essay on culture of west bengal

Culture of West Bengal

Literature .

Theatre and Films

Architecture 

Music and Dance

Food culture of west bengal, traditional dresses.

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Culture of West Bengal – Exploring the Rich Tradition, Art, Music, Food and Festivals

• Culture of Indian States
• Indian Culture
• West Bengal

Table of contents

Bengali literature, bengali theatre & cinema, bengali fine art, bengali architecture, bengali traditional dress, bengali music and dance, bengali handicrafts, bengali cuisine, festivals of west bengal.

West Bengal is a place that is very dear to the heart of all Indians. Though you might never have been to this place, the state would undoubtedly strike you as someplace you’ve known for a long time. The truth is that we’ve all been to this place through the works of Rabindranath Tagore. Haven’t we all traveled along with the Kabuliwalah , as he traveled through Kolkata and haven’t we all waited eagerly with Mini for his return each day? 

Blessed with a rich heritage and mesmerizing beauty, West Bengal has secured itself a unique place in the history of India. Home to some of our country’s greatest intellectuals, such as Rabindranath Tagore , Toru Dutt, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, and many others, the state is a haven for literature and art lovers. Situated in the eastern part of India and blessed with a vibrant culture, Bengal is perhaps the most beautiful part of India. The state has succeeded in keeping alive its past and has treasured the symbols of its heritage with much reverence.

West Bengal is perhaps the wealthiest state in India with regards to its diverse culture, from it’s magnificent literature to the colorful and splendid festivals, the state is home to various interwoven traditions, existing in perfect harmony with one another. Hence, it is no wonder that the capital of West Bengal, Kolkata, is known as the “Culture Capital Of India.”

Any discussion on West Bengal must undoubtedly begin with its splendid array of literature ranging from the folk tales of Thakurmar Jhuli to the poetry of the great Rabindranath Tagore. The state has contributed abundantly to both Bengali as well as world literature. It gave Asia its first Nobel prize when Rabindranath Tagore became the Nobel Laureate in literature in 1912. Literature has always been an essential part of the state, and its poetry has influenced people far and wide to take part in the Indian Independence movement. Today, Kolkata, the capital of West Bengal, hosts the largest Book Fair in Asia , known as the International Kolkata Book Fair, and is attended by people from around the world.  

Bengal has a long and ancient history of performing drama, from the Bangali folk theatre Jatras to the Satyajit Ray’s Movies, Bengali theatre has never failed to impress its viewers. Assumed to have originated in the 16th century, the Jatra (roughly translated as yatra, meaning journey) is well known for its distinct musical component and can also be characterized as a musical drama.

The Theatre of Bengal played a vital role during the Indian Independence struggle and helped arouse the spirit of nationalism in Indians and inspired them to join the struggle against the British rule. Bengal Film industry (Tollywood)  also has to its credit several talented and widely acclaimed filmmakers such as Satyajit Ray, the first Indian to receive an honorary Oscar Award in 1992. Other innovative filmmakers include Rituparno Ghosh, Nandita Roy, and Aparna Sen, among others.  

The state is also credited with being the pioneer of Modern art in the country. Through the paintings of Rabindranath Tagore, Abarentranath Tagore (‘Father of Modern Indian Art’), Jamini Roy , and Gaganendranath Tagore, India became acquainted with modern art. The Bengal School of Art, for instance, was started in Bengal as a rebellion against the academic art style, propagated by the European power. The school emphasized paintings that were based on Indian themes and celebrated the Indian tradition over the Western one.

Kolkata, the capital of West Bengal, is prominently known as “The City Of Palaces.” The buildings in the state show a homogenous mix of elements from various cultures, including British, Terracotta, Indo- Saracenic, and Islam. The state has to its credit several historical monuments that reflect the rich heritage and tradition of the country at large. The state had been the center of rule of different rulers belonging to different parts of the world.

Hence, the buildings in the state reflect the influence of diverse cultures in them. The most popular monuments include Rasmancha temple in Bishnupur, which is noted for its terracotta carved tiles and for its pyramidal shape, Hazarduari palace (which contains a total of thousand doors), Baraduari, Minar in Padua, Radhabinodhe temple in Birbum among others. 

In West Bengal, women usually dress up in a uniquely draped saree with broad borders. There a variety of sarees prevalent in West Bengal including the Dhaka Jamnadi sarees, Garad-Koirad, Baluchari Sarees among others. Of these, the Garad-Koirad sarees are the most popular and are worn on religious occasions and at weddings. Men usually wear Panjabi and Dhoti, which is unique to Bengal.

Suggested Read –  A Deep Dive into the Lal Par Saree from West Bengal

The music of Bengal is a pleasure to listen to for anyone and everyone. It is indeed the jewel of Bengal’s heritage. The traditional Baul singing is perhaps the most popular of all. Mostly sung in praise of God with utmost reverence and focus, the singers can make anyone spellbound with their soothing music. During the performance, the performers shut out the entire outer world by closing their eyes and seem to be lost in a trance.

Gambhira , Kirtan, and Bhawaiya are the other kinds of folk songs. Chhau, a very prominent tribal folk dance form of West Bengal , narrates stories from Indian epics. The performers wear colorful and vibrant masks, which helps them to portray different characters and convey the stories effectively.

There are a variety of handicrafts that are made in Bengal. Each village in the state has its own distinct handicraft, which is quite different from the other village. The most notable feature of the handicrafts is that apart from being a symbol of Bengals’ history and culture, they are also Eco-friendly. Some of them, like the Dokhra metal casting , is said to have been preserved for centuries and is said to be one of the oldest forms of metal casting. Bankura district boasts of highly decorated terracotta tiles present in certain temples. Though this art had been in existence since the time of the Harrapans, it was the artisans of Bengal who used them in buildings, thus, adding to the traditional and indigenous beauty of the structures.

Madurkathi, a handcrafted mat, is a vital part of Bengali culture, that every traditional house would undoubtedly possess one of. For them, the mat is a symbol of the hosts’ respect for their guests. Chhau masks, made exclusively for the Chhau dance are also worth mentioning. The masks are elaborately decorated with vibrant colors and are worn by artists in their performance. 

The state is known for its unique and tasty cuisine. From the staple rice and fish meal to the really popular Bengali sweets, the state has a lot to offer. Throughout history, the state has always been under different rulers from different parts of the world, and these influences are not only evident in the architecture and culture of Bengal but also play an essential part in Bengali cuisine .

The most common staple of food is fish and rice, added to the fact that the rivers in the state are home to more than forty different types of freshwater fish. The dishes gain their flavor from five spices, Cumin, Fenugreek, Aniseed, Nigella, and Mustard seed. The most popular Bengali delicacies include Shukto, Aam Pora Shorbot, Luchi, Lau Ghonto, Bhapaa Aloo, Baigun Bajaa, among others. Jhalmuri is a very famous street food delicacy. Apart from this, Bengali cuisine is quite famous for its wide variety of sweets, which are quite popular all over the country; they include Rasmalai, Pantua,  Roshogulla, Mishiti Doi among others. 

As a state which celebrates unity in diversity, the state has several religions and hence fosters a plethora of festivals all year round. The Durga Pooja , which celebrates the victory of Goddess Durga , is one of the most colorful festivals in the state. Poila Bhoishak is another very popular festival that celebrates the Bengali New year. The day is quite special for the whole state and is celebrated with abundant joy, as it marks a new beginning. The state also celebrates Christmas and Eid-ul-Fitr, with as much pomp and joy.  

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love your articles

Thanks Sharon 🙂

very nice .. keep it up

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Essay on West Bengal

Students are often asked to write an essay on West Bengal in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on West Bengal

Introduction.

West Bengal, located in Eastern India, is a state rich in culture and history. It’s known for its diverse geography, from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south.

West Bengal is unique in its geographical diversity. It has the mighty Himalayas, fertile plains, and a coastal strip with mangrove forests.

West Bengal is famous for its literature, music, and art. The state has produced many great poets and writers. It’s also known for its festivals, especially Durga Puja.

The state’s economy is mainly based on agriculture and industry. It’s a leading producer of rice and jute in India.

Also check:

• 10 Lines on West Bengal

250 Words Essay on West Bengal

West Bengal, located in the eastern part of India, is a state of diverse cultures, rich heritage, and significant historical relevance. It is the fourth most populous state in India, boasting a vibrant mix of different religions, languages, and traditions.

Geographical Significance

West Bengal’s geographical features are as diverse as its culture. From the Himalayan foothills in the north to the Gangetic plains in the south, the state’s topography is varied and unique. The Sundarbans, the world’s largest mangrove forest, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in West Bengal, known for its Royal Bengal Tiger.

Cultural and Historical Heritage

The state is a cultural hub, with a rich history of literature, arts, and cinema. It is the birthplace of many renowned poets and writers, including Rabindranath Tagore, the first non-European Nobel laureate. The state’s capital, Kolkata, is often referred to as the “Cultural Capital of India”.

Economy and Industry

West Bengal’s economy is primarily based on agriculture, with rice and jute being the main crops. It is also known for its tea production. The state has made significant strides in the IT and software services sector, with Kolkata becoming a major IT hub.

In conclusion, West Bengal is a state that beautifully encapsulates the essence of India – its diversity, rich culture, and historical significance. It is a place where tradition and modernity coexist, offering a unique blend of experiences to its inhabitants and visitors alike.

500 Words Essay on West Bengal

West Bengal, a state located in the eastern region of India, is a melting pot of diverse cultures, rich history, and vibrant arts. It is surrounded by three international frontiers – Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Nepal. The state is known for its intellectual prowess, political consciousness, and significant contributions to literature, arts, and sciences.

Geographical Landscape

West Bengal presents a unique blend of landscapes, ranging from the snow-capped peaks of the Himalayas in the north to the fertile plains of the Gangetic delta in the south. The state is also home to the world’s largest mangrove forest, the Sundarbans, which houses the Royal Bengal Tiger, a symbol of pride and identity for the Bengalis.

Cultural Heritage

The cultural heritage of West Bengal is as diverse as its geography. The state is the birthplace of many luminaries like Rabindranath Tagore, Swami Vivekananda, and Satyajit Ray. The Bengali language, known for its rich literary heritage, has contributed significantly to Indian literature. The state’s cultural festivities, especially the Durga Puja, are renowned worldwide for their grandeur and artistic expression.

Economic Profile

West Bengal’s economy is primarily agrarian with a significant contribution from the service sector. The state is a major producer of rice, jute, and tea. The Darjeeling tea, known for its distinctive aroma and flavor, has earned international acclaim. The state’s industries, particularly steel, heavy engineering, and textiles, have also played a crucial role in its economic development.

Political Landscape

The political landscape of West Bengal is marked by a strong sense of regional identity and political consciousness. The state has witnessed significant political movements, including the Tebhaga movement and the Naxalbari uprising. The Left Front government’s rule for more than three decades and the subsequent rise of the Trinamool Congress have shaped the state’s political dynamics.

Education and Research

West Bengal is known for its emphasis on education and intellectual pursuits. Institutions like the University of Calcutta, Jadavpur University, and the Indian Statistical Institute are renowned for their academic excellence. The state has produced several Nobel laureates, including Rabindranath Tagore, Amartya Sen, and Abhijit Banerjee.

In conclusion, West Bengal, with its diverse landscapes, rich cultural heritage, and dynamic political landscape, presents a unique blend of tradition and modernity. It is a state that has nurtured intellectuals, artists, and political leaders who have left an indelible mark on India’s history. The spirit of West Bengal lies in its resilience, intellectual vibrancy, and its unyielding pursuit of artistic and scholarly endeavors.

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West Bengal – Culture and Tradition

Bengal is at the eastern end of the Gangetic plains , the apex of the Bay of Bengal . It is made up of the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta system .

Kolkata the capital of West Bengal is also called the cultural capital of India as it was the birthplace of many Indian literary and artists like Rabindranath Tagore, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, S wami Vivekananda, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, and Satyajit Ray who made Bengal the face of progress and culture in India.

The people of Bengal’s culture and traditions are much more the same as neighboring Country Bangladesh, the most common language used is Bangla .

The area is dominated by the Ganges and the Brahmaputra river’s fertile delta. Stone Age tools dating back 20,000 years have been excavated in the state, while archaeologists discovered civilization in certain parts in the first millennium BC.

Mahabharata suggests Bengal was divided into various parts according to tribes or kingdoms. The Vanga Kingdom was the first powerful seafaring nation of Bengal, with the invasion of Alexander the Great the region again came to prominence but Alexander withdrew from the region because of the Gangaridai empire that was located in the Bengal region.

