research of a social worker

Social Work Research Methods That Drive the Practice

Social workers advocate for the well-being of individuals, families and communities. But how do social workers know what interventions are needed to help an individual? How do they assess whether a treatment plan is working? What do social workers use to write evidence-based policy?

Social work involves research-informed practice and practice-informed research. At every level, social workers need to know objective facts about the populations they serve, the efficacy of their interventions and the likelihood that their policies will improve lives. A variety of social work research methods make that possible.

Data-Driven Work

Data is a collection of facts used for reference and analysis. In a field as broad as social work, data comes in many forms.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative

As with any research, social work research involves both quantitative and qualitative studies.

Quantitative Research

Answers to questions like these can help social workers know about the populations they serve — or hope to serve in the future.

• How many students currently receive reduced-price school lunches in the local school district?
• How many hours per week does a specific individual consume digital media?
• How frequently did community members access a specific medical service last year?

Quantitative data — facts that can be measured and expressed numerically — are crucial for social work.

Quantitative research has advantages for social scientists. Such research can be more generalizable to large populations, as it uses specific sampling methods and lends itself to large datasets. It can provide important descriptive statistics about a specific population. Furthermore, by operationalizing variables, it can help social workers easily compare similar datasets with one another.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative data — facts that cannot be measured or expressed in terms of mere numbers or counts — offer rich insights into individuals, groups and societies. It can be collected via interviews and observations.

• What attitudes do students have toward the reduced-price school lunch program?
• What strategies do individuals use to moderate their weekly digital media consumption?
• What factors made community members more or less likely to access a specific medical service last year?

Qualitative research can thereby provide a textured view of social contexts and systems that may not have been possible with quantitative methods. Plus, it may even suggest new lines of inquiry for social work research.

Mixed Methods Research

Combining quantitative and qualitative methods into a single study is known as mixed methods research. This form of research has gained popularity in the study of social sciences, according to a 2019 report in the academic journal Theory and Society. Since quantitative and qualitative methods answer different questions, merging them into a single study can balance the limitations of each and potentially produce more in-depth findings.

However, mixed methods research is not without its drawbacks. Combining research methods increases the complexity of a study and generally requires a higher level of expertise to collect, analyze and interpret the data. It also requires a greater level of effort, time and often money.

The Importance of Research Design

Data-driven practice plays an essential role in social work. Unlike philanthropists and altruistic volunteers, social workers are obligated to operate from a scientific knowledge base.

To know whether their programs are effective, social workers must conduct research to determine results, aggregate those results into comprehensible data, analyze and interpret their findings, and use evidence to justify next steps.

Employing the proper design ensures that any evidence obtained during research enables social workers to reliably answer their research questions.

Research Methods in Social Work

The various social work research methods have specific benefits and limitations determined by context. Common research methods include surveys, program evaluations, needs assessments, randomized controlled trials, descriptive studies and single-system designs.

Surveys involve a hypothesis and a series of questions in order to test that hypothesis. Social work researchers will send out a survey, receive responses, aggregate the results, analyze the data, and form conclusions based on trends.

Surveys are one of the most common research methods social workers use — and for good reason. They tend to be relatively simple and are usually affordable. However, surveys generally require large participant groups, and self-reports from survey respondents are not always reliable.

Program Evaluations

Social workers ally with all sorts of programs: after-school programs, government initiatives, nonprofit projects and private programs, for example.

Crucially, social workers must evaluate a program’s effectiveness in order to determine whether the program is meeting its goals and what improvements can be made to better serve the program’s target population.

Evidence-based programming helps everyone save money and time, and comparing programs with one another can help social workers make decisions about how to structure new initiatives. Evaluating programs becomes complicated, however, when programs have multiple goal metrics, some of which may be vague or difficult to assess (e.g., “we aim to promote the well-being of our community”).

Needs Assessments

Social workers use needs assessments to identify services and necessities that a population lacks access to.

Common social work populations that researchers may perform needs assessments on include:

• People in a specific income group
• Everyone in a specific geographic region
• A specific ethnic group
• People in a specific age group

In the field, a social worker may use a combination of methods (e.g., surveys and descriptive studies) to learn more about a specific population or program. Social workers look for gaps between the actual context and a population’s or individual’s “wants” or desires.

For example, a social worker could conduct a needs assessment with an individual with cancer trying to navigate the complex medical-industrial system. The social worker may ask the client questions about the number of hours they spend scheduling doctor’s appointments, commuting and managing their many medications. After learning more about the specific client needs, the social worker can identify opportunities for improvements in an updated care plan.

In policy and program development, social workers conduct needs assessments to determine where and how to effect change on a much larger scale. Integral to social work at all levels, needs assessments reveal crucial information about a population’s needs to researchers, policymakers and other stakeholders. Needs assessments may fall short, however, in revealing the root causes of those needs (e.g., structural racism).

Randomized Controlled Trials

Randomized controlled trials are studies in which a randomly selected group is subjected to a variable (e.g., a specific stimulus or treatment) and a control group is not. Social workers then measure and compare the results of the randomized group with the control group in order to glean insights about the effectiveness of a particular intervention or treatment.

Randomized controlled trials are easily reproducible and highly measurable. They’re useful when results are easily quantifiable. However, this method is less helpful when results are not easily quantifiable (i.e., when rich data such as narratives and on-the-ground observations are needed).

Descriptive Studies

Descriptive studies immerse the researcher in another context or culture to study specific participant practices or ways of living. Descriptive studies, including descriptive ethnographic studies, may overlap with and include other research methods:

• Informant interviews
• Census data
• Observation

By using descriptive studies, researchers may glean a richer, deeper understanding of a nuanced culture or group on-site. The main limitations of this research method are that it tends to be time-consuming and expensive.

Single-System Designs

Unlike most medical studies, which involve testing a drug or treatment on two groups — an experimental group that receives the drug/treatment and a control group that does not — single-system designs allow researchers to study just one group (e.g., an individual or family).

Single-system designs typically entail studying a single group over a long period of time and may involve assessing the group’s response to multiple variables.

For example, consider a study on how media consumption affects a person’s mood. One way to test a hypothesis that consuming media correlates with low mood would be to observe two groups: a control group (no media) and an experimental group (two hours of media per day). When employing a single-system design, however, researchers would observe a single participant as they watch two hours of media per day for one week and then four hours per day of media the next week.

These designs allow researchers to test multiple variables over a longer period of time. However, similar to descriptive studies, single-system designs can be fairly time-consuming and costly.

Learn More About Social Work Research Methods

Social workers have the opportunity to improve the social environment by advocating for the vulnerable — including children, older adults and people with disabilities — and facilitating and developing resources and programs.

Learn more about how you can earn your  Master of Social Work online at Virginia Commonwealth University . The highest-ranking school of social work in Virginia, VCU has a wide range of courses online. That means students can earn their degrees with the flexibility of learning at home. Learn more about how you can take your career in social work further with VCU.

From M.S.W. to LCSW: Understanding Your Career Path as a Social Worker

How Palliative Care Social Workers Support Patients With Terminal Illnesses

How to Become a Social Worker in Health Care

Gov.uk, Mixed Methods Study

MVS Open Press, Foundations of Social Work Research

Open Social Work Education, Scientific Inquiry in Social Work

Open Social Work, Graduate Research Methods in Social Work: A Project-Based Approach

Routledge, Research for Social Workers: An Introduction to Methods

SAGE Publications, Research Methods for Social Work: A Problem-Based Approach

Theory and Society, Mixed Methods Research: What It Is and What It Could Be

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The link between social work research and practice

When thinking about social work, some may consider the field to solely focus on clinical interventions with individuals or groups.

There may be a mistaken impression that research is not a part of the social work profession. This is completely false. Rather, the two have been and will continue to need to be intertwined.

This guide covers why social workers should care about research, how both social work practice and social work research influence and guide each other, how to build research skills both as a student and as a professional working in the field, and the benefits of being a social worker with strong research skills. 

A selection of social work research jobs are also discussed.  

• Social workers and research
• Evidence-based practice
• Practice and research
• Research and practice
• Build research skills
• Social worker as researcher
• Benefits of research skills
• Research jobs

Why should social workers care about research?

Sometimes it may seem as though social work practice and social work research are two separate tracks running parallel to each other – they both seek to improve the lives of clients, families and communities, but they don’t interact. This is not the way it is supposed to work.

Research and practice should be intertwined, with each affecting the other and improving processes on both ends, so that it leads to better outcomes for the population we’re serving.

Section 5 of the NASW Social Work Code of Ethics is focused on social workers’ ethical responsibilities to the social work profession. There are two areas in which research is mentioned in upholding our ethical obligations: for the integrity of the profession (section 5.01) and for evaluation and research (section 5.02). 

Some of the specific guidance provided around research and social work include:

• 5.01(b): …Social workers should protect, enhance, and improve the integrity of the profession through appropriate study and research, active discussion, and responsible criticism of the profession.
• 5.01(d): Social workers should contribute to the knowledge base of social work and share with colleagues their knowledge related to practice, research, and ethics…
• 5.02(a) Social workers should monitor and evaluate policies, the implementation of programs, and practice interventions.
• 5.02(b) Social workers should promote and facilitate evaluation and research to contribute to the development of knowledge.
• 5.02(c) Social workers should critically examine and keep current with emerging knowledge relevant to social work and fully use evaluation and research evidence in their professional practice.
• 5.02(q) Social workers should educate themselves, their students, and their colleagues about responsible research practices.

Evidence-based practice and evidence-based treatment

In order to strengthen the profession and determine that the interventions we are providing are, in fact, effective, we must conduct research. When research and practice are intertwined, this leads practitioners to develop evidence-based practice (EBP) and evidence-based treatment (EBT).

Evidence-based practice is, according to The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) , a process involving creating an answerable question based on a client or organizational need, locating the best available evidence to answer the question, evaluating the quality of the evidence as well as its applicability, applying the evidence, and evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of the solution. 

Evidence-based treatment is any practice that has been established as effective through scientific research according to a set of explicit criteria (Drake et al., 2001). These are interventions that, when applied consistently, routinely produce improved client outcomes. 

For example, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) was one of a variety of interventions for those with anxiety disorders. Researchers wondered if CBT was better than other intervention options in producing positive, consistent results for clients.

So research was conducted comparing multiple types of interventions, and the evidence (research results) demonstrated that CBT was the best intervention.

The anecdotal evidence from practice combined with research evidence determined that CBT should become the standard treatment for those diagnosed with anxiety. Now more social workers are getting trained in CBT methods in order to offer this as a treatment option to their clients.

How does social work practice affect research?

Social work practice provides the context and content for research. For example, agency staff was concerned about the lack of nutritional food in their service area, and heard from clients that it was too hard to get to a grocery store with a variety of foods, because they didn’t have transportation, or public transit took too long. 

So the agency applied for and received a grant to start a farmer’s market in their community, an urban area that was considered a food desert. This program accepted their state’s version of food stamps as a payment option for the items sold at the farmer’s market.

The agency used their passenger van to provide free transportation to and from the farmer’s market for those living more than four blocks from the market location.

The local university also had a booth each week at the market with nursing and medical students checking blood pressure and providing referrals to community agencies that could assist with medical needs. The agency was excited to improve the health of its clients by offering this program.

But how does the granting foundation know if this was a good use of their money? This is where research and evaluation comes in. Research could gather data to answer a number of questions. Here is but a small sample:

• How many community members visited each week and purchased fruits and vegetables? 
• How many took advantage of the transportation provided, and how many walked to the market? 
• How many took advantage of the blood pressure checks? Were improvements seen in those numbers for those having repeat blood pressure readings throughout the market season? 
• How much did the self-reported fruit and vegetable intake increase for customers? 
• What barriers did community members report in visiting and buying food from the market (prices too high? Inconvenient hours?)
• Do community members want the program to continue next year?
• Was the program cost-effective, or did it waste money by paying for a driver and for gasoline to offer free transportation that wasn’t utilized? What are areas where money could be saved without compromising the quality of the program?
• What else needs to be included in this program to help improve the health of community members?

How does research affect social work practice?

Research can guide practice to implement proven strategies. It can also ask the ‘what if’ or ‘how about’ questions that can open doors for new, innovative interventions to be developed (and then research the effectiveness of those interventions).

Engel and Schutt (2017) describe four categories of research used in social work:

• Descriptive research is research in which social phenomena are defined and described. A descriptive research question would be ‘How many homeless women with substance use disorder live in the metro area?’
• Exploratory research seeks to find out how people get along in the setting under question, what meanings they give to their actions, and what issues concern them. An example research question would be ‘What are the barriers to homeless women with substance use disorder receiving treatment services?’
• Explanatory research seeks to identify causes and effects of social phenomena. It can be used to rule out other explanations for findings and show how two events are related to each other.  An explanatory research question would be ‘Why do women with substance use disorder become homeless?’
• Evaluation research describes or identifies the impact of social programs and policies. This type of research question could be ‘How effective was XYZ treatment-first program that combined housing and required drug/alcohol abstinence in keeping women with substance use disorder in stable housing 2 years after the program ended?’

Each of the above types of research can answer important questions about the population, setting or intervention being provided. This can help practitioners determine which option is most effective or cost-efficient or that clients are most likely to adhere to. In turn, this data allows social workers to make informed choices on what to keep in their practice, and what needs changing. 

How to build research skills while in school

There are a number of ways to build research skills while a student.  BSW and MSW programs require a research course, but there are other ways to develop these skills beyond a single class:

• Volunteer to help a professor working in an area of interest. Professors are often excited to share their knowledge and receive extra assistance from students with similar interests.
• Participate in student research projects where you’re the subject. These are most often found in psychology departments. You can learn a lot about the informed consent process and how data is collected by volunteering as a research participant.  Many of these studies also pay a small amount, so it’s an easy way to earn a bit of extra money while you’re on campus. 
• Create an independent study research project as an elective and work with a professor who is an expert in an area you’re interested in.  You’d design a research study, collect the data, analyze it, and write a report or possibly even an article you can submit to an academic journal.
• Some practicum programs will have you complete a small evaluation project or assist with a larger research project as part of your field education hours. 
• In MSW programs, some professors hire students to conduct interviews or enter data on their funded research projects. This could be a good part time job while in school.
• Research assistant positions are more common in MSW programs, and these pay for some or all your tuition in exchange for working a set number of hours per week on a funded research project.

How to build research skills while working as a social worker

Social service agencies are often understaffed, with more projects to complete than there are people to complete them.

Taking the initiative to volunteer to survey clients about what they want and need, conduct an evaluation on a program, or seeing if there is data that has been previously collected but not analyzed and review that data and write up a report can help you stand out from your peers, be appreciated by management and other staff, and may even lead to a raise, a promotion, or even new job opportunities because of the skills you’ve developed.

