present the state of the science, contribute to theory development, and have direct applicability to practice and policy.

• Conducting integrative reviews: A guide for novice nursing researchers Dhollande, S., Taylor, A., Meyer, S., & Scott, M. (2021). Conducting integrative reviews: A guide for novice nursing researchers. Journal of Research in Nursing, 26(5), 427–438. https://doi.org/10.1177/1744987121997907
• Rigour in integrative reviews Whittemore, R. (2007). Rigour in integrative reviews. In C. Webb & B. Roe (Eds.), Reviewing Research Evidence for Nursing Practice (pp. 149–156). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470692127.ch11

Scoping Reviews

Scoping reviews are evidence syntheses that are conducted systematically, but begin with a broader scope of question than traditional systematic reviews, allowing the research to 'map' the relevant literature on a given topic.

• Scoping studies: Towards a methodological framework Arksey, H., & O'Malley, L. (2005). Scoping studies: Towards a methodological framework. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 8 (1), 19-32. doi:10.1080/1364557032000119616 More information less... ABSTRACT: We distinguish between different types of scoping studies and indicate where these stand in relation to full systematic reviews. We outline a framework for conducting a scoping study based on our recent experiences of reviewing the literature on services for carers for people with mental health problems.
• Scoping studies: Advancing the methodology Levac, D., Colquhoun, H., & O'Brien, K. K. (2010). Scoping studies: Advancing the methodology. Implementation Science, 5 (1), 69. doi:10.1186/1748-5908-5-69 More information less... ABSTRACT: We build upon our experiences conducting three scoping studies using the Arksey and O'Malley methodology to propose recommendations that clarify and enhance each stage of the framework.
• Methodology for JBI scoping reviews Peters, M. D. J., Godfrey, C. M., McInerney, P., Baldini Soares, C., Khalil, H., & Parker, D. (2015). The Joanna Briggs Institute reviewers’ manual: Methodology for JBI scoping reviews [PDF]. Retrieved from The Joanna Briggs Institute website: http://joannabriggs.org/assets/docs/sumari/Reviewers-Manual_Methodology-for-JBI-Scoping-Reviews_2015_v2.pdf More information less... ABSTRACT: Unlike other reviews that address relatively precise questions, such as a systematic review of the effectiveness of a particular intervention based on a precise set of outcomes, scoping reviews can be used to map the key concepts underpinning a research area as well as to clarify working definitions, and/or the conceptual boundaries of a topic. A scoping review may focus on one of these aims or all of them as a set.

Systematic vs. Scoping Reviews: What's the Difference? 

YouTube Video 4 minutes, 45 seconds

Rapid Reviews

Rapid reviews are systematic reviews that are undertaken under a tighter timeframe than traditional systematic reviews. 

• Evidence summaries: The evolution of a rapid review approach Khangura, S., Konnyu, K., Cushman, R., Grimshaw, J., & Moher, D. (2012). Evidence summaries: The evolution of a rapid review approach. Systematic Reviews, 1 (1), 10. doi:10.1186/2046-4053-1-10 More information less... ABSTRACT: Rapid reviews have emerged as a streamlined approach to synthesizing evidence - typically for informing emergent decisions faced by decision makers in health care settings. Although there is growing use of rapid review "methods," and proliferation of rapid review products, there is a dearth of published literature on rapid review methodology. This paper outlines our experience with rapidly producing, publishing and disseminating evidence summaries in the context of our Knowledge to Action (KTA) research program.
• What is a rapid review? A methodological exploration of rapid reviews in Health Technology Assessments Harker, J., & Kleijnen, J. (2012). What is a rapid review? A methodological exploration of rapid reviews in Health Technology Assessments. International Journal of Evidence‐Based Healthcare, 10 (4), 397-410. doi:10.1111/j.1744-1609.2012.00290.x More information less... ABSTRACT: In recent years, there has been an emergence of "rapid reviews" within Health Technology Assessments; however, there is no known published guidance or agreed methodology within recognised systematic review or Health Technology Assessment guidelines. In order to answer the research question "What is a rapid review and is methodology consistent in rapid reviews of Health Technology Assessments?", a study was undertaken in a sample of rapid review Health Technology Assessments from the Health Technology Assessment database within the Cochrane Library and other specialised Health Technology Assessment databases to investigate similarities and/or differences in rapid review methodology utilised.
• Rapid Review Guidebook Dobbins, M. (2017). Rapid review guidebook. Hamilton, ON: National Collaborating Centre for Methods and Tools.
• NCCMT Summary and Tool for Dobbins' Rapid Review Guidebook National Collaborating Centre for Methods and Tools. (2017). Rapid review guidebook. Hamilton, ON: McMaster University. Retrieved from http://www.nccmt.ca/knowledge-repositories/search/308
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York College Students Explore Ties Between The Local Community And American Literature

