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How to write your chapter outlines

You’ll need to write chapter outlines or chapter summaries if you’re pitching your book to a traditional publisher. Chapter outlines are necessary for a book proposal, and even more necessary if you’ve not written the full manuscript before you pitch this idea to an agent, editor or book publisher.

If you’re pitching a memoir before you’ve written the full manuscript, you’ll need to write sample chapters. But one of the key ingredients of book proposals that sell when the author hasn’t yet drafted the full manuscript is your chapter outlines. Chapter outlines are also really important if you’re entering a writing competition or applying for any kind of fellowship or mentorship for your manuscript. They show publishers, agents, readers – a full overview of the concept and help readers to grasp what you will be achieving when the manuscript is complete. But don’t be overwhelmed! Here you’ll learn all that goes into writing your chapter outlines.

In a book proposal, your chapter outlines are also called chapter summaries.

When to write your chapter outlines

Even if you’re not yet pitching your book to a publisher, I  recommend writing short chapter outlines before you start writing the first draft.

Why? It’s one of the best ways to nip any writer’s block in the bud and make sure you don’t go off-track with your first draft. When you know the key turning points of the narrative arc, and the structure of the story, it’s much easier to sit down and write each day. Just like having a focus sentence (a technique I teach inside the Art of Memoir), having chapter outlines gives you a clear end-point, container, and ‘goal’ for your writing. Writing your chapter outlines means the next steps in your manuscript are clearly defined. And you always have a place to ‘go’ when you sit down to write!

TIP: You can also use your chapter summaries when you’re reshuffling the action of the story after you’ve completed the first draft. Just cut and paste around on a big board, add lines, see where the major action rises and falls.

“But I don’t know the ending of the story, yet!” I hear you protesting. Or “…what if that ruins the creative process?”

Chapter outlines don’t need to be completely prescriptive, and you don’t need to feel overwhelmed about writing them either.

Read on for more reasons why you should write your chapter outlines and how to do it.

Why you need to write your chapter outlines:

• The purpose of having chapter outlines in your proposal is to show your potential agent / publisher / editor that you’re capable of fulfilling the ‘promise’ of the story. i.e. you can envisage the arc of it further than the initial 5000 words (which is what you’ll also include in your book proposal).
• Chapter outlines are also really useful to help you conquer writer’s block and get to the finish line of the first draft, much quicker than you would if you didn’t have a blueprint or plan for how you’re going to complete the manuscript. You won’t stick to them in detail, and that’s OK. By having a ‘map’ of your book before you start writing the first draft, you can work on each chapter and have a clear idea of the next direction from where each chapter will lead.
• The purpose of the first draft, is to get everything down so you can finally ‘see’ the shape of the story. Having chapter outlines will help you finish your first draft quicker.

What to include in your chapter outlines:

Ask yourself the following questions if you’re stuck defining what could go into one chapter or the next.

• How does the protagonist  change in each chapter?
• What purpose does this chapter serve to move the story forward (ie. What is its key action)?
• What (if any) new characters are introduced?
• What new information comes to light?
• Where does the main character ‘go’ if there is a physical journey?
• What is the biggest turning point/revelation of the main character?
• What big decisions are made?
• What questions are answered in this chapter that were set up in the beginning of the story? TIP : If you’re getting bored with the story when you write your chapter outlines (!), think back to your memoir’s driving desire when you’re writing your summaries. Drive the narrative forward through tension (antagonism) and moral dilemmas.

This is where your memoir focus sentence matters

If you’re going off track in your chapter outlines, bring everything back to your memoir focus sentence : ie. what action in this chapter, advances the central theme / argument / premise of my story? You can have ‘quiet’ chapters where not a lot changes, but every chapter must somehow advance the character or the plot or action of the story.

TIP 1 : Each chapter outline only needs to be a couple of sentences to a paragraph. Don’t overcomplicate things, pare the story back to the bones in your chapter outlines.

TIP 2 : If you’re writing your chapter summaries / outlines for a book proposal (to go to an agent or publisher), include the working title of your memoir, your proposed book length, and estimated completion date at the top of your chapter outline document. You may also write longer chapter outlines – say, a paragraph or three per chapter. This will help, particularly, if you’re only including one sample chapter for the proposal. Why? Because the agent or editor will see clearly how the story will flow from start-to-finish. If you haven’t published a book before, and haven’t written the whole manuscript yet, go for longer chapter outlines.

Q1: What if I don’t know what will change in each chapter until I start writing…?

If, like me, your preferred style of attacking a book is more creative and less planning, chapter outlines might make you feel a bit ‘locked in’. But I can’t stress enough, how important they are to help you ‘see’ the book as a whole, and come to the finish of your first draft, quicker!

Don’t worry if they change, as you craft the story! This is why you should keep them relatively short – things will change. I had to write chapter outlines for my agent to secure my book deal (as it was on proposal only), and I was so glad that I did. Having an outline for the whole book gave me the confidence when i was feeling stuck and overwhelmed by the massive task of the book, to take a look back and see that actually, yes, I had planned it out, and there was enough material for a whole book in my outline.

• It’s important to have your chapter outlines to know you have enough ‘beats’ to fill in 15 or 20 chapters, or a whole book.

Q2 What if I don’t even know the ending to the story, yet?

I wrote my chapter outlines for A Letter From Paris without even knowing the ending to the story. I hadn’t been to France, and the biggest turning points in my story hadn’t been revealed. But I knew the driving desire (ie. the purpose of the story), and I used this to plan my chapter summaries.

In order to successfully pitch the book to a publisher, I had to show that I had considered the manuscript in detail and how I would write it from start to finish.

THE PURPOSE OF CHAPTER SUMMARIES

This is the purpose of your chapter outlines: To show you have thought out your work of non-fiction from start to finish. To show that you have considered the narrative arc of your story from beginning, through the middle, through the major crisis points of the story, to a transformational end. There must be a major shift in your narrator (you) in terms of character growth, from the beginning to the end of the story. This is the most common problem seen in book outlines: there is no clear or dramatic change in the main character from beginning to end. Without change, there is no story!

Keep it simple.

If you don’t know the ending to the story, or you haven’t written the complete draft yet, you will need to dig deep. While three or four sentences (a paragraph or two even better) is better for a proposal, just get a sentence or two down about the main action of each chapter if you can. You’ll learn and see possibilities as you start to really map out your story.

In my early chapter outlines (which I’d sent to my agent with just a 10 000 word sample of the manuscript), I only had one or two sentences. Because I didn’t know the end of the story – but, I had to show that I could follow it wherever it would lead. One chapter was simply one sentence: Louisa goes to the library and finds her father’s manuscript material.

The chapter itself ended up being 7000 words (in the first draft). Because I didn’t know the extent of the manuscript material I was to discover, when I wrote the chapter outlines, I kept it to one sentence. This is all fine – things will change with your manuscript, but you need some kind of blueprint or map to make a good start!

It might help to end with a sewing analogy: when you’re first learning to make clothes, you follow a ‘pattern’ even though the material and the sizing will vary. The chapter outlines are like the pattern you need, to make a dress. A blueprint, if you will, to get starting in crafting your beautiful story.  Necessary borders and definitions exist for you to fill with oceans of creativity. Like a colouring in book, once you have the outlines, you can then freely go off with pens and let it flow, filling in the squares.

The secret to editing your work is simple: You need to become its reader instead of its writer Zadie Smith

YOU’LL ALSO LOVE: How to write your memoir book proposal Three types of memoir that sell Edit your manuscript like a Pro

Excellent advice. I started my outline when I began to drift off track. A seat of the pants writer at the start, I now believe there is value in applying many tools and keeping an open, flexible approach in your a writing. Don’t be adverse to learning new things.

Thank you for sharing your information! Before reading this I was really struggling with how to do an outline. I get it now’

Can you read my chapter summaries?. The Manuscript is finished. I have difficulty summariwing antthing.

Current options for coaching and publishing support including editorial feedback are all listed on this page: https://louisadeasey.com/work-with-me/

Very nice discussion for writing a chapter outline. Simply written and informative. Thank you so much.

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How to Write a Chapter-By-Chapter Outline

Outlining is a fun, easy way to turn book writing from agony to awesome.

Let’s go over some tips, then write a detailed outline together for our story about Scenya, the world of season-magic!

During the last stream, a subscriber requested that we create a detailed outline for a story we’ve written before.

You can watch the full video here to or scroll down for notes/highlights.

How to Make a Detailed Outline

• Once you’ve written a basic outline for your story, you can then make a detailed one.
• My favorite kind of detailed outline is one that divides the story into chapter-by-chapter summaries , since it provides the most detailed map of the book
• As you outline each chapter, you’ll make new things up to fill in info gaps, some plot points will change, and characters may be born/die, and that’s fine, that’s your story growing

Aside from giving a short summary of each chapter, make sure that every chapter answers these two questions:

#1. Connection: how does this connect to the last chapter? #2. Compelling: what compels readers to read this chapter?

• There shouldn’t be any “and then X happens, and then Y happens, and then Z happens,” since that feels more random.
• Any time your reason is something like “the reader needs to know X or Y,” that should set off alarms. Don’t just convey info, have something HAPPEN where that info is necessary

For Example, with Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone:

Chapter 1 Synopsis: Harry is dropped off as a baby at the Dursleys. Connection: (n/a) Compelling: The secret about the Dursleys, Harry being famous (NOT Dumbledore in his office talking about Dursleys)

Chapter 2 Synopsis: Harry makes the glass disappear at the zoo. Connection: We see the magic that was hinted at last chapter Compelling: Seeing Harry’s horrible life and accidental magic (NOT Harry at school accidentally using magic)

Chapter 3 Synopsis: Harry gets a mysterious letter in the mail. Connection: Because Harry’s life is miserable and he has no friends, he desperately wants to read the letter. Compelling: The mystery of the letters (NOT Harry learning about Hogwarts from a book/wizard)

We then created a chapter-by-chapter outline for a book we’ve worked on before: a story about Scenya, a world where four countries have four different types of seasonal-based magic.

Here’s an awesome map of the world, as drawn by Dragonflyghter. Glitzen is the winter kingdom where they have the power to freeze time, Decarne is the fall nation where they have the power to ripen/mature things, Incarna is the spring covereign where they have the power of rebirth, and Vitalis is the summer hive where they have the power to control insects.

Be sure to check out the back of the book summary and basic outline we’ve already created for this story before reading the chapter-by-chapter outline:

Here’s what we came up with:

Prologue Synopsis: Show the powers/relationships of the four nations Connection: (n/a) Compelling: It’s all coming to an end with the conflict of the melting glaciers/disease, bringing a new season Chapter 1 Synopsis: Victor (from spring) is a several-centuries-old member of the elite whose sister is sick/dying for the 1st time and he can’t help her. Their society is stagnant/academic, based on sibling bonds, since children are seen as “crops” harvested for their lifeforce. End with Victor telling her he’s going to Winter to freeze her in time so they can find a cute. Connection: See the disease/spring powers in action. Compelling: See the spring life-transfer power in action, when Victor sacrifices a “flower” child to try and save his sister, see how different/scary their culture is. Chapter 2 Synopsis: Celan (from winter) goes to snooty private school where she’s learning time-freezing magic. She hears rumors about melting glaciers/virus but no one talks about it. We see her fun relationship with her father, the chauffeur for the royal family, who picks her up in the royal limo. They hear a news story about the melting glaciers on the limo radio, but dad tells her not to worry. At home, Celan’s mother, a research scientist, gets into an argument with father about staying/leaving, since she wants to run away before disaster happens.End with mother telling Celan they’re going to run away and leave father behind. Connection: See the Winter kingdom that was talked about in the last chapter. Compelling:  The mystery of the disease and where it’s coming from. Chapter 3 Synopsis: Bree (from summer) was born into the worker caste to work the fields, but then the prophet-king came to power (first king in forever, was always a queen before) saying that people are not born into their role and can change. Brie, along with many other workers, became warriors, ready to take advantage of rising temperatures and defeat fall/spring, then winter Connection: See the army that Celan’s mother was worried about Compelling: See the summer society where the gender ratio is skewed 9:1 female to male. Chapter 4 Synopsis: Tarus (from fall) is an adult ripened from childbirth right to working age, working doing simple tasks in a factory. Connection: Summer hive is going to attack fall, see the people that they want to slaughter. Compelling: Seeing the tedious tasks that Tarus has to perform and how they’re justified as “games” where they get “prizes.” Chapter 5 Synopsis: Victor (spring) sets sail for the winter kingdom to try and get someone to freeze his sister in time before she dies Connection: He’s on a boat that is manned by brainless workers from Fall Compelling: Victor goes from boat to boat trying to find someone to take him, but sailors don’t want to go to winter because of the spreading disease, they warn him that’s where the sickness is coming from Chapter 6 Synopsis: Celan (winter) and her mother run away to the port to try and escape the kingdom, news of the attack of summer on fall is already happening. Mother tells Celan about the Rot bomb that she helped create with fall, a bomb that would release tons of rot magic in an attempt to destroy the virus. Connection: Victor is coming to winter, Celan/mother are leaving. Compelling: Celan betrays her mother by telling a teacher her mother’s plan before they leave. Chapter 7 Synopsis: Bree (summer) is brainwashed to hate the other kingdoms, and part of the army that the prophet-king sent to invade fall. (The other half went to spring.) Bree attacks the people there with her comrades, ends with her ordered to attack Tarus’s factory by herself since one warrior is plenty for the brainless workers Connection: Get to see the attack of summer on fall. Compelling: Bree slaughtering the citizens of fall, but she empathizes with them because they’re workers like she was, begins to have a change of heart. Chapter 8 Synopsis: Tarus (fall) working in a factory where he thinks they’re making nice toys but it’s actually the Rot bomb. Bree meets Tarus and realizes what she’s doing is wrong, because he asks her innocent questions that she can’t answer. Connection: See Brie attack the factory she was assigned to. Compelling: We see Brie’s killing through Tarus’s innocent POV, he thinks she’s putting the others to sleep, he says he doesn’t want to take a nap, that’s what pushes her over the edge. Chapter 9 Synopsis: Victor (spring): He arrives in the Winter kingdom port, asks around for someone to help but everyone is wary of outsiders right now due to the instability, ends with an explosion in the distance. Connection: Instability of war affecting the people’s reaction. Compelling: Mystery of the explosion. Chapter 10 Synopsis : Bree (summer) sees the Rot bomb that fall was making get launched and exploded in fall. The Rot itself kills many fall/summer people, and it makes the virus even worse (since the virus feeds on magic). Connection: See the source of the explosion. Compelling: Bree sees all of her powerful comrades falling to something they can’t even fight against. Chapter 11 Synopsis: Tarus (fall) leads Brie through an underground evacuation tunnel, which he was told to do in case of an emergency. They get to a door and it’s locked, but Tarus uses his decay magic on it to destroy the lock and keep going. Connection: See how Brie/Tarus survive the Rot blast. Compelling: Bree changes her mind, and now Tarus is her comrade, she calls him “drone,” a term of endearment that the summer nation uses. Chapter 12 Synopsis: Celan (winter) and her mother and everyone else around the Winter port gets hit by the empowered virus from the Rot bomb. Those who have used a lot of magic are most affected, and her mother dies from it, but Celan survives. Victor is arrested as a scapegoat, accused of being a terrorist unleashing an attack, and Celan thinks he killed her mother. Celan’s teacher finds her and helps her away. Connection: See more repercussions of the Rot bomb. Compelling: Victor and Celan meet up and Celan misunderstands who Victor is. Chapter 13 Synopsis: Bree (summer) together with Tarus reach the fall port and start to travel to spring to confront the prophet-king and tell him what happened with the Rot bomb. They pass the time with Bree seeing what other kid of magic Tarus can do when they turn it into a game. Connection: Repercussions of the bomb. Compelling: We want to know what will happen with their meeting, Bree wonders what she will tell the prophet-king now that she’s had a change of heart. Chapter 14 Synopsis: Victor (winter) is in jail, and Celan hates him since she thinks he killed her mother. He doesn’t care for her much either since to him, children are just crops to harvest for life. Connection: Theme of “change of heart.” Compelling: Interaction between Victor/Celan and their misunderstanding of each other. Chapter 15 Synopsis: Celan (winter): She goes home, father tells her that mother told him about the Rot bomb but he didn’t believe her, now Celan knows that Victor is innocent, her father drives her to the jail to help him out. Connection: Goin’ back to jail! Compelling: Celan learns the truth, change of heart for her father. Chapter 16 Synopsis: Victor and Celan work together to him break out, Celan freezes the guards but only for a few seconds, enough to steal their keys, let Victor escape, and then have him steal the guards’ lifeforce before the unfreeze. Celan’s dad leads Victor/Celan to a boat bound for Spring with Celan pretending to be Victor’s sister, but they have to leave the dad behind. Connection: The final part of the escape. Compelling: First time magics have been used together, and the father’s sacrifice. Chapter 17 Synopsis: Tarus (fall) experiences his first time outside of the fall nation, now together with Brie in Spring, he has fun commenting on everything he sees, he doesn’t understand that it’s all rubble, death, and destruction, waged by the summer hive. Connection: We see the spring nation where Celan/Victor are headed too. Compelling: We see everything from Tarus’s innocent POV. Chapter 18 Synopsis: Victor (spring) arrives in spring with Celan to see it decimated. He takes Celan with him to go back to his sister and try to freeze her in time, but she’s gone. They speak with the university leader, and find out she was stolen away for research and is being autopsied and is already dead. Now we find out the origin of the disease, that it was caused by the winter kingdom slowing down the planet with their time-freezing-powers and causing it to warm. Connection: Theme of “learning new things.” Compelling: Finally discover the source of climate change. Chapter 19 Synopsis: Bree (summer) meets the prophet-king, but he is weakened by the disease and the army is almost all dead. Brie tries to get him to stop the invasions, but the prophet-king calls her a traitor and stabs Tarus. Connection: See the continuation of the decimation from the previous chapter. Compelling: Interaction between Brie/king and her telling him her change of heart. Chapter 20 Synopsis: Tarus (fall) is stabbed and dying, but Bree fights against the prophet-king, killing him but taking a mortal wound in the process herself. Connection: See the next part of the battle. Compelling: Oh no, Bree and Tarus are dying! Chapter 21 Synopsis: Victor (spring) sees what happened with the prophet king/Bree, and Bree begs Victor to put what remains of her life force into Tarus, saving him, and then she dies. Connection: End of the battle. Compelling: Bree’s sacrifice not for her nation but for her friend. Chapter 22 Synopsis: Together, Celan (winter) freezes time on the disease, giving Victor (spring) the ability to put life into the viruses, and then Tarus (fall) decays them away. Theme: “In order to combat a giant, insurmountable enemy, we need to work together.” Connection: The war is over but the battle against the disease is still there. Compelling: We have all the characters working together.