Benefits of being a social worker with strong research skills

Social workers with strong research skills can have the opportunity to work on various projects, and at higher levels of responsibility. 

Many can be promoted into administration level positions after demonstrating they understand how to conduct, interpret and report research findings and apply those findings to improving the agency and their programs.

There’s also a level of confidence knowing you’re implementing proven strategies with your clients. 

Social work research jobs

There are a number of ways in which you can blend interests in social work and research. A quick search on Glassdoor.com and Indeed.com retrieved the following positions related to social work research:

• Research Coordinator on a clinical trial offering psychosocial supportive interventions and non-addictive pain treatments to minimize opioid use for pain.
• Senior Research Associate leading and overseeing research on a suite of projects offered in housing, mental health and corrections.
• Research Fellow in a school of social work
• Project Policy Analyst for large health organization
• Health Educator/Research Specialist to implement and evaluate cancer prevention and screening programs for a health department
• Research Interventionist providing Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for insomnia patients participating in a clinical trial
• Research Associate for Child Care and Early Education
• Social Services Data Researcher for an organization serving adults with disabilities.
• Director of Community Health Equity Research Programs evaluating health disparities.

No matter your population or area of interest, you’d likely be able to find a position that integrated research and social work. 

Social work practice and research are and should remain intertwined. This is the only way we can know what questions to ask about the programs and services we are providing, and ensure our interventions are effective. 

There are many opportunities to develop research skills while in school and while working in the field, and these skills can lead to some interesting positions that can make a real difference to clients, families and communities. 

Drake, R. E., Goldman, H., Leff, H. S., Lehman, A. F., Dixon, L., Mueser, K. T., et al. (2001). Implementing evidence-based practices in routine mental health service settings. Psychiatric Services, 52(2), 179-182. 

Engel, R.J., & Schutt, R.K. (2017). The Practice of Research in Social Work. Sage.

National Association of Social Workers. (n.d). Evidence Based Practice. Retrieved from: https://www.socialworkers.org/News/Research-Data/Social-Work-Policy-Research/Evidence-Based-Practice

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Social Work Research Methods

Introduction.

• History of Social Work Research Methods
• Feasibility Issues Influencing the Research Process
• Measurement Methods
• Existing Scales
• Group Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Evaluating Outcome
• Single-System Designs for Evaluating Outcome
• Program Evaluation
• Surveys and Sampling
• Introductory Statistics Texts
• Advanced Aspects of Inferential Statistics
• Qualitative Research Methods
• Qualitative Data Analysis
• Historical Research Methods
• Meta-Analysis and Systematic Reviews
• Research Ethics
• Culturally Competent Research Methods
• Teaching Social Work Research Methods

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• Community-Based Participatory Research
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• Evidence-based Social Work Practice: Finding Evidence
• Evidence-based Social Work Practice: Issues, Controversies, and Debates
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• Research, Best Practices, and Evidence-based Group Work
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Social Work Research Methods by Allen Rubin LAST REVIEWED: 14 December 2009 LAST MODIFIED: 14 December 2009 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780195389678-0008

Social work research means conducting an investigation in accordance with the scientific method. The aim of social work research is to build the social work knowledge base in order to solve practical problems in social work practice or social policy. Investigating phenomena in accordance with the scientific method requires maximal adherence to empirical principles, such as basing conclusions on observations that have been gathered in a systematic, comprehensive, and objective fashion. The resources in this entry discuss how to do that as well as how to utilize and teach research methods in social work. Other professions and disciplines commonly produce applied research that can guide social policy or social work practice. Yet no commonly accepted distinction exists at this time between social work research methods and research methods in allied fields relevant to social work. Consequently useful references pertaining to research methods in allied fields that can be applied to social work research are included in this entry.

This section includes basic textbooks that are used in courses on social work research methods. Considerable variation exists between textbooks on the broad topic of social work research methods. Some are comprehensive and delve into topics deeply and at a more advanced level than others. That variation is due in part to the different needs of instructors at the undergraduate and graduate levels of social work education. Most instructors at the undergraduate level prefer shorter and relatively simplified texts; however, some instructors teaching introductory master’s courses on research prefer such texts too. The texts in this section that might best fit their preferences are by Yegidis and Weinbach 2009 and Rubin and Babbie 2007 . The remaining books might fit the needs of instructors at both levels who prefer a more comprehensive and deeper coverage of research methods. Among them Rubin and Babbie 2008 is perhaps the most extensive and is often used at the doctoral level as well as the master’s and undergraduate levels. Also extensive are Drake and Jonson-Reid 2007 , Grinnell and Unrau 2007 , Kreuger and Neuman 2006 , and Thyer 2001 . What distinguishes Drake and Jonson-Reid 2007 is its heavy inclusion of statistical and Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) content integrated with each chapter. Grinnell and Unrau 2007 and Thyer 2001 are unique in that they are edited volumes with different authors for each chapter. Kreuger and Neuman 2006 takes Neuman’s social sciences research text and adapts it to social work. The Practitioner’s Guide to Using Research for Evidence-based Practice ( Rubin 2007 ) emphasizes the critical appraisal of research, covering basic research methods content in a relatively simplified format for instructors who want to teach research methods as part of the evidence-based practice process instead of with the aim of teaching students how to produce research.

Drake, Brett, and Melissa Jonson-Reid. 2007. Social work research methods: From conceptualization to dissemination . Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

This introductory text is distinguished by its use of many evidence-based practice examples and its heavy coverage of statistical and computer analysis of data.

Grinnell, Richard M., and Yvonne A. Unrau, eds. 2007. Social work research and evaluation: Quantitative and qualitative approaches . 8th ed. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

Contains chapters written by different authors, each focusing on a comprehensive range of social work research topics.

Kreuger, Larry W., and W. Lawrence Neuman. 2006. Social work research methods: Qualitative and quantitative applications . Boston: Pearson, Allyn, and Bacon.

An adaptation to social work of Neuman's social sciences research methods text. Its framework emphasizes comparing quantitative and qualitative approaches. Despite its title, quantitative methods receive more attention than qualitative methods, although it does contain considerable qualitative content.

Rubin, Allen. 2007. Practitioner’s guide to using research for evidence-based practice . Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

This text focuses on understanding quantitative and qualitative research methods and designs for the purpose of appraising research as part of the evidence-based practice process. It also includes chapters on instruments for assessment and monitoring practice outcomes. It can be used at the graduate or undergraduate level.

Rubin, Allen, and Earl R. Babbie. 2007. Essential research methods for social work . Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks Cole.

This is a shorter and less advanced version of Rubin and Babbie 2008 . It can be used for research methods courses at the undergraduate or master's levels of social work education.

Rubin, Allen, and Earl R. Babbie. Research Methods for Social Work . 6th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks Cole, 2008.

This comprehensive text focuses on producing quantitative and qualitative research as well as utilizing such research as part of the evidence-based practice process. It is widely used for teaching research methods courses at the undergraduate, master’s, and doctoral levels of social work education.

Thyer, Bruce A., ed. 2001 The handbook of social work research methods . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

This comprehensive compendium includes twenty-nine chapters written by esteemed leaders in social work research. It covers quantitative and qualitative methods as well as general issues.

Yegidis, Bonnie L., and Robert W. Weinbach. 2009. Research methods for social workers . 6th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

This introductory paperback text covers a broad range of social work research methods and does so in a briefer fashion than most lengthier, hardcover introductory research methods texts.

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1 1. Science and social work

Chapter outline.

• How do social workers know what to do? (12 minute read time)
• The scientific method (16 minute read time)
• Evidence-based practice (11 minute read time)
• Social work research (10 minute read time)

Content warning: Examples in this chapter contain references to school discipline, child abuse, food insecurity, homelessness, poverty and anti-poverty stigma, anti-vaccination pseudoscience, autism, trauma and PTSD, mental health stigma, susto and culture-bound syndromes, gender-based discrimination at work, homelessness, psychiatric hospitalizations, substance use, and mandatory treatment.

1.1 How do social workers know what to do?

Learning objectives.

Learners will be able to…

• Reflect on how we, as social workers, make decisions
• Differentiate between micro-, meso-, and macro-level analysis
• Describe the concept of intuition, its purpose in social work, and its limitations
• Identify specific errors in thinking and reasoning

What would you do?

Case 1: Imagine you are a clinical social worker at a children’s mental health agency. One day, you receive a referral from your town’s middle school about a client who often skips school, gets into fights, and is disruptive in class. The school has suspended him and met with the parents on multiple occasions, who say they practice strict discipline at home. Yet the client’s behavior has worsened. When you arrive at the school to meet with your client, who is also a gifted artist, you notice he seems to have bruises on his legs, has difficulty maintaining eye contact, and appears distracted. Despite this, he spends the hour painting and drawing, during which time you are able to observe him.

• Given your observations of your client’s strengths and challenges, what intervention would you select, and how could you determine its effectiveness?

Case 2: Imagine you are a social worker working in the midst of an urban food desert (a geographic area in which there is no grocery store that sells fresh food). As a result, many of your low-income clients either eat takeout, or rely on food from the dollar store or a convenience store. You are becoming concerned about your clients’ health, as many of them are obese and say they are unable to buy fresh food. Your clients tell you that they have to rely on food pantries because convenience stores are expensive and often don’t have the right kinds of food for their families. You have spent the past month building a coalition of community members to lobby your city council. The coalition includes individuals from non-profit agencies, religious groups, and healthcare workers.

• How should this group address the impact of food deserts in your community?  What intervention(s) do you suggest?  How would you determine whether your intervention was effective?

Case 3: You are a social worker working at a public policy center whose work focuses on the issue of homelessness. Your city is seeking a large federal grant to address this growing problem and has hired you as a consultant to work on the grant proposal. After interviewing individuals who are homeless and conducting a needs assessment in collaboration with local social service agencies, you meet with city council members to talk about potential opportunities for intervention. Local agencies want to spend the money to increase the capacity of existing shelters in the community. In addition, they want to create a transitional housing program at an unused apartment complex where people can reside upon leaving the shelter, and where they can gain independent living skills. On the other hand, homeless individuals you interview indicate that they would prefer to receive housing vouchers to rent an apartment in the community. They also fear the agencies running the shelter and transitional housing program would impose restrictions and unnecessary rules and regulations, thereby curbing their ability to freely live their lives. When you ask the agencies about these client concerns, they state that these clients need the structure and supervision provided by agency support workers.

• Which kind of program should your city choose to implement?  Which is most likely to be effective and why?

Assuming you’ve taken a social work course before, you will notice that these case studies cover different levels of analysis in the social ecosystem—micro, meso, and macro. At the micro-level , social workers examine the smallest levels of interaction; in some cases, just “the self” alone (e.g. the child in case one).

When social workers investigate groups and communities, such as our food desert in case 2, their inquiry is at the meso-level .

At the  macro-level , social workers examine social structures and institutions. Research at the macro-level examines large-scale patterns, including culture and government policy.

These three domains interact with one another, and it is common for a research project to address more than one level of analysis. For example, you may have a study about individuals at a case management agency (a micro-level study) that impacts the organization as a whole (meso-level) and incorporates policies and cultural issues (macro-level). Moreover, research that occurs on one level is likely to have multiple implications across domains.

How do social workers know what to do?

Welcome to social work research. This chapter begins with three problems that social workers might face in practice, and three questions about what a social worker should do next. If you haven’t already, spend a minute or two thinking about the three aforementioned cases and jot down some notes. How might you respond to each of these cases?

I assume it is unlikely you are an expert in the areas of children’s mental health, community responses to food deserts, and homelessness policy. Don’t worry, I’m not either. In fact, for many of you, this textbook will likely come at an early point in your graduate social work education, so it may seem unfair for me to ask you what the ‘right’ answers are. And to disappoint you further, this course will not teach you the ‘right’ answer to these questions. It will, however, teach you how to answer these questions for yourself, and to find the ‘right’ answer that works best in each unique situation.

Assuming you are not an experienced practitioner in the areas described above, you likely used intuition (Cheung, 2016). [1] when thinking about what you would do in each of these scenarios. Intuition is a “gut feeling” about what to think about and do, often based on personal experience. What we experience influences how we perceive the world. For example, if you’ve witnessed representations of trauma in your practice, personal life, or in movies or television, you may have perceived that the child in case one was being physically abused and that his behavior was a sign of trauma. As you think about problems such as those described above, you find that certain details stay with you and influence your thinking to a greater degree than others. Using past experiences, you apply seemingly relevant knowledge and make predictions about what might be true.

Over a social worker’s career, intuition evolves into practice   wisdom . Practice wisdom is the “learning by doing” that develops as a result of practice experience. For example, a clinical social worker may have a “feel” for why certain clients would be a good fit to join a particular therapy group. This idea may be informed by direct experience with similar situations, reflections on previous experiences, and any consultation they receive from colleagues and/or supervisors. This “feel” that social workers get for their practice is a useful and valid source of knowledge and decision-makin – do not discount it.

On the other hand, intuitive thinking can be prone to a number of errors. We are all limited in terms of what we know and experience. One’s economic, social, and cultural background will shape intuition, and acting on your intuition may not work in a different sociocultural context. Because you cannot learn everything there is to know before you start your career as a social worker, it is important to learn how to understand and use social science to help you make sense of the world and to help you make sound, reasoned, and well-thought out decisions.

Social workers must learn how to take their intuition and deepen or challenge it by engaging with scientific literature. Similarly, social work researchers engage in research to make certain their interventions are effective and efficient (see Section 1.4 for more information). Both of these processes–consuming and producing research–inform the social justice mission of social work. That’s why the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE), who accredits the MSW program you are in, requires that you engage in social science.

Competency 4: Engage In Practice-informed Research and Research-informed Practice Social workers understand quantitative and qualitative research methods and their respective roles in advancing a science of social work and in evaluating their practice. Social workers know the principles of logic, scientific inquiry, and culturally informed and ethical approaches to building knowledge. Social workers understand that evidence that informs practice derives from multi-disciplinary sources and multiple ways of knowing. They also understand the processes for translating research findings into effective practice. Social workers: • use practice experience and theory to inform scientific inquiry and research; • apply critical thinking to engage in analysis of quantitative and qualitative research methods and research findings; and • use and translate research evidence to inform and improve practice, policy, and service delivery. (CSWE, 2015). [2]

Errors in thinking

We all rely on mental shortcuts to help us figure out what to do in a practice situation. All people, including you and me, must train our minds to be aware of predictable flaws in thinking, termed cognitive biases . Here is a link to the Wikipedia entry on cognitive biases, as well as an interactive list . As you can see, there are many types of biases that can results in irrational conclusions.

The most important error in thinking for social scientists to be aware of is the concept of confirmation bias . Confirmation bias involves observing and analyzing information in a way that confirms what you already believe to be true. We all arrive at each moment with a set of personal beliefs, experiences, and worldviews that have been developed and ingrained over time. These patterns of thought inform our intuitions, primarily in an unconscious manner. Confirmation bias occurs when our mind ignores or manipulates information to avoid challenging what we already believe to be true.