Guided by Dr. José Luis de Ramón Ruiz, York College students analyzed connections between the material studied in an American literature course and the city of York.

“The knowledge and tools that students acquire in literature courses are relevant and applicable far beyond the context of a class,” says Dr. José Luis de Ramón Ruiz, an Assistant Professor of Literature in the Department of Arts and Humanities.

A testimony to this is the experiential learning project that Dr. Ruiz conducted in his Intro to American Literature II course in Fall 2023, which allowed students to take the study of literary themes outside the classroom and into the city in which they live.

Working in different groups, students toured and explored different locations near York—York County History Center, Prospect Hill Cemetery, and the archives in York College. Then, they reflected on how aspects of these sites connect to and illustrate some of the topics studied in the course.

“York has this rich history and connections to American literature and culture. Teaching this course in central Pennsylvania offers numerous opportunities to study literary themes in the broader context of our community,” says Dr. Ruiz.

“Members of one group identified unique ways in which Prospect Hill, a local cemetery with historical graves from the Revolutionary and Civil Wars, represented shared themes with the literature of those periods, including notions of national identity, bravery, and camaraderie. Another group analyzed fictional and folkloric elements that were used at the time of the Hex Murder to come to terms with this horrific event that took place in York. Students in the third group examined the history of York College in light of contemporaneous women’s rights discourses about education and proposed specific ideas to continue making the College more inclusive,” he adds.

Students presented their findings at an event sponsored by the Center for Community Engagement during which they had discussed their projects with members of the community, as well as with faculty and staff from York College.

“A lot of times we look at things through a historic lens. Dr. Ruiz was giving us a chance to look at it through a literature lens as well,” says Emma Ertel ‘26, a Mass Communications major from Shoemakersville, PA, who was assigned to the Prospect Hill Cemetery group.

Literary and Textual Studies major Kane Howard ‘25 was also assigned to the Prospect Hill Cemetery group. Born and raised in York, this project gave Kane a stronger sense of connection between his major and the local community. “Every fall, my mother and I tried to make it a habit to go visit the family at Prospect Hill, and all of the work that we were doing in class at the time made me think a lot deeper about the ties between Prospect Hill Cemetery, the York community, and some foundational texts in U.S literature that we were studying,” he adds.

Literary and Textua l Studies major Joy Hoffecker ‘24 was assigned to the group covering the Hex Hollow Murder. As Joy is from West Berlin, NJ, she was unfamiliar with the murder, which is infamous in local York legend and lore. Working on this project allowed her a chance to explore a part of local history she had never heard of before.

“The Hex Murder happened about 100 years ago, and I think it was really interesting learning about that facet of local history because I'm not from around there. I don't really know much about the history of York, so it was interesting being able to learn about this topic and analyze the stories created about it in connection to some of the elements of fiction that we had studied in class,” she says.

Josephine Burry ‘26, a Secondary Education-English major from Birdsboro, PA, appreciated the presentation component of this project and the ability to present in front of community members, faculty, and staff rather than the usual classmates and peers. Josephine was assigned to the group exploring the history of York College in light of women’s discourses about education rights. She was grateful to engage with academics who specialized in the areas on which they were presenting.

“When you present with a lot with presentations, especially with peers in a classroom, usually there's a lot of silence. But when you invite faculty and staff to come and view your presentation, they're going there because they want to hear what you have to say,” Josephine says. “For these professors who've had experience with this kind of academia, this is their playground. Seeing all of them with all their specialties, being able to answer questions and ask questions— it was just really cool to hear them all add to what we've presented.”