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Later Bengal came under the Gupta Empire. By the 6th century, the Gupta Empire, which ruled over the northern Indian subcontinent had largely broken up and Bengal splintered into various kingdoms, then comes the Mallabhum rule and the Pala Empire.  Then the invasion by the Chola dynasty and Western Chalukya Empire led to the establishment of the Sena dynasty.

Bengal has always been the gateway to the eastern parts of the Indian subcontinent. It is the shortest and easiest route from the Bay of Bengal to the Himalayas which makes it a commercial hub that connected the sea to the famous Silk Route. After the fall of the Mughal Empire , the focus of Indian culture and politics shifted from Delhi to Calcutta. The city gradually became the capital of British India .

Bengal played a pivotal role in the Indian freedom movement, many leaders of the Indian freedom struggle hailed from Bengal like Chittaranjan Das, Surendranath Banerjea, Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, Prafulla Chaki, Bagha Jatin, Khudiram Bose, Surya Sen, Binoy–Badal–Dinesh, Sarojini Naidu, Aurobindo Ghosh, Rashbehari Bose, and many others.

Bengal was divided into the state of West Bengal of India and the province of East Bengal under Pakistan, renamed East Pakistan in 1958. East Pakistan (East Bengal) rebelled against Pakistani military rule to become the independent republic of Bangladesh , literally the “Land of Bengal”, after a war of independence against the Pakistani army in 1971.

Tradition of Bengal

Bengal was the richest part of Medieval India, West Benga l has a long tradition of popular literature, music, and drama largely based on Bengali folklore and Hindu epics and Puranas.

A Bengali wedding ritual and ceremonies can span several days. In most cases, it starts with the Kabin ceremony and ends with the Bou Bhat ceremony and usually, the rituals are classified as the Ghoti and Bangal rituals.

Festivals of Bengal

Durga Puja is the biggest festival in Bengal and is the most vibrant festival throughout the state. Temporary pandals are raised everywhere to worship goddess Durga.

Besides there are other festivals of importance too like Dolyatra, Saraswati Puja, Kojagori Lakshmi Puja, Rath Yatra, Janmashtami, Jagaddhatri Puja, Shivratri, Vishwakarma Puja, Kartik Puja, Raas Yatra, Ganesh Chathurthi, Eid al-Adha (Bakr-Id), Muharram, Buddha Purnima, Poush Parbon, Gajan, Bhai Phonta, Pohela Boishakh, Ganga Sagar Mela.  Poyela Boishakh is the first day of the Bengali new year.

Costumes of Bengal

Though Bengali women traditionally wear the sari and shalwar kameez, Western attire has gained acceptance among younger and professional women. While the traditional costume for men is the dhoti, panjabi kurta, sherwani, pajama, and lungi.

Suggested Read:  Traditional Dresses Of Indian States

Cuisines in Bengal

Boiled rice and roti constitute the staple Bengali food, and are served with a variety of vegetables , fried as well with curry, thick lentil soups, and fish , egg and meat preparations of mutton and chicken, and more rarely pork, duck, lamb, and beef by certain groups.

Sweetmeats are mostly milk-based, and consist of several delights including roshgulla, doi, sandesh, rasamalai, amriti, kalo jamun, pantua, rajbhog, gaja, bonde, pithe, mihidana, laddu, and chom-chom.

Suggested Read:  Famous Food Of Indian States

Music and Dances of Bengal

The Baul tradition is a unique heritage of Bengali folk music, while Gombhira, Bhawaiya, kirtans, and Gajan festival music are also other folk music. Bengal dance form is Chau dance, Gaudiya Nritya.

Famous tourist attraction

Tourist spots in West Bengal are Darjeeling , Toy Train, Cooch Behar Palace, Dooars, Jaldapara National Park, Gorumara National Park, Howrah Bridge, Belur Math Shrine, Botanical Gardens, and Victoria Hall.

Suggested Read:  Formation Dates of Indian States

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Decolonisation and Food: The Burden of Colonial Gastronomy -Stories from West Bengal

2021, Alternations Journal, University of KwaZulu-Natal

This article makes an effort to unpack the ways in which the traditional food customs of precolonial Bengal were colonised by the Europeans, especially the British, followed by the Portuguese. In the course of its unpacking, the article reflects rather elaborately, as the details reveal, on how the colonisation of food customs and culinary practices of precolonial Bengal opened gateways for the Europeans to fragment the traditional society of precolonial Bengal socially, culturally, racially and communally. With scant references to the colonisation of food in Cape Town, South Africa, where the Dutch brought Bengali families in the middle of the 1600s as enslaved peoples to assist them in setting up a halfway station for their continued colonisation of India, this article also explores the various possibilities of decolonising the colonial and capitalistic invasions of European and North American food customs and culinary practices in contemporary West Bengal, in particular.

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Kolkata has had a long and troubled relationship with food and hunger, which has shaped Bengali food-practices in the city. From famine in the 1940’s to food-movement of the 1960’s, as food production dwindled, Kolkata saw a gradual decline of its economic fortune. In the 1970’s and 80’s, it was common to portray Kolkata as a failed postcolonial metropolis filled with starving millions. With this troubled history in the backdrop, this paper focuses on culinary experiences in Kolkata as reflected in Amit Chaudhuri’s novella A Strange and Sublime Address. The novella, in its bid to highlight the trivial and the mundane in Bengali life in Kolkata in the early 1990’s, portrays culinary experiences as epiphanic expressions of an introverted, inner existence. Chaudhuri describes food-practices in an attempt to preserve an esoteric food-system – a system that connects inner life with cooking, serving and eating of food. Bengali food-practices, I argue, appear in this novella as “edible chr...

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Our Food Their Food: A Historical Overview of the Bengali Platter

Suvajit Halder

Phd scholar, Centre for Historical Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University

Bengal has been famous for its food and cuisine ever since the establishment of civilization in the landscape of gluttons, made up of the sovereign state of Bangladesh (earlier East Bengal or East Pakistan) and the Indian state of West Bengal, with a total area of more than 228,000 square kilometers (Banerji 2005:xx). This landscape constitutes more than 222 million people of which Bangladesh has 141 million and West Bengal 81 million, which helped the Bengali ‘nation’ to become larger than many sovereign countries (Banerji 2005).

Traditionally, Bengal has been renowned for its extraordinarily fertile agricultural land and production of paddy. At the same time, the rivers of Bengal are an apparently inexhaustible resource of different varieties of fish. That is why, from the ancient times, rice and fish emerged as the staple food for the Bengalis. Apart from fish and rice, Bengal has had a rich tradition of many vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes, and most of these, such as  dal  (lentil soup),  posto  (vegetables made with poppy seeds), fish curry, and mutton curry, are consumed with rice.

Nearly 5,000 years ago, paddy cultivation came to Bengal from Southeast Asia and rice became a major calorie resource of Bengali daily life (Murshid 2008:483). Paddy cultivation is practised in Bengal three times a year. Among them a man  cultivation is important, when paddy is planted during monsoon and harvested in the late autumn. The next most important plantation is  aush , which is planted around May-June and harvested during August-September. The  boro  plantation is a relatively new practice, and has been popularized with the emergence of new irrigation techniques among the Bengali farmers. This cultivation takes place during the winter and the crop is harvested in early summer.

There are ample references scattered across Bengali texts describing rice as the primary food item in Bengali diet. A government report of the 1940s shows that in order to survive, 3600 calories were required daily, and a large section of Bengali population received 3500 calories from rice itself (Banerji 2005). Besides boiled rice, different kinds of puffed rice such as  muri, khoi,  and flattened rice also fulfilled the daily needs of the common Bengalis.  Dal  has been another source of calories among the Bengali population; surprisingly it was missing in the pages of the early Bengali texts. The first Bengali texts of the 11th century, the  Charyapada s ,  describe fishing and hunting, and mention many kinds of food crop including rice and sugarcane, but there is no reference to any kind of  dal. [1]  It is only in 15 th -century texts, such as the  Mangalkavya s ,  that different kinds of  dal  and the process of cooking are mentioned. In respect of Bengal, Chitrita Banerji (2005) notices that it had many commonalities with other Southeast Asian countries and China, where lentils and pulses were possibly unknown except soybeans (source of tofu). Even now, a major supply of lentils comes from outside the state. She also argued that the supply of fish made  dal  unnecessary as a source of protein. The shift occurred with the emergence of the Vaishnava Bhakti cult whose followers were vegetarian. As a result, a substitute for fish and meat had to be discovered, which is what helped to popularize  dal  among Bengalis (Banerji 2005: xxviii-xxix).  Khichudi,  a preparation of rice and  dal  and some spices ,  often offered to the deities as  bhog,  is also a significant dish in Bengal, which determines the importance of rice and  dal  in Bengali daily life .   

Journey through an Assimilated Taste:  Food culture in Pre-Colonial Bengal

The culinary culture of pre-colonial Bengal contained many features distinguishing it from other parts of the country. Conventionally, Bengali dishes are divided into four types, such as  charbya  (food which is to be chewed, like rice, fish, etc.),  choṣhya  (food which is to be sucked, liquids like ambal , tak etc.)  lehya  (food which is to be licked, like chatni ) and  peya  (drinks, like milk) (Ray 1987, Mukhopadhyay 2007:29). Even the sequence of eating foods is also prescribed in the sacred texts of Bengal, for example, in a verse of Halayudha’s Brahmansarvasva. The  Vishnupurana,  compiled in northern India prescribed the eating sequence as follows: meals should start with the sweet dish followed by salty dishes and end with spicy and bitter dishes. On the contrary,  Brihaddharma Purana,  compiled within the territory of Bengal, prescribed that boiled rice and  ghee  should be consumed first, followed by spinach and rest of the vegetables, and the meal should end with milk with boiled rice (Ray 1987:5).

The gourmets of Bengal were so enthusiastic about eating that they not only prescribed the sequence of eating but they left behind plentiful texts where different Bengali food items and dishes were mentioned. A verse from the  Prakritapaingala,  composed approximately in the 13th century by anonymous authors, depicts the interesting eating culture of that time. The verse says:

oggarabhatta rambhaapatta, gaika ghitta dugdhasajutta |

mainimaccha ṇalichagaccha, dijjai kanta kha punabanta ||

[‘Fortunate is the man whose wife serves him on a banana leaf some hot rice with ghee,  mourala  fish, fried leaf of jute plant, [2]  and some hot milk’ (Banerji 2005:23).

Shriharsha’s  Naishadhacharita , a Sanskrit  mahakavya  composed in the 12th century, provides the picture of the Bengali eating culture. [3] In this text, Nala and Damayanti are the protagonists. At their wedding feast, different dishes are served, such as cooked vegetables, fish, mutton, deer meat, different varieties of pitha (a kind of sweet dish), flavoured drinks and tambul or pan . Bhavadeva Bhatta, in a text called  Prayashcittaprakarana  depicts some aspects of the Bengali cuisine. He describes how rice, fish, meat [4] , different milk products,  shak  (varieties of spinach) [5] , vegetables [6] , and fruits [7] dominated Bengali eating culture at that time. According to him, there was no prohibition on the brahmins’ consumption of non-vegetarian food (Ray 1987:4–5). Jimutavahana, a 12th-century poet, in his Kalaviveka shows that the  hilsa  fish and its oil (in which the fish is fried) were popular in Bengal (Ray 1987:4). In  Brihaddharmapurana , it is said that the brahmins widely consumed white-scaled fishes such as  ruhi ,  punti  and  shakul  etc. Sarvananda, in  Tikasarvasva , shows the passion and love of east Bengalis for  shutkimachh  (dried fish) (Ray 1987:4). Among the spices, he said that  marich  (pepper),  pippali ,  labanga  (long or clove),  jirak  (jeera or cumin),  ela, jafran  (saffron) , ada  (adrak or ginger) , karpur  (camphor),  jaifal  (nutmeg) , hing  (asafoetida) were popular in Bengali cooking (Ray 1987:5).

Sukumar Sen (1943) provides detailed information regarding popular Bengali food culture. For example  nādu  (a kind of hard sweet, referred to in Sanskrit as  ladduka ),  moya  (a kind of soft sweet, in Sanskrit called  modaka ),  khaja  (a crunchy soft sweet),  kha r (sweet made of sugar),  fani  (sugar-made sweet),  kadma  (sweet made with sugar, which looks like a  kadamb a flower),  pitha  (in Sanskrit called  pishtaka , a sweet cake made with rice powder, raw-sugar, ghee and oil),  dudshakar  (a porridge made with rice, sugar and milk),  khirish  (sweet prepared by  kheer ),  shikharini  (a dish prepared with ghee, curd, molasses and ginger) were very popular at that time. Apart from these,  hadus, vadus or olava  (prepared with roasted wheat, gram, barley flame),  bharti  (shikkabab, meat roasted on metalware) and  orsia  ( chatni ) were very popular.