It’s not a perfect outline, and there’s a few places where it needs to be smoothed out, but it’s an important next step. Our story/characters grew, and with a bit more work, it’ll be ready to start being written.

Be sure to check out the video for more!

If you want to join us and help write a story by trolling in chat, or share your own writing for feedback, then we’d love to have you join us on Twitch .

And you missed the stream, you can still watch them on the  YouTube channel  or  watch the full stream reruns .

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How to Write a Book Chapter in 7 Simple Steps for Your Nonfiction Book

Are you ready to learn how to write a book chapter? This is the first step towards many exciting milestones in your writing journey, so it’s time to get started!

You’ve committed to write a nonfiction book , and you’re well on your way to begin your author journey. 

So where do you start? By learning how to write a book chapter. 

Sounds simple, right? But it can be overwhelming and difficult to gain momentum, especially when we doubt ourselves and start to feel like writing a book is such a mammoth project to undertake. 

As writers, we often tend to overthink the process, causing a flood of questions that occupy our attention instead of actually writing. 

You might be asking yourself…

• How do I even do this?
• Where do I begin and when do I finish? 
• How long should my chapters be?
• How many chapters should I have?

These are just some of the questions that might be preventing you from actually getting started writing your book's first chapter. In this article, you'll learn the exact steps on how to write a book chapter, and more.

Here’s how to write a book chapter:  #1 – Create a chapter outline #2 – Build out the chapter’s structure #3 – Write an eye-catching chapter title or headline #4 – Hook readers with your chapter intro #5 – Expand your story with main points #6 – Provide a recap that summarizes the chapter #7 – Add a Call-to-Action & transition to your next chapter

But before we get started, let's make sure you have the required foundation to get started on writing a chapter.

How do you start writing a chapter?

In order to start writing a chapter, all you need to do is start writing. Remember, when you begin your draft simply focus on getting the words on the page. You can edit it later. Looking at the blinking cursor can be one of the most intimidating parts of the writing process, so just start.

Bonus: When you start writing your first chapter, it doesn't need to be chapter one. If you have a great idea for the middle of the book, write it! You may inspire yourself for chapter one.

How long does it take to write a book chapter?

The speed you write depends on many factors such as:

• Your typing speed
• If you choose to edit as you draft
• Whether or not you know the direction you plan to take the story

Don't allow yourself to get hung up on your writing speed, instead, focus on your writing quality.

How many pages should be in a chapter?

The page count in each chapter depends on what is best for your story. Whether you write fiction or nonfiction, how you end your chapter greatly influences if a reader turns the page.

It would likely be better for your reader, and your story, to end a chapter a bit early on a cliffhanger, rather than drag a chapter out.

As you write, ask yourself this question: What type of chapter ending would keep me turning pages? Be sure to end your chapter at this point.

Now, it's important to note that before you can even begin, you first need to have your book's general outline in place. It's okay if you have a working outline that's not finalized, but you need to have a rough idea of what chapters you need to include. If you're asking, “ What is an outline ?” read more at the link.

Your book's outline is your roadmap, and it's what you will use to get to your final destination with the chapters you write. After all, how do you know which direction you’re heading if you don’t have a path?

Think of your book like a TV show, and instead of episodes, you have chapters. Most hit shows develop a general theme for the season, so each episode progressively builds up to a grand finale. 

The same goes for writing books. You brainstorm ideas, figure out a theme for your book, and structure it by chapters, so it all fits together nicely.

Your book is the general theme, and each chapter should build up to the big picture. 

What is a chapter?

A chapter is defined as section, or division, of a book, and it is usually separated with a chapter number or chapter title. Chapters break the overall book topic into sections. Each chapter in a book is related to the overall book theme, and chapters are found in many book variations and genres, such as nonfiction, fiction, academia, law, and more. The concept of a book chapter is to allow the author to break up the work, and for the reader to digest the material in increments, or chunks that are both understandable and memorable.

After all, most readers aren’t going to go through 30,000 or more words in one sitting. They need mental breaks. That’s what your chapters provide.

Also, chapters allow you to have some kind of structure in your writing compared to just rambling all of your ideas in one go like journal writing. A journal may make sense to you in your mind, but for the average person who’s reading it, they might not get the whole picture because they don’t have the same perspective as you.

Before you can get started with how to write a chapter, you need to be clear on what the purpose of a chapter is, and how it helps your book's organization.

Related: Parts of a Book

How long should my chapter be?

The short answer is, it really depends on your topic, and your writing style. There aren’t any set rules or guidelines. That’s the beautiful thing of self publishing – you as the author gets to dictate the length of your book. 

The length of your chapters will vary depending on the genre. So, if you really want some guidance, then just compare the typical length of other books within the same niche. 

How many words are in a nonfiction book chapter?

The average number of words in a nonfiction book is around 50,000-70,000 words, and the average number of chapters in a nonfiction book are about 10-20. With this logic, the number of words in a nonfiction book chapter is about 3,500 words to 5,000 words. But, the number of words in each chapter can vary greatly, depending on the nonfiction book's topic, subject matter, and the author's writing style.

Some topics will require more details, and some will require less. There isn't a set number of chapters to include, either, so make your chapters detailed, concise, and see where your word count falls and make adjustments in your editing process as needed.

As you learn how to write a book chapter, try not to worry so much about how many words to include in each chapter of your book. Instead of focusing on your word count, focus on the quality of your writing, and that you are including all the necessary information to get your point across.

How many chapters should I write? 

Again, this is up to you.  You can write as many or as few chapters as you want. Your book is your baby, and you make the final decision.

Don't decide on number of chapters just for the sake of it. Make sure you organize your chapters with sound reasoning, as opposed to just setting a random number.

This will ensure that your chapters make logical sense, and are in the correct order. With structured, organized chapters, your reader will be able to follow the information in your book seamlessly.

Now that you understand what a chapter is, and how many words and chapters to have in your book, it's time for writing !

#1 – Create an outline for the chapter 

The best way to brainstorm ideas and create an outline for your chapter is through mindmapping. 

A mindmap, if you aren’t already familiar with it, is where you brainstorm and unload all your ideas onto paper (or type it).

Once you’re done, you can look over and see if there’s a common theme beginning to take shape. At this point, you can start linking them together. You can structure your ideas to help with your analysis and see it visually.

As you learn how to write a book chapter, you'll get a better feel for how many sections make sense for your book's topic.

Here’s how to create an outline for your chapter:  #1 – Brainstorm all of the ideas and topics that this chapter should cover #2 – Write your ideas down on a mindmap  #3 – Review your ideas and link similar ideas together #4 – Identify a common theme for your chapter #5 – Sort the ideas into a logical order of how you should present them in your chapter

Here’s an example of my mind map: 

After my mind map, I was able to create a structured outline:

Here are more resources for mindmapping: #1 – Mindmapping tool #2 – Learn how to book map #3 – Create an outline for a book

#2 – Build the chapter structure

Now that you understand the fundamentals, let’s get into the meat and potatoes of what makes up an effective chapter structure.

You'll want to be sure to include each element of your chapter structure for every subsequent chapter that you write.

It might be helpful to create a standard format, whether you write with pen and paper, or using book software on your computer. This will help you stay on track and write your chapters in an organized, structured form.

Here are the elements of a chapter structure:  #1 – A title or headline #2 – An introduction that hooks #3 – Body paragraphs that provide further details #4 – A recap, or summary, of the chapter #5 – A transition to the next chapter

While you can add more or less to each of your chapters depending on your genre, writing style, and needs, it’s important that all of your chapter contents contain similar points or pieces of information related to your overall theme.

All of the information should also be what your reader actually needs to know to understand the overall picture. 

If any of the contents don’t fit into your chapter’s theme, take it out. If there is extra information that isn’t necessary for the reader to know, or causes the reader to go off on a tangent, take it out. 

Only add what’s absolutely necessary, and take out anything extra. Chances are, the information either doesn’t add to the value of your work, or it might belong in a different chapter.

#3 – Write an eye-catching chapter title or headline

As you learn how to write a book chapter, you’ll realize just how important writing eye-catching chapter headlines, or titles, are. 

You can have the most amazing content in the world that has the power to change people’s lives forever. But if you don't learn how to write a book chapter headline that captures their attention, then they’ll never bother reading your book. 

This is especially important when you have someone on the fence, deciding whether or not to buy your book. They’re skimming through your table of contents or flipping through the pages to see if anything sticks out.

You want a chapter headline that triggers curiosity, and makes your reader want to learn more.

Even though this is listed as the first element of a chapter’s structure, many authors find that it’s easier to create the headline AFTER the chapter has been written. 

Tip: Write your headline once your chapter is already written. 

This is because as you write, your chapter and concept might change slightly, so you don’t want to waste time tinkering with the headline every time you update your concept.

Here are three types of headlines you can write:  #1 – Use the “How to…” approach #2 – Use a phrase or belief statement #3 – Present it as a question

#1 – Write the headline as a “How to…”

The “How to” format is a common strategy when writing a book chapter title because it works. A good “how to” headline is enticing, concise, and provokes action in the reader. 

To create a “How to” headline for your book’s chapter, make a list of the benefits, barriers, and beliefs that your chapter covers and then just plug it into the “How to…” template. Play around with it and see which headline combination makes the most sense.

If you’re struggling with this, think of the problem your chapter solves. Then craft that problem into a “How to” statement.

Here’s an example: “How to (add benefit) without having to (add barrier) even if (add belief).”  #1 – Add benefit – What’s the benefit of this chapter? What insight will your readers gain? #2 – Add barrier – What barriers or obstacles are your readers facing? What is their problem? What do your readers currently believe right now? #3 – Add belief – What belief(s) or inner thoughts are your readers telling themselves about your topic? 

How-to headline examples on book writing:

• How to self-publish your book without having to commit 8 hours a day, even if you don't think you’re a good writer. 
• How to stay motivated when writing your book without having to sacrifice hours away from family and business, even if you don't feel you have enough time.
• How to build your confidence when writing your book without having to do a ton of research, even if you don't feel like you’re an expert

#2 –  Use a phrase or belief statement as your headline

You can simply use a phrase or belief that your readers are thinking about. If you think about it as the problem you are trying to solve for your reader, your headline or title would simply be the problem statement. 

Here are examples of beliefs for people who want to write a book:

• “I'm not good enough to write.”
• “I’m not a writer.’’
• “I'm not special; why would anyone want to read my book?”

#3 – Present the headline as a question 

This is similar to the problem statement, but you are rephrasing it as a question that your readers might ask. 

Think about what your chapter covers, and ask yourself, “What question is this chapter going to answer for my readers?”

Then, use that question to can create a compelling book chapter or headline.

Here are some examples of questions a reader might ask:

• How long does it take to write a book?
• Can I make a living writing books?
• Do I need an editor for my book?

If you’re still stuck thinking of an enticing chapter title or headline, it may be that you need more time to flesh out your content. 

Or, maybe you just need to spend some time writing, and come back to the headline when you are feeling more creative. 

You can also use title generators like Portent (which is my favorite) and tweakyourbiz . It can inspire you to come up with something unique.

What's great is you can use these headline ideas for not just chapters, but also webinars, videos, blog posts, guest posts, etc. as you expand your book business. 

#4 – Hook readers with your chapter intro 

Alright! So, you’ve captured the reader’s attention and now they’re curious to find out more. This is where you want to avoid any first chapter blunders and have an engaging intro that keeps people hooked, and attracted to your content. 

To explain the power of a hook in your chapter, let’s use an example from the TV show Law and Order . In every episode, they show the murder scene in the first few seconds; this is the opening hook! 

This effective technique naturally hooks viewers, myself included, making us want to know more.

We are left with the lingering question through the screenwriter’s hook (“How did they die?”) and then the rest of the episode is focused on piecing together who committed the murder. 

Unless you’re writing a horror book, I wouldn't expect your chapter introduction to be that dramatic, but there are similar ways that you can create an engaging opener. You can learn how to write an intro with a few simple steps, then apply the same strategies to all of your chapters.

Here’s how to hook your reader at the start of your book’s chapter: #1 – Share a personal story #2 – Show a conversation or dialogue #3 – Add powerful quotes #4 – Add shocking statistics  

What else can you think of to grab your reader's attention? Get creative!

In my experience, the best chapter introduction that get the most reader engagement is when the author shares a personal story. This is for two reasons.

Reason #1 – It builds a connection

Before spitting out facts and solutions, share your own personal story about overcoming the challenge you hope to help others through when they read your book and/or other products or services you offer. 

Stories are what connect you to your readers. 

Describe how you felt before, during, and after your personal challenge. For example, if you’re helping people lose weight, how did you feel when you were overweight? 

What did you see, hear, and feel? Relive and visualize this because most likely that’s where your readers are right now in their life. 

Even though you have overcome these struggles, you need to communicate at the same level as your readers and not from where you’re at right now.

Don’t be afraid to be vulnerable and open up. 

I attended a screenwriting class recently. What I learned was that the most successful Hollywood movies are those with characters that have the most flaws.

It’s your flaws that will connect you to your readers emotionally. People are not looking for solutions or anecdotes as much as they are seeking for connection. 

“Think like a wise man but communicate in the language of the people” – William Butler Yeats

Reason #2 – It adds credibility

Your story helps build credibility, so people think, “ Wow! This author has been there, and done that, so they must know what they are talking about. I should read what they have to say. ”

When people are reading your book (and chapter) they may be asking:

• ‘Why should I listen to you?”
• “Who are you?” 
• “How can you help me with _____?”
• “How do you know how it feels to____?”

No one will listen to you unless they first know that they are understood. 

“People don't care how much you know until they know how much you care.” John Maxwell

Share your story of being in the trenches and having gone through the challenges that your readers are currently facing. Create a bridge between you and your readers. 

Once your readers know that you understand them, they will begin to trust you and will be more open to hearing your advice.

Alternatively, you could also tell a story of a client you’ve helped or share their testimonials. 

You could also paint a picture of how life will be when they finish reading your book or implementing your methods, products or services, or even how life will be if they don't.

#5 – Expand your story with main points

Okay, so you have a great opening and people are hooked. Your readers can’t put the book down.

But now it’s time to dive into the details. Expand your opening and begin to explain your points.

This is where you are offering your reader the gold. How will you solve their problem? What does the reader need to know? Keep the momentum going and make sure each point is cohesively building up.

You can have as many points as you want. I personally like sharing three points within chapter topics just because there is so much to write about for each point.

For example, in my book, The Introverted Immigrant's Journey , I share 3 steps (or points) to overcoming fear, worry, and anxiety.

• Step 1: Awareness   
• Step 2: Identifying self-sabotaging thoughts
• Step 3: Take action (despite the fear)

For each point, you can simply apply the same strategy just as you would starting a chapter. Add a story, quote, stat, or some other kind of evidence. 

Then expand on your opener.

Remember when you had to write a five paragraph essay in school? Think about this in terms of your five paragraph essay. These are your body paragraphs in your chapter!

This step is where a lot of writers can get sidetracked. That's why it's important to create your chapter outline in step 1, then stick to it as much as possible so that your writing is focused and concise and you hit your writing goals .

#6 – Write a summary of the book chapter

Celebrate! You’re almost to the finish line.

Now, all you’ve got to do is summarize what you’ve just said. You’ve given your reader a ton of information, so you have to bring it back around and close the loop.

Writing a summary of your book's chapter is basically recapping the information you shared in the section.

Since people best remember what they read last, this is your chance to be truly memorable.

What’s the last thing you want people to know? The key takeaway. Keep this short and to the point.

Here's how to write a summary of a book chapter: #1 – Skim the chapter and take notes of any major points or key takeaways #2 – Jot down each point or key takeaway #3 – Summarize each point in your own words  #4 – Whittle it down to 1 or 2 sentences for each point. #5 – Combine all your summarized points into one paragraph. #6 – Add in transition words such as “first,” “next” or “then” for each new point.

For example, in my book, I summarized my chapter points by creating 1-2 sentences on each point. Then, I combined each of those sentences together in order. 

For my first chapter point, which was on creating awareness, I wrote this summary:

“It’s important to remember that awareness is the first step to overcoming fear. How can you fix something without knowing its broken in the first place? Begin writing daily in a journal. Track how you feel throughout the day without any judgment.”

#7 – Add a Call-to-Action & transition to the next chapter

A call-to-action (CTA) is when you ask the reader to take action by implementing what they have learned and applying their new knowledge in some way. 