In our second case study, we are trying to figure out how to help people who receive SNAP (sometimes referred to as Food Stamps) who live in a food desert. Let’s say we have arrived at a policy solution and are now lobbying the city council to implement it. There are many who have negative beliefs about people who are “on welfare.”  These people may believe individuals who receive social welfare benefits spend their money irresponsibly, are too lazy to get a job, and manipulate the system to maintain or increase their government payout.

Those espousing this belief may point to an example such as Louis Cuff , who bought steak and lobster with his SNAP benefits and resold them for a profit. However, they are falling prey to assuming that one person’s bad behavior reflects upon an entire group of people. City council members who hold these beliefs may ignore the truth about the client population—that people experiencing poverty usually spend their money responsibly and that they genuinely need help accessing fresh and healthy food. In this way, confirmation bias often makes people less capable of empathizing with one another because they have difficulty accepting alternative perspectives.

Errors in reasoning

Because the human mind is prone to errors, when anyone makes a statement about what is true or what should be done in a given situation, errors in logic may abound. Think back to the case studies at the beginning of this section. You most likely had some ideas about what to do in each case. Below are some of the most common logical fallacies and the ways in which they may negatively influence a social worker:

• Making hasty generalization : when a person draws conclusions before having enough information. A social worker may apply lessons from a handful of clients to an entire population of people (see Louis Cuff , above). It is important to examine the scientific literature in order to avoid this.
• Confusing correlation with causation : when one concludes that because two things are correlated (as one changes, the other changes), they must be causally related. As an example, a social worker might observe both an increase in the minimum wage and higher unemployment in certain areas of the city. However, just because two things changed at the same time does not mean they are causally related. Social workers should explore other factors that might impact causality.
• Going down a slippery slope : when a person concludes that we should not do something because something far worse will happen if we do so. For example, a social worker may seek to increase a client’s opportunity to choose their own activities, but face opposition from those who believe it will lead to clients making unreasonable demands. Clearly, this is nonsense. Changes that foster self-determination are unlikely to result in client revolt. Social workers should be skeptical of arguments opposing small changes because one argues that radical changes are inevitable.
• Appealing to authority : when a person draws a conclusion by appealing to the authority of an expert or reputable individual, rather than through the strength of the claim. You have likely encountered individuals who believe they are correct because another in a position of authority told them so. Instead, we should work to build a reflective and critical approach to practice that questions authority.
• Hopping on the bandwagon : when a person draws a conclusion consistent with popular belief. Just because something is popular does not mean it is correct. Fashionable ideas come and go. Social workers should engage with trendy ideas but must ground their work in scientific evidence rather than popular opinion.
• Using a straw man : when a person does not represent their opponent’s position fairly or with sufficient depth. For example, a social worker advocating for a new group home may depict homeowners that are opposed to clients living in their neighborhood as individuals concerned only with their property values. However, this may not be the case. Social workers should instead engage deeply with all sides of an issue and represent them accurately.

Key Takeaways

• Social work research occurs at the micro-, meso-, and macro-level.
• Intuition is a powerful, though limited, source of information when making decisions.
• All human thought is subject to errors in thinking and reasoning.
• Scientific inquiry accounts for cognitive biases by applying an organized, logical way of observing and theorizing about the world.
• Think about a social work topic you might want to study this semester as part of a research project. How do individuals commit specific errors in logic or reasoning when discussing a specific topic (e.g. Louis Cuff)? How can using scientific evidence help you combat popular myths that are based on erroneous thinking?
• Reflect on the strengths and limitations of your personal experiences as a way to guide your work with diverse populations. Describe an instance when your intuition may have resulted in biased or misguided thinking or behavior in a social work practice situation.

1.2 The scientific method

Learning objectives.

• Define science and social science
• Describe the differences between objective and subjective truth(s)
• Identify how qualitative and quantitative data are analyzed differently and how they can be used together
• Delineate the features of science that distinguish it from pseudoscience

If I asked you to draw a picture of science, what would you draw?  My guess is it would be something from a chemistry or biology classroom, like a microscope or a beaker. Maybe something from a science fiction movie. All social workers use scientific thinking in their practice. However, social workers have a unique understanding of what science means, one that is (not surprisingly) more open to the unexpected and human side of the social world.

Science and not-science

In social work, science is a way of ‘knowing’ that attempts to systematically collect and categorize facts or truths. A key word here is systematically –conducting science is a deliberate process. Scientists gather information about facts in a way that is organized and intentional, and usually follows a set of predetermined steps. Social work is not a science, but social work is informed by social science ; the science of humanity, social interactions, and social structures. In other words, social work research uses organized and intentional procedures to uncover facts or truths about the social world. And social workers rely on social scientific research to promote change.

Science can also be thought of in terms of its impostor, pseudoscience. Pseudoscience refers to beliefs about the social world that are unsupported by scientific evidence. These claims are often presented as though they are based on science. But once researchers test them scientifically, they are demonstrated to be false. A scientifically uninformed social work practitioner using pseudoscience may recommend any number of ineffective, misguided, or harmful interventions. Pseudoscience often relies on information and scholarship that has not been reviewed by experts or offers a selective and biased reading of reviewed literature.

An example of pseudoscience comes from anti-vaccination activists. Despite overwhelming scientific consensus that vaccines do not cause autism, a very vocal minority of people continue to believe that they do. Anti-vaccination advocates present their information as based in science, as seen here at Green Med Info . The author of this website shares real abstracts from scientific journal articles and studies but will only provide information on articles that show the potential dangers of vaccines, without showing any research that prevents the positive and safe side of vaccines. Green Med Info is an example of confirmation bias, as all data presented on the website supports what the pseudo-scientific researcher believes to be true. For more information on assessing causal relationships, consult Chapter 6 , where we discuss causality in detail.

The values and practices associated with the scientific method work to overcome common errors in thinking (such as confirmation bias). First, the scientific method uses established techniques from the literature to determine the likelihood of something being true or false. The research process often cites these techniques, reasons for their use, and how researchers came to the decision to use said techniques. However, each technique comes with its own strengths and limitations. Rigorous science is about making the best choice, being open about your process, and allowing others to check your work. It is important to remember that there is no “perfect” study – all research has limitations because all scientific methods come with limitations.

Skepticism and debate

Unfortunately, the “perfect” researcher does not exist. Scientists are human, so they are subject to error and bias, such as gravitating toward fashionable ideas and thinking their work is more important than others’ work. Theories and concepts fade in and out of use and may be tossed aside when new evidence challenges their truth. Part of the challenge in your research projects will be finding what you believe about an issue, rather than summarizing what others think about the topic. Good science, just like good social work practice, is authentic. When I see students present their research projects, those that are the strongest deliver both passionate and informed arguments about their topic area.

Good science is also open to ongoing questioning. Scientists are fundamentally skeptical. As such, they are likely to pursue alternative explanations. They might question the design of a study or replicate it to see if it works in another context. Scientists debate what is true until they arrive at a majority consensus. If you’ve ever heard that 97% of climate scientists agree that global warming is due to human activity [3] or that 99% of economists agree that tariffs make the economy worse [4] , you are seeing this sociology of science in action. This skepticism will help to catch situations in which scientists who make the oh-so-human mistakes in thinking and reasoning reviewed in Section 1.1.

Skepticism also helps to identify unethical scientists, as with Andrew Wakefield’s study linking the MMR vaccination and autism. When other researchers looked at his data, they found that he had altered the data to match his own conclusions and sought to benefit financially from the ensuing panic about vaccination (Godlee, Smith, & Marcovitch, 2011). [5] This highlights another key value in science: openness.

Through the use of publications and presentations, scientists share the methods used to gather and analyze data. The trend towards open science has also prompted researchers to share data as well. This in turn enables other researchers to re-run, replicate, and validate analyses and results. A major barrier to openness in science is the paywall. When you’ve searched online for a journal article (we will review search techniques in Chapter 3), you have likely run into the $25-$50 price tag. Don’t despair – your university should subscribe to these journals. However, the push towards openness in science means that more researchers are sharing their work in open access journals, which are free for people to access (like this textbook!). These open access journals do not require a university subscription to view.

Openness also means engaging the broader public about your study. Social work researchers conduct studies to help people, and part of scientific work is making sure your study has an impact. For example, it is likely that many of the authors publishing in scientific journals are on Twitter or other social media platforms, relaying the importance of study findings. They may create content for popular media, including newspapers, websites, blogs, or podcasts. It may lead to training for agency workers or public administrators. Regrettably, academic researchers have a reputation for being aloof and disengaged from the public conversation. However, this reputation is slowly changing with the trend towards public scholarship and engagement. For example, see this recent section of the Journal of the Society of Social Work and Research on public impact scholarship .

Science supported by empirical data

Pseudoscience is often doctored up to look like science, but the surety with which its advocates speak is not backed up by empirical data. Empirical data refers to information about the social world gathered and analyzed through scientific observation or experimentation. Theory is also an important part of science, as we will discuss in Chapter 5 . However, theories must be supported by empirical data–evidence that what we think is true really exists in the world.

There are two types of empirical data that social workers should become familiar with. Quantitative data refers to numbers and  qualitative data usually refers to word data (like a transcript of an interview) but can also refer to pictures, performances, and other means of expressing oneself. Researchers use specific methods designed to analyze each type of data. Together, these are known as research methods , or the methods researchers use to examine empirical data.

Objective truth

In our vaccine example, scientists have conducted many studies tracking children who were vaccinated to look for future diagnoses of autism (see Taylor et al. 2014 for a review). This is an example of using quantitative data to determine whether there is a causal relationship between vaccination and autism. By examining the number of people who develop autism after vaccinations and controlling for all of the other possible causes, researchers can determine the likelihood of whether vaccinations cause changes in the brain that are eventually diagnosed as autism.

In this case, the use of quantitative data is a good fit for disproving myths about the dangers of vaccination. When researchers analyze quantitative data, they are trying to establish an objective truth. An objective truth is always true, regardless of context. Generally speaking, researchers seeking to establish objective truth tend to use quantitative data because they believe numbers don’t lie. If repeated statistical analyses don’t show a relationship between two variables, like vaccines and autism, that relationship almost certainly does not exist. By boiling everything down to numbers, we can minimize the biases and logical errors that human researchers bring to the scientific process. That said, the interpretation of those numbers is always up for debate. That process can be subjective.

This approach to finding truth probably sounds similar to something you heard in your middle school science classes. When you learned about gravitational force or the mitochondria of a cell, you were learning about the theories and observations that make up our understanding of the physical world. We assume that gravity is real and that the mitochondria of a cell are real. Mitochondria are easy to spot with a powerful microscope and we can observe and theorize about their function in a cell. The gravitational force is invisible, but clearly apparent from observable facts, such as watching an apple fall. If we were unable to perceive mitochondria or gravity, they would still be there, doing their thing, because they exist independent of our observation of them.

Let’s consider a social work example. Scientific research has established that children who are subjected to severely traumatic experiences are more likely to be diagnosed with a mental health disorder (e.g., Mahoney, Karatzias, & Hutton, 2019). [6] A diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is considered objective, and may refer to a mental health issue that exists independent of the individual observing it and is highly similar in its presentation across clients. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5, 2017) [7] identifies a group of criteria which is based on unbiased, neutral client observations. These criteria are based in research, and render an objective diagnosis more likely to be valid and reliable. Through the clinician’s observations and the client’s description of their symptoms, an objective determination of a mental health diagnosis can be made.

Subjective truth(s)

For those of you skeptics, you may ask yourself: but does a diagnosis tell a client’s whole story? No. It does not tell you what the client thinks and feels about their diagnosis, for example. Receiving a diagnosis of PTSD may be a relief for a client. The diagnosis may suggest the words to describe their experiences. In addition, this diagnosis may provide a direction for therapeutic work, as there are evidence-based interventions clinicians can use with each diagnosis. On the other hand, a client may feel shame and view the diagnosis as a label, defining them in a negative way and limiting their potential (Barsky, 2015). [8]

Imagine if we surveyed people with PTSD to see how they interpreted their diagnosis. Objectively, we could determine whether more people said the diagnosis was, overall, a positive or negative event for them. However, it is unlikely that the experience of receiving a diagnosis was either completely positive or completely negative. In social work, we know that a client’s thoughts and emotions are rarely binary, either/or situations. Clients likely feel a mix of positive and negative thoughts and emotions during the diagnostic process. These messy bits are subjective truths , or the thoughts and feelings that arise as people interpret and make meaning of situations. Uniquely, looking for subjective truths can help us see the contradictory and multi-faceted nature of people’s thoughts, and qualitative data allows us to avoid oversimplifying them into negative and positive feelings that could be counted, as in quantitative data. It is the role of a researcher, just like a practitioner, to seek to understand things from the perspective of the client. Unlike with objective truth, this will not lead to a general sense of what is true for everyone, but rather what is true for that one person.

Subjective truths are best expressed through qualitative data, or through the use of words (not numbers). For example, we might invite a client to tell us how they felt after they were first diagnosed, after they spoke with family, and over the course of the therapeutic process. While it may look different from what we normally think of as science (e.g. pharmaceutical studies), these stories are indeed a rich source of data for scientific analysis. However, it is impossible to analyze what this client said without also considering the sociocultural context in which they live. For example, the concept of PTSD is generated from Western thought and philosophy. How might people from other cultures understand trauma differently?

In the DSM-5 classification of mental health disorders, there is a list of culture-bound syndromes which appear only in certain cultures. For example,  susto describes a unique cluster of symptoms experienced by Latin Americans after a traumatic event (Nogueira, Mari, & Razzouk, 2015). [9]   Susto involves more physical symptoms than a traditional PTSD diagnosis. Indeed, many of these syndromes do not fit within a Western conceptualization of mental health because they differentiate less between the mind and body. To a Western scientist, susto may seem less real than PTSD. To someone from Latin America, their symptoms may not fit neatly into the PTSD framework developed in Western nations . Science has historically privileged knowledge from the United States and other nations in the West and Global North , marking them as objectively true. The objectivity of Western science as universally applicable to all cultures has been increasingly called into question as science has become less dominated by white males, and interaction between cultures and groups becomes broadly more democratic. Clearly, what is true depends in part on the context in which it is observed.

In this way, social scientists have a unique task. People are both objects and subjects. Objectively, you could quantify how tall a person is, what car they drive, how many adverse childhood experiences they had, or their score on a PTSD checklist. Subjectively, you could understand how a person made sense of a traumatic incident or how it contributed to certain patterns in thinking, negative feelings, or opportunities for growth, for example. It is this added dimension that renders social science unique to natural science, which focuses almost exclusively on quantitative data and objective truth. For this reason, this book is divided between projects using qualitative data and quantitative data.