Mukundaram Chakravarti, in  Chandimangal (16th century), mentioned multiple vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes. Among those, shukto  (a bitter dish), prepared with neem leaf,  seem , Indian pumpkin ( chalkumro ) and brinjal, were significant. Apart from this, jute leaf fried in ghee,  kusumbari  (sundried cake made of lentils, mainly  biulir dal , generally fried in oil), prawn,  chital  fish fried in mustard oil and hog-plum with  palang  (spinach), fig with prawn,  chaltar jhol  (kind of soup),  puishak  (bassela),  fulbori  (this is also a designed item prepared with lentil, consumed after frying it with oil) and  kachur   tarkari  (preparation of an esculent edible root) were very popular at that time. Mukundaram Chakravarti compiled his collection of verses in the region of Medinipur. So, it is fair to assume that Mukundaram depicted in his verses the common food culture of that region.

In another episode of Mukumdaram’s  Chandimangal , he provides detailed descriptions of Bengali dishes such as  fulbori,  small fish  chachchari , fried  saral puti  and prawn,  khoi  (kind of puffed rice), sugar and curd made with buffalo milk, ripe  chalta ,  amsi  (dried green mango),  kasundi  (a sauce made with mustard powder),  karanjar tak  (sour soup), dishes made with   thod , fig and prawn,  bora  (a kind of chop) made with prawn, burned fish with  jamirer ros  (lime juce), burned porcupine quill, mango with lentil, and other things like  kheer ,  pitha  made with coconut and  til , which were general ceremonial food items at that time.

In a section of the  Chandimangal,  Mukundaram narrates a story where Phullara prepares some dishes for one of the main protagonists, Kalketu. They include boiled broken rice, lentil boiled in water with some spices and bottle gourd, burned native potato and  ol  (an Indian vegetable),  kachu  and  amda , and  ambal  (sour soup). In the end, the protagonist took  haritaki  (black myrobalan). Another version of this text depicts other dishes in the same episode, including deer meat, burned mongoose and  kachur ghanto  with  amra. [8]

Other  mangalkavyas  such as  Dharmamangal and Padmapuran also discussed the popular dishes in medieval Bengal. In Manik Gangopadhyay’s  Dharmamangal,  mutton, spinaches , shukta, luchi  (cake made by frying wheat flour in oil) and  nadu  were mentioned as popular food items .  Narayanadeva, in  Padmapuran , mentions a list of vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes at Behula’s wedding. For example,  shukto  prepared with boiled cane leaf, fried jute leaf,  helencha  (Indian spinach) fried in ghee, the upper end of the bottle-gourd plant,  mung dal  (kind of pigeon-pea) and  muger bodi, tilbada  and  tilkumda ,  singari  fried in ghee,  mauya aloo, paltar shak  and  shuktoni  with ginger savour,  ambal  made with ripe banana,  chital peti  (a part of the fish’s body) fried with  byasan, morich diye magur machher jhal  (a kind of fish preparation with pepper), fried  koi  fish with dust of cumin and  mahasholer ambal  (a sour preparation of a fish), prawn  raslash ,  mashkalai  pulse with rohu fish’s head,  shuktoni  made with   pabda  fish with ginger savour,  boyal machher jhati , fried hilsa fish,  shol  fish,  bhangan  fish,  ritha ,  putha , and large prawn fry, mutton, deer meat, pigeon, and turtle were very popular at that time. Among sweet dishes  pitha  made with  kheer ,  chandrapuli, manohara, nalbora, chandrakanti, patpitha  were very popular at that time (Narayana Deva 1942:56–57).

Even in the late 18th century the eating culture remained mostly unchanged. In a late 18th-century text titled  Annadamangal  authored by Bharatchandra Ray, a substantial description of medieval Bengali dishes is given by the poet. There is an episode where the deity Annapurna prepares certain dishes. Among them, 23 types of vegetarian dish are mentioned such as  sarsadi, ghanta , different types of fried spinach, thick soup of gram pulse,  arahad, mug, mas, barbati, batul,  and  matar dal, bada, badi,  banana, radish, coconut fry, milk and  dalna  prepared with  thod, shuktoni,  jackfruit seeds with sugar, bottle-gourd with  til  and  pithali,  brinjal, and preparations of pumpkin. Among the non-vegetarian dishes were  katla , fried  chital  fish,  koi, magur  and  shol  fish, boiled turtle egg ( ganga fal ) and the various meat preparations like  shik pora  (meat burnt in a spit, later known as  kabab ).  Apart from these dishes there were some other unconventional dishes such as preparations with bamboo flower, and  dalkachu  and  odkachu (Bose 2004:355–57).

The aforesaid texts were compiled between the 12th and 18th centuries. With the establishment of Islamic rule in Bengal the eating culture gradually took a different shape. Many new food items, such as watermelon, pomegranate,  pulao ,  biriyani ,  kebab, kofta and kaliya  were introduced by the Turks. There is confusion still existing regarding onion and garlic: whether these items were imported from the outside or these were indigenous to India. But it is clear that the use of these items in the daily cooking was introduced after the coming of Islam. However, the process of transformation in taste did not occur in a very linear way, especially in a society like Bengal, where inhaling the smell of prohibited food could lead to degradation in caste status or expulsion from the religious community. Therefore this process took a very slow path to unfold. According to Ghulam Murshid, it was the lower classes who initially adopted the new food culture brought by Islamic rulers. After that, through the high class converts to Islam, this culture spread among other classes of Bengal (Murshid 2008:491–92).   

Taste in Transition: Food Culture During the Colonial Era

From the late 18th century, with the expansion of British paramountcy in Bengal, a transformation in the eating culture began, which reached its culmination during the early 20th century. That is why a broad idea of the traditional food can help us to identify the complex process of transformation within the Bengali culinary culture during the 19th century.        

From the late 15th century European ships from various countries began to touch the shores of India in order to establish mercantile relations with Indians. The art of cartography and the voyages undertaken by the Iberians during the 15th century opened up new sea routes from the west to different corners of the globe. The Portuguese were the first to set their foot on the Indian subcontinent, gradually followed by the Dutch, French, Danes and the British. On the other hand, America and different parts of Africa also became colonies of these European powers, from where colonizers extracted various kinds of commodities. For instance, the bullion exported from the Americas was used to pay for the spice carried away from the east. Apart from these precious items, the Portuguese, who were the first Europeans to arrive, also brought along with them some new vegetables and food items such as potato, chili pepper, okra, tomato, cauliflower, cabbage, bread, cheese, jelly and biscuits (Habib 2014:54–60, Sen 1997). But notably, those new vegetables and food items were not so popular [9]  until the British became the administrators of Bengal and promoted those things for mass consumption (Ray 2009).

Collin Taylor Sen in an article entitled 'The Portuguese Influence on Bengali Cuisine' provides a table where she mentioned the names of different fruits and vegetables brought by the Portuguese and usages of these items in Bengali daily life.

Apart from these vegetables many other food items also came with the Europeans. In 1660, the famous French traveler Francois Bernier, describing his visit to Bengal, mentioned that in Bengal the supply of inexpensive biscuits to the crews of European ships was very common (Achaya 1991:193). This indicates that the small-scale production of biscuits had already started in Bengal during the 17th century. The industrial production of biscuits was a later phenomenon and initially the Europeans imported these from outside the colony. Even in the first half of the 19th century, the  Calcutta   Gazette , run by W.S. Setton-Karr, started to publish advertisements regarding the sale of these food items for the Europeans. Between 1802 and 1820, at least five advertisements were published by the European companies, regarding these new food items.

1. 28th January 1802

Alexander and Co. respectfully beg leave to acquaint the gentleman of the settlement who may be placed to honour them with their commands that they will supply them with bread of the same quality as is served at the college. Alexander and Co. also beg the favour of such gentleman who may wish to employ them, to acquaint them of the same one day previous, of the number of loaves, rolls, & c. they would require on the following day.

Biscuits, by wholesale and retail of any quantity; and all orders in their lain will be punctually attended to, at their backing house.

Fronting the Apothecary’s shop, Old Fort.

(Seton-Karr 1868: 557–58).

The Officers of the Honble Companys ship  Thomas Grenvill,  beg leave to inform their friends and the Public in general, that their Hams and Cheese are now for sale, at No. 4 Olf Post Office Street, at One Rupee Eight Annas per pound, in the highest scale of preservation.

31st December 1810.

(Sandeman 1868:441).

3. For Sale.

Soda Water,  from  Schweppe & Co.

Jos. Taylor and Co. have for sale a small quantity of soda water, in Stone Quarts and Pints, imported on the  Lord Keith.

(Sandeman 1868:442)

4. Thursday, March 9, 1820

Delightfully fresh Italian Macaroni

Warranted the finest ever tasted in India.

Messrs. Tulloh and company beg respectfully to acquaint their friends that they have just received direct from Italy via Malta, a considerable supply of by far the finest real Italian pipe and ribbon Macaroni

Ever before brought to this country. It is positively a perfect treat, being of such superior flavour, and so beautifully white and plump when dressed

Price only 2 rupees 8 annas per pound.

Tank Square,

9th March, 1820. 

(Sandeman 1869:630)

Gradually, from the second half of the 19th century, Europeans, Muslims, and lower-caste Hindus also started to establish bakeries and manufacturing workshops in the colony. In 1841, at Old Court Street, Calcutta, a hotel-cum-bakery was established by David Wilson, named Auckland Hotel (Ray 2009:56), which later became known as the Wilsons Hotel. In 1881 another famous bakery was started, named Federico Peliti. In 1887, Grish Chandra Mondal set up a  tandoor  in Central Calcutta for making  deshi  biscuits. After five years he was joined by his neighbour, N.N. Gupta, and this firm was known as V.S. Brothers.  After a few years the factory shifted to Dum Dum. In 1897, this factory came up with a new name, Gupta and Company, and a new brand, the Hindu Biscuits. The company primarily manufactured Western style biscuits, but because of the brand name, during the Swadeshi movement the company received considerable impetus. During World War I, it changed its name to Britannia Biscuits Co. (Achaya 1991:194). Till date it is one of the most dominant biscuit brands in India.    

Furthermore, for the promotion of these bakeries, they published advertisements in several all-India English newspapers such as  The Times of India .  The state sometimes organized exhibitions to promote them. After winning four gold medals from such exhibitions, Federico Peliti issued an advertisement in  The Times of India  for promoting his bakery (Peliti 1888:7). On the other hand, several other companies based in Europe also published their advertisements in such newspapers. In 1888, a London-based company named Werner and Peleiderer advertised in  The Times of India  where they promoted their bread making machine by arguing that their machine '[i]s the best and most reliable, especially for colonial use.' [10]

The introduction of these items in Bengali society was not going on in a smooth way. [11]  But in the case of popularization among the Bengali middle class it had to face much resistance from the rigid sections of the society. So to sideline the orthodox beliefs, the middle class sometime took innovative steps. For example, it was a tradition that Bengalis did not consume un-sacrificed or britha meat. So, when meat consumption increased, some butcher shop owners started to worship Kali idols in their shops to guarantee the sacrality of the meat (Nag 2012:80). These shops are still visible in different parts of Kolkata. To incorporate these items into the platter, sometimes the middle class changed the contents or consumed them in different ways. As Sukumar Sen has shown in his book, sometimes the French omelet became ‘mamlet’ with the touch of the Bengalis. Some food items retained the same name but took different shapes, for example, the chop. In the case of chaap , the large pieces of meat were replaced with small pieces. Sometimes even European food items were discovered in Calcutta, such as egg devil, where small pieces of meat were poured into the eggs (Sen 2013:69).

The responses from the middle class Bengalis towards these food items were even more interesting, because they help us to understand the contradiction between orthodox Bengali culture and the new western ideas. The educated, ‘enlightened’ Bengali middle class not only imbibed the new taste of these items but very often used these items as emblems of liberation and freedom from caste barriers and traditional taboos. To describe the reform activities of the Young Bengal group, The  Oriental Magazine  reported in 1843 that '[Young Bengal] cutting their way through ham and beef, and wading to liberalism through tumblers of beer' (Sarkar 1985:18).