In short: Ask the reader to do something. 

What do you want the reader to do now? If you want them to think, act, or do something, tell them so at the end of your chapter.

It could be as simple as leaving a few questions for the readers to think about.

Here are some ways to add a call-to-action for your reader: #1 – Add reflection questions: “So, what’s one AHA! moment you got from reading this chapter?” #2 – Add action steps: “What is one small action you can take today after reading this chapter?”  #3 – Sign-up to my email list: “Do you still struggle with this (chapter problem)? Sign up to my email list, where I share more tips and strategies.” #4 – Get in touch: “If this (chapter problem) is a continuous challenge you are facing, feel free to reach out” (add email or any contact info) #5 – Buy: “If you’re interested in learning more about (chapter topic), consider buying these other books that focus on X.”

Once you’ve added your call to action, you can add a short transition to prepare your reader for your next chapter. 

Transitioning your reader to the next chapter gets them excited to keep reading, and it fully closes the loop on the information they just read. 

You can easily add some transition words and craft a 1-2 sentence that briefly covers what the next chapter will be about. 

Then, you can wrap up the entire chapter, and start the chapter writing process all over again!

Before you know it, your entire book will be written, and you’ll be preparing your finished manuscript for self-publishing .

Now that you have all the essentials on how to write a book chapter, it’s time to implement them!

Start sharing your stories and making the impact you’ve always wanted to make in the world through the power of your book. 

What other chapter techniques or strategies work for you?

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A step-by-step guide for creating and formatting APA Style student papers

The start of the semester is the perfect time to learn how to create and format APA Style student papers. This article walks through the formatting steps needed to create an APA Style student paper, starting with a basic setup that applies to the entire paper (margins, font, line spacing, paragraph alignment and indentation, and page headers). It then covers formatting for the major sections of a student paper: the title page, the text, tables and figures, and the reference list. Finally, it concludes by describing how to organize student papers and ways to improve their quality and presentation.

The guidelines for student paper setup are described and shown using annotated diagrams in the Student Paper Setup Guide (PDF, 3.40MB) and the A Step-by-Step Guide to APA Style Student Papers webinar . Chapter 1 of the Concise Guide to APA Style and Chapter 2 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association describe the elements, format, and organization for student papers. Tables and figures are covered in Chapter 7 of both books. Information on paper format and tables and figures and a full sample student paper are also available on the APA Style website.

Basic setup

The guidelines for basic setup apply to the entire paper. Perform these steps when you first open your document, and then you do not have to worry about them again while writing your paper. Because these are general aspects of paper formatting, they apply to all APA Style papers, student or professional. Students should always check with their assigning instructor or institution for specific guidelines for their papers, which may be different than or in addition to APA Style guidelines.

Seventh edition APA Style was designed with modern word-processing programs in mind. Most default settings in programs such as Academic Writer, Microsoft Word, and Google Docs already comply with APA Style. This means that, for most paper elements, you do not have to make any changes to the default settings of your word-processing program. However, you may need to make a few adjustments before you begin writing.

Use 1-in. margins on all sides of the page (top, bottom, left, and right). This is usually how papers are automatically set.

Use a legible font. The default font of your word-processing program is acceptable. Many sans serif and serif fonts can be used in APA Style, including 11-point Calibri, 11-point Arial, 12-point Times New Roman, and 11-point Georgia. You can also use other fonts described on the font page of the website.

Line spacing

Double-space the entire paper including the title page, block quotations, and the reference list. This is something you usually must set using the paragraph function of your word-processing program. But once you do, you will not have to change the spacing for the entirety of your paper–just double-space everything. Do not add blank lines before or after headings. Do not add extra spacing between paragraphs. For paper sections with different line spacing, see the line spacing page.

Paragraph alignment and indentation

Align all paragraphs of text in the body of your paper to the left margin. Leave the right margin ragged. Do not use full justification. Indent the first line of every paragraph of text 0.5-in. using the tab key or the paragraph-formatting function of your word-processing program. For paper sections with different alignment and indentation, see the paragraph alignment and indentation page.

Page numbers

Put a page number in the top right of every page header , including the title page, starting with page number 1. Use the automatic page-numbering function of your word-processing program to insert the page number in the top right corner; do not type the page numbers manually. The page number is the same font and font size as the text of your paper. Student papers do not require a running head on any page, unless specifically requested by the instructor.

Title page setup

Title page elements.

APA Style has two title page formats: student and professional (for details, see title page setup ). Unless instructed otherwise, students should use the student title page format and include the following elements, in the order listed, on the title page:

• Paper title.
• Name of each author (also known as the byline).
• Affiliation for each author.
• Course number and name.
• Instructor name.
• Assignment due date.
• Page number 1 in the top right corner of the page header.

The format for the byline depends on whether the paper has one author, two authors, or three or more authors.

• When the paper has one author, write the name on its own line (e.g., Jasmine C. Hernandez).
• When the paper has two authors, write the names on the same line and separate them with the word “and” (e.g., Upton J. Wang and Natalia Dominguez).
• When the paper has three or more authors, separate the names with commas and include “and” before the final author’s name (e.g., Malia Mohamed, Jaylen T. Brown, and Nia L. Ball).

Students have an academic affiliation, which identities where they studied when the paper was written. Because students working together on a paper are usually in the same class, they will have one shared affiliation. The affiliation consists of the name of the department and the name of the college or university, separated by a comma (e.g., Department of Psychology, George Mason University). The department is that of the course to which the paper is being submitted, which may be different than the department of the student’s major. Do not include the location unless it is part of the institution’s name.

Write the course number and name and the instructor name as shown on institutional materials (e.g., the syllabus). The course number and name are often separated by a colon (e.g., PST-4510: History and Systems Psychology). Write the assignment due date in the month, date, and year format used in your country (e.g., Sept. 10, 2020).

Title page line spacing

Double-space the whole title page. Place the paper title three or four lines down from the top of the page. Add an extra double-spaced blank like between the paper title and the byline. Then, list the other title page elements on separate lines, without extra lines in between.

Title page alignment

Center all title page elements (except the right-aligned page number in the header).

Title page font

Write the title page using the same font and font size as the rest of your paper. Bold the paper title. Use standard font (i.e., no bold, no italics) for all other title page elements.

Text elements

Repeat the paper title at the top of the first page of text. Begin the paper with an introduction to provide background on the topic, cite related studies, and contextualize the paper. Use descriptive headings to identify other sections as needed (e.g., Method, Results, Discussion for quantitative research papers). Sections and headings vary depending on the paper type and its complexity. Text can include tables and figures, block quotations, headings, and footnotes.

Text line spacing

Double-space all text, including headings and section labels, paragraphs of text, and block quotations.

Text alignment

Center the paper title on the first line of the text. Indent the first line of all paragraphs 0.5-in.

Left-align the text. Leave the right margin ragged.

Block quotation alignment

Indent the whole block quotation 0.5-in. from the left margin. Double-space the block quotation, the same as other body text. Find more information on the quotations page.

Use the same font throughout the entire paper. Write body text in standard (nonbold, nonitalic) font. Bold only headings and section labels. Use italics sparingly, for instance, to highlight a key term on first use (for more information, see the italics page).

Headings format

For detailed guidance on formatting headings, including headings in the introduction of a paper, see the headings page and the headings in sample papers .

• Alignment: Center Level 1 headings. Left-align Level 2 and Level 3 headings. Indent Level 4 and Level 5 headings like a regular paragraph.
• Font: Boldface all headings. Also italicize Level 3 and Level 5 headings. Create heading styles using your word-processing program (built into AcademicWriter, available for Word via the sample papers on the APA Style website).

Tables and figures setup

Tables and figures are only included in student papers if needed for the assignment. Tables and figures share the same elements and layout. See the website for sample tables and sample figures .

Table elements

Tables include the following four elements: 

• Body (rows and columns)
• Note (optional if needed to explain elements in the table)

Figure elements

Figures include the following four elements: 

• Image (chart, graph, etc.)
• Note (optional if needed to explain elements in the figure)

Table line spacing

Double-space the table number and title. Single-, 1.5-, or double-space the table body (adjust as needed for readability). Double-space the table note.

Figure line spacing

Double-space the figure number and title. The default settings for spacing in figure images is usually acceptable (but adjust the spacing as needed for readability). Double-space the figure note.

Table alignment

Left-align the table number and title. Center column headings. Left-align the table itself and left-align the leftmost (stub) column. Center data in the table body if it is short or left-align the data if it is long. Left-align the table note.

Figure alignment

Left-align the figure number and title. Left-align the whole figure image. The default alignment of the program in which you created your figure is usually acceptable for axis titles and data labels. Left-align the figure note.

Bold the table number. Italicize the table title. Use the same font and font size in the table body as the text of your paper. Italicize the word “Note” at the start of the table note. Write the note in the same font and font size as the text of your paper.

Figure font

Bold the figure number. Italicize the figure title. Use a sans serif font (e.g., Calibri, Arial) in the figure image in a size between 8 to 14 points. Italicize the word “Note” at the start of the figure note. Write the note in the same font and font size as the text of your paper.

Placement of tables and figures

There are two options for the placement of tables and figures in an APA Style paper. The first option is to place all tables and figures on separate pages after the reference list. The second option is to embed each table and figure within the text after its first callout. This guide describes options for the placement of tables and figures embedded in the text. If your instructor requires tables and figures to be placed at the end of the paper, see the table and figure guidelines and the sample professional paper .

Call out (mention) the table or figure in the text before embedding it (e.g., write “see Figure 1” or “Table 1 presents”). You can place the table or figure after the callout either at the bottom of the page, at the top of the next page, or by itself on the next page. Avoid placing tables and figures in the middle of the page.

Embedding at the bottom of the page

Include a callout to the table or figure in the text before that table or figure. Add a blank double-spaced line between the text and the table or figure at the bottom of the page.

Embedding at the top of the page

Include a callout to the table in the text on the previous page before that table or figure. The table or figure then appears at the top of the next page. Add a blank double-spaced line between the end of the table or figure and the text that follows.

Embedding on its own page

Embed long tables or large figures on their own page if needed. The text continues on the next page.

Reference list setup

Reference list elements.

The reference list consists of the “References” section label and the alphabetical list of references. View reference examples on the APA Style website. Consult Chapter 10 in both the Concise Guide and Publication Manual for even more examples.

Reference list line spacing

Start the reference list at the top of a new page after the text. Double-space the entire reference list (both within and between entries).

Reference list alignment

Center the “References” label. Apply a hanging indent of 0.5-in. to all reference list entries. Create the hanging indent using your word-processing program; do not manually hit the enter and tab keys.

Reference list font

Bold the “References” label at the top of the first page of references. Use italics within reference list entries on either the title (e.g., webpages, books, reports) or on the source (e.g., journal articles, edited book chapters).

Final checks

Check page order.

• Start each section on a new page.
• Arrange pages in the following order:
• Title page (page 1).
• Text (starts on page 2).
• Reference list (starts on a new page after the text).

Check headings

• Check that headings accurately reflect the content in each section.
• Start each main section with a Level 1 heading.
• Use Level 2 headings for subsections of the introduction.
• Use the same level of heading for sections of equal importance.
• Avoid having only one subsection within a section (have two or more, or none).

Check assignment instructions

• Remember that instructors’ guidelines supersede APA Style.
• Students should check their assignment guidelines or rubric for specific content to include in their papers and to make sure they are meeting assignment requirements.

Tips for better writing

• Ask for feedback on your paper from a classmate, writing center tutor, or instructor.
• Budget time to implement suggestions.
• Use spell-check and grammar-check to identify potential errors, and then manually check those flagged.
• Proofread the paper by reading it slowly and carefully aloud to yourself.
• Consult your university writing center if you need extra help.

About the author

Undergraduate student resources

Chapter Structure: How to Write the Perfect Chapter

by Lewis / September 7, 2020 / Story Structure

Chapters are something most readers overlook…

However, that’s not actually a bad thing. When done well, chapters should fade quietly into the background, subtly shaping your reader’s experience without ever being intrusive. On the other hand, when done poorly, chapter breaks can grind your novel to a halt, derailing any bit of tension your story might have had.

So, how do you create the perfect chapter? Well, the answer is a lot like many other elements of storytelling—through story structure. Specifically, by using chapter structure!

The Real Purpose of Chapters

• 1 The Real Purpose of Chapters
• 2.1 Creating a Chapter Funnel:
• 2.2 What About Cliffhangers?
• 3 How to Create Chapters in Your Own Novel
• 4 It’s All About Your Reader’s Experience!

Chapters are not the same as scenes.

This is a common misconception, and it’s one we need to do away with before we even begin discussing chapter structure. In fact, if you only remember one thing from this article, remember this—chapters can include anywhere from one to multiple scenes, so long as those scenes have some kind of logical connection.

If you’re unfamiliar with how scenes work, I recommend reading up on scene structure here.

Now, with that out of the way, what’s the real purpose of chapters?

Well, chapters are actually less about your story itself, and more about your reader’s experience. Chapters play a huge role in the pacing of your novel, but they also ensure your reader has natural pause points throughout your story, as well as a better idea of what’s important to your overall narrative.

When done well chapters are almost unnoticeable, but they still have a big influence on your finished novel. This brings us to the main question of this article—how do you create this kind of subtle, yet still effective chapter?

What is Chapter Structure?

When it comes to creating compelling chapters, the name of the game is chapter structure.

Overall, chapter structure is pretty similar to other forms of story structure , in that it acts as a loose guide for how to create chapters. However, for chapter structure specifically, this guide is less about shaping your story itself, and more about helping you organize that story for your readers. Again, chapter structure is all about shaping your readers’ experience.

This means that a well-structured chapter should fulfill a few requirements. It should:

• Help your reader keep track of the events of your story.
• Provide natural pausing points for your reader to leave and return to.
• Create a sense of suspense and urgency in your reader.
• And maintain a solid pacing that keeps your reader moving forward.

All of these help your reader engage with your novel in a more enjoyable, satisfying way.

Of course, chapter structure needs to be done well to be effective, and there are a variety of different chapter structures you could use. However, for the sake of this article, we’re going to focus on one specific type of chapter structure—chapter funnels.

Creating a Chapter Funnel:

I originally learned about chapter funnels—and chapter structure itself—years ago, after reading Libbie Hawker’s Take Off Your Pants.

“Think about it: first you have your character—a broad idea, and the character might go off in any direction. But next, he realizes that he wants something. He picks his direction. Something stands in his way, and the walls of the triangle begin to narrow. He struggles for what he wants, and the squeeze grows tighter. And finally, he either succeeds or fails—you reach the point of the triangle. Every single chapter in your book must have this same pattern.” – Libbie Hawker

This book has a lot of excellent information, and I highly recommend reading it, but the thing that stood out to me the most was this description of chapters. The more I thought about it, the more I realized Hawker was right! The best chapters are the ones that create this strong sense of forward momentum. Better yet, this can all be visualized through chapter funnels.

Specifically, you can think of this chapter funnel in terms of four levels.

Level One: Your protagonist begins the chapter full of potential. They can pursue a variety of different goals in a variety of different ways, making this the widest part of the funnel. Level Two: From there, their options narrow as they pick their path and pursue a specific goal. Level Three: Along the way they’ll face challenges that further narrow their options, until they eventually reach the culmination of that chapter. Level Four: Here they’ve hit the narrowest part of the funnel, where they’ll either succeed or fail in achieving their goal, before moving on to the next chapter.

At the end of Level Four, your protagonist will have reached some kind of outcome, and this outcome will directly result in the start of the next chapter. In this way, chapter structure looks a lot like scene structure, with each chapter feeding the goals of the next.

What About Cliffhangers?

Of course, all this talk of chapter funnel brings us to an important question:

What about cliffhangers?

Cliffhangers tend to be popular among many writers because they assume that, if the chapter ends on a cliffhanger, then their reader will have no choice but to keep reading. Basically, they view cliffhangers as a shortcut for creating a page-turning novel.

However, in reality, things aren’t quite that simple.

You see, cliffhangers are a valid part of chapter structure, but they really only work in one specific instance—when the narrowest part of your funnel (Level Four) is long and intense enough to justify becoming an entire chapter of its own. In this situation, you maintain your chapter’s overall structure, while cutting off the tip to use as its own dedicated chapter.

Obviously, most chapters can’t do this, meaning cliffhangers are best saved for major plot points like the Midpoint , Ordeal , or Climactic Moment. Otherwise, you just end up cutting your chapter short, and in the process you rob your readers of the satisfaction that comes from seeing a concrete outcome for that chapter.

I’ve talked about this before but, as a writer, you make a variety of promises to your readers —and your chapters are one of those. When you begin a new chapter, you’re promising your readers that you’ll resolve or reveal something by the time that chapter ends, and you need to keep that promise.

What this ultimately means is that, while cliffhangers are an excellent tool for adding tension to major scenes, they’re something you should always use in moderation—or risk losing your readers’ trust along the way.

How to Create Chapters in Your Own Novel

Now, with that said, how can you create chapters in your own novel?

This is something I talk about at length in The Ten Day Edit (which I recommend checking out if you’re serious about chapter structure) but I’ll recap the basics here. Essentially, chapters are something you only want to focus on once you’ve completed a solid round of self-editing. Once your story is in a good place, then you can look through your draft and start organizing your scenes into chapters.

Ask yourself—which scenes in your novel naturally fit together?

You’ll find these scenes based on their common goals.

For example, say your protagonist has been captured by your villain . In one scene, they’ll be trying to figure out where they are and what their options are. In the next, they might have found an escape route, and now need to develop a plan to reach it. Finally, they’ll put their plan into action and confront your villain’s henchman, before gaining their freedom at last.