There is no “better” or “more true” way of approaching social science. Instead, the methods a researcher chooses should match the question they ask. If you want to answer, “do vaccines cause autism?” you should choose methods appropriate to answer that question. It seeks an objective truth–one that is true for everyone, regardless of context. Studies like these use quantitative data and statistical analyses to test mathematical relationships between variables. If, on the other hand, you wanted to know “what does a diagnosis of PTSD mean to clients?” you should collect qualitative data and seek subjective truths. You will gather stories and experiences from clients and interpret them in a way that best represents their unique and shared truths. Where there is consensus, you will report that. Where there is contradiction, you will report that as well.

Mixed methods

In this textbook, we will treat quantitative and qualitative research methods separately. However, it is important to remember that a project can include both approaches. A mixed methods study, which we will discuss more in chapter 6, requires thinking through a more complicated project that includes at least one quantitative component, one qualitative component, and a plan to incorporate both approaches together. As a result, mixed methods projects may require more time for conceptualization, data collection, and analysis.

Finding patterns

Regardless of whether you are seeking objective or subjective truths, research and scientific inquiry aim to find and explain patterns. Most of the time, a pattern will not explain every single person’s experience, a fact about social science that is both fascinating and frustrating. Even individuals who do not know each other can create patterns that persist over time. Those new to social science may find these patterns frustrating because they may believe that the patterns describing their sex, age, or some other facet of their lives don’t represent their experience. It’s true. A pattern can exist among your cohort without your individual participation in it. There is diversity within diversity.

Let’s consider some specific examples. You probably wouldn’t be surprised to learn that a person’s social class background has an impact on their educational attainment and achievement. You may be surprised to learn that people select romantic partners that have similar educational attainment, which in turn, impacts their children’s educational attainment (Eika, Mogstad, & Zafar, 2019). [10] . People who have graduated college pair off with other college graduates, as so forth. This, in turn, reinforces existing inequalities, stratifying society by those who have the opportunity to complete college and those who don’t.

People who object to these findings tend to cite evidence from their own personal experience. However, the problem with this response is that objecting to a social pattern on the grounds that it doesn’t match one’s individual experience misses the point about patterns. Patterns don’t perfectly predict what will happen to an individual person. Yet, they are a reasonable guide that, when systematically observed, can help guide social work thought and action. When we don’t investigate these patterns scientifically, we are subject to developing stereotypes, biases, and other harmful beliefs.

A final note on qualitative and quantitative methods

There is not one superior way to find patterns that help us understand the world. As we will learn about in Chapter 5 , there are multiple philosophical, theoretical, and methodological ways to approach scientific truth. Qualitative methods aim to provide an in-depth understanding of a relatively small number of cases. They also provide a voice for the client. Quantitative methods offer less depth on each case but can say more about broad patterns because they typically focus on a much larger number of cases. A researcher should approach the process of scientific inquiry by formulating a clear research question and using the methodological tools best suited to that question.

Believe it or not, there are still significant methodological battles being waged in the academic literature on objective vs. subjective social science. Usually, quantitative methods are viewed as “more scientific” and qualitative methods are viewed as “less scientific.”  Part of this battle is historical. As the social sciences developed, they were compared with the natural sciences, especially physics, which rely on mathematics and statistics to come to a truth. It is a hotly debated topic whether social science should adopt the philosophical assumptions of the natural sciences—with its emphasis on prediction, mathematics, and objectivity—or use a different set of tools—contextual understanding, language, and subjectivity—to find scientific truth.

You are fortunate to be in a profession that values multiple scientific ways of knowing. The qualitative/quantitative debate is fueled by researchers who may prefer one approach over another, either because their own research questions are better suited to one particular approach or because they happened to have been trained in one specific method. In this textbook, we’ll operate from the perspective that qualitative and quantitative methods are complementary rather than competing. While these two methodological approaches certainly differ, the main point is that they simply have different goals, strengths, and weaknesses. A social work researcher should select the method(s) that best match(es) the question they are asking.

• Social work is informed by science.
• Social science is concerned with both objective and subjective knowledge.
• Social science research aims to understand patterns in the social world.
• Social scientists use both qualitative and quantitative methods, which, while different, are often complementary.

Examine a pseudoscientific claim you’ve heard on the news or in conversation with others. Why do you consider it to be pseudoscientific? What empirical data can you find from a quick internet search that would demonstrate it lacks truth?

• Consider a topic you might want to study this semester as part of a research project. Provide a few examples of objective and subjective truths about the topic, even if you aren’t completely certain they are correct. Identify how objective and subjective truths differ.

1.3 Evidence-based practice

• Explain how social workers produce and consume research as part of practice
• Review the process of evidence-based practice and how social workers apply research knowledge with clients and groups

“Why am I in this class?”

“When will I ever use this information?”

While students aren’t always so direct, I would wager a guess that these questions are on the mind of almost every student in a research methods class. And they are valid and important questions to ask!  While it may seem strange, the answer is that you will probably use these skills often. Social workers engage with research on a daily basis by consuming it through popular media, social work education, and advanced training. They also often contribute to research projects, adding new scientific information to what we know. As professors, we also sometimes hear from field supervisors who say that research competencies are unimportant in their setting. One might wonder how these organizations measure program outcomes, report the impact of their program to board members or funding agencies, or create new interventions grounded in social theory and empirical evidence.

Social workers as research consumers

Whether you know it or not, your life is impacted by research every day. Many of our laws, social policies, and court proceedings are grounded in some degree of empirical research and evidence (Jenkins & Kroll-Smith, 1996). [11] That’s not to say that all laws and social policies are good or make sense. But you can’t have an informed opinion about any of them without understanding where they come from, how they were formed, and what their evidence base is. In order to be effective practitioners across micro, meso, and macro domains, social workers need to understand the root causes and policy solutions to social problems their clients are experiencing.

A recent lawsuit against Walmart provides an example of social science research in action. A sociologist named Professor William Bielby was enlisted by plaintiffs to conduct an analysis of Walmart’s personnel policies in order to support their claim that Walmart engages in gender discriminatory practices. Bielby’s analysis shows that Walmart’s compensation and promotion decisions may indeed have been vulnerable to gender bias. In June 2011, the United States Supreme Court decided against allowing the case to proceed as a class-action lawsuit ( Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. v. Dukes , 2011). [12] While a class-action suit was not pursued in this case, consider the impact that such a suit against one of our nation’s largest employers could have had on companies, their employees, and even consumers around the country. [13]

A social worker might learn about this lawsuit through popular media, news media websites or television programs. Social science knowledge allows a social worker to apply a critical eye towards new information, regardless of the source. Unfortunately, popular media does not always report on scientific findings accurately. A social worker armed with scientific knowledge would be able to search for, read, and interpret the original study as well as other information that might challenge or support the study. As social work graduate students, you should be comfortable in your information literacy abilities, and your advocacy and practice should be grounded in these skills. Chapters 2, 3, and 4 of this textbook focus on information literacy , or how to understand what we already know about a topic and contribute to that body of knowledge.

When social workers consume research, they are usually doing so to inform their practice. Clinical social workers are required by a state licensing board to complete continuing education classes in order to remain informed on the latest information in their field. On the macro side, social workers at public policy think tanks consume information to inform advocacy and public awareness campaigns. Regardless of the role of the social worker, practice must be informed by research.

Evidence-based practice

Consuming research is the first component of evidence-based practice (EBP). Drisko and Grady (2015) [14] present EBP as a process composed of “four equally weighted parts: 1) current client needs and situation, (2) the best relevant research evidence, (3) client values and preferences, and (4) the clinician’s expertise” (p. 275). It is not simply “doing what the literature says,” but is rather a process by which practitioners examine the literature, client, self, and context to inform interventions with clients and systems (McNeese & Thyer, 2004). [15] It is a collaboration between social worker, client, and context. As we discussed in Section 1.2, the patterns discovered by scientific research are not applicable to all situations. Instead, we rely on our critical thinking skills to apply scientific knowledge to real-world situations.

The bedrock of EBP is a proper assessment of the client or client system. Once we have a solid understanding of what the issue is, we can evaluate the literature to determine whether there are any interventions that have been shown to treat the issue, and if so, which have been shown to be the most effective. You will learn those skills in the next few chapters. Once we know what our options are, we should be upfront with clients about each option, what the interventions look like, and what the expected outcome will be. Once we have client feedback, we use our expertise and practice wisdom to make an informed decision about how to move forward.

If this sounds familiar, it’s the same approach a doctor, physical therapist, or other health professional would use. This highlights a common critique of EBP: it is too focused on micro-level, clinical social work practice. Not every social worker is a clinical social worker. While there is a large body of literature on EBP for clinical practice, the same concepts apply to other social work roles as well. A social work manager should endeavor to be familiar with evidence-based management styles, and a social work policy advocate should argue for evidence-based policies.

In agency-based social work practice, EBP can take on a different role due to the complexities of the grant funding process. Funders naturally require agencies to demonstrate that their practice is effective. Agencies are almost always required to document that they are achieving the outcomes they intended. However, funders sometimes require agencies to choose from a limited list of interventions determined to be evidence-based practices. Not included in this model are clinical expertise and client values, which are key components of EBP and the therapeutic process. According to some funders, EBP is not a process conducted by a practitioner but instead consists of a list of interventions. Similar dynamics are at play in private clinical practice, in which insurance companies may specify the modality of therapy offered. For example, insurance companies may favor short-term, solution-focused therapy which minimizes cost. But what happens when someone has an idea for a new kind of intervention?  How do new approaches get “on the list” of EBPs of grant funders?

Social workers as research producers

Innovation in social work is incredibly important. Social workers work on wicked problems for their careers. For those of you who have practice experience, you may have had an idea of how to better approach a practice situation. That is another reason you are here in a research methods class. You (really!) will have bright ideas about what to do in practice. Sam Tsemberis relates an “ Aha! ” moment from his practice in this Ted talk on homelessness . While a faculty member at the New York University School of Medicine, he noticed a problem with people cycling in and out of the local psychiatric hospital wards. Clients would arrive in psychiatric crisis, stabilize under medical supervision in the hospital, and end up back at the hospital in psychiatric crisis shortly after discharge.

When he asked the clients what their issues were, they said they were unable to participate in homelessness programs because they were not always compliant with medication for their mental health diagnosis and they continued to use drugs and alcohol. The housing supports offered by the city government required abstinence and medication compliance before one was deemed “ready” for housing. For these clients, the problem was a homelessness service system that was unable to meet clients where they were–ready for housing, but not ready for abstinence and psychiatric medication. As a result, chronically homeless clients were cycling in and out of psychiatric crises, moving back and forth from the hospital to the street.

The solution that Sam Tsemberis implemented and popularized is called Housing First , and is an approach to homelessness prevention that starts by, you guessed it, providing people with housing first and foremost. Tsemberis’s model addresses chronic homelessness in people with co-occurring disorders (those who have a diagnosis of a substance use and mental health disorder). The Housing First model states that housing is a human right: clients should not be denied their right to housing based on substance use or mental health diagnoses.

In Housing First programs, clients are provided housing as soon as possible. The Housing First agency provides wraparound treatment from an interdisciplinary team, including social workers, nurses, psychiatrists, and former clients who are in recovery. Over the past few decades, this program has gone from a single program in New York City to the program of choice for federal, state, and local governments seeking to address homelessness in their communities.

The main idea behind Housing First is that once clients have a residence of their own, they are better able to engage in mental health and substance use treatment. While this approach may seem logical to you, it is the opposite of the traditional homelessness treatment model. The traditional approach began with the client abstaining from drug and alcohol use and taking prescribed medication. Only after clients achieved these goals were they offered group housing. If the client remained sober and medication compliant, they could then graduate towards less restrictive individual housing.

Conducting and disseminating research allows practitioners to establish an evidence base for their innovation or intervention, and to argue that it is more effective than the alternatives, and should therefore be implemented more broadly. For example, by comparing clients who were served through Housing First with those receiving traditional services, Tsemberis could establish that Housing First was more effective at keeping people housed and at addressing mental health and substance use goals. Starting first with smaller studies and graduating to larger ones, Housing First built a reputation as an effective approach to addressing homelessness. When President Bush created the Collaborative Initiative to Help End Chronic Homelessness in 2003, Housing First was used in a majority of the interventions and its effectiveness was demonstrated on a national scale. In 2007, it was acknowledged as an evidence-based practice in the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration’s (SAMHSA) EBP resource center. [16]

We suggest browsing around the SAMHSA EBP Resource Center and looking for interventions on topics that interest you. Other sources of evidence-based practices include the Cochrane Reviews digital library  and Campbell Collaboration . In the next few chapters, we will talk more about how to search for and locate literature about clinical interventions. The use of systematic reviews , meta-analyses , and randomized controlled trials are particularly important in this regard, types of research we will describe more in Chapter 3 and Chapter 4.

So why share the story of Housing First? Well, we want you to think about what you hope to contribute to our knowledge of social work practice. What is your bright idea and how can it change the world? Practitioners innovate all the time, often incorporating those innovations into their agency’s approach and mission. Using scientific research methods, agency-based social workers can demonstrate to policymakers and other social workers that their innovations should be more widely used. Without this wellspring of new ideas, social services would not be able to adapt to the changing needs of their communities. Social workers in agency-based practice may also participate in research projects taking place at their agency. Partnerships between schools of social work and agencies are a common way of testing and implementing innovations in social work. In such a case, all parties receive an advantage: clinicians receive specialized training, clients receive additional services, agencies gain prestige, and researchers can illustrate the effectiveness of an intervention.

Evidence-based practice highlights the unique perspective that social work brings to research. Social work both “holds” and critiques evidence. With regard to the former, “holding” evidence refers to the fact that the field of social work values scientific information. The Housing First example demonstrates how this interplay between valuing and critiquing science works–first by critiquing existing research and conducting research to establish a new approach to a problem. It also demonstrates the importance of listening to your target population and privileging their understanding and perception of the issue. While their understanding is not the result of scientific inquiry, it is deeply informed through years of direct experience with the issue and embedded within the relevant cultural and historical context. Although science often searches for the “one true answer,” social work researchers must remain humble about the degree to which we can really know, and must begin to engage with other ways of knowing that may originate from clients and communities.

See the video  below for an example of how “one true answer” about a population can often oversimplify things and overstate how much we know about how to intervene in a given situation.

Cultural Humility: People, Principles and Practices – Part 1 of 4 by Vivian Chavez is adapted under a Creative Commons license: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-ND 3.0) http://creativecommons.org/licenses/b…

While you may not become a scientist in the sense of wearing a lab coat and using a microscope, social workers must understand science in order to engage in ethical practice. In this section, we reviewed ways in which research is a part of social work practice, including:

• Determining the best intervention for a client or system
• Ensuring existing services are accomplishing their goals
• Satisfying requirements to receive funding from private agencies and government grants
• Testing a new idea and demonstrating that it should be more widely implemented

Using a social work practice situation that you have experienced, walk through the four steps of the evidence-based practice process and how they informed your decision-making. Reflect on some of the difficulties applying EBP in the real world.