Rajnarayan Basu’s (1826–1899) autobiography is an important text to understand the contradiction between the ‘western modern’ and the ‘alternative modern.’ Rajnarayan Basu, a famous Brahmo leader, in his autobiographical sketch, wrote that in his college days he often consumed brandy as an emblem of progress and civilization. Even when he became a Brahmo, he consumed biscuits and sherry as a protest against casteism, because at that time the industry of bread and biscuits was primarily run by lower castes or Muslims in Bengal. In his words:

Our house then was in Pataldanga. I used to drink at Goldighi with our neighbour Ishwar Chandra Ghoshal (he was Deputy Magistrate of Shantipur for a long time), Prasanna Kumar Sen, Nandalal Mitra and others. There were a few sheekh-kebab shops at the place where the Senate House has now been built. We used to jump over the fence at Goldighi (being in too much of a hurry to go through the gate) and go to the shops to buy kebabs which we afterwards ate. My friends and I used to take the consumption of meat and waterless brandy to be the greatest example of civilization and social reform. (Basu 2013:41-42)

Describing his  brahmo  oath taking ceremony, he narrates:

On the day when I signed the oath (in the beginning of 1846) and received Brahmoism, I was accompanied by a couple of other adults from my village. That day, we celebrated our new religion with biscuits and sherry. This was to show that we did not believe in distinctions of caste or creed. This tradition began with Rammohon Roy and continued till our time, but it was not everybody who became a Brahmo that followed this custom. (Basu 2013:44)

Rajnarayan Basu consciously used foreign food items such as biscuits and sherry as the emblem of progress and modernity to defy orthodox social norms and beliefs. By doing so he consumed Western modernity, as argued by Timothy Mitchell while talking about how the people of the non-West mimic western concept of modernity (Mitchell 2000:1–2). However, this same person in 1874 wrote an essay ' Se Kal ar e Kal ' where he criticized the Bengali  babus  who blindly followed western etiquette and food habits. In this essay he depicted a story of two Bengali  babus  and their beef-eating episode in Wilsons Hotel. The story goes like this:

Two Bengali gentlemen were once dining at Wilson’s Hotel. One of them was especially addicted to beef. He asked the waiter, ‘Do you have veal?’ The waiter replied, ‘I’m afraid not, sir.’ The gentlemen asked again, ‘Do you have beef steak?’ The waiter replied, ‘Not that either, sir.’ The gentleman asked again, ‘Do you have ox tongue?’ The waiter replied, ‘Not that either, sir.’ The gentleman asked again, ‘Do you have calf’s foot jelly?’ The waiter replied, ‘Not that either, sir.’ The gentleman said, ‘Don’t you have anything from the cow?’ Hearing this, the second gentleman, who was not so partial to beef, said with some irritation, ‘Well, if you have nothing else from a cow, why not get him some dung?’ (Chatterjee 1997:8)

This story primarily criticized the practice of beef eating among Bengali  babus.  According to Basu, the over-consumption of beef was the primary reason behind the scarcity of milk and other milk products. He argued that beef produced excessive heat in the body and advised not imitating the British officers who consumed beef in excess. Basu not only criticized the imitation of beef eating but he also strongly criticized the imitation of western lifestyles. He argued that the imitation of western lifestyle destroyed the health of the Bengalis, and presented the traditional lifestyle as an alternative and ideal one which could improve their health (Basu 1956:139). Rajnarayan Basu’s attitude represents the process of the production of alternative modernity in the East by some colonial subjects, as Partha Chatterjee has argued in his famous article 'Our Modernity' (Chatterjee 1997). Although, it must be noted that between the 19th and 20th centuries only a small section of the middle class and individuals like Swami Vivekananda and Prafulla Chandra Roy represented their tradition as against the European modern. On the contrary, the other section of the middle class, including people such as Nabinchandra Sen and Bipin Chandra Pal, still imitated the Western concept of modernity in their lifestyle. So, from the 19th century onwards these two strands of modernity existed in parallel. Sometimes they clashed with each other, while at other times they were independent.

In his autobiography  Amar Jiban,  Nabinchandra Sen (1847–1909) narrates a similar kind of story. According to him the primary force which made him a Brahmo was none other than bread, because in Brahmoism there was no restriction on the consumption of bread. In his words:

But, Ananda babu made me realize that this great ‘poem’ has deep connotations. How can an idol, which human beings create with straw and clay, be God? This kind of image worship is ‘idolatry’—a superstition—neglect of God. He also made me realize that becoming a Brahmo gives an opportunity to eat … loaves of bread. There was no need of any more logic for a glutton like me to realize or digest the glory of Brahmaism and its truth. Since I came to the city from the village, I believe this great circular thing called bread as the sacred fruit of immortality in the Kali Age. Hara Chandra Ray, the leading zamindar of my native place, used to treat his friends every winter in a feast of bread made by the Brahmins. Fearing that the boys may renounce their religion after tasting this rare item, he did not allow us to join the feast. My father highly praised it. Harachandra Ray made the same mistake which the Biblical God made and the normative text writers made. Had god not prohibited the fruit of the Tree of wisdom, had the authors of the normative texts allowed the Hindus to eat bread and chicken, had Harachandra Ray let me taste that Brahmin made bread even once, then I would not have become a Brahma and fallen from the Hinduism of the  Bangabasi  just for the sake of bread. This is the misery of bad luck. I accepted to become a Brahma by succumbing to this great temptation. (Sen 1974: 188–89)

In 1860, Madhusudan Dutt (1824–1873), in his satirical play  Ekei Ki Bale Sabhyata? illustrated the responses of the Bengali middle-class youth. In this work, a Vaishnava man follows some young people to learn about their activities. Among those young men was one named Kali, who suggested to his friends to feed that Vaishnava some fowl cutlet and mutton chop so that his life becomes meaningful (Dutt 1999:247). In the 19th century, Vaishnavas did not consume any kind of non-vegetarian dishes and specifically those items which were made by the lower caste Hindus and Muslims.  The revival of Gaudiya Vaishnavism in late colonial Bengal strengthened this (Bhatia 2009).

In his autobiography  Sattar Batsar,  Bipin Chandra Pal (1857–1927) narrates a similar tale. In his childhood, when he was studying in school, a lemonade-producing factory was established in Sylhet. The lemonade was produced and sold by the Muslims. One day, his father got to know about this. He beat him up, because it could ruin his caste status. In another incident in Sylhet:

At this time, or a little earlier, there was a huge uproar within the Hindu society of nearby Cachar. Cachar is probably 70-75 miles from Sylhet. Still, people used to travel between the two towns, despite difficulties in communication. Almost all the servicemen of Cachar were originally from Sylhet. When the business in tea started, the people from Sylhet went to Cachar and became clerks in the tea gardens. Therefore, despite the distance, there was closeness among the Hindus of Sylhet and Cachar. When the new anglicized people of Cachar had British biscuits with tea in their fancy gatherings, it did not remain a secret in Cachar, and did not take much time to be well known in Sylhet. Both societies became furious about this unthinkable sacrilege. The sacrilegious rebels then avoided the severe punishment of expulsion from society by performing the usual penance of shaving their heads…. had it been known that the Hindu boys of Sylhet were drinking the soda-lemonade prepared by a Muslim, in large numbers, there would have been some chaos in Sylhet as well. (Pal 2013:69)

He narrates another incident. Once, when he fell seriously ill and the doctor suggested lemonade as medicine, his father did not hesitate in giving him the lemonade. He narrates:

My motions more or less stopped that time. But the thirst was very much there. The doctor suggested lemonade for quenching this thirst. The lemonade was brought from the market immediately. The same lemonade, touched by a Muslim, made by a Muslim, in the machine of a Muslim. My father, with his own hands, poured that lemonade in a glass and raised it to my lips. I still had not forgotten the beating I got for having the same lemonade. Now to have my revenge on my father, I turned my face and resolved amidst the room full of people not to have water touched by a Muslim. My father said that it was all right. There was no ritual restriction on medicine. In any condition medicine is as sacred as the offerings or bath water of Narayana. Medicine itself is Narayana. After a lot of pampering like this, making a lot of fuss, at last I had the Muslim made lemonade from my father’s own hand. (Pal 2013:72)

Pal gives a detailed account of the craze for bread and biscuit among themselves. He narrates two revealing stories which describe their enthusiasm. In the first story one of the main protagonists was Bipin Chandra himself, and this incident took place in Sylhet:

Already I have talked about my drinking of Muslim-made lemonade. I never had the slightest of hesitation to have that lemonade. Even the severe punishments given by my father could not create in my heart a little bit of distaste for the water touched by the Muslims. When I used to believe in deities like Durga, I wholeheartedly participated in the religious rituals of the Durga puja; I made vows to Kali with my eyes closed, when I was in a crisis. Even then I never had even a little hesitation about eating prohibited food. In my childhood, there was only one shop selling bread and biscuits in Sylhet. The same shop had  atta  and  mayda  (wheat flour), too. At that time one of our distant cousins returned from Calcutta and settled in our house at Shylet. He was slightly older than me. Probably his relatives had some business in Calcutta. For that reason he went to Calcutta for some days. In Calcutta, he had consumed the bread and biscuits of the Muslims without restriction. He initiated me and the other boys of our house to this prohibited food. We needed some paste for binding our notebooks. On the pretence of buying flour for making this paste, we used to enter the shop selling bread in the town. Though we would come out of the shop after buying flour of one paisa and holding it in our hands to show to the people, we would bring hot bread and biscuits inside our shirt pockets or inside our dhotis, and at the night, after our guardians slept, we would bring these out and have those. In this way, even while staying at Sylhet, my binding considerations of religion and caste were internally totally broken. (Pal 2013:92–93)

In another story, he narrates the craze among the students who stayed in different messes in Calcutta. In his words:

The ties of Hindu-hood had been loosened already while staying at Sylhet, it was totally gone after coming to Calcutta. I used to have food prohibited for the Hindus in secret at Sylhet, I had openly renounced considerations about edible and non-edible food after coming to Calcutta. But some residents of our hostel were not ready to renounce Hindu-hood. Probably their guardians also tried to warn and discipline them always about this. In a few days two groups were created in our hostel. One group was not ready to accept any kind of binding; the other group did not have the courage to commit any blasphemy in public in fear of society. In Sylhet, we used to eat the bread and biscuits of the Muslims secretly. Here also the ones busy to keep their shroud of Hindu-hood could not eat bread made by Brahmins in place of the bread of Mishriganj. Every afternoon the bread seller would keep the breads on the table or on the bed in every room, following prior arrangements. One afternoon a respectable Brahmin came from Sylhet to our mess to visit his relatives. There was fresh hot bread on the bed of that relative, too. Being unable to hide the bread in any other way, he sat on it. Such funny incidents would happen at times.

At that time, especially among the students from Eastern Bengal, there was an excessive love for truth. As a result there was a common perception that the anglicized babus never told lies. Many of the residents of our hostel would not want to speak a lie. Even those who did not eat the food prohibited to the Hindus were not judgmental about the difference between edible and non-edible food items. They did not have the slightest perception that one’s religion can be destroyed by eating what the Muslims ate. They did not have the courage to go against the society. They themselves frankly admitted this. On the other hand they did not want to resort to lies to save their religion. So apart from only the bread of the Muslims, they did not eat any other food prohibited to Hindus. They ate bread and biscuits because there was no chance of discussion on that in the society of Sylhet. (Pal 2013:117–18)

It is necessary to clarify that these students did not consume bread and biscuit for the sake of their health, but they had a certain kind of attraction towards these new food items.    