As you can see, these three scenes naturally connect, because they all feed into a common goal—escaping the villain’s lair. This would be your chapter goal, and this should clue you into the fact that these three scenes are perfect candidates for being turned into a chapter.

With that said, you can go through a similar process for your own novel.

Skim through your manuscript and write down each of the scene goals you come across. Then, consider how these goals might connect. Which ones feed into larger goals, and which ones would work well as a chapter funnel? These will form the foundation of your novel’s chapters.

It’s All About Your Reader’s Experience!

As a final tip, I encourage you to ignore your chapters until you’re well into the editing process.

Ultimately, chapters shouldn’t affect how you write your novel—instead, they’re simply a way of organizing the story you’ve already written. In fact, I actually find that chapters can muddy my stories and make them harder to write, especially when I’m still working through my first draft.

Of course, chapter structure is still something you don’t want to overlook. Not only does this structure help improve and shape your readers’ experiences, but it can also strengthen every other aspect of your novel. At the end of the day, chapter structure is just one more important tool in your storytelling arsenal—one that I’m sure will serve you well! 🙂

How do you structure your chapters? Let me know in the comments!

Thoughts on chapter structure: how to write the perfect chapter.

Thank you for your invaluable assistance. Your info is so well structured and presented. Yvonne

Thanks Yvonne! 🙂

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7 Steps of Writing an Excellent Academic Book Chapter

Writing is an inextricable part of an academic’s career; maintaining lab reports, writing personal statements, drafting cover letters, research proposals, the dissertation—this list goes on. However, while these are considered as essentials during any research program, writing an academic book is a milestone every writer aims to achieve. It could either be your urge of authoring a book or you may have received an invite from a publisher to write a book chapter . In both cases, most researchers find it difficult to write an academic book chapter.

The questions that may arise when you plan on writing a book chapter are:

• Where do I start from?
• How do I even do this?
• What should be the length of book chapters?
• How should I link one chapter to the following chapter?

These questions are quite common when starting with your first book chapter. In this article, we’ll discuss the steps on how to write an excellent academic book chapter.

Table of Contents

What is an Academic Book Chapter?

An academic book chapter is defined as a section, or division, of a book. These are usually separated with a chapter number or title. A chapter divides the overall book topic into topic-specific sections. Furthermore, each chapter in a book is related to the overall theme of the book.

A book chapter allows the author to divide their work in parts for readers to understand and remember it easily. Additionally, chapters help create structure in your writing for a better flow of ideas.

How Long Should a Book Chapter be?

Typically, a non-fiction book chapter should be small and must only include information related to one major idea. However, since a non-fiction /academic book is around 50,000 to 70,000 words, and each book would comprise 10-20 chapters, each book chapter’s word limit should range between 3500 and 7000 words.

While there aren’t any standard rules to follow with respect to the length of a book chapter, it may vary depending on the genre of your writing. However, it is better to refer your publisher’s guidelines and write your chapters accordingly.

Difference between a Book Chapter and Thesis Chapter

What makes a book excellent are the book chapters that it comprises. Thus, the key to writing an excellent book is mastering the art of writing a book chapter . You’d think you could write a book easily because you’ve already written your dissertation. However, writing a book chapter is not the same as writing your thesis.

The image below shares 5 major differences between a book chapter and a thesis chapter:

How to Write a Book Chapter?

As writing a book chapter is the first milestone in your writing journey, it can be overwhelming and difficult to garner your thoughts and put them down on a sheet at once. It takes time and effort to gain momentum for accomplishing this mammoth task. However, proper planning followed by dedicated effort will make you realize that you were worrying over something trivial.

So let us make the process of writing a book chapter easier with these 7 steps.

Step 1: Collate Relevant Information

How would you even start writing a chapter if you do not have the necessary information or data? The first step even before you start writing is to review and collate all the relevant data that is necessary to formulate an informative chapter.

Since a chapter focuses on one major idea it should not include any gaps that perplexes the reader. Creating mind-maps help in linking different sources of information and compiling them to formulate a completely new chapter. As a result, you can structure your ideas to help with your analysis and see it visually. This process improves your understanding of the book’s theme.  More importantly, sort the ideas into a logical order of how you should present them in your chapter. This makes it easier to write the chapter without convoluting it.

Step 2: Design the Chapter Structure

After spending hours in brainstorming ideas and understanding the fundamentals that the chapter should cover, you must create a structured outline. Furthermore, following a standard format helps you stay on track and structure your chapter fluently.

Ideally, a well-structured chapter includes the following elements:

• A title or heading
• An interesting introduction
• Main body informative paragraphs
• A summary of the chapter
• Smooth transition to the next chapter

Even so, you may not restrict yourself to following only one structure; rather, add more or less to each of your chapters depending on your genre, writing style, and requirement of the chapter to maintain the book’s overall theme. Keep only relevant content in your chapter. Avoid content that causes the reader to go off on a tangent.

Step 3: Write an Appealing Chapter Title/Heading

How often have you put a book back on the book store’s shelf right after reading its title? Didn’t even bother to read the synopsis, did you? Likewise, you may have written the most impactful chapter, but what sense would it make if its title is not interesting enough. An impactful chapter title captures the reader’s attention. It’s basically the “first sight” rule!

Your chapter’s title/heading must trigger curiosity in the reader and make them want to read and learn more. Although this is the first element of a chapter, most writers find it easier to create a title/heading after completing the chapter.

Step 4: Build an Engaging Introduction

Now that you have captured the reader’s attention with your title/heading, it has obviously increased the readers’ expectations from the content. To keep them interested in your chapter, write an introduction that keeps them hooked on. You may use a narrative approach or build a fictional plot to grab the attention of the reader. However, ensure that you do not deviate from the main context of your chapter. Finally, writing an effective introduction will help you in presenting an overview of your chapter.

Some of the tricks to follow when writing an exceptional introduction are:

• Share an anecdote
• Create a dialogue or conversation
• Include quotations
• Create a fictional plot

Step 5: Elaborate on Main Points of the Chapter

Impactful title? Checked!

Interesting introduction? Checked!

Now is the time to dive in to the details imparting section of the chapter. Expand your opening statement and begin to explain your points in detail. More importantly, leave no space for speculation in the reader’s mind.

This section should answer the following questions of the reader:

• Why has the reader chosen to read your book?
• What do they need to know?
• Are their questions and doubts being resolved with the content of your chapter?

Ensure that you build each point coherently and follow a cohesive flow. Furthermore, provide statistical data, evidence-based information, experimental data, graphical presentations, etc. You could formulate these points into 4-5 paragraphs based on the details of your chapter. To ensure you structure these details coherently across the right number of paragraphs, calculate the number of paragraphs in your text here .

Step 6: Summarize the Chapter

As impactful was the entry, so should be the exit, right? The summary is the part where you are almost done. This section is a key takeaway for your readers. So, revisit your chapter’s main content and summarize it. Since your chapter has given a lot of information, you’d want the reader to remember the gist of it as they reach the end of your chapter. Hence, writing a concise summary that constitutes the crux of your chapter is imperative.

Step 7: Add a Call-to-Action & Transition to Next Chapter

This section comes at the extreme end of the book chapter, when you ask the reader to implement the learnings from the chapter. It is a way of applying their newly acquired knowledge. In this section, you can also add a transition from your chapter to the succeeding chapter.

So would you still have jitters while writing your book chapter? Are there any other strategies or steps that you follow to write one? Let us know in the comments section below on how these steps helped you in writing a book chapter .

Thank you I have got a full lecture for sure

Thank for the encouraging words

You have demystified the act of writing a book chapter. Thank you for your efforts.

Very informative

It has really helpful for beginners like me.

Very impactful and informative. Thank you 😊

Very informative and helpful to beginners like us. Thank you.

Thanks for this very informative article

You have made writing a book chapter seem very simple. I appreciate all of your hard work.

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How to Structure a Book Chapter So Readers Love the Pace of Your Novel

Zara Altair

Chapters are a practical way to break up a novel and create an effective overall story structure . You want your reader to stay with your story for 200 or more pages. Chapters give them a way to take a natural break from reading and come back refreshed and ready for more.

In the classic linear structure, the beginning of the chapter is balanced out by the end. The chapter alludes to the overall progression of the story and ties in the most relevant pieces of information. This is largely what keeps the reader’s interest during the slower parts of the book, and aids in building anticipation for new plot points or chapters.

Chapter breaks help control the pace of your story, and entice readers to continue.

What Is the Function of a Chapter?

What should be included in a chapter, what is chapter structure, how many chapters, words, and scenes should be in a novel, the chapter’s big job: pacing.

Each chapter builds a sequence in the framework of your story. You want your chapter to hit the right notes for its place in the story. Your chapter may be the focus of a major plot point, or it may transition the reader from one plot point toward the next.

Knowing where the chapter fits will help you keep the focus on moving the story forward. Using a chapter for major plot points increases tension, expands character development, and raises stakes as the story progresses.

Each major plot point in your novel is essential for building a story that avoids episodic repetition. The six key plot points are:

• Inciting incident
• First plot point
• Pinch point

Your chapter will mirror this progression on a smaller scale, containing its own version of each point to keep your reader moving forward.

As you write your chapter, create elements that point the story toward the next plot element.

There’s no secret formula for how to write a good chapter. What’s important is that you understand what makes a good chapter, and work towards that goal.

Every chapter gives your reader a sense of your story—the characters, setting, tone, and action—to guide them through the challenges, wins, and failures of your protagonist.

These guidelines will help you achieve chapters that work within your story framework so readers relate to your story.

There Are No Rules for Novel Chapters

Chapters are artificial breaks in a story created by the author. There are no hard and fast rules on how to create chapters, how many in a novel, or how long each chapter needs to be.

This article offers guidelines for creating natural breaks in your story, but in the end, how you use chapters is up to you because the writing process is individual for everyone.

Literary fiction writers may be creative in determining and structuring chapters. Many authors may find reader expectations useful for determining chapter length and the number of chapters.

That said, let’s look at some chapter conventions and how you may choose to address them in your novel.

Proactive and Reactive Scenes

One positive design pattern for structuring sequences in a story, whether scene-by-scene or chapter-by-chapter, is alternating proactive and reactive scenes.

Randy Ingermanson of The Snowflake Method considers these alternating scenes the building blocks of a good story.

In his words:

A Proactive Scene begins with a Goal, continues through most of the scene with Conflict, and concludes with a Setback. A Reactive Scene begins with a Reaction, continues through most of the scene with a Dilemma, and concludes with a Decision.

The way you write the scenes provides an anti-formulaic feel to the story.

A major benefit to using this approach to scene and chapter writing is that it automatically controls the story pacing. Chapter sequencing helps you keep your story flowing and keeps your reader reading.

1. Openings

The beginning of the chapter is the setup for what happens next. Get your reader into the story right away. The character has a goal. The chapter (scene) goal is something your character wants to accomplish now to reach the main story goal.

The main plot objective is hinted at. The character’s chapter dilemma adds to the tension as you reveal the consequences of their actions.

Starting the chapter in the middle of action, in medias res , is one of the best ways to bring your reader back into the story. After their break from the preceding chapter, you want them to jump right into what happens next.

2. Settings

Let your reader know how much time has elapsed since the last chapter. A simple phrase is enough. Use phrases like that afternoon , the next morning , two days later , and then jump into the story.

Ground your readers in the setting. Make sure it’s clear where your characters are. Are they in Mike’s flat? On the street? In the woods? By the shore? Add setting details to bring the setting to life.

A solid way to do this is through the chapter character’s five senses. He sees Mike’s dirty dishes. She jumps off the curb to avoid a careening drunk. He’s surrounded by the scent of pines and decaying leaves. The crashing waves obscured Joan’s cries for help.

You get the picture. Make sure the setting becomes real for your reader.

3. Conflict and Obstruction

Whatever your chapter character’s goal, you create something that obstructs their progress. The potential outcome of the conflict creates tension. Tension keeps readers turning pages.

Assign the typical obstacles to success to keep the tension level high. Early in the chapter action, decide what needs to happen as a result of the conflict. How will the character respond? Will the hero succeed or fail? What are the consequences of success or failure? What emotional reaction will your character have?

The chapter ending is the most important part of a chapter because it (usually) decides which way your book will go. It can be a cliffhanger, an emotional breakdown, or just something small to reassure the reader. It’s when they realize their patience has been rewarded.

Approach the chapter ending with the idea of tantalizing the reader to continue. Here are a few suggestions of traditional methods to end a chapter:

Promise : Hint or foreshadow what will happen next in the story.

Resolution : Look back or review what has happened before. Summarizing what preceded the chapter end refreshes the events in the reader’s mind. Especially after a big decision or the conclusion of a problem, this helps the reader wonder about what will come.

Cliffhanger : A phrase that comes from old serialized stories, where the character ends up in a dire situation at the end of an episode. Use them sparingly.

Story Change : The end of a time period or a point of view. The following chapter may be several years later or be told from a different character’s point of view.

5. Events and Action

Whether the action in your chapter is a battle, a fight scene, or a character making a decision, lead your reader through as though your chapter were a mini-story. Create a beginning with a character goal, a middle with conflict and results, and an end that hints at what comes next.

Here’s a quick reference for the sequence of events:

Entering emotional state of the point-of-view character

Character objective : What do they want?

Conflict : What impedes them from what they want?

Motive for antagonism : Some understanding of the other characters’ motivations

Character’s worldview : What belief system is he/she operating in?

Tactic : What actions the character takes in the scene to achieve their objective (remember, dialogue is action)

Turn : Does the character get what they want in the scene? What comes out of the conflict? What causes their emotions to change?

Objective achieved : Yes or no?

Exiting emotional state : If not the opposite of the entering emotional state, it must at least be different

How you structure your chapter is crucial to your story’s pacing and how you maintain reader interest. Once you’ve decided how many chapters make up your story and how long they are, you’ll want to structure the chapters to keep the story moving.

Think of a chapter as a mini-story within the larger scope of the novel. Remember, there are no rules for chapters, but thinking about structure will help you navigate your chapter construction and the breaks within your story.

First, list the chapter components to get an overview of what happens in the chapter.

Chapter theme or big idea

Characters involved in the chapter

Chapter setting(s)

What happens at the beginning of the chapter?

What happens during the middle of the chapter?

What happens at the end of the chapter?

What is the most important moment in the chapter? (the conflict)

How does the chapter tie into the overall story?

This list could help outline what you want to include when writing the chapter.

Organize the elements—conflict, character motivation, physical description of the setting, action of the whole chapter, tone, language—so the story flows through the goal, conflict, win or lose, and aftermath. These are just some things you’ll consider as you plan your chapter.

You want to consider how many scenes you’ll have in the chapter. Will the entire chapter consist of one scene? Or will you use several scenes to lead the reader through the goal, conflict, and resolution facing your character in the chapter?

Will the chapter end with a cliffhanger, foreshadowing the events in the next chapter, or simply continue the story you want the reader to follow?

How Many Chapters?

Chapters are not a requirement. Some authors have no chapters, like Cormac McCarthy’s The Road . But others may have 50 chapters or more.

Many readers use a chapter break as an opportunity to leave the book to do something else (most readers will not get through a complete novel in one sitting). When they return, they resume reading a new chapter.

The average number of chapters is about a dozen. But, genre expectations will vary.

The number of chapters in your novel is entirely up to you.

How Many Words?

A chapter doesn’t have an official length, and you may want to consider some shorter chapters mixed in with a few longer chapters.

Chapter page count can vary in length between just a couple of pages and 50 or 60. I’ve seen one-page chapters. Somewhere around the 20-page mark is about the average, which works out to about 5,000 words. Your genre may serve as a guideline for chapter length.

How Many Scenes?

The most important element of a novel is the story. The number of scenes in a novel is a great measure of the richness of your story. However, scenes are also a structural component of a novel. Working out what the right number of scenes are will have a major impact on your book.

You tell your story scene by scene. Some scenes may be several hundred words and others may be several thousand.

The more action there is, the shorter the scene should be. On the other hand, readers can lose interest if your narrative scene runs long without action and dialogue.

As your novel progresses, your storyline will take twists and turns. A well-structured chapter break allows the reader to pause and catch their breath. Your goal for a chapter is to provide a brief pause in the action, refresh the reader’s memory about what has happened again, and then return subtly to the main storyline.

Pacing refers to how fast or slow the story is moving for the reader . You determine the length, how much information to include, and how many questions you raise for your reader.

More information slows the pace because the reader has to mentally slow down to absorb it all. Dialogue and action speed the pace as your reader rushes through the interchange between characters.

When you vary the depth of emotional conflict in each scene, you control the pacing of the story.

If every scene contains high emotional conflict, your story becomes melodrama, and the reader finds the story unbelievable. The story fails to resonate as truthful. This is true when a character overreacts emotionally to a minor incident.

Getting the pacing right can be difficult, but ProWritingAid’s Pacing Report can help by highlighting slow-paced paragraphs so you can balance introspection with action and get an overview of your pacing.

Just Start Writing

The best part about the writing process is that you can always edit later. Get your ideas down, and work out if they are in the right place later. Your number of chapters might go up or down as you edit—what’s most important is to do what’s best for your story. Happy writing!

Are you prepared to write your novel? Download this free book now:

The Novel-Writing Training Plan

So you are ready to write your novel. excellent. but are you prepared the last thing you want when you sit down to write your first draft is to lose momentum., this guide helps you work out your narrative arc, plan out your key plot points, flesh out your characters, and begin to build your world..