• Talk with a social worker about how he or she produces and consumes research as part of practice. Consider asking them about articles that changed their practice or helped them think about a problem in a new way. They may talk more about a training or a book, rather than academic journal articles. Reflect on your personal career goals and how research will fit into your future practice.

1.4 Social work research

• Differentiate between formal and informal research roles
• Describe common barriers to engaging with social work research
• Identify alternative ways of thinking about research methods

Formal and informal research roles

I’ve been teaching research methods for six years and have found that many students struggle to see the connection between research and social work practice. First of all, it’s important to mention that social work researchers exist!  The authors of this textbook are social work researchers across university, government, and non-profit institutions. Matt and Cory are researchers at universities, focusing on disability policy, wellness & mental health, and intimate partner violence. Dalia is a behavioral health researcher at RTI International, a nonprofit research institute, where she studies the opioid epidemic. Kate is a researcher at the Joint Legislative Audit and Review Commission in Virginia, where she studies policies related to criminal justice. The career path for social workers in formal research roles is bright and diverse, as we each bring a unique perspective with our ethical and theoretical orientation.

Formal research results in written products like journal articles, government reports, or policy briefs. To get a sense of formal research roles in social work, consider asking a professor about their research. You can also browse around the top journals in social work: Trauma, Violence & Abuse , Child Maltreatment , Child Abuse & Neglect , Social Service Review , Family Relations , Journal of Social Policy , Social Policy & Administration , Research on Social Work Practice , Health & Social Care in the Community , Health & Social Work , British Journal of Social Work , Child & Family Social Work , International Journal of Social Welfare , Qualitative Social Work , Children & Youth Services Review , Social Work , Social Work in Health Care , Journal of Social Work Practice , International Social Work , Affilia Journal of Women and Social Work , and Clinical Social Work Journal .  Additionally, the websites to most government agencies, foundations, think tanks, and advocacy groups contain formal research often conducted by social workers.

But let’s be clear, studies show that most social work students are not interested in becoming social work researchers who publish journal articles or research reports (DeCarlo et al., 2019; Earley, 2014). [17] Once you enter post-graduate practice, you will need to apply your formal research skills to the informal research conducted by practitioners and agencies every day. Every time you are asking who, what, when, where and why, you are conducting informal research. Informal research can be more involved. Social workers may be surprised when they are asked to engage in research projects such as needs assessments, community scans, program and policy evaluations, and single system designs, to name a few. Macro-oriented students may have to conduct research on programs and policies as part of advocacy or administration. I cannot tell you the number former students who have contacted me looking for research resources or wanting to “pick my brain” about research they are doing as part of their employment.

Research for action

Regardless of whether a social worker conducts formal research that results in journal articles or informal research that is used within an agency, all social work research is distinctive in that it is active (Engel & Schutt, 2016). [18] We want our results to be used to effect social change. Sometimes this means using findings to change how clients receive services. Sometimes it means using findings to show the benefits of programs or policies. Sometimes it means using findings to speak with those oppressed and marginalized persons who have been left out of the policy creation process. Additionally, it can mean using research as the mode with which to engage a constituency to address a social justice issue. All of these research activities differ; however, the one consistent ingredient is that these activities move us towards social and economic justice.

Student anxieties and beliefs about research

Unfortunately, students generally arrive in research methods classes with a mixture of dread, fear, and frustration. If you attend any given social work education conference, there is probably a presentation on how to better engage students in research. There is an entire body of academic research that verifies what any research professor knows to be true. Honestly, this is why the authors of this textbook started this project. We want to make research more enjoyable and engaging for students. Generally, we have found some common myths and misconceptions get in the way of student success in research. Let’s see if any of these match with what you are thinking.

I’m never going to use this crap!

Students who tell me that research methods is not useful to them are saying something important. As a student scholar, your most valuable asset is your time. You give your time to the subjects you consider important to you and for your career. Because most social workers don’t become researchers or practitioner-researchers, students may feel that a research methods class is a waste of time. Our discussion of evidence-based practice and the ways in which social workers use research in practice brought home the idea that social workers play an important role in creating and disseminating new knowledge about social services.

On a more immediate level, learning about research methods and completing an individual research project allow students to focus in on a specific topic. This class is an invitation to conduct an independent study on a social work topic of interest to you. In this book, you will learn how to understand and apply the scientific method to that topic. Not only that, but the skills you learn in literature search and review will help you in every class in your MSW program.

Research is only for super-smart people

Research methods involves a lot of terminology that may be entirely new to social work students. Other domains of social work, such as practice, are easier to apply your intuition towards. You understand how to be an empathetic person, and your experiences in life can help guide you through a practice situation or even a theoretical or conceptual question. Research may seem like a totally new area in which you have no previous experience. In research methods there can be “wrong” answers. Depending on your research question, some approaches to data analysis or measurement, for example, may not help you find the correct answer.

The fear is entirely understandable. Research is not straightforward. As Figure 1.1 shows, it is a process that is non-linear, involving multiple revisions, wrong turns, and dead ends before you figure out the best question and research approach. You may have to go back to chapters after having read them or even peek ahead at chapters your class hasn’t covered yet.

Moreover, research is something you learn by doing…and stumbling a few times. It’s an iterative process, or one that requires many tries to get right. There isn’t a shortcut for learning research, but if you follow along with the exercises in this book, you can break down a student research project and accomplish it piece by piece. No one just knows research. It’s something you pick up by doing it, reflecting on the experiences and results, redoing your work, and revising it in consultation with your professor and peers. Research involves exploration, risk taking, and a willingness to say, “Let’s see what we will find!”

Research is designed to suck the joy from my life

We’ve talked already about the arcane research terminology, so I won’t go into it again here. But students sometimes perceive research methods as boring. Practice knowledge and even theory are fun to learn because they are easy to apply and provide insights into the world around you. Research just seems like its own weirdly shaped and ill-fitting puzzle piece.

I completely understand where this perspective comes from and hope there are a few things you will take away from this course that aren’t boring to you. In the first section of this textbook, you will learn how to take any topic and learn what is known about it. It may seem trivial, but this is actually a superpower. Your social work education will teach you basic knowledge that can be applied to nearly all social work practice situations as well as some applied material applicable to specific social work practice situations. However, no education will provide you with everything you need to know. And certainly, no professor can tell you what will be discovered over the next few decades of your practice. Our work on literature reviews in the next few chapters will help you increase your skills and knowledge to become a strong social work student and practitioner. Following that, our exploration of research methods will help you understand how theories, practice models, and techniques you learn in other classes are created and tested scientifically. Like a colorful puzzle, you’ll see how all of the pieces fit together.

Get out of your own way

Together, these misconceptions and myths can create a self-fulfilling prophecy for students. If you believe research is boring, you won’t find it interesting. If you believe research is hard, you will struggle more with assignments. If you believe research is useless, you won’t see its utility. If you’re afraid that you will make mistakes, then you won’t want to try. While we certainly acknowledge that students aren’t going to love research as much as we do (we spent over a year writing this book, so we like it a lot!), we suggest reframing how you think about research using the following touchstones:

• All social workers rely on social science research to engage in competent practice.
• No one  already knows research. It’s something I’ll learn through practice. And it’s challenging for everyone, not just me.
• Research is relevant to me because it allows me to figure out what is known about any topic I want to study.
• If the topic I choose to study is important to me, I will be more interested in exploring research to help me understand it further.

Students should be intentional about managing any anxiety coming from a research project. Here are some suggestions:

• Talk to your professor if you are feeling lost. We like students!
• Talk to a librarian if you are having trouble finding information about your topic.
• Seek support from your peers or mentors.

The structure of this textbook

The textbook is divided into five parts. In the first part (Chapters 1-4), we will review how to orient your research proposal to a specific question you want to answer and review the literature to see what we know about it. Student research projects come with special limitations, as you don’t have many resources, so our chapters are designed to help you think through those limitations and think of a project that is doable. In the second part (Chapters 5-8), we will bring in theory, causality, ethics to help you conceptualize your research project and what you hope to achieve. By the end of the second part, you will create a quantitative and qualitative research question. Parts 3 and 4 will walk you through how to conduct quantitative and qualitative research, respectively. These parts run through how to recruit people to participate in your study, what to ask them, and how to interpret the results of what they say. Finally, the last part of the textbook reviews how to connect research and practice. For some, that will mean completing program evaluations as part of agency-based practice. For others, it will mean consuming research as part of continuing education as a practitioner. We hope you enjoy reading this book as much as we enjoyed writing it!

If you are still figuring out how to navigate the book using your internet browser, consider watching our tutorial [LINK NEEDED]. Also, the exercises in each chapter offer you an opportunity to apply what you wrote to your own research project, so consider completing these as you read.

• Social workers engage in formal and informal research production as part of practice.
• If you feel anxious, bored, or overwhelmed by research, you are not alone!
• Becoming more familiar with research methods will help you become a better scholar and social work practitioner.
• With your peers, explore your feelings towards your research methods classes. Describe some themes that come up during your conversations. Identify which issues can be addressed by your professor and which can be addressed by students.
• Browse social work journals and identify an article of interest to you. Look up the author’s biography or curriculum vitae on their personal website or the website of their university.
• Cheung, J. C. S. (2016). Researching practice wisdom in social work. Journal of Social Intervention: Theory and Practice ,  25 (3), 24-38. ↵
• For more on the CSWE accreditation standards see https://www.cswe.org/CSWE/media/AccredidationPDFs/2015-epas-and-glossary_1.pdf and the EPAS index in this book. ↵
• See: https://climate.nasa.gov/faq/17/do-scientists-agree-on-climate-change/ ↵
• See: http://www.igmchicago.org/surveys/import-duties ↵
• Godlee   F. ,  Smith   J. , & Marcovitch   H . (2011) Wakefield’s article linking MMR vaccine and autism was fraudulent. British medical journal, 342 , 64-66. ↵
• Mahoney, A., Karatzias, T., & Hutton, P. (2019). A systematic review and meta-analysis of group treatments for adults with symptoms associated with complex post-traumatic stress disorder.  Journal of affective disorders ,  243 , 305-321. ↵
• American Psychiatric Association. (2017). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.) . Washington, DC ↵
• Barsky, A. (2015). DSM-5 and the ethics of diagnosis. New social worker . Retrieved from: https://www.socialworker.com/feature-articles/ethics-articles/dsm-5-and-ethics-of-diagnosis/ ↵
• Nogueira, B. L., Mari, J. D. J., & Razzouk, D. (2015). Culture-bound syndromes in Spanish speaking Latin America: the case of Nervios, Susto and Ataques de Nervios. Archives of Clinical Psychiatry (São Paulo), 42( 6), 171-178. ↵
• Eika, L., Mogstad, M., & Zafar, B. (2019). Educational assortative mating and household income inequality. Journal of Political Economy, 127 (6), 2795-2835. ↵
• Jenkins, P. J., & Kroll-Smith, S. (Eds.). (1996). Witnessing for sociology: Sociologists in court . Westport, CT: Praeger. ↵
• Wal-Mart  Stores, Inc. v. Dukes , 564 U.S. (2011). The American Sociological Association (ASA) subsequently filed an amicus brief in support of what would be the class of individuals claiming gender discrimination. You can read the brief at http://asanet.org/images/press/docs/pdf/Amicus_Brief_Wal-Mart_v Dukes_et_al.pdf.  For other recent amicus briefs filed by the ASA, see  http://asanet.org/about/amicus_briefs.cfm . ↵
• Want to know more about the suit against Walmart or about Bielby’s analysis for the case? Check out the following source: Hart, M., & Secunda, P. M. (2009). A matter of context: Social framework evidence in employment discrimination class actions. Fordham Law Review ,  78 , 37-70. (2009). A matter of context: Social framework evidence in employment discrimination class action.  Fordham Law Review, 78 , 37–70. Retrieved from:  http://www.fordhamlawreview.org/assets/pdfs/Vol_78/Hart_Secunda_October_2009.pdf ↵
• Drisko, J. W., & Grady, M. D. (2015). Evidence-based practice in social work: A contemporary perspective. Clinical Social Work Journal ,  43 (3), 274-282. ↵
• McNeece, C. A., & Thyer, B. A. (2004). Evidence-based practice and social work. Journal of evidence-based social work ,  1 (1), 7-25. ↵
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2007). Pathways' housing first program . Retrieved from:https://www.samhsa.gov/homelessness-programs-resources/hpr-resources/housing-first-supports-recovery ↵
• DeCarlo, M. P., Schoppelrey, S., Crenshaw, C., Secret, M. C., & Stewart, M. (2020, January 1). Open educational resources and graduate social work students: Cost, outcomes, use, and perceptions. https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/k4ytd; Earley, M. A. (2014). A synthesis of the literature on research methods education. Teaching in Higher Education, 19 (3), 242-253. ↵
• Engel, R. J. & Schutt, R. K. (2016) The practice of research in social work (4th edition) . Washington, DC: Sage Publications ↵

examining the smallest levels of interaction, usually individuals

examining interaction between groups and within communities

examining social structures and institutions

a “gut feeling” about what to do based on previous experience

“learning by doing” that guides social work intervention and increases over time

predictable flaws in thinking

observing and analyzing information in a way that agrees with what you already think is true and excludes other alternatives

a way of knowing that attempts to systematically collect and categorize facts or truths

the science of humanity, social interactions, and social structures

claims about the world that appear scientific but are incompatible with the values and practices of science

information about the social world gathered and analyzed through scientific observation or experimentation

numerical data

data derived from analysis of texts. Usually, this is word data (like a conversation or journal entry) but can also include performances, pictures, and other means of expressing ideas.

the methods researchers use to examine empirical data

a single truth, observed without bias, that is universally applicable

one truth among many, bound within a social and cultural context

a process composed of "four equally weighted parts: 1) current client needs and situation, (2) the best relevant research evidence, (3) client values and preferences, and (4) the clinician’s expertise" (Drisko & Grady, 2015, p. 275)

a study that combines raw data from multiple quantitative studies and analyzes the pooled data using statistics

Graduate research methods in social work Copyright © 2020 by Matthew DeCarlo, Cory Cummings, Kate Agnelli is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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199+ Social Work Research Topics [Updated 2024]

In the vast and dynamic field of social work, research plays a pivotal role in shaping interventions, policies, and practices. Social work research is not just an academic pursuit but a powerful tool for effecting positive change in communities. As aspiring researchers delve into this realm, the journey begins with a crucial decision – selecting the right social work research topic.

In this blog, we will explore the significance of choosing the right social work research topics, provide insights into the selection process, highlight popular research areas, discuss emerging trends, offer tips for conducting research, and share valuable resources for social work researchers.