Dr. Ruiz’s students have nothing but praise for him.

“He was able to take some ‘not all that interesting’ pieces of literature that a lot of us weren't too excited to be reading and make it seem interesting and exciting,” Josephine adds. “It was always a class that no matter the day I wanted to show up to, because it was fun. It wasn't too much lecture. It was always nice being able to talk with our peers and put our ideas together, and I think that really has to do with our professor fostering a great community in the class.”

As for Dr. Ruiz, he hopes to run the course again in the future. “I think there are other areas of York that would make for great experiential projects and would also help students see how the place in which they live is in conversation with larger themes in American literature,” he says.

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Food & Climate Solutions Research Fellow

Project Drawdown is searching for  1–2 part-time Research Fellows to help us assess potential food-related climate solutions. Fellows will conduct high-level technical and scientific reviews of these potential climate solutions – reviewing the international peer-reviewed literature and conducting meta-analyses of the effectiveness, cost, and adoption of different solutions. 

About Project Drawdown

Project Drawdown is the world’s leading resource for climate solutions.

Our mission is to help the world stop climate change – as quickly, safely, and equitably as possible. To do this, we pursue three key strategies:

• Advance Effective, Science-based Climate Solutions and Strategies: We do the science no one else does to cut through the noise and find effective “whole system” solutions and strategies for stopping climate change.
• Foster Bold, New Climate Leadership: We inform, inspire, and empower business leaders, investors, and philanthropists to take bold, new positions, act more strategically, and rapidly bring climate solutions to scale.
• Promote New Narratives and New Voices: We work to shift the conversation about climate change from “doom and gloom” to “possibility and opportunity” and elevate new, underrepresented climate heroes through storytelling and “passing the mic.”

Position Description

Project Drawdown is looking for 1-2 Research Fellows to join our team, starting in Summer 2024. Fellows are anticipated to commit on average 20 hours/week over 3 to 4 months. 

Drawdown Research Fellows will analyze potential climate solutions, drawing upon years of advanced study, experience, and a wide range of backgrounds. Fellows will use quantitative findings from the international scientific literature to assess each potential solution’s effectiveness, cost, adoption, and other characteristics. Fellows will also produce written reports, tables, and charts – all accessible to a general audience – summarizing key findings. Fellows will work with scientists at Project Drawdown to conduct these assessments as a group.

Fellowship Subject Areas

We are looking for individuals with knowledge and expertise in  global food production, agriculture, and land use – and how they drive emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, leading to climate change. 

We are seeking individuals who can help us explore potential solutions that reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from the global food system, especially solutions linked to changes in diet, curbing food waste, changing biofuel policies, protecting natural ecosystems, and rewilding abandoned agricultural lands.

Fellows will work alongside other experts who are focused on changing agricultural practices and how they lead to reduced emissions and carbon sequestration.

Qualifications

• Master’s degree with thesis, or equivalent research experience
• 2+ years of combined research experience in subject area(s) noted above
• Strong research, analysis, and writing skills. Demonstrated ability and commitment to conduct research, produce scholarly work, and critically evaluate the work of others
• Experience preparing clear, compelling, and high-quality reports and presentations
• Ability to work effectively as a team member and to carry out projects
• Capable of managing own time and meeting deadlines

In addition, candidates are required to be:

• comfortable with teleconferencing, remote work, and virtual collaboration 
• available to participate in video conferences weekdays 9:00am–5:00pm Central Time US
• able to use Google Sheets and Google Docs for delivering individual work products and collaboratively.

Studies have shown that women, trans, non-binary folks, and BIPOC are less likely than others to apply for jobs if they don’t believe they meet every single one of the qualifications as described in a job description. We are committed to building a diverse and inclusive organization, and we are most interested in finding the best candidate for the job. That candidate may be one who comes from a background less traditional to our field of work, and that’s okay. We would strongly encourage you to apply, even if you don't believe you meet every one of the qualifications described.