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Zara Altair writes traditional mysteries set in ancient Italy under Ostrogoths rule in The Argolicus Mysteries. She teaches mystery screenwriters and novelists at Write A Killer Mystery. She creates semantic web content for a select clientele.

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Structure of a novel: How to write a chapter

The structure of a novel is important because it contributes to the clarity and flow of your story. Chapter structure is satisfying when the beginning, development and end contribute equally to the whole. Read 7 tips to write well-structured chapters, including examples from great fiction:

• Post author By Jordan
• 20 Comments on Structure of a novel: How to write a chapter

First, what do book chapters do?

It’s easy enough to read a short story in a single sitting. It might take place in a single house in a single small town. Maybe it shows a character planning a party (or hiding a body). In a longer work of fiction, chapter breaks serve important purposes:

• They give the reader space to pause and digest the information of the preceding chapter or scene.
• They signal transition: A change in story location, a character embarking on a new goal, or the closing of one story arc and the start of another.

Dividing your story into related sections that make sequential sense gives readers a more structured, digestible experience.

Just as you should structure individual scenes well , you should apply this focus to your broader chapters.

Here are 7 useful ideas for how to structure a novel:

1. Use thematically relevant titles that connect to your story

Titles give cohesion to novels and short stories. Many authors don’t use chapter titles, and some novels don’t have chapter breaks at all, using unstructured presentation for creative effect.

For example, a book about a character losing their mind might begin with clear chapter structure , only to become disjointed to reflect the protagonist’s emotional state.

Chapter titles can contribute useful structure, however. A title may:

• Hint what the coming chapter is about
• Summarise (overtly or subtly) important themes or ideas in your story
• Give useful information (such as a date or geographic location), helping the reader to understand where (or when) the events of your chapter occur

Consider this example: E. Annie Proulx’s Pulitzer-winning novel, The Shipping News  (1993).

Proulx’s story follows the trials of Quoyle, a reporter who moves with his children to the island of Newfoundland following a disastrous relationship.

Many of Proulx’s chapter titles are structured around the maritime themes of the novel. Several chapters are named after knots traditionally used by sailors.

The second chapter, ‘Love Knot’, for example, details Quoyle’s disastrous relationship with his children’s mother, Petal Bear. The chapter title is excellent because it conveys what the chapter will be about (difficult, i.e. ‘knotty’ love).

Proulx extends the implications of her title further with a subtitle in italics explaining what a ‘love knot’ is:

In the old days a love-sick sailor might send the object of his affections a length of fishline loosely tied in a true-lover’s knot. If the knot was sent back as it came the relationship was static. If the knot returned home snugly drawn up the passion was reciprocated. But if the knot was capsized – tacit advice to ship out.

Chapter title and subtitle thus give us a good indication of what to expect.

2. Use chapter titles to structure your story in different ways

In a guest post for Helping Writers Become Authors, Bryan Wiggins outlines 3 crucial purposes of chapter names :

1. Attracting the attention of readers 2. Finding and emphasizing each chapter’s focus 3. Orienting your fictional world and creating signposts that guide readers through your story.

There are many different ways to name chapters.

A literary novel that doesn’t have any singular important theme or location might simply have numbered chapters.

If, however, your novel is a historical epic spanning multiple countries and continents, consider beginning each chapter with the setting/location: ‘Paris, France’ or ‘Boston, Massachussets’. This immediately anchors the story to a particular place.

In novels where point of view (or POV) alternates between characters, you can start each chapter with the name of the character who is telling the story. This is what Faulkner does in As I Lay Dying  (more on Faulkner’s chapter structure below).

This device immediately indicates who is narrating. It leaves you free to use the first person without having to identify the narrator continuously.

In Michael Cunningham’s A Home at the End of the World, a novel about a triangular relationship between two men and a woman, this titling approach is used to present each different character’s desires, fears, and perceptions of the others.

Alternatively you can use chapter titles to draw readers’ attention to important themes or events.

In Virginia Woolf’s famous novel To the Lighthouse , a central section written from the point of view of time is simply called ‘Time Passes’. Each chapter within the section is then numbered starting from 1.

3. Start a chapter in a story with structure-enhancing links

Besides using titles, you can also structure your chapters by paying careful attention to how they start, develop and end.

Consider this example of a well structured book:

In Toni Morrison’s Pulitzer-winning novel Beloved  (1987), the first chapter begins ‘124 was spiteful.’ This brief opening sentence is echoed in the opening of the book’s middle section: ‘124 was loud’.

Each of these chapter openings echoes each other, referring to the street number of the house that is the setting for much of the story. This recurring opening structure creates a sense of something cyclical and menacing.

This mirrored opening structure mimics something cyclical about the nature of ghosts (a fundamental symbol of the story) and trauma (specifically, in Beloved , the trauma of slavery). The structure draws our attention to the cyclical effects of major personal and historical trauma, as it returns to take its toll.

Think of echoes you can create backwards and forwards through your story by structuring chapter openings around recurring ideas, symbols or themes (e.g. love, loss, renewal, tyranny, etc.)

4. Think about how long each chapter should be

Short, action-heavy chapters help to speed up the pace . Longer, reflective chapters that linger over setting or historical description give the reader a breather.

Longer chapters can make your story lose a sense of direction if they’re unfocused. To avoid this, make sure you structure longer chapters around pivotal character goals, encounters and developments. Make sure every scene has a specific purpose for your overarching story.

The length of a chapter should suit its purpose. A brief chapter that is only a page long (or even just a paragraph or two) can be used to poetic or dramatic effect, reinforcing the significance of an event. Unless the plot requires otherwise, aim for shorter rather than longer chapters. Many readers will appreciate being given manageable chunks of your story as opposed to an overwhelming slab of text.

Consider the following example from William Faulkner’s acclaimed novel,  As I Lay Dying  (1930).

The novel describes the Bundren family’s quest to bury their mother Addie in her hometown of Jefferson, MIssissippi, after she dies. 15 different characters narrate the story over its 59 chapters. Some chapters are as short as a page. For example, a chapter narrated by the eldest Bundren son, Cash, is only 13 points in a numbered list, as Cash describes how he made Addie’s coffin:

I made it on the bevel. 1. There is more surface for the nails to grip. 2. There is twice the gripping-surface to each seam. 3. The water will have to seep into it on a slant. Water moves easiest up and down or straight across.

The short, list-structured chapter is effective for multiple reasons:

• It shows Cash’s methodical, responsible nature and ability as a carpenter
• It shows the single-minded focus and care the family take over Addie’s burial preparations.

Faulkner gives us two crucial story elements in his concise, structured chapter. We get insight into Cash’s thoughtful and methodical character and a vital quest object – the casket the family ferries, through great hardship, to Mississippi.

Play with chapter length. Structure your chapters so that they cover exactly what they need to move us from scene to scene and goal to goal.

5. Vary the length of your chapters for interesting novel structure

There’s no single perfect chapter length. A lot depends on your genre. In a murder mystery or thriller, a chapter lasting 27 pages that includes extensive setting description will reduce pace. Long, meandering chapters might convey epic historical time, whereas shorter chapters keep the pace taut and tense, the time now .

One of the best ways to keep scenes interesting is to vary sentence length. Short sentences stand out. Longer sentences can be lyrical or can communicate something  shorter ones can’t. The same structural principles apply to chapters. Vary their length according to the tone and overall effect you want to achieve. Is a team of crack policemen closing in on the perpetrator in your crime novel? Shorter chapters at this pivotal time can create a sense of mounting tension, threat and anticipation. To recap, the ideal length of your chapter depends on:

• Your genre and its conventions
• The pace and mood you want to create

6: Think about broader structure alongside individual chapters

When creating an outline or revising your novel for better flow and structure, think about the broad structure of your novel. Also think about the internal structure of individual chapters.

To create great internal chapter structure:

a) Begin with purpose and direction

The start of a chapter serves several important functions:

• Roping the reader into the scene
• Creating continuity or a shift from the previous section (a change in point of view, time period, setting or style)
• Giving readers an idea of what the focus of the next part of your story will be

A strong chapter opening is key, especially at the start of your novel. Chuck Wendig at Terrible Minds states that the first line is all important because if the reader says ‘that line was so damn good I’m in for the next 50 pages’, there is immediate commitment. Wendig makes a great analogy when he says ‘A good opening line is a stone in our shoe that we cannot shake.’ He describes the first chapter of a book as ‘the gateway drug to the second chapter’.

There are multiple ways to begin a chapter:

1. Starting i n medias res (in the thick of action). This can avoid unnecessary introductory waffle that bores readers. As Glen Strathy says, ‘Too often, novice writers start their stories with unnecessary preamble that bores a reader and makes him stop reading.’

2. Scene-setting – Beginning with a vividly painted scene is useful (particularly in genres such as historical romance) as it helps readers obtain a mental picture of an unfamiliar place and/or era.

3. Beginning a chapter with dialogue creates immediate questions that beg answers: ‘Who is speaking? What are they talking about? What is their relationship?’ Good dialogue thus creates a great pull towards further discovery.

When beginning a chapter, ask yourself these questions:

• Do I have a strong enough hook to make the chapter appealing?
• Does it follow on from the previous chapter logically (will readers be able to follow the story’s thread from chapter to chapter?)
• Do I have a clear sense of what the chapter should contribute to the story?

Consider writing a brief two-line summary before you start each chapter.

For a revenge saga, for example, you might write ‘In this chapter the reader will learn the villain’s motivation for killing the main character’s family’.

Having a guiding sense of purpose will help you avoid wasting time writing scenes you’ll axe in your final draft.

b) Ensure your chapter develops satisfyingly

A well structured chapter edifies us about the story to come. We are further along the story arc by the time the chapter is over, even if all that means is we know more about Cash’s personality (to return to the Faulkner example) and the vital features of his mother’s lovingly-made casket. To structure your chapter’s development, ask:

• What chain of events does the chapter’s opening set in motion?
• What changes might take place in the ‘5 Ws’ of story (who, what, why, where, or when) as the chapter unfolds?

c) Write an ending that strengthens chapter structure

Ending chapters is often challenging. Once you have momentum going, it can be hard to leave off a scene. Aaron Elkins, at Writer’s Digest, suggests splitting a story into chapters  whenever a story shift occurs. Says Elkin, ‘Changes of place, changes of time and changes of point of view are all excellent places for chapter breaks.’

Here are some places where it makes sense to create a break. Some might seem more obvious than others:

• Just before the climax of a significant story arc: This is a classic trick of the thriller and mystery novel. Just when the reader has reached a tense moment she has to turn the page.
• After the climax of a significant event: If you have given the reader unrelenting tension and eventfulness, bringing a minor arc to an end provides an ideal moment to let the reader relax before new intrigues begin.
• Immediately after a development between two characters: An ending creates a sense of significance around it. A character might tell a secondary character fact about themselves or their history. By creating a pause with a chapter break, you signal to the reader that this information was important.

7. Use outlines and other organising tools

When it comes to creating story structure, an outline is extremely useful .

Being able to think of chapters as summary-form story units that you can move around as you want gives you freedom to move around the story’s parts.

Vladimir Nabokov, for example, wrote on index cards and would rearrange the chapters he wrote by shuffling the cards until he found a sequence that made sense as a whole.

Make time-lines for individual scenes and individual chapters, distilling the events of each unit into a few words. This is a very useful exercise when you have finished writing a first draft and want to knit your story together more precisely.

Whatever approach you use to structure and arrange chapters, planning what each chapter will cover before you start will give your story a sense of direction and purpose Understanding how to write a chapter well will help readers fall into the rhythm of your novel.

Want better structure in your story? Use the Now Novel dashboard to build a structured idea of your premise, characters, plot, setting and more in easy steps.

Related Posts:

• How to write the first chapter of a book: 7 ideas
• How to write chapters: Create a compelling Chapter 3
• How to write a book chapter: 7 popular novels' insights
• Tags chapter structure , how to write a chapter

Jordan is a writer, editor, community manager and product developer. He received his BA Honours in English Literature and his undergraduate in English Literature and Music from the University of Cape Town.

20 replies on “Structure of a novel: How to write a chapter”

I think the best writing advice I’ve found on writing chapters is contained within this post 😉 Honestly, I’ve not seen this topic covered in many text books.

I guess this approach focuses on creating a structure, not dissimilar to scene structure, but which operates discreetly to control pacing, progression, and so forth. Sharing this – it’s excellent!

Thanks so much for the kind feedback, Adrian. I’m glad you found this post useful! Thanks for sharing too. Yes I think structure can achieve all kinds of interesting effects, we often focus on the words themselves to the exclusion of considering structure and other equally important elements.

As always, interesting concepts to try and perhaps use. Personally I have always found when reading a novel that chapter titles tend to make the story more like a screenplay.

Thanks, Bob. Fair point – not everyone enjoys a very visible type of structuring. Thank you for reading and sharing your thoughts.

Thanks for the post I really enjoyed it and learnt a lot on the structuring chapters

I’m glad to hear it. Thanks for reading and for the feedback.

Thank you so much for this post. It is awesomely compact! Very educational. Now, I feel confident to pick up my pen and face my story.

That’s great to hear, Dera. It’s a pleasure! Good luck with your story.

Thanks for this useful information. I have three main protaganists who I alternate consistently through the novel and the book is structured over thirteen months. I was not sure whether each month was a chapter or each change in POV. This info has helped me decide. It will be POV.

Hi Carla, it’s a pleasure. I’m glad this was useful to your curent novel! That’s a classic strategy and works very well for creating a multi-voiced novel, in my opinion. Good luck as you proceed further.

This is super! Wonderful examples!

That’s great to hear, L.A. Thank you for reading!

This is an excellent article, thank you for posting it. I’ll now concentrate more on structure before diving into the detail of writing. It makes the daunting process of writing a novel more manageable.

Hi Alan, it’s a pleasure – thank you for reading it and taking the time to share feedback. Have fun with your current WIP and all the best for 2022!

thanks a lot as i am writing my first novel and i hope everyone will like it as i take your thoughts as my actions and at the right time i got this msg thanks to your thoughts all the best pls do post more like this for young writers like me

Hi Amru, it’s great you’re writing your first novel. Good luck and thanks for reading our blog. You’ll find other young writers to share mutual feedback with in our free critique forums.

I’m lucky to have found this post. I find it very useful and thanks for the sharing it.

Hi Chinenye, thank you for your kind feedback and for reading our blog, I’m glad you found this article useful.

This post has, in my opinion, the best writing advice I’ve come across for creating chapters. To be honest, I haven’t seen many textbooks address this subject.

This method, I suppose, is centered on developing a structure that functions covertly to regulate pacing, progression, and other aspects, much like scene structure. I’m sharing this because it’s great!

Thanks so much for writing in Purav, your comments are appreciated. So pleased that you have found the blog post super useful!

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Dissertations: Writing Chapters

• Choosing a topic
• Research Proposal
• Reviewing the literature
• Introductions & Conclusions

Writing Chapters

• Wrapping Up
• Abstracts & Summaries
• Managing Expectations

As part of your dissertation you will find that you need to write different types of chapters. In this guide we take you through those types, how to structure them. how to write them and some dos and dont's. Click on the links below to jump to the section you need.

• Writing a methodology chapter

Writing a results chapter

• Writing a discussion chapter

Writing a Methodology Chapter

What is a dissertation methodology.

• Structuring your methodology
• Dos and don’ts

A well-written methodology chapter is essential in establishing the credibility and validity of your research, as it allows other researchers to reproduce your study and build upon your findings . In this guide, we will provide you with step-by-step instructions on how to write a comprehensive and well-organized methodology chapter that will effectively communicate the methodology you used in your research. 

• The methodology explains your methodological approach and explains what you did and how , and why .
• The methodology section allows the reader to critically evaluate a study's overall credibility . 
• The purpose is to give another researcher enough information to replicate the study and obtain similar results.
• Methods and methodology are not synonyms (overarching approach vs  specific tools and procedures used to collect and analyse data).

The methodology chapter, as any other chapters of your dissertation except the introduction and conclusion chapters, consists of 3 main sections: introduction, main body and conclusion/summary.

[Adapted from: Succeeding with your Master’s Dissertation: A step-by-step handbook ]

The sections included in the main body depend on the type of research and the type of dissertation. For example:

• In the traditional dissertation , it is commonly a separate chapter preceding the Results chapter.
• In topic-based dissertations , the Methodology chapter might have a different title such as ‘Conducting Research’.
• In experiment-based or dissertations by compilation , each study or experiment might contain its own methodology or methods section. 

Step 1: Explain your research design/approach

This commonly includes a restatement of the research aim(s) , a justification of choice of research methods , overview of specific method(s) used .

Step 2: Explain your methods of data collection

This involves explaining how the research was conducted and how the data were obtained . It requires a detailed description of processes and procedures and a justification of the reasons for doing so . This might include describing:

• How was the data collection tool designed
• How participants were obtained and how was the sample drawn
• The location in which the data collection took place
• The themes covered during the data collection or any variables and measures
• Any piloting, adjustments made and reasons behind those
• Ethical considerations and any obstacles faced and how those were addressed

Step 3: Explain your methods of data analysis

This involves explaining how you processed and analysed the data. However, do not start discussing the results unless you are combining results and discussion into one chapter (commonly seen in qualitative research). For example, you might want to include:

• How you prepared the data before analysis (e.g., checking for missing data, removing outliers)
• The software used to analyse the data (e.g., SPSS, Atlas.ti)
• The methods used to analyse the data (e.g., regression analysis, thematic analysis)

[Adapted from: https://www.scribbr.co.uk/thesis-dissertation/methodology/ AND Thesis and Dissertation Writing in a Second Language: A Handbook for Students and their Supervisors ] 

For more information on language used in methodology chapters have a look at our page  Language used in dissertations . 