Significance of Choosing the Right Social Work Research Topics

Table of Contents

Impact on Research Quality

The choice of a research topic significantly influences the quality and relevance of the research conducted. A well-chosen topic enhances the researcher’s ability to contribute meaningfully to the existing body of knowledge in social work.

Alignment with Personal Interests and Goals

Selecting a topic aligned with personal interests and career goals fosters a sense of passion and commitment. This alignment not only sustains the researcher’s enthusiasm throughout the process but also increases the likelihood of producing impactful research.

Contribution to the Field of Social Work

The right research topic has the potential to contribute to the broader field of social work by addressing pressing issues, proposing innovative solutions, and advancing our understanding of complex social dynamics.

How to Select Social Work Research Topics?

• Understanding the Scope of Social Work: Social work is a multifaceted discipline that encompasses various domains such as mental health, child welfare, community development, and more. Prospective researchers should explore the diverse scopes within social work to identify areas that resonate with their interests and expertise.
• Identifying Personal Interests and Passion: Passion fuels research endeavors. Researchers should reflect on their personal experiences, values, and interests to identify areas within social work that evoke a strong sense of commitment.
• Considering Relevance to Current Social Issues: Social work research gains significance when it addresses current societal challenges. Researchers should evaluate potential topics based on their relevance to contemporary issues, ensuring that the findings can contribute meaningfully to ongoing dialogues and efforts for social change.

199+ Social Work Research Topics: Category-Wise

Mental health and social work.

• The impact of community support on mental health outcomes.
• Examining the effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions in social work.
• Exploring stigma surrounding mental health in diverse populations.
• Integrating technology in mental health counseling: Challenges and opportunities.
• The role of social work in preventing suicide and self-harm.

Diversity and Inclusion in Social Work

• LGBTQ+ inclusivity in social work practice.
• Addressing microaggressions and bias in social work interactions.
• Promoting cultural competence in social work education.
• Exploring challenges faced by immigrants and refugees in accessing social services.
• Intersectionality in social work: Understanding and addressing multiple identities.

Social Work and Community Development

• Evaluating the impact of community gardens on neighborhood well-being.
• The role of social workers in disaster response and recovery.
• Strategies for combating homelessness and housing insecurity.
• Assessing the effectiveness of community-based participatory research in social work.
• Social work’s contribution to sustainable community development.

Social Work and Child Welfare

• Investigating the long-term outcomes of children in foster care.
• The impact of parental substance abuse on child welfare.
• Exploring cultural competence in child welfare services.
• Innovative approaches to supporting kinship care families.
• Assessing the effectiveness of early intervention programs for at-risk children.

Global Perspectives in Social Work Research

• Cross-cultural perspectives on social work ethics.
• Human rights and social work: An international comparison.
• The role of social work in addressing global health disparities.
• Social work responses to forced migration and refugee crises.
• Comparative analysis of social work systems in different countries.

Technology and Social Work

• Ethical considerations in the use of artificial intelligence in social work.
• Online therapy and its implications for the future of social work.
• Integrating telehealth in social work practice: Challenges and benefits.
• Cyberbullying and the role of social workers in prevention and intervention.
• The impact of social media on social work advocacy.

Policy and Advocacy in Social Work

• Analyzing the impact of welfare reform on vulnerable populations.
• Social work advocacy for criminal justice reform.
• The role of social workers in shaping healthcare policies.
• Addressing disparities in access to education through social work policy.
• Environmental justice and the role of social work in sustainability.

Substance Abuse and Addiction in Social Work

• Harm reduction strategies in social work practice.
• Supporting families affected by substance abuse: A social work perspective.
• Exploring the intersection of trauma and addiction in social work.
• Assessing the effectiveness of drug prevention programs in schools.
• The role of social workers in opioid addiction treatment.

Gerontology and Aging in Social Work

• Aging in place: Examining the role of social work in supporting seniors at home.
• Social isolation and mental health in the elderly population.
• Addressing elder abuse: Strategies for prevention and intervention.
• Palliative care and the role of social workers in end-of-life care.
• The impact of dementia on families and the role of social work support.

Education and Social Work

• The role of school social workers in addressing student mental health.
• Inclusive education: Social work interventions for students with disabilities.
• Bullying prevention programs in schools: A social work perspective.
• Examining the impact of teacher-student relationships on academic outcomes.
• Social work support for students experiencing homelessness.

Human Trafficking and Exploitation

• Human trafficking prevention and intervention strategies in social work.
• The role of social workers in supporting survivors of human trafficking.
• Addressing labor exploitation through social work advocacy.
• Intersectionality and human trafficking: A comprehensive approach.
• Assessing the effectiveness of anti-trafficking policies and programs.

Family Dynamics and Social Work

• Impact of divorce and separation on children: Social work interventions.
• Foster care reunification: Challenges and success factors.
• LGBTQ+ parenting and the role of social work in family support.
• Domestic violence prevention programs: A social work perspective.
• Blended families: Navigating challenges and fostering resilience.

Health and Healthcare Disparities

• Social determinants of health and their impact on vulnerable populations.
• Access to healthcare for underserved communities: A social work perspective.
• The role of social workers in supporting individuals with chronic illnesses.
• Reducing health disparities among racial and ethnic minorities through social work interventions.
• Palliative care and the psychosocial aspects of terminal illness.

Human Rights and Social Work

• Social work advocacy for LGBTQ+ rights.
• Promoting gender equality through social work initiatives.
• Indigenous rights and the role of social workers in reconciliation.
• Advocacy for the rights of people with disabilities: A social work perspective.
• Social work responses to human rights violations and social justice issues.

Disability and Inclusion

• Social work interventions for children with developmental disabilities.
• The impact of inclusive employment programs on individuals with disabilities.
• Accessibility and social work advocacy for people with physical disabilities.
• Autism spectrum disorder: Social work support for individuals and families.
• Inclusive recreation programs: Enhancing the lives of people with disabilities.

Veterans and Military Social Work

• Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and the role of social workers in veteran support.
• Social work interventions for military families experiencing deployment stress.
• Transitioning from military to civilian life: Challenges and opportunities.
• The impact of substance abuse on veterans and social work prevention strategies.
• Access to mental health services for veterans: A social work perspective.

Community Mental Health Programs

• Evaluating the effectiveness of community mental health clinics.
• Peer support programs in community mental health: A social work approach.
• Social work interventions for reducing stigma around mental illness in communities.
• Integrating mental health into primary care settings through collaborative care approaches.
• Social workers’ roles in school-based mental health initiatives.

Immigration and Social Work

• Social work responds to populations of immigrants and refugees’ mental health issues.
• The effect of immigration laws on social service accessibility.
• Community integration and social work support for immigrants.
• Advocacy for immigrant rights: A social work perspective.
• Family reunification and the role of social workers in immigration processes.

Social Work in Rural Communities

• Access to healthcare in rural communities: Social work interventions.
• Substance abuse prevention in rural settings: Challenges and solutions.
• Community development strategies for promoting rural well-being.
• Addressing mental health disparities in rural populations: A social work approach.
• Social work support for families facing economic challenges in rural areas.

Trauma-Informed Social Work Practice

• Integrating trauma-informed care into social work practice.
• Addressing childhood trauma through school-based interventions.
• Trauma-focused therapies and their application in social work.
• Vicarious trauma and self-care strategies for social workers.
• The role of social workers in supporting survivors of sexual assault.

Social Work in Schools

• School-based bullying prevention programs: A social work perspective.
• Social work interventions for students with learning disabilities.
• The impact of school social workers on academic success.
• Mental health support for at-risk youth in school settings.
• The role of social workers in addressing the school-to-prison pipeline.

Criminal Justice and Social Work

• Reentry programs for formerly incarcerated individuals: A social work approach.
• Juvenile justice and the role of social workers in rehabilitation.
• Addressing racial disparities in the criminal justice system: A social work perspective.
• The impact of incarceration on families and social work support.

Community-Based Participatory Research (CBPR)

• Principles and applications of community-based participatory research in social work.
• Engaging communities in the research process: A CBPR approach.
• Evaluating the outcomes of community-based interventions using CBPR.
• Challenges and opportunities in implementing CBPR in diverse settings.
• Empowering communities through CBPR: Case studies and best practices.

Social Work and Environmental Justice

• Climate change and its impact on vulnerable populations: A social work perspective.
• Environmental justice and community organizing: Social work interventions.
• Sustainable community development and the role of social workers.
• Access to clean water and sanitation: A social work advocacy approach.
• Indigenous perspectives on environmental justice: A social work lens.

Human Services Administration

• Leadership styles in human services administration: A social work perspective.
• The role of technology in improving human services delivery.
• Strategies for effective human services program evaluation.
• Addressing burnout and promoting self-care in human services organizations.
• Social work ethics and decision-making in human services administration.

Social Work and Artificial Intelligence

• Applications of AI in social work practice: Opportunities and challenges.
• The role of chatbots in mental health support: A social work perspective.
• Bias and fairness in algorithmic decision-making in social work.
• Human-AI collaboration in social work: Enhancing service delivery.

Crisis Intervention and Social Work

• Social work responses to natural disasters: Lessons learned and best practices.
• Crisis intervention strategies for individuals experiencing acute trauma.
• The role of social workers in emergency shelters and disaster recovery.
• Trauma-informed care in crisis intervention: A social work approach.
• Collaborative approaches to crisis intervention in community settings.

Social Work in the LGBTQ+ Community

• LGBTQ+ youth homelessness: Social work interventions and prevention.
• Supporting transgender and non-binary individuals in social work practice.
• Mental health disparities in the LGBTQ+ community: A social work perspective.
• LGBTQ+ inclusive policies in social service organizations.
• Social work advocacy for LGBTQ+ rights and equal access to services.

Social Work and Aging

• Aging in place: Social work interventions for promoting independence.
• Social work support for individuals with Alzheimer’s disease and their families.
• End-of-life decision-making and the role of social workers.
• Social isolation among older adults: Strategies for prevention and intervention.
• Exploring innovative housing models for aging populations.

Faith-Based Social Work

• The intersection of faith and social work: Ethical considerations.
• Faith-based organizations in community development: A social work perspective.
• Pastoral care and counseling: Social work support in religious communities.
• Addressing religious discrimination in social work practice.
• Interfaith dialogue and its role in fostering social cohesion: A social work approach.

Social Work in Substance Use Prevention

• Social work interventions for preventing substance use among adolescents.
• The impact of early childhood experiences on later substance use: A social work perspective.
• Prevention programs targeting high-risk populations: A social work approach.
• Social work support for families affected by parental substance use.
• Community-based strategies for preventing opioid misuse: A social work lens.

Global Mental Health and Social Work

• Cultural considerations in global mental health: A social work approach.
• Collaborative approaches to addressing mental health stigma globally.
• The role of social workers in disaster mental health response internationally.
• Integrating traditional healing practices into global mental health interventions.
• Comparative analysis of mental health policies and services worldwide.

Social Work and Human-Animal Interaction

• Animal-assisted therapy in social work practice: Applications and benefits.
• The role of therapy animals in reducing stress and promoting well-being.
• Animal cruelty prevention and the role of social workers.
• The impact of pet ownership on mental health: A social work perspective.
• Ethical considerations in incorporating animals into social work interventions.

Refugee Mental Health and Social Work

• Trauma-informed approaches in working with refugee populations.
• Social work support for refugee children in educational settings.
• Addressing mental health disparities among refugee communities.
• Cultural competence in providing mental health services to refugees.
• Resettlement challenges and social work interventions for refugees.

Community Resilience and Social Work

• Building community resilience in the face of adversity: A social work perspective.
• Social work interventions for promoting resilience in vulnerable populations.
• Resilience-based mental health programs in schools: A social work approach.
• The role of social workers in disaster resilience planning.
• Collective trauma and community healing: A social work lens.

Technology and Social Work Ethics

• Ethical considerations in the use of social media in social work practice.
• Privacy and confidentiality in the age of digital record-keeping.
• Ensuring equity in access to technology-based interventions: A social work approach.
• Social work responses to cyberbullying: Prevention and intervention strategies.
• Ethical guidelines for the use of virtual reality in social work practice.

Social Work in Sports

• Sports-based youth development programs: A social work perspective.
• The role of social workers in promoting mental health in athletes.
• Addressing substance use and performance-enhancing drugs in sports: A social work lens.
• Inclusive sports programs for individuals with disabilities: A social work approach.
• Social work interventions for preventing and addressing sports-related violence.

Social Work in the Arts

• Arts-based interventions in social work practice: Applications and outcomes.
• The role of creative expression in trauma recovery: A social work perspective.
• Using theater and performance arts in social work education and therapy.
• Arts programs for at-risk youth: A social work approach.
• The impact of the arts on community well-being: A social work lens.

Social Work and Foster Care Adoption

• Social work interventions for successful foster care reunification.
• Addressing the unique needs of LGBTQ+ youth in foster care.
• The impact of foster care placement on child development: A social work perspective.
• Post-adoption support services: A social work approach.
• Cultural competence in transracial and transcultural foster care and adoption.

Social Work in the Gig Economy

• The Role of Social Work in Addressing Mental Health Challenges in the Gig Economy
• Exploring Social Work Strategies for Supporting Gig Workers’ Financial Stability
• Gig Economy and Social Work Advocacy: Ensuring Fair Labor Practices
• Navigating Occupational Hazards: Social Work Interventions in Gig Work Environments
• Social Work’s Contribution to Promoting Work-Life Balance in the Gig Economy

Emerging Trends in Social Work Research

• The Impact of Technology on Social Work Practice: Examine how technology is influencing social work practices and service delivery, considering both advantages and ethical considerations.
• Ethical Considerations in the Use of Technology in Social Work Research: Discuss the ethical challenges associated with the integration of technology in social work research and propose guidelines for responsible use.
• Cross-Cultural Studies in Social Work: Explore the significance of cross-cultural studies in social work research, promoting a deeper understanding of diverse cultural contexts.
• Addressing Global Social Issues through Research: Investigate how social work research can contribute to addressing global social challenges, such as poverty, migration, and climate change.

Tips for Conducting Social Work Research

Developing a Research Question

Craft a research question for social work research topics that is clear, concise, and aligns with the chosen social work research topic. The question should guide the research process and contribute meaningfully to the existing literature.

Choosing Appropriate Research Methods

Select research methods that align with the nature of the research question and the goals of the study. Consider whether qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods approaches are most suitable for addressing the research objectives.

Ethical Considerations in Social Work Research

Prioritize ethical considerations throughout the research process. Ensure informed consent, confidentiality, and respect for the dignity and rights of research participants.

Resources for Social Work Researchers

Journals and Publications

Explore reputable social work journals and publications to stay updated on the latest research, methodologies, and findings. Examples include the “Journal of Social Work” and the “British Journal of Social Work.”