In a different vein, Jogendrakumar Chattopadhyay (1867–1959), a renowned journalist, in his biographical sketch, narrates a story where the renowned social reformer Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar’s consumption of bread is justified as a diet prescribed by the doctor. In his words:

I remember, once he (Vidyasagar) was talking to a couple of gentlemen from the locality. The conversation was about what benefits we have garnered from the British, and how being in contact with them has harmed us. Some among the assembled listed benefits—the railways, the post and telegraph system etc; and some pointed out the detriments—mentioning effects on quality of health and peace in general. At last, when his opinion was solicited, he said, 'I don’t ever study the pros and cons, but all in all, we have received three good things from the British.' When he was asked what these three were, he said, 'First, English literature. Their Shakespeare, Milton, Bacon, Sir Walter Scott and others that we have received, is no small gain. Secondly—ice.  On a hot summer day, a pot of water with an ice cube cools one …. And thirdly—bread.' His audience laughed aloud at his listing together of literature, ice and bread. However, he said gravely, 'You might laugh! But tell me, was there anything in our country like this bread? A loaf of bread in a bowl of milk is not only filling, it also keeps diseases away. I think, among all the new food that they have taught us to eat, bread reigns supreme.' At that time as per the advice of his doctor, Vidyasagar used to have milk and bread every night. (Chattopadhyay 2009:26–27) 

Sudakshina Sen (1859–1934), in her autobiography  Jivansmriti,  narrates her first experience of consuming bread. At first, she was put off by the smell but after a few times she was able to have bread without any trouble (Sen 2002:54). Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, not only autobiographies but also novels and stories used these new food items as an emblem of the newly emerging culture. These items acted as a carrier of the so-called modern culture. On the other hand, these became a marker of caste and religious degradation, because the consumption of these products was prohibited by the caste norms. As stated earlier, these items were primarily produced by the lower caste or Muslims. Therefore, as Hiteshranjan Sanyal shows, if a person from a higher caste consumed these items made by any person from the lower caste, then that former lost his place in the caste hierarchy (Sanyal 1971:318). Debganer Martye Agaman  by Durgacharan Ray is one such travel story where the writer depicts the reaction of the orthodox Hindus towards the reforms in the culinary culture in the colony.  The primary plot of this novel is that of four male deities of the Hindu pantheon—Brahma, Narayana, Indra and Varuna—who came to Earth in disguise of travelers visiting Calcutta. Before visiting Calcutta, they had visited other parts of North India, and this book is a narration of their journey. However, the most interesting part of this story lies in a conversation between Narayana and Narayani. Narayani expresses her fear to Narayana that if he visited Calcutta he might lose his caste identity by consuming breads and biscuits.       

Narayani: Lord! Why do you torment me? If you do go there and return within 300 years, let alone three days—I can put it into writing. If you find an Armenian woman there, would you even like me anymore? Or would you even look back at heaven? Having mingled with them and having had wine, chicken, biscuits and bread you will probably give up on this life and the one after, and your caste. It will be impossible to be inducted back into our caste, and gradually you will lose what little property you have. You might even become a Brahmo and marry a widow. Maybe you will join a theater group and become a wastrel, whiling away your days and nights playing the flute. I hear, in Calcutta some family called  Shil,  or may be  Nora , have bought some playhouse with 75,000 rupees and have wasted on it some two or three lacs. I too have decided to leave their household. However that may be, Lord! I will never give you leave while I am alive. (Ray 2001:13–14)   

By the end of the 19th century, these new food items became an inseparable part of the culinary culture in colonial Bengal. Many health-related books discussed the nutritional value of bread. With the turn of the 20th century, authors like Chunilal Bose  in 1910 prescribed bread as a very nutritious food. [12]  In 1899, Swami Vivekananda, wrote an essay entitled 'The East and The West'. In this essay he strongly condemned the consumption of bread. According to him, flour mixed with yeast became injurious to health. Therefore, ideally the consumption of bread should be given up. If the circumstances had been created where bread consumption had become a necessity, then toasted bread should be consumed. He wrote:

And as for fermented bread, it is also poison, don’t touch it at all! Flour mixed with yeast becomes injurious. Never take any fermented thing; in this respect the prohibition in our shastras of partaking of any such article of food is a fact of great importance. Any sweet thing which has turned sour is called in the shastras ‘ shukta ' and that is prohibited to be taken, excepting curd, which is good and beneficial. If you have to take bread, toast it well over the fire. (Swami Vivekananda 1954: 390–91).

After Vivekananda’s warning to the people not to consume bread, in 1903 Rabindranath Tagore wrote one of his stories,  Karmafal , criticizing the process of imitation of European etiquette and food items as an idiom of progress. In this story, the protagonist Satish blindly imitates European etiquette such as wearing a hat and coat, and consuming bread and biscuits, and he perceives that as becoming progressive. At the end of the story the protagonist loses all his money because of this.

In 1938, Prafulla Chandra Roy, a famous scientist and nationalist leader, wrote an essay called 'Chira, Muri, Khoi o Biscuit' in  Bharatbarsha . In this essay Prafulla Chandra strongly argued that the Indian puffed rice and flattened rice are more nutritious and cheaper than biscuits. He even gave a table of nutritional value of these food items, where he showed that the vitamin contents are more in puffed rice and flattened rice than in biscuits in which the percentage of vitamin is very low (Roy 2012:279). He also upheld the virtues of coconut—yet another traditional food item. [13]  Thus he tried to construct a modern Indian food culture that would be nutritious but free of all western influences.

This debate went on till the middle of the 20th century, but simultaneously these new food items managed to secure their position within the Bengali fare. And in this process of incorporation the Bengali cookbooks played a crucial role. [14]  Around 1889, a famous cookbook writer Bipradas Mukhopadhyay prepared an ideal menu for Bengali platter where he mentioned many items which were primarily originated in West. According to the Bipradas’s menu the ideal food items for Bengali platter were:

Chhanar luchi  (fried cake made with cheese),  begun bhaja  (fried brinjal),  khastai kachuri , gulel kebab, fried vetki,  choka , prawn cutlet, sweet omelet,  mugger daler murighanta, fish polao, fish malaycurry, hajpaj mangser harikebab, matsamanjari , spicy papaya  chatni , kashmiri sweet poolao,  ras-mundir golapi chatni ,  polao dana mithai, sartoa, kalakand, talshans, sandesh, postor barfi,  sweet curd,  rabri  or  kheer . (Basu 2012:143)

Prajnasundari Debi also provided a similar kind of list of 68 food items in her cookbook  Amish o Niramish Ahar  which she entitled as  kramani (Basu 2012:143). In 1908 Saratkumari Chaudhurani mentioned a detailed menu of a house during some festival in  Maya   Jaggi,  where she mentioned items of similar kind (Nag 2012:89).   

Therefore, the assimilative nature of Bengali consumption culture not only transformed it from time to time from within, but it also helped the Bengalis to cohabit with other cultures without any collision, though this process of incorporation did not always take the smoothest path. But throughout the process it always invited the fresh air of freedom and liberty within the culture which enabled some to break the shackles of caste practices and religious restrictions. In the 19th century this process of incorporation took a significant turn when new Western food items became an essential component of the idea of modernity that found a profound expression in the everyday diet of the Hindu middle class.  

I am thankful to Mr. Kanad Sinha and Ms. Shatavisha Mustafi for their help and inspiration for this article.

Achaya, K.T. 1991. The Food Industries of British India . New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Banerji, Chitrita. 2005. Life and Food in Bengal . New Delhi: Penguin Books.

Basu, Pradip. 2012. ‘Adarsha Paribarer Adarsha Randhanpranali’, in  Paribarik Probondha: Bangali Paribarer Sandarva Bichar . Kolkata: Gangchil.

Basu, Rajnarayan. 1956 [1873]. Se Kal ar E Kal . Calcutta: Bangiya Sahitya Parishad.

Basu, Rajnarayan. 2013 [1909]. Atmacharit . Kolkata: Chirayata Prakasan.  

Bhatia, Varuni. 2009. Devotional Traditions and National Culture: Recovering Gaudiya Vaishnavism in Colonial Bengal . New York: Columbia University.

Bose, Kanchan, ed. 2004.  Ramprasad Bharatchandra Rachanasamagra . Kolkata: Reflect Publication.  

Bose, Chunilal. 1917. Khadya  (3rd edition). Calcutta: Sri Jyotiprakash Basu.

Chakravarti, Mukundaram. 2011. Kabikankan-Chandi  ( Chandimangal) , eds. Srikumar Bandyopadhyay and Viswapati Choudhury. Kolkata: University of Calcutta Press.

Chatterjee, Partha. 1997. Our Modernity . Rotterdam/ Dakar: SEPHIS and CODESRIA.

Chattopadhyay, Jogendranath. 2009. Smrite Sekal . Kolkata: Charyapad Publications.

Dutt, Madhusudan. 1999 [1860]. 'Ekei Ki Bole Sabhyata?' in  Madhusudan Rachanabali . Calcutta: Tuli Kalam.

Habib , Irfan. 2014. The Agrarian System of Mughal India 1556-1707 , revised edition. New Delhi:  Oxford University Press.

Mitchell, Timothy, ed. 2000. Questions of Modernity . Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Mukhopadhyay, Bipradas. 2007. Pak Pranali . Kolkata: Ananda Publishers.

Murshid, Ghulam. 2008. Hajar Bacharer Bangali Sanskriti . Dhaka: Abosar Publications.

Nag, Arun. 2012. Chitrita Padme . Kolkata: Dey’s Publishing.

Narayana Deva. 1942. Padma Puran , trans. Tamonash Chandra Dasgupta. Kolkata: University of Calcutta Press.

Pal, Bipin Chandra. 2013 [1954]. Sattar Batsar . Kolkata: Patralakha.

Peliti, Federico. 1888. The Times of India , April 2.

Ray, Pranad. 1987.  Banglar Khabar . Kolkata: Sahityaloke.

Ray, Utsa. 2009. 'Culture of Food in Colonial Bengal'. PhD Thesis. Pennsylvania University. 

Ray, Durgacharan. 2001 [1891]. Debganer Martye Agaman . Kolkata: Dey’s Publishing.

Roy, Prafulla Chandra. 2012. 'Chida Mudi, Khoi o Biscuit',  Prabandha Samagra . Kolkata: Dey’s Publishing.

Sandeman, Hugh David. 1868. Selections from Calcutta Gazettes 1806–1815 (vol. 4). Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing.

———. 1869. Selections from Calcutta Gazettes 1816–1823 (vol. 5). Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing.

Sanyal, Hiteshranjan. 1971. ‘Continuities of Social Mobility in Traditional and Modern Society in India: Two Case Studies of Caste Mobility in Bengal’, Journal of Asian Studies 30.2: 315–39.

Sarkar, Sumit. 1985. The Critique of Colonial India . Calcutta: Papyrus. 

Sen, Colleen Taylor. 1997. 'The Portuguese Influence on Bengali Cuisine',  Food on the Move Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 1996 . Devon: Prospect Books.

Sen, Nabin Chandra. 1974 [1908–13]. Amar Jiban,  in  Nabinchandra Rachanabali,  vol. 1. Calcutta: Dutta Chowdhuri and Sons.

Sen, Sudakshina. 2002. Jivansmriti . Kolkata: Dey’s Publishing.

Sen, Sukumar. 1943. Prachin Bangla o Bangali . Kolkata: Visbhavarati Granthabivag.

Sen, Sukumar. 2013. Kalikatar Kahini . Kolkata: Ananda Publishers.                                                            

Seton-Karr, W.S. 1868. Selection from the Calcutta Gazettes 1798–1805 (vol. 3). Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing.

Swami Vivekananda. 1954. 'The East and the West', in  The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda . Almora: Advaita Ashram.

[1] Charyapada s are compilations of verses of mystic cults in Bengal. There is very little information available regarding these cults because these verses were written in a manner that was deliberately imprecise, in order to keep a distance from the common people.  

[2] Jute leaf, locally known as  nalicha   shak  or  pat   shak , is used for preparing dishes. Usually it is fried in oil or boiled in water with some spices.

[3] This text was written by Sriharsha who was the court poet of king Vijayachandra. His creations were influenced by the elite culture of the 12th and 13th centuries. It was said he was a Bengali (Ray 1987:4).

[4] Among the meats, rabbit, pigeon, mutton, lamb were important (Ray 1987:1–21).

[5] Sarisha  (mustard leaf),  kachu ,  batoshak ,  shunishannak ,  kalambika ,  hilmochika ,  haridra were popular (Ray 1987:1–21).

[6] Parbal, potato ( mete   aloo ), radish,  kakrol  (a kind of cucurbitaceous vegetable),  mashak  (a kind of bean) were very popular (Ray 1987).

[7] Mango, jackfruit, coconut, banana,  amla , watermelon, wood-apple, litchi, plum etc. were very popular (Ray 1987). 

[8] Though this part of the story deals mainly with tribal society, the poet Mukundaram was not a part of that society. So he might have represented the society where he lived in.  

[9] Bharat Chandra Ray’s Annadamangal makes no mention of those new foods and vegetables.

[10] The Times of India, January 7,1888, p. 8.

[11] For the process of the popularization of these new vegetables in Bengali Society see Ray 2015.  

[12] See Khadya  (3rd edition), Calcutta: Sri Jyotiprakash Basu. Chunilal Bose was a Professor of Chemistry in Calcutta Medical College, a Fellow in University of Calcutta, and chemical examiner of Government of Bengal.