Writing a Results Chapter

• What is a results chapter?
• Structuring your results
• Presenting your results
• Using tables & figures

The results chapter is a crucial section of any piece of research, as it presents and interprets the findings obtained from the study. This chapter allows you to communicate the outcomes of your investigation, analyse the data, and draw meaningful conclusions . Crafting an effective results chapter requires careful planning, organization, and attention to detail. This guide aims to provide you with a step-by-step approach to writing a results chapter that effectively communicates your research findings.

• The results section of your dissertation is where you report the findings of your study based upon the information gathered as a result of the methodology you applied.
• The results section should simply state the findings , without bias or interpretation, and arranged in a logical sequence . 
• The results section should always be written in the past tense . 
• The page length of this section is set by the amount and types of data to be reported. Try to be concise and use non-textual elements .
• Avoid providing data that is not critical to answering the research question(s). 

The results chapter, as any other chapters of your dissertation except the introduction and conclusion chapters, consists of 3 main sections: introduction, main body and conclusion/summary.

Introduction

This might include:

• A brief reminder of the methodological approach or methods.
• A preview of the chapter: outline the organisation and state the scope (What is included? How is the chapter organised?)

The order of results can vary.  Some suggestions are:

• From most important to least important.
• As a logical response to the research questions or problems you are trying to answer or solve.  
• If you are using a range of methods or a number of experimental elements , group the method/procedure together with the relevant results. 
• In quantitative research , the descriptive statistics are generally presented first, then the results of each of the hypotheses or research questions that were tested.
• The information in the results section should be organised to show how the data tests the research questions or hypotheses , and should be presented sequentially to respond to each research question or hypothesis.

Conclusion or Chapter Summary

• A brief summary of the key results.
• Signpost how these will be discussed in the following chapter (leads to your discussion chapter).

Describe the findings of the study, but do not start to interpret the results . This will take place in the discussion section, which comes next, unless you decide to combine results and discussion, which is common in qualitative research.

Presenting Qualitative Results

• Structure your results around key themes .
• For each theme, make general observations about what the data showed.
• Support these points with direct quotations .
• If possible, include a brief conclusion (‘so what?’) to the observation and highlight any links with other findings.
• Repeat this process as many times as necessary.
• Further information can be included in an appendix .

Presenting Quantitative Results

• Structure your results around your research sub-questions .
• For each sub-question, present the relevant results , including any statistical analysis you conducted, and briefly evaluate their significance. 
• Highlight the most important trends , differences, and relationships among the data, but do not speculate on their meaning or consequences.
• If you have results that are not directly relevant to answering your questions, or any extra information that will help the reader understand how you gathered the data, you can include them in an appendix .

The description of tables and figures in academic written texts commonly includes two different elements:

• Location or summary statement: identifies the table or figure and indicates its content.
• Highlighting statement or statements: point out and describe the relevant or significant data.

Dos and don'ts of using tables and figures

For more information on the language used in results chapters see the Language section of this guide.

You can use the checklist below to ensure your results chapter includes all relevant information:

Writing a Discussion Chapter

What is a discussion chapter.

• Structuring your discussion
• Dos and don'ts

The discussion chapter of a dissertation is an essential component that showcases your ability to analyse and interpret your research findings, draw meaningful conclusions, and provide valuable insights into the broader academic and practical implications of your study. This guide aims to provide you with a comprehensive overview of how to write a compelling and well-structured discussion chapter that strengthens the overall impact of your dissertation.

• Explains what the results mean;
• Interprets and discusses the data;
• Compares it with other research (literature review);
• Evaluates its importance;
• Points out the limitations of your research;
• Raises questions for future directions .

Tip: When writing your discussion chapter, you might want to revisit your literature review chapter and ensure that the relevant literature included in this chapter has been already presented in the Literature Review.

The discussion chapter, as any other chapters of your dissertation except the introduction and conclusion chapters, consists of 3 main sections: introduction, main body and conclusion/summary.

[Adapted from: Succeeding with your Master’s Dissertation: A step-by-step handbook ]  

Your discussion should focus on explaining and evaluating your findings, displaying their connection to the previous literature (i.e., your literature review ) and research questions , as well as presenting a persuasive argument to support your overall conclusion.  While there are many different ways to write this section, you can focus your discussion around three key aspects:

• Interpretations: What is the meaning behind the results?
• Implications: Why do the results matter? Why are the results relevant?
• Limitations: What can’t the results tell us? What are the constraints or limitations of the results in terms of what they can reveal?

This can be done following the 5 steps below:  

Step 1: Summarise your findings

You can begin this section by reiterating your research problem and providing a succinct overview of your main findings. Do not just repeat all the data that you have already reported in the previous chapter, instead present a clear statement that directly addresses your research questions.

Step 2: Interpret your findings

While the significance of your results may appear apparent to you, it is crucial to explicitly articulate their importance for your reader by demonstrating how they directly address your research question. The manner in which you interpret the data will vary depending on the type of research conducted. However, some common approaches to interpreting the data include:

• Recognizing correlations, patterns, and relationships within the data
• Analysing whether the results align with your expectations or support your hypotheses
• Placing your findings within the context of prior research and established theories
• Elucidating unexpected results and assessing their significance
• Considering alternative explanations and presenting a compelling argument in favour of your position.

Step 3: Place your findings in context (literature review)

A helpful way to place your findings within context and identifying how your findings agree or disagree with the previous literature is to use a summary table such as the one below:

This can result in a paragraph like: The importance of timely feedback in block has also been stressed by students and faculty as one of the reasons as to why single assessments at the end of the module, and more specifically exams, are the least accurate method in block delivery. Although exams were considered by some participants as necessary in certain disciplines, participants agreed that this assessment type does not show knowledge depth as indicated by Dang et al. (2022) and students might receive limited or no feedback as highlighted by Race (2015). Therefore, incorporating frequent and a variety of assessments with timely feedback into block delivery could enhance student learning outcomes and improve the accuracy of assessments.

Step 4: Acknowledge the limitations

Every piece of research has limitations and acknowledging these is crucial for establishing the credibility of the study. The purpose of discussing these limitations is not to highlight errors, but rather to provide an accurate understanding of the conclusions that can and cannot be drawn from the study, as well as to highlight further areas for research on the topic. Limitations might relate to your research design, methodological choices, or unforeseen challenges encountered during the research process. Here are some examples:

• If the sample size was small or limited to a specific group of individuals, it is necessary to explain how the generalizability of the findings is constrained.
• If difficulties were encountered during data collection or analysis, it is important to elucidate how these challenges might have impacted the results.
• If there are potential confounding variables that could not be controlled, it is essential to acknowledge the potential effects they might have had.

[Adapted from: https://www.scribbr.co.uk/thesis-dissertation/discussion/ ]

For more information on the language used in discussions, have a look at our  Language used in dissertations guide

Further Reading

Journal of Suffolk Student Research

The Journal of Suffolk Student Research is an online academic journal, dedicated to the publication of high-quality undergraduate and postgraduate student research undertaken by University of Suffolk students. The journal will showcase the most outstanding student research undertaken at the University of Suffolk. It aims to promote and recognise this outstanding student research by offering valuable early experience of academic publishing and the peer review process. 

Find out more here

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Chapter by Chapter Outline Template for Writing Engaging Novels

A novel can take anywhere from a few months to several years to finish depending on the author. For students and novice writers, the process is daunting and difficult to start. The length of a novel makes it necessary for authors to plan out their novel before sitting down and writing it.

Outlining a novel helps the author think through what parts of the story should be included and what parts need more attention. It can also help authors plan out any subplots. A good outline for any novel helps the author plan out the entire novel and helps the author make sure they don’t miss any key points. Outlines can help reduce writer’s block . It can also help the writer to know what characters are needed next.

Outlining a novel can be immensely helpful for many reasons. For one, it can help you plan and organize your story before getting into the meat of the narrative. Additionally, outlining can help you to plan out conversations and scenes without having to think too hard about all the details such as what should happen at this point in time and who will say what.

An outline is usually created before the first draft of a novel. It can help writers to plan out their plot and characters.  The three major benefits of outlining a novel are the ability to have a clear view of your plot, being sure you have some sort of plan and having an idea of what you want to get out of your story. A plot outline gives you the chance to get a clear view of what is going on in your novel and not get lost in the details. This way you will know how everything ties together and can make sure that everything has been thought about. Having a clear view of your novel will also make it easier to know whether or not you have enough time to write it.

Chapter by chapter outlines are one of the most popular ways to create an outline for a novel. This is because chapters are easier to digest than reading all hundred pages of a rough draft. However, some writers prefer to outline their book by making notes on index cards or on pieces of paper so they can rearrange them as they go along.

The process for outlining a novel is different for every writer, but it’s always important that you have one before you start drafting your story.

This guide is intended for writers who want to create an engaging novel. This chapter by chapter outline template will help writers decide what should be included in the novel, which chapters should follow other chapters, and how to make the novel coherent:

Chapter One:

The Introduction: This is where you will introduce your character, begin creating a world where your character lives, and begin their backstory.

Chapter Two:

The Inciting Event: This is a pivotal moment in any story where you find out what’s changing the status quo and why. However, this isn’t just for romance novels! For example, suppose your protagonist finds himself or herself involved with some sort of conflict resolution (such as solving crimes). In that case, this could be an essential point during their journey to kick off onto victory road towards success.

Chapter Three:

The Mini-Obstacle: A mini-obstacle is a hurdle that stops our characters from working toward their goal. These can be anything, like personal problems or distractions at work; it just has to be something small enough, so they’re not able to reach the finish line yet!

Chapter Four:

The Mini-Resolution: With a mini-resolution, our character doesn’t necessarily win but is satisfied for now. The character’s life isn’t resolved, but they have a moment of satisfaction.

Depending on the length of the novel, continue the pattern of mini-obstacle and mini-resolution. Do this as many times as you need to for as many chapters as you need. For example, in a romance novel, this timeframe is where they would fall in love. 

Chapter Five:

Lead up to the climax/black moment: This is where things start to go wrong.

Chapter Six:

The Climax/Black Moment: The climax is often the black moment of a story. It’s when all hope for a relationship/resolution seems lost and those conflicts they’ve been struggling with since the beginning come to a head, bringing everything full circle in an unforgettable scene!

Chapter Seven:

If the novel is romance, this is the “miserable and alone” chapter. If it’s not, this could be the “I’ll never make it” or the “I’m not good enough” moment. Everything looks bleak.

Chapter Eight:

Things are on the rise. The protagonist finds the will to carry on. Our love birds discover they can’t live without each other. It’s time for compromise and sacrifice. Compromise and sacrifice will lead us to the finish line!

Chapter Nine:

The resolution. The protagonist wins! The lovers get back together! Everything is as it should be, and the reader is relieved that everything turned out okay.

Give a glimpse into the future and what it holds for the characters. What happened after the victory? Is the world finally at peace? Have the lovers gotten married? Then, wrap it up like a gift for your reader. (Note: If your novel ends in a cliffhanger, you can omit the epilogue and use a mini-resolution or a happy-for-now to build up that cliffhanger ending for the next book.)

A few more tips: 

• Since no two authors have the same chapter lengths, A helpful way to find the perfect balance between a book’s overall length and chapter lengths would be by looking at how long each section should take up. For example, the lead-up or introduction should last one-third of your chapters, while other significant events in your story could have equal spaces allocated towards them as well, so they don’t grow disproportionately longer than other parts throughout the reading time.
• When repeating the mini-obstacle/mini-resolution pattern, it’s expected that the challenges start small and grow larger throughout the book. This is where your character is forced to grow while we cheer them on.

We hope this chapter-by-chapter outline was helpful to you.  Do you have any tips for writing an outline?  Let us know in the comments below.

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How To Write A Dissertation Introduction

A Simple Explainer With Examples + Free Template

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Reviewed By Dr Eunice Rautenbach (D. Tech) | March 2020

If you’re reading this, you’re probably at the daunting early phases of writing up the introduction chapter of your dissertation or thesis. It can be intimidating, I know. 

In this post, we’ll look at the 7 essential ingredients of a strong dissertation or thesis introduction chapter, as well as the essential things you need to keep in mind as you craft each section. We’ll also share some useful tips to help you optimize your approach.

Overview: Writing An Introduction Chapter

• The purpose and function of the intro chapter
• Craft an enticing and engaging opening section
• Provide a background and context to the study
• Clearly define the research problem
• State your research aims, objectives and questions
• Explain the significance of your study
• Identify the limitations of your research
• Outline the structure of your dissertation or thesis

A quick sidenote:

You’ll notice that I’ve used the words dissertation and thesis interchangeably. While these terms reflect different levels of research – for example, Masters vs PhD-level research – the introduction chapter generally contains the same 7 essential ingredients regardless of level. So, in this post, dissertation introduction equals thesis introduction.

Start with why.

To craft a high-quality dissertation or thesis introduction chapter, you need to understand exactly what this chapter needs to achieve. In other words, what’s its purpose ? As the name suggests, the introduction chapter needs to introduce the reader to your research so that they understand what you’re trying to figure out, or what problem you’re trying to solve. More specifically, you need to answer four important questions in your introduction chapter.

These questions are:

• What will you be researching? (in other words, your research topic)
• Why is that worthwhile? (in other words, your justification)
• What will the scope of your research be? (in other words, what will you cover and what won’t you cover)
• What will the limitations of your research be? (in other words, what will the potential shortcomings of your research be?)

Simply put, your dissertation’s introduction chapter needs to provide an overview of your planned research , as well as a clear rationale for it. In other words, this chapter has to explain the “what” and the “why” of your research – what’s it all about and why’s that important.

Simple enough, right?

Well, the trick is finding the appropriate depth of information. As the researcher, you’ll be extremely close to your topic and this makes it easy to get caught up in the minor details. While these intricate details might be interesting, you need to write your introduction chapter on more of a “need-to-know” type basis, or it will end up way too lengthy and dense. You need to balance painting a clear picture with keeping things concise. Don’t worry though – you’ll be able to explore all the intricate details in later chapters.

Now that you understand what you need to achieve from your introduction chapter, we can get into the details. While the exact requirements for this chapter can vary from university to university, there are seven core components that most universities will require. We call these the seven essential ingredients . 

The 7 Essential Ingredients

• The opening section – where you’ll introduce the reader to your research in high-level terms
• The background to the study – where you’ll explain the context of your project
• The research problem – where you’ll explain the “gap” that exists in the current research
• The research aims , objectives and questions – where you’ll clearly state what your research will aim to achieve
• The significance (or justification) – where you’ll explain why your research is worth doing and the value it will provide to the world
• The limitations – where you’ll acknowledge the potential limitations of your project and approach
• The structure – where you’ll briefly outline the structure of your dissertation or thesis to help orient the reader

By incorporating these seven essential ingredients into your introduction chapter, you’ll comprehensively cover both the “ what ” and the “ why ” I mentioned earlier – in other words, you’ll achieve the purpose of the chapter.

Side note – you can also use these 7 ingredients in this order as the structure for your chapter to ensure a smooth, logical flow. This isn’t essential, but, generally speaking, it helps create an engaging narrative that’s easy for your reader to understand. If you’d like, you can also download our free introduction chapter template here.

Alright – let’s look at each of the ingredients now.

#1 – The Opening Section

The very first essential ingredient for your dissertation introduction is, well, an introduction or opening section. Just like every other chapter, your introduction chapter needs to start by providing a brief overview of what you’ll be covering in the chapter.

This section needs to engage the reader with clear, concise language that can be easily understood and digested. If the reader (your marker!) has to struggle through it, they’ll lose interest, which will make it harder for you to earn marks. Just because you’re writing an academic paper doesn’t mean you can ignore the basic principles of engaging writing used by marketers, bloggers, and journalists. At the end of the day, you’re all trying to sell an idea – yours is just a research idea.

So, what goes into this opening section?

Well, while there’s no set formula, it’s a good idea to include the following four foundational sentences in your opening section:

1 – A sentence or two introducing the overall field of your research.

For example:

“Organisational skills development involves identifying current or potential skills gaps within a business and developing programs to resolve these gaps. Management research, including X, Y and Z, has clearly established that organisational skills development is an essential contributor to business growth.”

2 – A sentence introducing your specific research problem.

“However, there are conflicting views and an overall lack of research regarding how best to manage skills development initiatives in highly dynamic environments where subject knowledge is rapidly and continuously evolving – for example, in the website development industry.”

3 – A sentence stating your research aims and objectives.

“This research aims to identify and evaluate skills development approaches and strategies for highly dynamic industries in which subject knowledge is continuously evolving.”.

4 – A sentence outlining the layout of the chapter.

“This chapter will provide an introduction to the study by first discussing the background and context, followed by the research problem, the research aims, objectives and questions, the significance and finally, the limitations.”

As I mentioned, this opening section of your introduction chapter shouldn’t be lengthy . Typically, these four sentences should fit neatly into one or two paragraphs, max. What you’re aiming for here is a clear, concise introduction to your research – not a detailed account.

PS – If some of this terminology sounds unfamiliar, don’t stress – I’ll explain each of the concepts later in this post.

#2 – Background to the study

Now that you’ve provided a high-level overview of your dissertation or thesis, it’s time to go a little deeper and lay a foundation for your research topic. This foundation is what the second ingredient is all about – the background to your study.

So, what is the background section all about?

Well, this section of your introduction chapter should provide a broad overview of the topic area that you’ll be researching, as well as the current contextual factors . This could include, for example, a brief history of the topic, recent developments in the area, key pieces of research in the area and so on. In other words, in this section, you need to provide the relevant background information to give the reader a decent foundational understanding of your research area.