Position Details 

Research fellows will be compensated between US$30-40/hour, commensurate with experience. Fellows will be independent contractors paid by the hour and will not receive benefits. This position entails remote work only. No travel is required for this role.

Project Drawdown welcomes people of all backgrounds, identities, and beliefs to join us in helping the world reach drawdown quickly, safely, and equitably. We are a 100% remote organization based in the U.S. 

Candidates must be authorized to work as an independent contractor to a US-based entity, or equivalent term in their location, in their country, and according to local regulations. By submitting an application, candidates are confirming that they have the required certification (if needed) to accept work as an independent contractor. Project Drawdown is not able to accept applications from candidates in Iran, Cuba, Syria, North Korea, Sudan, Russia, the Crimea Region of Ukraine, or other countries that are currently sanctioned by the U.S.

How to Apply 

To be considered for this position, submit your application at  https://form.jotform.com/241756044218152 including:

• Cover letter that describes your experience and fit for this role, describing your research experiences and highlighting your relevant educational and work experiences.
• Most recent resume or CV.
• Two recent writing samples – ideally one example of technical writing (a research paper, report, or journal article) and one of popular writing (an op-ed, essay, or plain language article).

Applications will be accepted until July 15, 2024 . Interviews are expected to begin in late July. Applicants selected for interviews will be required to provide at least two professional references.

Project Drawdown is an equal opportunity employer committed to having a team that represents a variety of backgrounds, perspectives, and skills. Project Drawdown does not discriminate on the basis of race, religion, gender identity, sexual orientation, age, non-disqualifying physical or mental disability, national origin, veteran status, or any other basis covered by law, and we will not tolerate discrimination or harassment based on any of these characteristics. We strongly encourage all qualified persons worldwide to apply for this position. All employment is decided on the basis of qualifications, merit, and the organization’s need.

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• DOI: 10.21511/pmf.13(1).2024.11
• Corpus ID: 270823195

New trends and directions in local government finance research: A bibliometric analysis

• Darmawati Elis , Mediawati Syarifuddin , +3 authors Ph. Syarifuddin Rasyid
• Published in Public and Municipal Finance 28 June 2024
• Economics, Political Science, Business

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How ‘Rural Studies’ Is Thinking About the Heartland

What’s the matter with America’s rural voters? Many scholars believe that the question itself is the problem.

Credit... Photo illustration by Pablo Delcan

Supported by

By Emma Goldberg

• June 29, 2024

Kristin Lunz Trujillo grew up proud of her family’s way of life. She spent summers getting ready to show cattle at the county fair. During the school year, she rushed home after class to feed the chickens on her family’s corn and soybean farm. Neither of her parents went to college, but they encouraged their daughter when she decided to go to Carleton, a liberal arts school a two-hour drive from their farm in Minnesota.

Despite being physically close to home, Ms. Lunz Trujillo was surprised by how foreign her upbringing seemed at the college. She was dismayed when she checked out the farm club and learned that its members wanted to brew kombucha, not milk cows. When an art history teacher asked students which famous paintings they’d seen in person, Ms. Lunz Trujillo stayed quiet, because she had never been to an art museum. This sense of cultural alienation molded her research when she became a political scientist: What is rural identity? How does it shape a person’s politics?

This year, Ms. Lunz Trujillo, now an assistant professor at the University of South Carolina, was reading a new, best-selling book that cited her research to explore those same questions. But this recognition didn’t bring the thrill she might have expected.

“It seemed to be more of a hit piece on rural America,” she said.

Published in February, “White Rural Rage,” by the journalist Paul Waldman and the political scientist Tom Schaller, is an unsparing assessment of small-town America. Rural residents, the authors argued, are more likely than city dwellers to excuse political violence, and they pose a threat to American democracy.

Several rural scholars whose research was included in the book immediately denounced it. In a critical Politico essay, Nick Jacobs, a political scientist at Colby College, wrote, “Imagine my surprise when I picked up the book and saw that some of that research was mine.” Ms. Lunz Trujillo excoriated the book in an opinion piece for Newsweek as “a prime example of how intellectuals sow distrust by villainizing” people unlike them.

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