[13] Partha Chatterjee has argued that colonial subjects sometimes became the producers of alternative modernity: there are also hints that consciously or unconsciously Prafulla Chandra Roy also produced the notion of alternative modernity through his essay.

[14] The first Bengali cookbook was published in 1831 and titled  Pak-Rajeswara.  In 1838,  Byanjanratnakar 

was published. But in 1889 was published the significant cookbook,  Pak Pranali,  written by Bipradas Mukhopadhyay. In 1907 the first female cookbook writer Prajnasundari Debi wrote,  Amish o Niramish Ahar . After that a number of cookbooks were published in Bengal with different Bengali and non-Bengali recipes. 

From Baul to Gambhira: 8 West Bengal’s Most Iconic Folk Dances

You must know that the culture in Bengal is renowned all over the world. You will get various types of varieties and richness in the culture of West Bengal . The folk dance of West Bengal has also gained the attention of people. The folk dance of West Bengal is famous for its rich taste.

You will feel great to know that each state of West Bengal is famous for its dance and culture. Even foreigners love to be a part of these types of dance. They come to dance and relish the moments.

Table of Contents

Let’s Explore some of the Best Traditional Folk Dances of West Bengal:

1. brita dance:.

Brita dance is an important part of the rural Bengali culture and is commonly completed throughout the festive season, especially at some point during the Bengali New Year. The dance is characterized by complex footwork and hand gestures synchronized with the track. The performers wore traditional apparel, including a purple-bordered white saree embellished with bangles and necklaces.

Brita dance is more than just a form of enjoyment; it is an essential part of West Bengal’s cultural identity and serves to retain the place’s historical past. Through the performance of Brita dance, younger generations are added to the customs and traditions of their ancestors, ensuring that the lifestyle is preserved with time.

West Bengal has a diverse cultural panorama, and Brita dance is one instance of the kingdom’s numerous art bureaucracy. Brita dance has helped to form the identification of West Bengal and make it a huge contributor to India’s cultural background.

2. Gambhira Dance:

Numerous musical instruments, including the harmonium, flute, and drum, were reused to create a rhythmic and melodic ambiance during the Gambhira Dance. The performance is performed sincerely and honestly, giving the audience a soulful experience.

The Gambhira Dance is a stunning illustration of West Bengal’s rich culture and dedication to Lord Shiva. Anyone visiting the area must observe it because of its ubiquity and imp

3. Chhau Dance:

In the Mayurbhanj district, Chhau dance is a well-known style of performance this is properly appreciated. Usually, during the Chaitra months, the party of the sun is while its miles are accomplished. This performance fashion adds cultural and traditional importance to itself even as additionally being wonderful and depicting the Ramayana and Mahabharata testimonies.

Tourists are interested in this performance because of its well-known topics, which consist of those of Rudra and Vira. You will genuinely admire this dance’s distinct art shape and be mesmerized by its spellbinding performances if you see it carried out.

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4. Tusu Dance:

If you want to experience the traditional Santhal dance you must relish this dance. The Tusu dance has its own beauty. This dance has its own beauty and culture.

It is also performed during the month of Pausa. It is found in the month of December and January. The Tusu dance of Birbhum district is very famous.

5. Lathi Dance:

Lathi dance is performed to express something. It is performed during the time of Muharram.  This dance is performed during the first ten days of Muharram. It is the dance to show off the powers of the body.

A bamboo stick is taken and used in several ways. It is performed with various sounds. You will love to see the performance of the people. Lathi dance is divided into several parts.

6. Baul Dance:

It is another famous dance of West Bengal. It always has a special position in the traditions and culture of West Bengal. You will feel nice to have a glimpse of the dance performance of the dancers.

They perform uniquely. They also maintain perfect styles and postures. The dancers are well-trained and have a passion for the dance. It will be highly exciting to be a part of this dance.

7. Rabindrasangeet Dance:

It will be great to know that the Rabindrsangeet dance is one of the traditional dances of West Bengal. Most young people including girls perform this dance. It will be nice to know that this dance is performed even in many foreign countries.

People come here to West Bengal to cherish the place of Rabindranath Tagore and enjoy the dance. If you once view the dance, you will never forget it in your lifetime. You can also participate in the dance that is performed by the girls and young people of Bengal.

8. Classical Dance of Bengal:

The classical dance of Bengal is renowned and famous everywhere. It has also crossed the boundaries of Bengal and reached other parts of India and abroad. Most of the renowned dancers are from Bengal. The classical dance of Bengal is to be cherished and viewed.

If you are a part of Indian culture, you must try this dance. The people of Bengal have a special preference and inclination for the classical dance of Bengal It will be a great experience to cherish and know about this special dance of Bengal. It is a wonderful performance done by the people.

Traditional dance as a form of storytelling

Traditional dance in West Bengal is only sometimes the most effective form of leisure; however, additionally a method of storytelling. It is a rich cultural expression passed down from era to era. It plays a considerable position in conveying myths, legends, and cultural narratives through movement and track.

In West Bengal, conventional dance bureaucracy inclusive of Chhau, Gaudiya Nritya, and Manipuri had been used to relate testimonies from Hindu mythology, ancient occasions, and cultural traditions. Chhau, a martial dance form, is frequently used to depict battles from Hindu epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata. Gaudiya Nritya, then again, is a Swish dance form used to narrate memories from the life of Lord Krishna, the Hindu god of affection and compassion. Manipuri, a devotional dance shape, is used to inform testimonies from the lifestyles of Lord Shiva, the destroyer god.

Through their actions and expressions, the dancers carry into existence the characters and occasions from those testimonies. The song, a vital part of traditional dance, adds depth and emotion to the narrative. The use of colorful costumes, make-up, and props similarly enhances the storytelling.

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Role of traditional dance in Bengali festivals:

Traditional dance plays a substantial role in Bengali festivals and celebrations, adding to the cultural richness and identity of the area. In West Bengal, dance is not only a form of enjoyment but also a way of expressing devotion, celebrating harvests, and honouring cultural traditions.

During Bengali galas, conventional dance performances are regularly the highlight of the celebrations. The colourful and lively moves of the dancers, together with the music and the colourful costumes, create a festive environment and draw in large crowds of humans. Dance performances aren’t just limited to professional dancers; even amateurs and enthusiasts participate in the celebrations, adding to the general sense of community and togetherness.

In addition to its entertainment fee, traditional dance serves a non-secular cause in Bengali galas. Many of the dances are accomplished to honour the gods and goddesses, seeking their advantages and safety.

For example, the dancing shape of Durga Puja is done during the Durga Puja pageant to honour the goddess Durga, who represents energy and electricity. Similarly, the dance form of Raas Leela is done for the duration of the Krishna Janmashtami festival to honour the lifestyles and teachings of Lord Krishna.

Traditional dance additionally contributes to the cultural identity of the location. Through the generations, the dance forms have been exceeded down from one generation to the next, preserving the cultural background of Bengali human beings. The dance bureaucracy is specific and features distinct patterns, music, and costumes, reflecting the region’s diversity.

Costumes and accessories in the traditional dance of West Bengal

Traditional dance forms in West Bengal are known for their colorful and elaborate costumes and add-ons.

Here are some of the costumes and add-ons commonly used in traditional dance performances in West Bengal:

Dhuti-Panjabi : Dhuti-Panjabi is the conventional dress worn by male performers in West Bengal. It includes a long shirt known as Panjabi and a fabric wrapped around the waist referred to as Dhuti.

Saree : Saree is the traditional gown worn with the aid of female performers in West Bengal. The saree is usually manufactured from silk and is uniquely draped around the body.

Kurta-Pajama: Kurta-Pajama is every other conventional dress worn by using male performers. It includes a long blouse called Kurta and free-fitting pants known as Pajama.

Ornaments : Ornaments such as bangles, necklaces, earrings, and anklets are an indispensable part of conventional dance performances in West Bengal. These ornaments are frequently made from gold, silver, or different metals and are designed to supplement the costume.

Mukut : Mukut is a crown worn by male performers in positive traditional dance forms in West Bengal. The crown is normally made of paper, cardboard, or other lightweight substances and is adorned with colorful stones and beads.

Ghungroo : Ghungroo is a type of ankle bell worn with each male and lady performer’s aid in conventional dance performances. The bells produce a jingling sound with every movement, adding to the overall rhythm and tune of the dance.

Gamcha : Gamcha is a traditional scarf worn by male performers around their necks or waist. It is usually the product of cotton and is used to wipe off sweat at some stage in the dance’s overall performance.

Topor : Topor is a traditional headgear worn by male performers in certain dance forms in West Bengal. It is commonly manufactured from paper or cardboard and is adorned with colorful designs.

Modern variations of conventional dance in West Bengal:

Fusion Dance: With the rise of globalization, conventional dance forms have been fused with modern dance patterns together with jazz, hip hop, and modern dance. This fusion dance consists of factors of traditional dance with cutting-edge songs and movements to create a unique shape of expression.

Contemporary Interpretations: Traditional topics and testimonies are being interpreted in new and innovative ways. Contemporary interpretations of traditional dance themes are frequently visible in productions that mix current and conventional patterns, creating a completely unique and engaging enjoyment for the audience.

Experimental Dance: Contemporary dancers are experimenting with conventional paperwork to create new and interesting patterns. By breaking loose from traditional policies and structures, experimental dance bureaucracies are emerging that push the limits of what is viable in traditional dance.

Digital Adaptations: In the age of digital media, conventional dance paperwork is being tailored for online audiences. Dancers use social media and video-sharing websites to share their performances with a global audience, bringing conventional dance to new and numerous audiences.

Cross-Cultural Collaborations: Modern diversifications of conventional dance aren’t restrained to fusing exceptional dance styles; however also collaborate with artists from different cultures. These collaborations result in productions that fuse traditional dance bureaucracy with other cultural expressions, growing a dynamic and specific overall performance that celebrates cultural range.

West Bengal’s Local Folk Dancers and Artists List

Sharmila Biswas:  Sharmila Biswas is a well-known performer and choreographer of Gaudiya Nritya from Kolkata. She is renowned for her distinctive style, which combines conventional dance forms with modern subjects.

Anusua Majumdar:  Anusua Majumdar is a well-known West Bengali Kathak performer. She has given numerous domestic and international performances and has received numerous honours for her services to the arts.

Bhaba Pagla:  Originally from West Bengal’s Malda region, Bhaba Pagla was a well-known Gambhira performer. He was renowned for his humorous and satiric dance, as well as for his upbeat shows.

Rina Dasgupta:  From West Bengal, Rina Dasgupta is a well-known Santhal performer. She has put in a lot of effort to spread awareness of the Santhal dance style and has mentored several aspiring performers.

Mahua Mukherjee: Mahua Mukherjee is a well-known Baul artist and vocalist from West Bengal. She is renowned for her heartfelt interpretations of Baul melodies, a traditional music genre rooted in Bengal.

Uday Shankar:  Regarded as one of India’s most important dancers and choreographers, Uday Shankar pioneered contemporary dance in that nation. He was brought up in Udaipur, West Bengal, and received training in both Western and traditional Indian dance techniques.

Thus it can be assumed from the whole discussion that Bengal is rich in culture that includes dance, music, and other things. Not only today but Bengal is always famous for its culture. Till now the people of Bengal are trying to uplift the culture of this place. Time has changed and now new styles have been introduced. These new styles are better and great in many aspects. People love this culture not only in India but in many other countries of the world. It is hoped that new styles are also introduced and they are best in many ways.

List of the More Traditional Folk Dances in India by State:

• Popular Art and Dance Forms in Kerala
• List of Popular Folk Dances in Rajasthan
• Top 13 Popular Folk Dances in Nepal
• Traditional Dance Form of Karnataka
• Popular Folk Dances of Tamilnadu
• Famous Folk Dances of Meghalaya
• 6 Traditional Folk Dance of Himachal Pradesh
• Popular Folk Dances of Jammu & Kashmir

10 Types of Punjabi Folk Dance

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Essay on West Bengal: The Cultural and Historical Gem of India

Essay on West Bengal in English

The historical legacy of West Bengal is a rich and diverse one, spanning several millennia. The earliest evidence of human habitation in the region dates back to the prehistoric times, with the discovery of stone tools and artifacts from the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods. West Bengal has also been home to some of the most powerful empires and kingdoms in India's history, including the Mauryan, Gupta, Pala, and Sena dynasties.