Let’s look at an example to make this a little more concrete.

If we stick with the skills development topic I mentioned earlier, the background to the study section would start by providing an overview of the skills development area and outline the key existing research. Then, it would go on to discuss how the modern-day context has created a new challenge for traditional skills development strategies and approaches. Specifically, that in many industries, technical knowledge is constantly and rapidly evolving, and traditional education providers struggle to keep up with the pace of new technologies.

Importantly, you need to write this section with the assumption that the reader is not an expert in your topic area. So, if there are industry-specific jargon and complex terminology, you should briefly explain that here , so that the reader can understand the rest of your document.

Don’t make assumptions about the reader’s knowledge – in most cases, your markers will not be able to ask you questions if they don’t understand something. So, always err on the safe side and explain anything that’s not common knowledge.

#3 – The research problem

Now that you’ve given your reader an overview of your research area, it’s time to get specific about the research problem that you’ll address in your dissertation or thesis. While the background section would have alluded to a potential research problem (or even multiple research problems), the purpose of this section is to narrow the focus and highlight the specific research problem you’ll focus on.

But, what exactly is a research problem, you ask?

Well, a research problem can be any issue or question for which there isn’t already a well-established and agreed-upon answer in the existing research. In other words, a research problem exists when there’s a need to answer a question (or set of questions), but there’s a gap in the existing literature , or the existing research is conflicting and/or inconsistent.

So, to present your research problem, you need to make it clear what exactly is missing in the current literature and why this is a problem . It’s usually a good idea to structure this discussion into three sections – specifically:

• What’s already well-established in the literature (in other words, the current state of research)
• What’s missing in the literature (in other words, the literature gap)
• Why this is a problem (in other words, why it’s important to fill this gap)

Let’s look at an example of this structure using the skills development topic.

Organisational skills development is critically important for employee satisfaction and company performance (reference). Numerous studies have investigated strategies and approaches to manage skills development programs within organisations (reference).

(this paragraph explains what’s already well-established in the literature)

However, these studies have traditionally focused on relatively slow-paced industries where key skills and knowledge do not change particularly often. This body of theory presents a problem for industries that face a rapidly changing skills landscape – for example, the website development industry – where new platforms, languages and best practices emerge on an extremely frequent basis.

(this paragraph explains what’s missing from the literature)

As a result, the existing research is inadequate for industries in which essential knowledge and skills are constantly and rapidly evolving, as it assumes a slow pace of knowledge development. Industries in such environments, therefore, find themselves ill-equipped in terms of skills development strategies and approaches.

(this paragraph explains why the research gap is problematic)

As you can see in this example, in a few lines, we’ve explained (1) the current state of research, (2) the literature gap and (3) why that gap is problematic. By doing this, the research problem is made crystal clear, which lays the foundation for the next ingredient.

#4 – The research aims, objectives and questions

Now that you’ve clearly identified your research problem, it’s time to identify your research aims and objectives , as well as your research questions . In other words, it’s time to explain what you’re going to do about the research problem.

So, what do you need to do here?

Well, the starting point is to clearly state your research aim (or aims) . The research aim is the main goal or the overarching purpose of your dissertation or thesis. In other words, it’s a high-level statement of what you’re aiming to achieve.

Let’s look at an example, sticking with the skills development topic:

“Given the lack of research regarding organisational skills development in fast-moving industries, this study will aim to identify and evaluate the skills development approaches utilised by web development companies in the UK”.

As you can see in this example, the research aim is clearly outlined, as well as the specific context in which the research will be undertaken (in other words, web development companies in the UK).

Next up is the research objective (or objectives) . While the research aims cover the high-level “what”, the research objectives are a bit more practically oriented, looking at specific things you’ll be doing to achieve those research aims.

Let’s take a look at an example of some research objectives (ROs) to fit the research aim.

• RO1 – To identify common skills development strategies and approaches utilised by web development companies in the UK.
• RO2 – To evaluate the effectiveness of these strategies and approaches.
• RO3 – To compare and contrast these strategies and approaches in terms of their strengths and weaknesses.

As you can see from this example, these objectives describe the actions you’ll take and the specific things you’ll investigate in order to achieve your research aims. They break down the research aims into more specific, actionable objectives.

The final step is to state your research questions . Your research questions bring the aims and objectives another level “down to earth”. These are the specific questions that your dissertation or theses will seek to answer. They’re not fluffy, ambiguous or conceptual – they’re very specific and you’ll need to directly answer them in your conclusions chapter .

The research questions typically relate directly to the research objectives and sometimes can look a bit obvious, but they are still extremely important. Let’s take a look at an example of the research questions (RQs) that would flow from the research objectives I mentioned earlier.

• RQ1 – What skills development strategies and approaches are currently being used by web development companies in the UK?
• RQ2 – How effective are each of these strategies and approaches?
• RQ3 – What are the strengths and weaknesses of each of these strategies and approaches?

As you can see, the research questions mimic the research objectives , but they are presented in question format. These questions will act as the driving force throughout your dissertation or thesis – from the literature review to the methodology and onward – so they’re really important.

A final note about this section – it’s really important to be clear about the scope of your study (more technically, the delimitations ). In other words, what you WILL cover and what you WON’T cover. If your research aims, objectives and questions are too broad, you’ll risk losing focus or investigating a problem that is too big to solve within a single dissertation.

Simply put, you need to establish clear boundaries in your research. You can do this, for example, by limiting it to a specific industry, country or time period. That way, you’ll ringfence your research, which will allow you to investigate your topic deeply and thoroughly – which is what earns marks!

Need a helping hand?

#5 – Significance

Now that you’ve made it clear what you’ll be researching, it’s time to make a strong argument regarding your study’s importance and significance . In other words, now that you’ve covered the what, it’s time to cover the why – enter essential ingredient number 5 – significance.

Of course, by this stage, you’ve already briefly alluded to the importance of your study in your background and research problem sections, but you haven’t explicitly stated how your research findings will benefit the world . So, now’s your chance to clearly state how your study will benefit either industry , academia , or – ideally – both . In other words, you need to explain how your research will make a difference and what implications it will have .

Let’s take a look at an example.

“This study will contribute to the body of knowledge on skills development by incorporating skills development strategies and approaches for industries in which knowledge and skills are rapidly and constantly changing. This will help address the current shortage of research in this area and provide real-world value to organisations operating in such dynamic environments.”

As you can see in this example, the paragraph clearly explains how the research will help fill a gap in the literature and also provide practical real-world value to organisations.

This section doesn’t need to be particularly lengthy, but it does need to be convincing . You need to “sell” the value of your research here so that the reader understands why it’s worth committing an entire dissertation or thesis to it. This section needs to be the salesman of your research. So, spend some time thinking about the ways in which your research will make a unique contribution to the world and how the knowledge you create could benefit both academia and industry – and then “sell it” in this section.

#6 – The limitations

Now that you’ve “sold” your research to the reader and hopefully got them excited about what’s coming up in the rest of your dissertation, it’s time to briefly discuss the potential limitations of your research.

But you’re probably thinking, hold up – what limitations? My research is well thought out and carefully designed – why would there be limitations?

Well, no piece of research is perfect . This is especially true for a dissertation or thesis – which typically has a very low or zero budget, tight time constraints and limited researcher experience. Generally, your dissertation will be the first or second formal research project you’ve ever undertaken, so it’s unlikely to win any research awards…

Simply put, your research will invariably have limitations. Don’t stress yourself out though – this is completely acceptable (and expected). Even “professional” research has limitations – as I said, no piece of research is perfect. The key is to recognise the limitations upfront and be completely transparent about them, so that future researchers are aware of them and can improve the study’s design to minimise the limitations and strengthen the findings.

Generally, you’ll want to consider at least the following four common limitations. These are:

• Your scope – for example, perhaps your focus is very narrow and doesn’t consider how certain variables interact with each other.
• Your research methodology – for example, a qualitative methodology could be criticised for being overly subjective, or a quantitative methodology could be criticised for oversimplifying the situation (learn more about methodologies here ).
• Your resources – for example, a lack of time, money, equipment and your own research experience.
• The generalisability of your findings – for example, the findings from the study of a specific industry or country can’t necessarily be generalised to other industries or countries.

Don’t be shy here. There’s no use trying to hide the limitations or weaknesses of your research. In fact, the more critical you can be of your study, the better. The markers want to see that you are aware of the limitations as this demonstrates your understanding of research design – so be brutal.

#7 – The structural outline

Now that you’ve clearly communicated what your research is going to be about, why it’s important and what the limitations of your research will be, the final ingredient is the structural outline.The purpose of this section is simply to provide your reader with a roadmap of what to expect in terms of the structure of your dissertation or thesis.

In this section, you’ll need to provide a brief summary of each chapter’s purpose and contents (including the introduction chapter). A sentence or two explaining what you’ll do in each chapter is generally enough to orient the reader. You don’t want to get too detailed here – it’s purely an outline, not a summary of your research.

Let’s look at an example:

In Chapter One, the context of the study has been introduced. The research objectives and questions have been identified, and the value of such research argued. The limitations of the study have also been discussed.

In Chapter Two, the existing literature will be reviewed and a foundation of theory will be laid out to identify key skills development approaches and strategies within the context of fast-moving industries, especially technology-intensive industries.

In Chapter Three, the methodological choices will be explored. Specifically, the adoption of a qualitative, inductive research approach will be justified, and the broader research design will be discussed, including the limitations thereof.

So, as you can see from the example, this section is simply an outline of the chapter structure, allocating a short paragraph to each chapter. Done correctly, the outline will help your reader understand what to expect and reassure them that you’ll address the multiple facets of the study.

By the way – if you’re unsure of how to structure your dissertation or thesis, be sure to check out our video post which explains dissertation structure .

Keep calm and carry on.

Hopefully you feel a bit more prepared for this challenge of crafting your dissertation or thesis introduction chapter now. Take a deep breath and remember that Rome wasn’t built in a day – conquer one ingredient at a time and you’ll be firmly on the path to success.

Let’s quickly recap – the 7 ingredients are:

• The opening section – where you give a brief, high-level overview of what your research will be about.
• The study background – where you introduce the reader to key theory, concepts and terminology, as well as the context of your study.
• The research problem – where you explain what the problem with the current research is. In other words, the research gap.
• The research aims , objectives and questions – where you clearly state what your dissertation will investigate.
• The significance – where you explain what value your research will provide to the world.
• The limitations – where you explain what the potential shortcomings and limitations of your research may be.
• The structural outline – where you provide a high-level overview of the structure of your document

If you bake these ingredients into your dissertation introduction chapter, you’ll be well on your way to building an engaging introduction chapter that lays a rock-solid foundation for the rest of your document.

Remember, while we’ve covered the essential ingredients here, there may be some additional components that your university requires, so be sure to double-check your project brief!

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

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43 Comments

Thanks very much for such an insight. I feel confident enough in undertaking my thesis on the survey;The future of facial recognition and learning non verbal interaction

Glad to hear that. Good luck with your thesis!

Thanks very much for such an insight. I feel confident now undertaking my thesis; The future of facial recognition and learning non verbal interaction.

Thanks so much for this article. I found myself struggling and wasting a lot of time in my thesis writing but after reading this article and watching some of your youtube videos, I now have a clear understanding of what is required for a thesis.

Thank you Derek, i find your each post so useful. Keep it up.

Thank you so much Derek ,for shedding the light and making it easier for me to handle the daunting task of academic writing .

Thanks do much Dereck for the comprehensive guide. It will assist me queit a lot in my thesis.

thanks a lot for helping

i LOVE the gifs, such a fun way to engage readers. thanks for the advice, much appreciated

Thanks a lot Derek! It will be really useful to the beginner in research!

You’re welcome

This is a well written, easily comprehensible, simple introduction to the basics of a Research Dissertation../the need to keep the reader in mind while writing the dissertation is an important point that is covered../ I appreciate the efforts of the author../

The instruction given are perfect and clear. I was supposed to take the course , unfortunately in Nepal the service is not avaialble.However, I am much more hopeful that you will provide require documents whatever you have produced so far.

Thank you very much

Thanks so much ❤️😘 I feel am ready to start writing my research methodology

This is genuinely the most effective advice I have ever been given regarding academia. Thank you so much!

This is one of the best write up I have seen in my road to PhD thesis. regards, this write up update my knowledge of research

I was looking for some good blogs related to Education hopefully your article will help. Thanks for sharing.

This is an awesome masterpiece. It is one of the most comprehensive guides to writing a Dissertation/Thesis I have seen and read.

You just saved me from going astray in writing a Dissertation for my undergraduate studies. I could not be more grateful for such a relevant guide like this. Thank you so much.

Thank you so much Derek, this has been extremely helpful!!

I do have one question though, in the limitations part do you refer to the scope as the focus of the research on a specific industry/country/chronological period? I assume that in order to talk about whether or not the research could be generalized, the above would need to be already presented and described in the introduction.

Thank you again!

Phew! You have genuinely rescued me. I was stuck how to go about my thesis. Now l have started. Thank you.

This is the very best guide in anything that has to do with thesis or dissertation writing. The numerous blends of examples and detailed insights make it worth a read and in fact, a treasure that is worthy to be bookmarked.

Thanks a lot for this masterpiece!

Powerful insight. I can now take a step

Thank you very much for these valuable introductions to thesis chapters. I saw all your videos about writing the introduction, discussion, and conclusion chapter. Then, I am wondering if we need to explain our research limitations in all three chapters, introduction, discussion, and conclusion? Isn’t it a bit redundant? If not, could you please explain how can we write in different ways? Thank you.

Excellent!!! Thank you…

Thanks for this informative content. I have a question. The research gap is mentioned in both the introduction and literature section. I would like to know how can I demonstrate the research gap in both sections without repeating the contents?

I’m incredibly grateful for this invaluable content. I’ve been dreading compiling my postgrad thesis but breaking each chapter down into sections has made it so much easier for me to engage with the material without feeling overwhelmed. After relying on your guidance, I’m really happy with how I’ve laid out my introduction.

Thank you for the informative content you provided

Hi Derrick and Team, thank you so much for the comprehensive guide on how to write a dissertation or a thesis introduction section. For some of us first-timers, it is a daunting task. However, the instruction with relevant examples makes it clear and easy to follow through. Much appreciated.

It was so helpful. God Bless you. Thanks very much

I thank you Grad coach for your priceless help. I have two questions I have learned from your video the limitations of the research presented in chapter one. but in another video also presented in chapter five. which chapter limitation should be included? If possible, I need your answer since I am doing my thesis. how can I explain If I am asked what is my motivation for this research?

You explain what moment in life caused you to have a peaked interest in the thesis topic. Personal experiences? Or something that had an impact on your life, or others. Something would have caused your drive of topic. Dig deep inside, the answer is within you!

Thank you guys for the great work you are doing. Honestly, you have made the research to be interesting and simplified. Even a novice will easily grasp the ideas you put forward, Thank you once again.

Excellent piece!

I feel like just settling for a good topic is usually the hardest part.

Thank you so much. My confidence has been completely destroyed during my first year of PhD and you have helped me pull myself together again

Happy to help 🙂

I am so glad I ran into your resources and did not waste time doing the wrong this. Research is now making so much sense now.

Gratitude to Derrick and the team I was looking for a solid article that would aid me in drafting the thesis’ introduction. I felt quite happy when I came across the piece you wrote because it was so well-written and insightful. I wish you success in the future.

thank you so much. God Bless you

Thank you so much Grad Coach for these helpful insights. Now I can get started, with a great deal of confidence.

It’s ‘alluded to’ not ‘eluded to’.

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MLA 8 Style Guide

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Citing a Book

Helpful Tips:

Be aware that many books are collections of essays written by several different people and edited by one author. If this is the case for you, format your reference information as a  chapter/essay from a book  rather than citing the entire book.

When using a book that has  more than two authors , include only the name of the first author, followed by "et al." For example:

     Smith, John, et al.  Book Title etc.

Indicate any edition other than the first edition.  For example:

Fletcher, Neville H., and Thomas D. Rossing.  The Physics of Musical Instruments . 2nd ed., Springer, 1998.

How to Cite a Book (entire book)

References to books usually include the following elements:

Author, First, and Second Author. Title of Book  Italicized with All Important Words Capitalized . Edition abbreviated if appropriate, Publisher, Date. NOTE:  The place of publication is not generally included; medium is no longer included.

*  Note: Citations are single-spaced here, but be sure to double-space your Works Cited page.

How to Cite a Book (chapter)

*Be aware that many books are collections of essays written by several different people and edited by one author.

References to individual chapters or essays found in a book usually include the following elements:

E ssay/chapter Author, last name first. "Essay or Chapter Title." Book Title,   editor(s) or compiler(s), publisher, date of publication, start page – end page of chapter or essay.  NOTE: Ed. has been replaced with edited by; p age numbers in the works-cited list are now preceded by p. or pp.

Other Types of Print Books

See this page for instructions on how to cite the Bible in MLA format.

Edited Book  

Last Name, First Name, editor.  Title of Book: Italicized with All Important Words Capitalized.  Edition abbreviated if appropriate,  Publisher, Date. 

Schutte, Anne Jacobson, et al., editors.  Time, Space, a nd Women's Lives in Early Modern Europe . Truman State UP, 2001. 

Entry for Item Previously Published in Another Source

Author, Last Name, First Name. "Title of Article in Quotes with all Important Words Capitalized".  Title   of the  Book You used Italicized with All Important Words Capitalized, e dited by Name of Editor in First Last Order, Publisher, Date. Pages. Originally published in..... Benedict, Ruth, "The Past and the Future." Contemporary Literary Criticism vol. 97, edited by Deborah A. Stanley, Gale, 1997, pp. 300-1. Originally published in  Nation  7 December 1946, pp. 656-58. 