Professional Organizations

Joining professional organizations such as the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) provides access to valuable resources, networking opportunities, and conferences that enhance a researcher’s knowledge and skills.

Online Databases and Research Tools

Utilize online databases like PubMed , Social Work Abstracts, and Google Scholar to access a wide range of social work research articles. Additionally, familiarize yourself with research tools and software that can streamline the research process.

In conclusion, the journey of selecting the social work research topics is a crucial step that requires thoughtful consideration and reflection. The chosen topic should align with personal interests, address current social issues, and contribute meaningfully to the field of social work. 

As researchers embark on this journey, they have the opportunity to explore diverse areas, from mental health and child welfare to emerging trends in technology and global perspectives. 

By following ethical guidelines, employing appropriate research methods, and leveraging valuable resources, social work researchers can make significant contributions to improving the well-being of individuals and communities.

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Our faculty are distinguished leaders in their fields, dedicated to advancing social justice and improving lives through their innovative research, teaching, and community engagement. Comprising experts in various areas of social work, they bring diverse perspectives and extensive experience to the classroom, enriching the learning environment for students. The faculty conduct groundbreaking research on a wide range of critical issues, including mental health, child welfare, aging, poverty, and social policy.

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Replication Crisis

The importance of research to the practice of counseling, why is research literacy important for mental health counseling.

Posted July 30, 2024 | Reviewed by Abigail Fagan

• The replication crisis challenges reliability—many landmark studies fail to replicate.
• Publication bias distorts findings—positive results are more likely to be published than null ones.
• Careerism impacts quality—the pressure to publish frequently can prioritize quantity over quality.

In the field of social science, particularly within psychology and counseling, several critical issues have emerged that undermine the scientific rigor of research and practice. One of the most significant challenges is the replication crisis , where many studies, including landmark research, fail to reproduce consistent results when tested in subsequent experiments. And we're not talking about little-known, oddball studies. This problem covers the whole gamut of social science research, from the seminal studies that change the field, to lesser-known research. This crisis casts doubt on the reliability of established findings and calls into question the foundations upon which many clinical practices are built.

Another pervasive issue is publication bias , where studies with significant or positive results are more likely to be published than those with null or negative findings. This skews the body of available literature, leading to an overestimation of the effectiveness of certain interventions and underrepresentation of alternative or null outcomes. Closely related is the phenomenon of idea laundering , where weak or untested theories are presented as established facts through a cycle of citations and publications, further muddying the waters of scientific clarity.

Careerism or "publish or perish" also poses a significant obstacle, as the pressure to publish frequently and in high-impact journals can lead researchers to prioritize quantity over quality. This environment can foster a focus on novel, eye-catching results rather than thorough, rigorous investigations. Moreover, inadequate graduate training in research methodology and critical thinking exacerbates these issues, leaving emerging counselors ill-prepared to both conduct and critically assess research.

These challenges collectively diminish the quality and credibility of research in social science, which is particularly concerning given the direct impact these studies have on clinical practice. For counselors, a deep understanding of research methods and critical evaluation is essential. It not only equips them to produce meaningful, replicable studies but also empowers them to discern the reliability of existing research, ensuring they base their clinical decisions on solid evidence. However, if counselors in training are not aware of the importance of research, how to conduct research, how to read research, how to integrate the findings of research, AND how to digest research critically given the problems present in research mentioned above, then it will directly affect clinical work, client outcomes and welfare. This is simply not okay since counselors have an ethical duty to provide best practices and safeguard client welfare. But, if you need some convincing, below are some of the reasons I see literacy in research as essential for competent clinical practice.

Research Guides Practice and Limits of Intuition

As clinicians, we often rely on our training, experience, and intuition to make decisions. However, it's essential to recognize that our perceptions are inherently limited and can be biased. Human reasoning, while valuable, is not infallible and can lead us astray. For instance, confirmation bias , the tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms our preconceptions, can significantly impact clinical judgments. Therefore, it's crucial to complement our intuition with empirical evidence from social science research. This reliance on research helps to ground our decisions in verified data, ensuring that our interventions are based on more than just subjective judgment.

The Counterintuitive Nature of Research

One of the most valuable aspects of research is its ability to challenge our assumptions. What may seem obvious or intuitive to a seasoned counselor might not hold true for every client. For example, while it may seem intuitive that talking about suicidal thoughts could increase the likelihood of a client acting on them, research indicates that discussing these thoughts in a supportive environment can actually reduce the risk. This highlights the importance of adhering to evidence-based practices, which often provide insights that run counter to common beliefs or intuitive thinking.

Universals and Particulars in Counseling

In the realm of clinical practice, it is crucial to distinguish between universal principles and individual variations. Research can provide us with general trends and effective interventions for broad populations, but every client is unique. What works broadly might not be effective for a specific individual due to various factors such as cultural background, personal history, and psychological makeup. For example, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is widely recognized as an effective treatment for depression , but its applicability may vary based on a client's readiness, cultural context, and specific needs. Thus, while research provides a foundation, clinicians must remain flexible and responsive to the particulars of each client's situation.

Harm Prevention and Ethical Responsibility

Ethical practice in counseling involves a commitment to "do no harm." This principle necessitates that we have a reasonable expectation of the outcomes of our interventions before implementing them. Without a solid research foundation, we risk applying treatments that may be ineffective or even harmful. For example, some outdated or unsupported therapeutic practices, such as "conversion therapy" for sexual orientation , have been shown to cause significant harm. Therefore, staying informed about current research is not only a best practice but an ethical obligation to ensure we are providing safe and effective care.

Harm Detection and Differentiating Counseling Models

Not all therapeutic models are equally beneficial, and some may even be detrimental if applied inappropriately. It's vital for clinicians to discern which models are supported by robust evidence and which are not. For instance, while mindfulness -based therapies have proven effective in managing anxiety and depression, they may not be suitable for individuals with certain types of trauma -related disorders, where grounding techniques might be more appropriate. Understanding these nuances allows clinicians to tailor their approaches to better meet the needs of their clients, thereby optimizing the therapeutic outcomes.

In conclusion, the integration of research into clinical practice serves as a critical tool for enhancing the quality of care provided to clients. By recognizing the limitations of intuition, valuing counterintuitive insights from research, distinguishing between universal principles and individual differences, and adhering to ethical standards of harm prevention, clinicians can ensure that their practice is both scientifically grounded and ethically sound. This commitment to evidence-based practice ultimately fosters a more effective and compassionate therapeutic environment, better serving the diverse needs of clients.

Dan Bates is a clinical mental health counselor, licensed in the state of Washington and certified nationally.

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PhD student Tian Xia, alumna Katie Russell give poster presentation at The Violence Prevention Research Conference

Tian Xia , a PhD student in social welfare, and recent alumna Katie Russell gave a poster presentation at The Violence Prevention Research Conference.

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Their poster was titled “Compensation for Mental Distress and Rehabilitation Needs for Child Sexual Abuse Victims in China: A Descriptive Analysis of Judicial Verdicts and Compensation Outcomes.”

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The Current State of Evidence-Based Practice in Social Work: A Review of the Literature and Qualitative Analysis of Expert Interviews

While there is recent movement toward Evidence-Based Practice (EBP) in social work, criticisms subsist regarding the profession’s translation of research into viable practices. Evidence describing effective interventions exists, but research that addresses dissemination and implementation is generally lacking. This paper highlights existing literature on dissemination and explores the barriers, themes, and trends in EBP through eight expert interviews. The interviews reflect the issues described in the literature and provide additional insight to the process of implementation and dissemination of EBP. Findings from the literature and interviews are synthesized into research and practice recommendations.

While there is a call for Evidence-Based Practice (EBP) in social work and mental health services, there have also been a number of criticisms about the implementation of research findings into viable methods of practice. These barriers range from the egregious lag-time between research development to dissemination of evidence to practice settings to a veritable lack of support and training for community practitioners. There is a growing body of evidence describing effective interventions, but there is not a substantial body of work addressing the dissemination of these programs and other research findings for use in the field. This paper highlights some of the work around dissemination of EBPs in the field of social work with an emphasis on mental health services including an overview of the barriers to the use of evidence in practice and proposed models of conceptualization and implementation of EBP. To further highlight the current barriers, themes, and trends in EBP eight experts in the field of EBP were interviewed. The goal of the interviews was to survey the opinions of expert researchers in the area of EBP to supplement knowledge described in the literature. The experts’ responses reflected many of the same issues described in the literature as well as additional information regarding their efforts toward determining the most viable options to address the barriers to implementing and disseminating EBP. Findings from the literature review and interviews are synthesized into recommendations for future research and practice efforts.

INTRODUCTION

Practice decisions based on research evidence have increasingly become an identified need in the treatment of mental illnesses. Three of the most influential reports on mental health services policy in recent years, The President’s New Freedom Commission on Mental Health Report (2003) , The World Health Organization Report on Mental Health (2001) , and Mental Health: A report of the Surgeon General (1999), emphasize the need for research and evidence-based practices (EBPs) in mental health services. Even more broad health policy reports, such as Healthy People 2010 (2000) from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), point to “an emphasis on translating new knowledge into clinical applications” in the mental health arena. The President’s New Freedom Commission on Mental Health (2003) recently released a final report calling for evidence based and recovery focused interventions in the treatment of mental illness; and the National Institute of Mental Health echoes this approach (Insel, 2003). Goal five of the President’s New Freedom Commission on Mental Health Report (2003) stresses the need to deliver excellent mental health care by accelerating research to promote recovery, resilience, prevention, and a cure for mental illness, advancing evidence-based practice dissemination and demonstration, expanding the workforce providing evidence-based practices, and developing a knowledge base in mental health disparities, long term medication effects, trauma, and acute care.

These national and international health and mental health reports are important to social work, not only as signposts of current trends in policy thought, but also as frameworks for future policy and funding activity. Federal agencies like the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), and National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) are beginning to link grants and contracts to EBP themes such as research-based interventions and the translation of research into practice as well as hosting conferences dedicated to EBP. These and other agencies are also outlining science-based program standards and rating systems. For example, the Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (CSAP) and SAMHSA recently constructed a comparison matrix of science based prevention programs examining the standards and effectiveness ratings of 150 different programs sponsored by five different federal agencies (2002).

According to Thomas Insel (2004) , director of the National Institute of Mental Health, social workers are doing the majority of front line work treating individuals with mental illnesses. Citing a 1998 SAMHSA report, the current psychotherapy workforce is dominated by social work consisting of 192,814 social workers, 73,014 psychologists, 33,486 psychiatrists, and 17,318 psychiatric nurses ( Insel, 2004 ). Despite social worker dominance in the field of mental health and the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) code of ethics emphasis on research based service, the majority of social workers do not appear to draw on research findings to inform their practice ( Gibbs & Gambrill, 2002 ; Kirk & Rosenblatt, 1981 ; Mullen & Bacon, 2004 ; NASW, 1996 ; Rosen, 1994 ). Social workers, including researchers, educators, agency administrators, and practitioners, are therefore challenged with an important question: “How can the profession better disseminate the rich and growing body of research and evidence based interventions in social work and mental health services to practitioners providing direct services to individuals with mental illnesses?” This paper contains a review of the current literature around the dissemination of EBP, current social work models for dissemination of EBP, interviews with experts in the field, and a synthesis of this combined knowledge into recommendations for future dissemination of research and EBP efforts.

LITERATURE SEARCH METHOD

For this project, research was conducted through a review of the literature, including both books and scholarly articles, on EBP in mental health services in social work as well as other relevant professions and by interviewing a convenience sample of experts currently conducting research related to the development and dissemination of evidence based interventions for mental illnesses. Relevant literature was identified through a search of local social work and public health library holdings and by searching electronically using the following databases: Social Work Abstracts, PsychLit, and Medline. Additional citations were collected via the reference lists of identified sources and through the draft reference list of EBP dissemination literature collected by the Research Unit for Research Utilization (RURU), a part of the Evidence Network of Great Britain ( RURU, 2003 ). This review was limited to published literature that directly describes the use of research in social work practice specifically.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The call for evidence-based practice.

The first widespread push for EBP in social work came out of a series of studies that began to appear in the 1970s and called into question the effectiveness of existing social work interventions ( Fisher, 1973 ; Reid, 1994 ). The 1970s and 1980s witnessed a movement to develop evidence based models of practice in mental health and further the development of well researched psychosocial intervention models such as the behavioral, cognitive, interpersonal, and social approaches, as well as the biological and biopsychosocial theories of mental illness ( Turnbull, 1991 ). Evidence-based researchers in many disciplines pioneered models used in social work practice including: psychology, psychiatry, and social work. In the late 1980s and early 1990s substantial evidence regarding the treatment of common mental health disorders were high-lighted by the publication of the results of studies such as the National Institute of Mental Health Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program ( Elkin, Shea, Watkins et al., 1989 ). Over the past decade, the proportion and number of articles referring to EBP published in professional journals has risen in the disciplines focused on mental health services, health, and social welfare ( Shlonsky & Gibbs, 2004 ). For a more detailed description of the history of the development and use of EBP in social work see Kirk and Reid (2002) .

Today, New York State’s Office of Mental Health, identified as a progressive program by NIMH (Insel, 2003), is promoting the use of the following EBP for adults with serious mental illnesses. These EBP interventions include: Assertive Community Treatment (ACT), supported employment, intensive case management, wellness self-management, family psychoeducation, integrated treatment for co-occurring substance abuse and mental health disorders, medication (and guidelines for practitioners to promote optimal prescribing practices), self-help and peer support services, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) treatment ( New York State Office of Mental Health, 2001 ). The President’s New Freedom Commission (2003) report identified the following additional EBPs for the treatment of mental health disorders: cognitive and interpersonal therapies for depression, preventive interventions for children at risk for serious emotional disturbances, treatment foster care, multi-systemic therapy (MST), parent-child interaction therapy, and collaborative treatment in primary care. The commission also recommended emerging best practices including: consumer operated services, jail diversion, and community re-entry programs, school mental health services, trauma-specific intervention, wraparound services, multi-family group therapies, and systems of care for children with serious emotional disturbances and their families ( New Freedom Commission, 2003 ).

Translation and Implementation

The wider field of social science knowledge utilization is just beginning to build a theoretical framework that explains why research evidence, such as the EBPs listed above, is or is not utilized in social work practice ( Landry, Amara, & Lamari, 2001 ). While researchers have identified evidence-based mental health services, the translation and implementation of these services into practice has been problematic. One of the greatest complaints has been the lag of nearly 15 to 20 years between the identification and incorporation of EBP interventions into routine care ( Balas & Boren, 2000 ). Moreover, social work is a profession that claims expertise and specialized knowledge, values, skills, and professional ethics aimed at addressing difficult human problems, including mental illness ( Gambrill, 1999 ); however, licenses, experiences, and training are not supported by evidence as necessarily related to helping clients through the use of evidence ( Dawes, 1994 ).