The region that is now known as West Bengal was also an important center of trade and commerce during ancient times. The ancient port city of Tamralipta (present-day Tamluk) was a major center of trade with ancient Greece and Rome, while the port of Saptagram was an important hub for maritime trade with Southeast Asia and China.

West Bengal was also at the forefront of India's struggle for independence from British rule. The state was the birthplace of several prominent leaders of the Indian independence movement, including Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, Rabindranath Tagore, and Swami Vivekananda. The state played a key role in the non-cooperation movement, the Quit India movement, and other nationalist movements that eventually led to India's independence in 1947.

Today, West Bengal is a vibrant and dynamic state that blends its rich history with modernity. Its cities and towns are home to some of the most iconic landmarks and monuments in India, including the Victoria Memorial, the Howrah Bridge, and the Dakshineswar Kali Temple. Its rich cultural heritage continues to inspire artists, writers, and intellectuals, and the state is home to several world-renowned institutions of higher learning and research.

The Cultural Identity of West Bengal

The cultural identity of West Bengal is deeply rooted in its history, religion, and traditions. The state is home to a diverse population, including Bengalis, Nepalis, Biharis, and Marwaris, among others. The Bengali culture, in particular, has had a profound impact on the state's cultural identity, and is renowned for its literature, music, art, and cuisine.

West Bengal is often referred to as the cultural capital of India, owing to its rich cultural heritage and vibrant artistic traditions. The state has produced some of India's most celebrated writers, artists, and musicians, including Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore, filmmaker Satyajit Ray, and sitar maestro Ravi Shankar.

The Bengali language, which is the official language of the state, is also an integral part of the state's cultural identity. It is one of the most widely spoken languages in India, and is renowned for its rich literary traditions. Bengali literature includes works of poetry, fiction, and drama, and has produced some of India's most iconic literary figures, including Rabindranath Tagore, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, and Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay.

West Bengal is also renowned for its music and dance traditions, including the Baul and Rabindra Sangeet musical genres, and the Chhau and Jatra dance forms. The state's cuisine is also an important part of its cultural identity, with dishes like rosogolla, sandesh, and machher jhol being world-renowned.

Overall, the cultural identity of West Bengal is a testament to the state's rich history and vibrant artistic traditions. It continues to inspire and influence people across India and the world, and remains an important part of India's cultural heritage.

The Literature of West Bengal

The literature of West Bengal is an integral part of the state's cultural identity and is renowned for its rich and diverse traditions. The Bengali language, which is the official language of the state, has a long and storied literary history that dates back centuries.

Bengali literature has produced some of India's most iconic literary figures, including Rabindranath Tagore, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, and Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay. Tagore, in particular, is celebrated as one of the greatest literary figures in Indian history and was the first non-European to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913.

Bengali literature is known for its poetic and lyrical quality, and its themes often center around love, nature, and spirituality. Many of the region's literary works have been translated into other languages and have gained global recognition. The works of Rabindranath Tagore, for example, have been translated into dozens of languages and are widely read around the world.

In addition to poetry and fiction, Bengali literature also includes works of drama and non-fiction. The region's dramatic traditions are particularly noteworthy, with the Jatra and Pala being two popular forms of theater that have been practiced in West Bengal for centuries.

West Bengal is also home to several prominent literary institutions, including the Sahitya Akademi and the Bangla Academy. These institutions are dedicated to preserving and promoting the region's literary traditions and have played a significant role in shaping the Bengali literary landscape.

Overall, the literature of West Bengal is a testament to the region's rich cultural heritage and continues to inspire and influence writers and readers around the world.

The Art and Music of West Bengal

The art and music of West Bengal are an integral part of the state's cultural identity and are renowned for their vibrant and diverse traditions. The state is home to a rich and colorful artistic heritage, including painting, sculpture, music, and dance.

West Bengal is known for its vibrant and distinctive art traditions, including the Kalighat painting style, which originated in the Kalighat temple in Kolkata. This style is characterized by its bold colors and striking images of Hindu gods and goddesses, as well as everyday life in Kolkata. Another prominent art form in West Bengal is terracotta, which is widely used to create decorative tiles and sculptures.

Music is also an important part of the cultural identity of West Bengal, with a rich and diverse array of musical traditions. The region is famous for its Baul and Rabindra Sangeet musical genres, which have gained global recognition for their poetic and lyrical qualities. Baul music is a form of folk music that originated in Bengal and is known for its mystic and philosophical themes. Rabindra Sangeet, on the other hand, is a form of music that was popularized by the legendary poet and writer Rabindranath Tagore, and is characterized by its soulful melodies and poetic lyrics.

West Bengal is also home to several popular dance forms, including the Chhau and Jatra. Chhau is a traditional martial dance that originated in the Purulia district of West Bengal and is known for its elaborate costumes and high-energy movements. Jatra, on the other hand, is a form of folk theater that originated in Bengal and combines music, dance, and drama.

Overall, the art and music of West Bengal are a testament to the state's rich cultural heritage and continue to inspire and influence people around the world. They are a testament to the region's creativity, diversity, and artistic vision.

The Cuisine of West Bengal

The cuisine of West Bengal is a reflection of the region's rich cultural heritage, with a unique blend of flavors and spices that have been shaped by its history and geography. The food of West Bengal is known for its bold flavors, aromatic spices, and use of local ingredients.

One of the most iconic dishes from West Bengal is the fish curry, known as "machher jhol." This spicy curry is made with a variety of local fish, including hilsa and rohu, and is flavored with a blend of spices and herbs, including mustard, cumin, and coriander. Another popular dish is "shukto," a vegetable stew made with a variety of vegetables, including bitter gourd, eggplant, and pumpkin, and flavored with a blend of spices.

West Bengal is also known for its street food culture, with popular snacks like "puchka" (also known as "pani puri" or "golgappa"), "jhal muri" (spicy puffed rice), and "kathi rolls" (grilled flatbread stuffed with meat or vegetables) being widely enjoyed by locals and tourists alike.

One of the most famous sweets from West Bengal is "rosogolla," a spongy, syrupy dessert made with cottage cheese and sugar syrup. Other popular sweets include "sandesh," a type of milk-based sweet, and "mishti doi," a sweet yogurt made with jaggery or sugar.

West Bengal is also home to several unique beverages, including "cha" (tea) and "lassi" (a sweet yogurt drink). "Cha" is a staple beverage in West Bengal, with the region's famous "Darjeeling tea" being widely enjoyed around the world.

Overall, the cuisine of West Bengal is a reflection of the region's rich cultural heritage and culinary traditions. Its bold flavors and aromatic spices have gained popularity around the world, making it a must-try for any food lover.

The Festivals of West Bengal

West Bengal is a state in India that is renowned for its rich cultural heritage, and this is reflected in the many festivals that are celebrated here throughout the year. From religious festivals to cultural celebrations, there is always something happening in West Bengal, making it a vibrant and exciting place to visit.

Durga Puja is the biggest and most important festival in West Bengal. It is a five-day celebration that marks the triumph of good over evil, and is celebrated with great fervor and enthusiasm across the state. The festival is marked by elaborate pandals (temporary structures) that are built to house the idol of goddess Durga, and are decorated with intricate artwork and lighting. Thousands of people from across the state come to witness the celebrations, making it a truly unforgettable experience.

Another major festival in West Bengal is Diwali, the festival of lights. It is celebrated across India, and in West Bengal, it is marked by the lighting of diyas (earthen lamps) and the exchange of sweets and gifts. Kali Puja is also celebrated during this time, which involves worshiping the goddess Kali.

Holi, the festival of colors, is also celebrated in West Bengal with great enthusiasm. People throw colored powders at each other, dance to music, and enjoy festive foods.

Bengalis also celebrate several cultural festivals, such as Poush Mela, which celebrates the winter harvest, and the Kolkata Book Fair, which is one of the largest book fairs in the world. The annual Kolkata Film Festival is also a major event, which attracts filmmakers and movie enthusiasts from around the world.

Other important festivals in West Bengal include Eid, Christmas, and Buddha Purnima, which celebrates the birth of the Buddha.

Overall, the festivals of West Bengal are a testament to the region's rich cultural heritage and the warmth and hospitality of its people. They offer a unique glimpse into the traditions and beliefs of the Bengali community and are an experience not to be missed.

The Tourism Industry of West Bengal

West Bengal is a state in India that is blessed with natural beauty, rich cultural heritage, and diverse landscapes, making it a popular destination for tourists from all over the world. The tourism industry of West Bengal has been growing steadily over the years, with the state attracting millions of visitors annually.

One of the biggest draws for tourists in West Bengal is its capital city, Kolkata. Known as the cultural capital of India, Kolkata is home to numerous historical landmarks, museums, art galleries, and cultural festivals. The Victoria Memorial, St. Paul's Cathedral, and the Indian Museum are just a few of the popular tourist attractions in the city.

Another major tourist destination in West Bengal is the Darjeeling district, located in the Himalayan foothills. Known for its stunning views of the mountains, tea plantations, and scenic landscapes, Darjeeling is a popular spot for adventure sports, trekking, and mountaineering. The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, a UNESCO World Heritage site, is also a major draw for tourists.

The Sundarbans, a vast mangrove forest that is home to the Royal Bengal Tiger, is another major attraction in West Bengal. The region is a popular destination for wildlife enthusiasts, with opportunities to see other animals like saltwater crocodiles, spotted deer, and wild boar.

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West Bengal is also famous for its beaches, with destinations like Digha, Mandarmani, and Shankarpur attracting tourists from all over India. These beaches offer a range of activities, from swimming and sunbathing to water sports like jet skiing and parasailing.

The state is also home to several heritage sites, including the ruins of the ancient city of Gaur and the Bishnupur temples, which are known for their intricate terracotta work.

Overall, the tourism industry of West Bengal is a growing sector, with plenty of opportunities for adventure, cultural experiences, and relaxation. The state's diverse landscapes and rich cultural heritage make it a destination that is sure to leave a lasting impression on any visitor.

Short Essay on West Bengal in English

West Bengal is a state located in the eastern region of India. It is known for its rich cultural heritage, scenic beauty, and diverse history. Kolkata, the state's capital city, was once the center of the British Raj and continues to be a hub of culture, politics, and commerce.

The state of West Bengal is home to a large population of around 100 million people, making it the fourth most populous state in India. Bengali is the official language of the state, and the majority of the population is Hindu.

The state has a diverse economy that includes agriculture, manufacturing, and services. Agriculture is a major contributor to the economy, and the state is known for its production of rice, jute, tea, and other crops. The manufacturing sector is also significant, with industries such as textiles, chemicals, and electronics being major contributors.

West Bengal has a rich cultural heritage that includes literature, music, art, and dance. The state is known for its literature, particularly the works of famous writers such as Rabindranath Tagore and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. The state is also famous for its classical music, with the Baul and Rabindra Sangeet being popular styles.

In terms of tourism, West Bengal has much to offer visitors. The state is home to several UNESCO World Heritage sites, including the Sundarbans mangrove forest, the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, and the archaeological site of Nalanda. Kolkata, with its rich history and cultural attractions, is also a popular destination for tourists.

However, like many states in India, West Bengal also faces its share of challenges. Poverty, illiteracy, and political instability are some of the issues that the state continues to grapple with. The state has also experienced periodic violence and political unrest, particularly in recent years.

Overall, West Bengal is a state with a rich history, culture, and economy. Despite its challenges, it remains a vibrant and fascinating part of India that is well worth exploring.

10 Lines Essay on West Bengal in English

West Bengal is a state located in the eastern region of India. It is the fourth most populous state in India and has a rich cultural and historical heritage. Kolkata is the capital and largest city of West Bengal, known for its art, literature, and architecture. The state is also famous for its delicious cuisine, particularly sweets such as rasgulla and sandesh. West Bengal is known for its contribution to the Indian independence movement and has produced several famous freedom fighters. The state is home to several prominent universities, including the prestigious Jadavpur University. It is also a major hub for the film industry, with the famous Tollywood producing many popular films. West Bengal has a diverse topography, with the Himalayan mountain range in the north and the coastal regions in the south. The Sunderbans, the world's largest delta and home to the Royal Bengal Tiger, is located in West Bengal. The state is also known for its festivals, including Durga Puja, which is celebrated with great fervor and enthusiasm. Overall, West Bengal is a vibrant state with a rich history and culture.

Where is West Bengal located?

West Bengal is a state located in the eastern part of India. It is bordered by Bangladesh in the east, Nepal and Bhutan in the north, and the Indian states of Sikkim, Assam, Jharkhand, and Odisha on other sides.