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Euro 2024: Yamal, Williams writing new chapter for Spain

Rodrigo Faez heaps praise on Nico Williams after his performance in Spain's 1-0 victory over Italy. (1:12)

GELSENKIRCHEN, Germany -- Somehow, a Riccardo Calafiori own goal was the only difference between Spain and Italy on a Thursday night when La Roja's exciting wingers Nico Williams and Lamine Yamal once again showed they will be a force to be reckoned with at Euro 2024 .

It was Williams' second-half cross, flicked on by Álvaro Morata , which Calafiori turned into his own net as Spain made it six points from six and booked their place in the round of 16 with a game to spare.

For Italy, their fate in the competition will go down to their last game against Croatia , but they will have few complaints about the result at the Arena AufSchalke. It could -- and should -- have been more. Spain ended the game with 21 shots to Italy's three. After losing possession in a competitive game for the first time in 136 matches against Croatia, they took the ball back here, but without losing the new directness that is increasingly characterising this side under coach Luis de la Fuente.

They look well balanced, with Rodri anchoring the midfield, but it is Williams and Yamal who have that ability to bring people to their feet. They are the youngsters who have sparked hope that a fourth European crown could arrive this summer.

To wander around Gelsenkirchen before the game was to take a walk down memory lane. Names of heroes from the past filled the back of the shirts of the fans of these two storied football nations. Spain supporters toasted Luis Enrique, Raúl González and Andres Iniesta. Roberto Baggio and Andrea Pirlo were popular names among the travelling Italy faithful.

Laced among them, though, were the names of those trying to write a new chapter in their country's history in Germany. Yamal's and Williams' names were omnipresent, especially among the younger generation. They were then omnipresent on the pitch.

If eyes had often been on Yamal so far, if only because of his age -- he became the youngest player to feature in the Euros at 16 years and 338 days old in Spain's opener -- then this time it was Williams' turn to step up. At 21, he is hardly a veteran himself. Within two minutes, the Athletic Club forward had turned Giovanni Di Lorenzo to set up Pedri , whose header was saved by Gianluigi Donnarumma .

The pattern was set. Another brilliant solo run followed, Di Lorenzo looking dizzy, and Williams then headed a Morata cross wide when he could have done better.

Not to be outdone, Yamal then dribbled in from the left, beating three Italian defenders before feeding Morata. Again, only the 6-foot-6 frame of Donnarumma kept the game goalless. By the break, Williams had completed four take-ons while Yamal had three. The other 20 players on the pitch had completed three between them.

Spanish football is in good hands 🇪🇸✨ pic.twitter.com/POofR9Qxb1 — ESPN FC (@ESPNFC) June 20, 2024

Speaking after the match, Williams said, "I think it's my most complete performance with Spain, and I hope to kick on and be able to help the team as much as possible. I've always dreamed of being involved at this level, playing in the Euros and winning Player of the Match."

The King of Spain, Felipe VI, had flown out to Gelsenkirchen for the game -- and he was suitably impressed.

"It's great to watch them play, we're just missing a goal," he told reporters at half-time. "But the sensations are good and the chances we have created ... It's been a great first half."

Spain's dominance forced Italy coach Luciano Spalletti into a double substitution before the second half, but it did nothing to change Williams and Yamal's impact. It was Williams' cross, nudged on by Morata, which led to Calafiori's own goal.

Once ahead, Spain didn't ease up. Yamal, coming inside again, whipped off a fine effort with his left foot which shaved the post. Williams then thumped the bar from the edge of the box. By now, "Nico" chants were filling the stadium, Spain's 12,000 supporters outnumbered but outsinging their Italian counterparts.

Spanish newspaper Marca had seen it coming. "Two Ferraris against Italy," was the headline on their front page on Thursday alongside a picture of Williams and Yamal, a nod to the Italian supercar. They may not yet be established at the top level like Rodri, who is widely seen as the one world-class player on this team, nor have the experience of Morata or the Golden Boy award of Pedri, but they are increasingly the poster boys of this Spain team.

That is because they offer something different to past Spain teams, who were more focused on touch and possession at times. They have diversified the ways in which De la Fuente's team can win a game. They also offer a glimpse into a more diverse Spain.

The story of Williams' parents coming to the country from Ghana is well known. Yamal, meanwhile, is the son of a Moroccan and an Equatorial Guinean who was born in Catalonia and grew up in the poor neighbourhood of Rocafonda, outside of Barcelona. His roots are stitched on his boots in the form of the national flags of his parents' homeland and the numbers 304 -- the zip code for Rocafonda.

Williams entered the dressing room to praise from teammates and family. "My teammates applauded me in the dressing room, and I'd like to thank them for helping me out with their ability on the pitch. When I grabbed my phone, the first message I saw was from my brother straight away, a voice message. He provides unconditional support for me. This is for him, my parents and the Williams family," he said.

The new-look Spain were too much for Italy. If Italy doubled up on the wingers, there was space inside for Pedri and Fabián Ruiz . In the end, they could not stop Spain, who must now be considered among the favourites to win Euro 2024.

The day had actually started with good-humoured food banter between the two sets of fans. "Aperol Spritz is better than Sangria," and "Pasta is better than Paella," were the handwritten sides held up by the fans of Italy, who remain holders of this competition. Food rivalries have been a theme of this tournament . One Spain fan responded by simply holding up his shirt which had "Lomo ibérico" (a cured, high-quality Spanish meat) scribbled on the back.

All that actually mattered in Gelsenkirchen, though, was that Williams and Yamal were better Italy's wide men Federico Chiesa and Davide Frattesi .

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After finishing the very first draft, it’s time to look at it again and improve. It’s important to make sure that how things are written and cited is the same, following the rules of the International Pharmacy Journal . Asking for advice from co-workers or teachers can give new ideas and show where changes can be made.

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Based on what we have heard, you must change your chapter to become stronger. You should answer the comments or suggestions you get from other people like reviewers or friends. You should prepare these according to the rules of the journal and make sure they help explain your chapter without making it too complicated for the reader.

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Before sending your work, it is important to carefully look at the rules for submitting it to the Innovare academic sciences . This involves how it should be written, how long it can be, details about the author(s), and any other papers or files asked for. Send your chapter by using the journal’s internet submission tool and watch over how the submission is doing.

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Is Taylor Swift Bidding Farewell To Her Fans With The Eras Tour?

Swifties will say it ain't so, but the writing's on the wall, writes Naomi May. Is the Eras tour a way for Taylor Swift to bid farewell to her legions of adoring fans as she opens a new chapter in her life?

Taylor Swift , of course, requires no introduction. She’s the girl-next-door who’s reached stratospheric heights by virtue of her sweeter-than-pie aesthetic, lyrics that read like they’ve been lifted straight from a teenage diary and the fact that she has a very real talent for melodising her moods. She's the girl who was raised on a Christmas tree farm in America with boy problems and the slightly dorky persona who could well be your friend, or your friend’s friend. Her story reads like a Hallmark movie. As a non-Swiftie, nothing about her screams 'once-in-a-generation talent' until you see her shimmy on-stage, guitar in-hand, singing to her 70,000 adoring fans as they wipe tears from their eyes and shout the lyrics back at her.

Swift has soundtracked these people's lives, her music has lent lyrics to their pain and together, in orbit around their patron saint, they've become a community. In a time where anybody can seemingly become a star with a swipe of their finger and a click of a camera lens, Swift belongs to a different league of celebrities who have earned their stripes, fame and cachet the old-fashioned way, by honing their craft and dedicating themselves to becoming the best in the world at it. This is somebody who's been a star for longer than she’s been alive. Which is why her boundary-breaking, record-breaking, billion dollar-making Eras tour — all three and a half hours of it — feels like a farewell, like the closing of a chapter. It feels like she's saying goodbye, even if just for now.

Let me explain myself. Swift continuing to write, produce and make music or live her life freely in the eye of the public, which is to say the storm, has no bearing on my life. I came to this conclusion independently and objectively. Yes, I spent an enjoyable evening dancing in unison with scores of screaming girls and woke up with a voice that sounded like I had a 40-a-day Camel Blue habit. But I was merely a member of an audience who took note of the metaphors that peppered the show without viewing them through the rose-tinted glasses afforded to those who are part of a fandom. There are figurative deaths and rebirths peppered throughout Swift's show, which, yes, correlate to her music, but have you ever heard of an artist perform the greatest hits from a 18-year-long career only to then do it again in a few years' time? If that were true, then Swift would be setting a precedent among her fanbase that this is what every tour of hers will now look like. Surely only an artist who has exhausted either themselves or their creative cannon would indulge audiences in such a display of their work, because the only question that I was left with after watching her was, 'What next?'

.css-1aear8u:before{margin:0 auto 0.9375rem;width:34px;height:25px;content:'';display:block;background-repeat:no-repeat;}.loaded .css-1aear8u:before{background-image:url(/_assets/design-tokens/elle/static/images/quote.fddce92.svg);} .css-1bvxk2j{font-family:SaolDisplay,SaolDisplay-fallback,SaolDisplay-roboto,SaolDisplay-local,Georgia,Times,serif;font-size:1.625rem;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.2;margin:0rem;margin-bottom:0.3125rem;}@media(max-width: 48rem){.css-1bvxk2j{font-size:2.125rem;line-height:1.1;}}@media(min-width: 40.625rem){.css-1bvxk2j{font-size:2.125rem;line-height:1.2;}}@media(min-width: 64rem){.css-1bvxk2j{font-size:2.25rem;line-height:1.1;}}@media(min-width: 73.75rem){.css-1bvxk2j{font-size:2.375rem;line-height:1.2;}}.css-1bvxk2j b,.css-1bvxk2j strong{font-family:inherit;font-weight:bold;}.css-1bvxk2j em,.css-1bvxk2j i{font-style:italic;font-family:inherit;}.css-1bvxk2j i,.css-1bvxk2j em{font-style:italic;} The best and biggest era of Swift's career is the one that lies ahead

Swift has re-established limits not achieved by any other artist in history. She has re-written the rules of what is possible for female musicians, and it feels like this tour, which she has announced will continue until December 2024, is Swift's way of thanking her fans for their love, loyalty and dedication to her. She plays them their favourite songs from her oldest albums. They have shown her loyalty throughout the mud-slinging and misogyny which she's fallen victim to over the years, but there's no other reason for an artist to perform albums that were released over a decade ago unless it's as a means of extending gratitude and bidding 'So Long.'

The nebulous sense of wonder at where her star ought to ascend to after the Eras tour was a question that even tumbled from the lips of Swifties I attended the concert with. There is the original film she's confirmed to be writing and directing for Searchlight Pictures; there is her relationship with NFL player Travis Kelce , who has called her the 'biggest and best thing possible' and is rumoured to be planning a proposal for once her tour has concluded. She has given her fans what few others in her position have: a community, soundtrack to their lives and a hope for what can be achieved with hard work and perseverance even in the face of adversity. In return, they have ensured that everything she has touched has turned to gold. Perhaps really, the greatest and most transcendent 'Love Story' for Swift is the one she has with her adoring fanbase, who have and will continue to support her through every chapter of her life. But the best and biggest era of her career is undoubtedly the one that lies ahead, once the dust has settled on the current cloud of high-octane publicity that surrounds her. The way that she is expending herself is not sustainable for anybody, superstar musician or not.

ELLE Collective is a new community of fashion, beauty and culture lovers. For access to exclusive content, events, inspiring advice from our Editors and industry experts, as well the opportunity to meet designers, thought-leaders and stylists, become a member today HERE .

Naomi May is a freelance writer and editor with an emphasis on popular culture, lifestyle and politics. After graduating with a First Class Honours from City University's prestigious Journalism course, Naomi joined the Evening Standard as its Fashion and Beauty Writer, working across both the newspaper and website. She is now the Acting News Editor at ELLE UK and has written features for the likes of The Guardian, Vogue, Vice and Refinery29, among many others. 

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Charles Barkley says he’s retiring, but this story doesn’t feel over

It can be argued pretty persuasively that Charles Barkley has had the greatest combination of a professional playing and broadcasting career in the history of American sports.

As a Hall of Fame and MVP-winning player, he was named to both the NBA ’s Top 50 and Top 75 all-time teams, while now he has become arguably the best sports studio analyst in history.

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On Friday, during an NBA TV appearance after Game 4 of the NBA Finals, Barkley said next year will be his final one as a broadcaster on TV .

“I ain’t going nowhere other than TNT,” Barkley said on NBA TV. “But I have made the decision myself that, no matter what happens, next year is going to be my last year on television.”

If Barkley is truly hanging it up, he will have a place next to Howard Cosell and John Madden as analysts in the modern era of sports broadcasting, crossing over as an icon in American culture. His combo of play on the court and his work on TV will rank him with the Frank Giffords of yesteryear and the Michael Strahans of today on a list of greatest athlete/broadcaster careers ever.

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That all said, will he actually retire? We’ll see. Maybe.

Barkley, 61, sounded sincere in his comments Friday, but he has talked about retiring forever. The former goal was 60, which he blew by with a decade-long contract that approached Tony Romo’s $180 million territory. After next season, he will have seven years left on that deal.

What has changed since he inked the contract is that TNT Sports, home to Barkley’s legendary “Inside the NBA,” may not have the NBA following next season.

The NBA is moving toward the legal paperwork on 11-year TV rights agreements worth in the $76 billion range with ESPN, NBC and Amazon Prime Video. Warner Bros. Discovery CEO David Zaslav has said that TNT could try to match one of these offers, while the network is still holding out hope for the NBA to come back with a smaller fourth package of games for it to continue.

If TNT can somehow sink their half-court shot, it seems very plausible that Barkley could change his mind to continue with host Ernie Johnson, Shaquille O’Neal and Kenny Smith. However, if they don’t, Barkley could be enticed to reconsider his words from Friday.

ESPN, Amazon and NBC all have interest in Barkley, and Barkley said he has already talked to all of them.

If NBC and Amazon finalize their agreements, it would make sense to give themselves instant credibility by trying to bring in the whole “Inside The NBA” crew, or just Barkley, if that fearsome foursome couldn’t be had.

However, what really seems more plausible is ESPN refusing to let Barkley say no. In the new TV agreements, ESPN will continue broadcasting the finals for another 11 years after next season.

A sweetheart deal for Barkley to do the opening night of the regular season and then the playoffs would be a win-win for everyone. Barkley would not have to work as hard and would continue to make millions while gracing the ESPN studio shows, lifting them up during the biggest games of the season, including the finals.

Meanwhile, TNT does have its contract with Barkley, where he is supposed to, for example, be on its March Madness coverage of the NCAA Tournament. Even if Barkley had not made his announcement, fleeing to his next employer may not have been as clean as just saying, “I want to go” as he is so valuable to TNT, even as he skewers Zaslav for potentially fumbling the NBA negotiations.

“We’re looking forward to another fantastic NBA on TNT season and further discussion of our future plans with (Barkley),” TNT Sports said in a statement Saturday.

It is also hard to see Barkley go because — what is he going to do? The man is a talker. He cuts through because he is the same on the air as he is off and treats his former best friend Michael Jordan just as he would you or I. That is the secret sauce of Barkley — there is sincerity without a filter. He will seemingly talk whenever to whomever and whatever.

Just last month, on ESPN Cleveland, he said he was open for business to talk about other offers. Now, he says he has changed his mind.

Maybe Barkley goes, but he is still going to be talking. Hard to see why he wouldn’t want to continue to make some more millions.

TNT Sports' boss said they didn't need the NBA — we're about to find out

(Photo of Charles Barkley at the NBA Finals: Stacy Revere / Getty Images)

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Andrew Marchand is a Sr. Sports Media Columnist for The Athletic. He previously worked for the New York Post and ESPN, where he predominantly covered sports media and baseball. In 2023, Marchand was named one of five finalists for The Big Lead's "Insider of the Year" in all of sports.

Reinach on Personality and Representation

Marietta Auer, Paul B. Miller, Henry E. Smith, & James Toomey, eds., Reinach and the Foundations of Private Law (Cambridge UP, forthcoming)

32 Pages Posted: 17 Jun 2024

Paul B. Miller

Notre Dame Law School

Date Written: June 09, 2024

This chapter, forthcoming in Reinach and the Foundations of Private Law , critically examines the treatment of concepts of legal personality and representation provided by the great (if lamentably now mostly-forgotten) German realist phenomenologist Adolf Reinach. In The A Priori Foundations of the Civil Law (1913), Reinach offers what is meant to be a phenomenological elucidation of the a priori nature (essential formal characteristics) of a wide variety of foundational legal concepts, the latter understood as denoting distinctive modalities of speech act. The primary interest of the chapter lies in the analysis that Reinach provides of concepts of personality and representation. However, one cannot understand what is distinctive in – and distinctively compelling or puzzling about – Reinach’s analysis of these concepts without appreciating what is distinctive about his general methodology of conceptual analysis (i.e., his phenomenological, speech act theoretical understanding of social behavior denoted by legal concepts). Thus, in addition to examining Reinach’s views on persons, legal personhood, and legal representation, the chapter provides a critical introduction to Reinachian conceptual analysis and explains its enduring interest for contemporary private law theory.

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Paul B. Miller (Contact Author)

Notre dame law school ( email ).

P.O. Box 780 Notre Dame, IN 46556-0780 United States

HOME PAGE: http://law.nd.edu/directory/paul-miller/

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