What is the capital of West Bengal?

The capital of West Bengal is Kolkata, formerly known as Calcutta. It is one of the largest cities in India and a major cultural and economic hub.

What are some popular tourist attractions in West Bengal?

West Bengal is home to a diverse range of tourist attractions, including historic landmarks, natural wonders, and cultural sites. Some of the most popular tourist attractions in the state include the Sunderbans mangrove forest, Darjeeling tea plantations, Victoria Memorial, Dakshineswar Kali Temple, Howrah Bridge, and the Bishnupur terracotta temples.

What is the predominant language spoken in West Bengal?

Bengali is the predominant language spoken in West Bengal. However, many people also speak Hindi, English, and other regional languages.

What is the climate like in West Bengal?

West Bengal has a tropical climate with high humidity and significant rainfall throughout the year. Summers are hot and humid, with temperatures ranging from 25°C to 40°C, while winters are cool and pleasant, with temperatures ranging from 10°C to 25°C.

What are the major industries in West Bengal?

West Bengal has a diverse economy with major industries including agriculture, manufacturing, tourism, and services. The state is known for its production of jute, tea, and rice, as well as its manufacturing industries such as textiles, steel, and electronics.

What is the political situation in West Bengal?

West Bengal has a parliamentary system of government with a Chief Minister as the head of the state. The state has a multi-party system with major political parties including the Trinamool Congress, Bharatiya Janata Party, and Indian National Congress.

What is the literacy rate in West Bengal?

According to the 2011 Census, the literacy rate in West Bengal was 76.26%. However, the state government has taken various initiatives to improve the literacy rate in recent years.

What are the major festivals celebrated in West Bengal?

West Bengal is known for its vibrant cultural traditions and festivals. Some of the major festivals celebrated in the state include Durga Puja, Diwali, Eid-ul-Fitr, Holi, Christmas, and the Bengali New Year.

What is the population of West Bengal?

As of 2021, the estimated population of West Bengal is around 97.2 million people, making it the fourth most populous state in India.

West Bengal is a state with a rich history, diverse culture, and a rapidly growing economy. From its historic landmarks to its natural wonders and vibrant festivals, West Bengal has something to offer to everyone. The state is home to a thriving manufacturing industry, a strong agricultural sector, and a growing service sector. With its talented and hardworking people, West Bengal has the potential to become a major economic powerhouse in India. Despite its challenges, the state continues to strive towards progress and development, making it an important part of India's growth story.

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Kolkata to Darjeeling: 10 places to visit when in West Bengal

W est Bengal, located in eastern India, is a state that captivates visitors with its fascinating blend of rich cultural heritage, historical landmarks, and breathtaking natural beauty. From the bustling streets of Kolkata to the tranquil tea gardens of Darjeeling, West Bengal offers a diverse range of experiences that leave a lasting impression on travelers.

Kolkata - A City of Colonial Grandeur

Kolkata, the capital city of West Bengal, is a vibrant metropolis that showcases the remnants of British colonial architecture and a thriving intellectual and artistic scene. The iconic Victoria Memorial, with its stunning white marble facade, stands as a symbol of the city's grandeur. Howrah Bridge, connecting Kolkata with its twin city Howrah, is an architectural marvel and a bustling hub of activity. The Indian Museum, one of the oldest museums in India, houses a vast collection of artifacts that depict the region's rich history. A visit to the Dakshineswar Kali Temple, dedicated to the goddess Kali, provides a spiritual and cultural experience.

Darjeeling - A Slice of Himalayan Paradise

Nestled amidst the majestic Himalayan foothills, Darjeeling is a picturesque hill station known for its world-renowned tea gardens and breathtaking views of Mt. Kanchenjunga, the third-highest peak in the world. A ride on the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and lovingly called the "Toy Train," is a nostalgic journey that offers panoramic vistas of the mountains and quaint villages. The sunrise view from Tiger Hill is a mesmerizing sight, where the first rays of the sun paint the snow-capped peaks in hues of gold and pink. Exploring the Batasia Loop and visiting the Happy Valley Tea Estate are also popular attractions.

Sundarbans National Park - Nature's Enigmatic Haven

Listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Sundarbans National Park is a unique mangrove forest that stretches across West Bengal and Bangladesh. It is home to the majestic Royal Bengal Tigers, along with a diverse range of flora and fauna. Embarking on a thrilling boat safari through the intricate network of waterways allows visitors to witness the rich biodiversity up close. With luck, you may catch a glimpse of the elusive tigers, crocodiles basking in the sun, and vibrant birdlife.

Digha - Serene Beach Bliss

Situated on the Bay of Bengal, Digha is a popular beach destination in West Bengal. The long stretch of sandy beaches, lined with casuarina trees, offers a peaceful retreat for sun-seekers and nature lovers. The calm waters provide opportunities for swimming and water sports, while the charming fishing villages give a glimpse into the local way of life. Watching the mesmerizing sunrise and sunset views over the sea is an unforgettable experience, creating a sense of tranquility and awe.

Shantiniketan - The Abode of Art and Culture

Shantiniketan, founded by the iconic poet and philosopher Rabindranath Tagore, is a serene town renowned for its artistic and intellectual heritage. The Visva Bharati University, established by Tagore, is a center of learning and creativity that attracts students and scholars from around the world. Tagore's Ashram, known as "Santiniketan," preserves the poet's legacy and provides a tranquil space for reflection. The annual Poush Mela festival, celebrated with great fervor, showcases the region's vibrant art, culture, and music, making it a must-visit for enthusiasts.

Murshidabad - A Historical Gem

Murshidabad, situated on the banks of the River Ganges, is a city steeped in history. It was once the capital of Bengal under the Nawabs of Bengal. The magnificent Hazarduari Palace, with its thousand doors, is a major attraction and showcases the grandeur of the bygone era. Nizamat Imambara, Katra Mosque, and the scenic Hazarduari Garden are other notable sites to explore. Immerse yourself in the rich heritage and architectural splendors of Murshidabad, which offer glimpses into the region's glorious past.

Kalimpong - Serenity in the Hills

Perched amidst the picturesque hills of the Darjeeling district, Kalimpong is a serene retreat known for its pleasant climate and breathtaking views. The panoramic vistas from Deolo Hill and Durpin Dara viewpoint are simply mesmerizing. The Zang Dhok Palri Monastery, with its beautiful architecture and serene ambiance, offers a spiritual experience. Explore the colonial charm of Morgan House, a heritage property that reflects the region's colonial past. Kalimpong invites visitors to unwind amidst its tranquil surroundings and discover the beauty of the Himalayas.

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Bishnupur - A Terracotta Marvel

Bishnupur, a historic town in West Bengal, is renowned for its exquisite terracotta temples and intricate craftsmanship. The Rasmancha, a unique pyramidal temple structure, is a prominent landmark. The Jor Bangla Temple and Madan Mohan Temple are other notable examples of terracotta architecture. Delve into the rich cultural heritage of Bishnupur as you admire the intricate carvings and artwork that adorn these temples. The Terracotta Museum provides further insights into the town's artistic traditions, making Bishnupur a captivating destination for art and architecture enthusiasts.

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Gorumara National Park - Wildlife Wonderland

Gorumara National Park, located in the Dooars region of West Bengal, is a haven for wildlife enthusiasts and nature lovers. The park boasts lush green forests, glistening rivers, and a rich diversity of wildlife. Embark on thrilling jeep safaris and elephant rides to spot magnificent creatures like elephants, Indian one-horned rhinoceros, and various species of deer. Gorumara National Park is also a paradise for birdwatchers, with its wide range of avian species. Immerse yourself in the untamed beauty of this wildlife sanctuary and discover the wonders of nature.

Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary - Home of the Rhinos

Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary, another gem in the Dooars region, is renowned for its population of Indian one-horned rhinoceros. Embark on an exciting wildlife safari, either by jeep or elephant, to catch a glimpse of these majestic creatures in their natural habitat. The sanctuary is also home to other wildlife, including tigers, deer, elephants, and an array of bird species. The enchanting landscape of Jaldapara, with its dense forests and meandering rivers, provides a captivating backdrop for your wildlife adventure. Immerse yourself in the serenity of this sanctuary and experience the thrill of encountering magnificent rhinos.

West Bengal offers an enriching journey through its historical landmarks, cultural treasures, and natural wonders. Whether you explore the colonial splendor of Kolkata, immerse yourself in the tranquility of Darjeeling, or witness the raw beauty of the Sundarbans, each destination unfolds unique experiences. From the bustling city streets to the serene tea gardens and the dense mangrove forests, West Bengal beckons travelers with its remarkable blend of heritage and nature. Embark on a voyage of discovery and let West Bengal weave its magic upon you, leaving you with memories to cherish for a lifetime.

Lok Sabha Election 2024 Result

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Lok Sabha Elections Result 2024: I.N.D.I.A Bloc Takes Lead In The Initial Phase Of Counting | ABP News

The results will be declared by the Election Commission of India for elections to 543 Parliamentary constituencies, 175 seats of Andhra Pradesh Assembly constituencies, 147 seats of Odisha Assembly constituencies byelections to 25 Assembly constituencies. The Lok Sabha election vote counting live updates can also be tracked on ABP News YouTube channel. The counting comes after a marathon seven phases of voting which began on April 19 and continued till June 1. The process of counting votes will begin with the counting of postal ballot papers at the Returning Officer's (RO) table under Rule 54 A of the Conduct of Elections Rules 1961. The Bharatiya Janata Party is eyeing a hat-trick in the Lok Sabha elections 2024 with its "400 paar" slogan while the Opposition's I.N.D.I.A bloc remains firm on its claim of bagging more than 295 seats. While most pollsters have predicted a comfortable win for the BJP-led National Democratic Alliance, a lot is at stake for the ruling alliance in terms of the scale of victory that it can achieve and new territories that it can conquer. 

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Knowing India: Academic Social Responsibility and the Humanities

Offered by Centre for Translation of Indian Literatures (CENTIL), Department of Comparative Literature, Jadavpur University

SPARC Project (Scheme for the Promotion of Academic and Research Collaboration) in association with the Humanities in India Partnership Programme, University of East Anglia.

This course is being offered as a Post-Graduate Certificate Course of thirty contact hours. It is open to students of Jadavpur University, students of the University of East Anglia, to college and university teachers, and interested lay persons. After over 76 years of India’s independence, contemporary India has become a distinct socio-political unit, which needs to be studied. There are several academic disciplines and academic bodies who promote specialized research on aspects of this period. This course aims to bring together established specialists and younger scholars from various Humanities domains, to offer a holistic and critical evaluation of that period in its multi-dimensional complexity.

We propose an online course this year, with the course starting if a minimum of 30 register. Participants will have to pre-register and pay a fee. We propose to run three teaching sessions per week. At the end of the course students will get a participation certificate, signed by the SPARC Coordinator, the HoD, Comparative Literature, the Pro-Vice Chancellor, Jadavpur University and a senior UEA colleague.

Registration fee: General (non-student) participants – Rs. 4000+ GST Students in India – Rs. 2000 + GST Last date for payment and registration - 5 June 2024

The course will begin on 12 th June 2024 and run till 19 July 2024, being held in two one hour slots every Monday, Wednesday and Friday, except when the day has been declared a Government holiday in West Bengal. The full course details will be sent to registered participants. However, the tentative speakers list includes Achin Vanaik, former Professor of Political Science, Delhi University, Sobhanlal Dutta Gupta, former Professor of Political Science, Calcutta University; Jon Cook, Emeritus Professor of Literature, University of East Anglia; Ganesh Devy, Professor of Eminence, Somaiya Vidyavihar University; Urvashi Butalia, Visiting Faculty, Ashoka University; Moinak Biswas, Film Studies, Jadavpur University; Ralph Yarrow, LDC, UEA; Daniel Rycroft India Dialogue, UEA; Sayantan Dasgupta, CENTIL and Comparative Literature, Jadavpur University; and other scholars.

Queries and copy of application can be sent to [email protected]

Payments made from India: https://www.onlinesbi.sbi/sbicollect/icollecthome.htm?saralID=-983154366

The registration has to be completed through the form here - https://forms.gle/v6esTmpEeDSTBA23A  Following are the steps of registering to the course.  1. Make the payment through the SBI link provided in the notice. 2. Fill up the application form attached to email. 3. Submit the transaction ID and the scanned copy of the application form through the google form. 

Applicants from UEA please contact Professor Daniel Rycroft Other international applicants may email to us at the designated mail ID to know the swift code for bank transfer and send us the details once the transfer has been done.