Gambrill (1999) describes two different strategies for addressing the problem that social work is a profession based on “claimed rather than demonstrated effectiveness” in assisting clients in obtaining targeted outcomes. The first strategy, and arguably the most common historically, has been to ignore the contradiction between claims and reality and to censure this information from the academic and practice community ( Gambrill, 1999 ). The second strategy is to investigate the values, skills, and knowledge needed to achieve certain outcomes and then to identify who has these resources and the capability to provide them ( Gambrill, 1999 ). Social workers can, in this way, become integral participants in the process of shaping and delivering supported and needed interventions for clients and communities.

Perhaps the most common subject described in the EBP literature has been the concrete and psychological barriers that impede dissemination and implementation of EBPs. These barriers, outlined by practitioners, researchers, and administrators alike, have generally revolved around four major themes: knowledge, lack of fit, suspicion, and resources.

Knowledge barriers are those that speak to the general lack of awareness of available EBPs and the difficulty in processing or understanding research findings when they are identified ( Anderson, Cosby, Swan, Moore, & Broekhoven, 1999 ; Mullen & Bacon, 2004 ). This Includes practitioners’ lack of knowledge about how to best access, critically evaluate, and translate evidence for appropriate use with their clients. Gray, one of the foremost thinkers in evidence based healthcare and policy, likens research-based facts to uncut diamonds, which are valuable but of little use in their raw form (1997). Few practitioners access traditional outlets for research findings, such as scholarly journals ( Kirk & Reid, 2002 ) and the information found in these journals is not easily digested or translated into practice ( Anderson, Cosby, Swan, Moore, & Broekhoven, 1999 ; Bartels, Haley, & Dums, 1998). Even when evidence is identified in journals, much journal evidence is three-to four-years-old by the time it is published ( Thyer, 2004 ). The lack of knowledge also includes arguments that are based on a misunderstanding of what constitutes an EBP. For example, some have argued that social work is already using and teaching EBP, that effectiveness is a matter of personal opinion, or that no clear evidence is available for the questions social workers pose ( Gibbs & Gambrill, 2002 ).

Even if practitioners are able to identify and understand research they may still discredit its value. The lack of fit theme includes the reasons why practitioners feel that available evidence or research is not often helpful. Some feel that the EBPs are cookbook approaches that are too broad and do not speak to the unique contextual or cultural needs of clients (Bartels, Haley, & Dums, 1998; Gibbs & Gambrill, 2002 ; Mullen & Bacon, 2004 ). Others have noted that the methodology of treatment may not be applicable within the confines of their practice. For example, many EBPs emphasize short-term treatment, but this format is not appropriate to all clients across diverse settings ( Mullen & Bacon, 2004 ). Moreover, practitioners have noted that research and current policy are often at odds. Research findings are slow to develop, and once findings are presented, it may take considerable time before policies are aligned with new knowledge. As a result, policy and agency requirements and technology frequently do not support current evidence ( Anderson, Cosby, Swan, Moore, & Broekhoven, 1999 ; Gibbs & Gambrill, 2002 ). Finally, the culture of knowledge transmission within social work has been historically unsupportive of the use of research evidence in practice ( Barratt, 2003 ).

Related to the idea of the lack of fit between research findings and practice is the theme of suspicion . This includes a basic distrust for evidence, based on objections related to political, ethical, or control issues. Gibbs sites a natural resistance to innovation (including EBPs) as one of the main barriers of teaching EBP to practitioners ( Gibbs, 2003 ). Some practitioners feel that research evidence is simply a cost-cutting tool, politically motivated, guided by efficiency, or otherwise influenced by something other than the client’s best interest ( Anderson, Cosby, Swan, Moore, & Broekhoven, 1999 ; Gibbs & Gambrill, 2002 ). Other practitioners feel the experts are more often guided by their own view or model rather than an objective examination of the evidence ( Barratt, 2003 ). Landry, Amara, and Lamari (2001) point oat that there is an inherent disconnect between the goals and needs of researchers and practitioners. Practitioners need and want guidance that is tailored to clients and practice. However, the degree to which research results are customized to only one or two users increase costs to the scholars. Their work becomes less generalizable to the wider world and they must reformat or repackage it if they want others to utilize their work. It becomes a catch-22 where researchers are pushed toward developing broad applications and their work becomes likewise less useful for the individual practitioner. Moreover, as Barnes and Clouder (2000) point out, the determination of what is disseminated is largely dependent upon the researcher’s judgment of what is significant or worth sharing. Others believe that EBPs exclude the practitioner’s professional judgment, clinical expertise, or the judgment, values and preferences of the client ( Gibbs & Gambrill, 2002 ; Mullen & Bacon, 2004 ). An argument has also been made that those who advocate EBP want only to set trends, be first, be controversial, or further their reputations and that evidence can be found to support any favored point of view or that all methods are equally valuable in arriving at the truth ( Gibbs & Gambrill, 2002 ). The idea that research is suspect seems also, in part, due to the generally poor relationship that researchers and scholars have had with community agencies and practitioners in the past. Administrators have described a lack of communication and a disjoint between the goals of the agency and that of researchers ( Anderson, Cosby, Swan, Moore, & Broekhoven, 1999 ; Barratt, 2003 ). Furthermore, practitioners’ may collaborate in creating or testing interventions with researchers, but their participation in building and sharing knowledge with the wider profession has generally been limited ( Kirk & Reid, 2002 ). The chasm between research and practice is further widened by practitioners’ inability to contribute to the formal body of social work knowledge that they are expected to employ. “Thus, knowledge production and dissemination is largely in the hands of a small number of academics, while expectations for use have often been placed on the vast number of practitioners” (p. 205, Kirk & Reid, 2002 ).

Even practitioners and agencies that understand, appreciate, and want to use research evidence in their work may find themselves incapable due to a lack of resources ( Anderson, Cosby, Swan, Moore, & Broekhoven, 1999 ; Barrett, 2003; Mullen & Bacon, 2004 ) and reluctance to ask more of an overextended staff ( Barratt, 2003 ). Without the necessary training, materials, time and staff dedication to researching the evidence, EBPs cannot often be employed. Interventions may be shaped instead by limitations rather than knowledge. A lack of technology is particularly troublesome in a day and age where most cutting-edge information is accessed through computers and the Internet. Many agencies do not have access to these resources. The issue is not only what resources are realistically available, but also beliefs or policies about who can have access to these resources. Some administrators feel that not all social workers should have access to computers and the Internet ( Barratt, 2003 ). The issue of a lack of resources is partly a result of generally poor or inconsistent funding for many social work agencies. However, funds that are available are rarely routed toward identifying, instituting and maintaining research, technology, or EBPs.

Growing Body of Evidence-Based Services and Programs and Arguments for Use

Despite the numerous barriers to dissemination outlined above, social workers in the mental health services arena do have a number of compelling reasons to implement evidence into their practice with mentally ill individuals. Practitioners have cited advantages of using EBPs such as: (1) conceptualizing, planning, and guiding treatment, (2) increasing knowledge and skills, (3) improving treatment outcomes for clients, (4) integrating and supplementing, not supplanting, clinical judgment and knowledge, (5) complying with current practice, values, and professional consensus, and (6) satisfying grant or managed care reimbursement requirements ( Mullen & Bacon, 2004 ). Overall, the basic tenet of EBPs is that clients should receive the benefit of the best technology that social work has to offer.

It is, however, difficult to imagine the basis on which structured, fact-based and well-informed decision making and planning referenced to the best available published research can be viewed as counter either to the provision of effective outcomes for service users, or to the ethos of the social work professional, (p. 144, Barratt, 2003 )

There are many questions as to what exactly should be used as evidence to identify the best technology possible. Undoubtedly this argument will, and should, continue within the field. However, if some agreement upon what is a validated intervention can be secured, the question becomes one of dissemination and implementation.

Current Strategies for Dissemination and Implementation

Until recently the prevailing approach to dissemination has been to report evidence in journal articles and published or unpublished practice manuals or to provide limited didactic trainings (Gibbs & Gambrill, 2003). Additionally, in recent years some masters programs have offered limited numbers of courses on some EBPs, such as cognitive behavioral therapy ( Gibbs & Gambrill, 2002 ). However, evidence suggests that these strategies have been largely unsuccessful in social work, as well as in the other professions treating individuals with mental health needs, as few mental health professionals are basing practice decisions on research evidence ( Gibbs & Gambrill, 2002 ; Kirk & Reid, 2002 ; Kirk & Rosenblatt, 1981 ; Mullen & Bacon, 2004 ; NASW, 1996 ; Rosen, 1994 ). To facilitate implementation of EBPs in the community, “… it is increasingly recognized that simply improving the content and availability of the evidence base is not sufficient to secure such changes. Explicit and active strategies are required to ensure that research really does have an impact on policy and practice” (p. 2, Walter, Nutley, & Davies, 2003 ). In order to flourish, efforts to implement evidence-based practices must be “multifaceted, broad-based and carefully targeted” (p. 144, Barratt, 2003 ).

Many researchers, program developers, and others have employed a cornucopia of what Walter, Nutley, and Davies (2003) term “mechanisms” to disseminate research findings. These authors reviewed over one hundred papers that evaluated or described efforts to facilitate the use of research. Nearly two hundred individual practices or packages were identified through this review. Based on these, the authors developed a taxonomy of approaches by both intervention type (format through which the information flows) and mechanisms employed, as well as a brief description of the research or theory that lends support to the specific approach. For example, one category of mechanisms described by the authors is incentives. The adoption of desired behaviors or information is encouraged through reward, or perhaps linking funding to specific practices. This mechanism is supported by learning theories, economic models of rational behavior, and power theory. Using such taxonomy to organize and understand dissemination research could potentially prove useful.

A number of researchers have taken the process a step further than individual mechanisms or approaches and proposed more developed frameworks for the delivery of research evidence into practice. While no single best method has been identified, there are a number of emerging social work implementation strategies described in the literature. The following is a brief overview of this work.

Anderson and colleagues

Based on interviews with community organization leaders, Anderson and colleagues suggest a model based on a relationship between researchers and community organizations that moves through three different stages. In the first stage, awareness , both researchers and community organizations are educated about the needs of one another ( Anderson, Cosby, Swan, Moore, & Broekhoven, 1999 ). In many cases both researchers and community-based organizations have little contact and are generally ignorant of the other’s work. In the second stage, communication , mechanisms are built to facilitate the transfer of information. Both community organizations and research stakeholders come together to formulate a plan for sharing skills and knowledge. A variety of methods may be employed such as: workshops, databases, and open houses. Finally, in the last stage, interaction , mutual activities toward common goals are shared and negotiated. In this model, a relationship is built to facilitate communication and knowledge transfer between community organizations and researchers allowing each to inform the other’s work. This model is general, offers some specific recommendations, but seems to focus largely on encouraging local groups to work together in order to find the methods that match their shared needs, abilities, and resources.

Gambrill and Gibbs

Leonard Gibbs and Eileen Gambrill propose a model defining EBP as the ‘conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of current best evidence to make decisions about the care of clients’ ( Gibbs & Gambrill, 2002 ). The aim of their model is to create lifelong learners who, in collaboration with clients, draw on practice related research findings to make practice related decisions ( Gibbs & Gambrill, 2002 ). In this model, EBP is a process that results from the careful consideration of practitioner’s individual experience, best available evidence, and client values and expectations ( Shlonsky & Gibbs, 2004 ). EBP is characterized by: (1) becoming motivated to apply evidence to practice decision making, (2) an individual assessment and well formulated question, (3) an external electronic search for practice findings related to practice questions, (4) decision-making regarding the evidence’s fit with the individual client, (5) using individual expertise to integrate the best external practice evidence, (6) evaluating the outcome (7) and sharing what is learned with others ( Gibbs, 2003 ; Gibbs & Gambrill, 2002 ). These authors propose a method of dissemination heavily focused on the education of practitioners in this model of EBP at the master’s level ( Gibbs, 2003 ; Gibbs & Gambrill, 2002 ).

Outside of the implementation of EBP as core curricula in master’s level social work programs and continuing education, Gibbs and Gambrill offer little advice on implementation suggesting that practitioner’s ‘obey your own conscience and implement EBP into your own practice however you feel it most appropriate to do so’ ( Gibbs, 2003 ). The following suggestions are offered, (1) consider the quality and applicability of evidence, (2) consider the context or organizational environment, and (3) consider the process of implementing change ( Gibbs, 2003 ). However, a clear design for implementation, outside of teaching, master’s level education, and continuing education, is not offered.

Rosen and Proctor

Aaron Rosen and Enola Proctor have devised an implementation strategy that relieves the practitioner of the burden of formulating and identifying the relevant research, locating, and assembling the information, critically evaluating the relevancy and validity of the evidence with regard to their practice decisions with an individual client, and adapting that knowledge to the client’s particular needs and situation ( Rosen, Proctor, Morrow-Howell, Auslander, & Staudt, 1993 ). The strategy proposed involves the use of Systematic Planned Practice (SPP), a tool for treatment planning and evaluation that includes the planning and recording of critical elements of practice such as the presenting problem(s), desired outcomes, interventions, and observed results ( Rosen et al., 1993 ). Application is guided by forms that serve two functions: to prompt and guide the worker in laying out the treatment plan and as a rationale for decisions made and to provide documentation for treatment planning decisions, what is actually implemented, and the outcomes obtained ( Rosen et al., 1993 ). A dissemination plan is proposed that combines SPP with components of practice guidelines to facilitate practitioner use and knowledge of evidence in practice (Rosen, 2002). According to Proctor, the adoption of EBP consists of multiple distinct outcomes whose attainment requires “systematic, targeted efforts by many players, at multiple levels of influence” ( Proctor, in press ). These include the following provider outcomes necessary for evidence based practice; identifying and accessing EBPs, accepting and adopting EBPs, implementing EBPs and evaluating EBPs (Proctor, 2004). As in the Gambrill and Gibbs model, Rosen and Proctor place much of the burden of utilization on the practitioner to locate and implement research knowledge. While Anderson and colleagues frame the process as more of a partnership between researchers and practitioners, it lacks specificity in terms of implementation.

Tool Kit Method

Another approach to the dissemination of EBPs is the tool kit method. Tool kits are materials constructed from original research and translated for use by practitioners, agencies, or institutions. In this model, specific tools rather than a framework or mandate are provided to support social workers’ efforts toward using EBPs. Resources, such as the Sociometrics Program Archives, have taken up the business of culling through research with the help of expert panels to develop a collection of tools such as: user’s guides, teacher or facilitator manuals, student or participant workbooks, videos or other supplemental media, and homework or exercises ( Card, 2001 ). Practitioners can order such tool kits from for profit and nonprofit enterprises at a cost. The idea is that the necessary research evidence is distilled into an attractive user-friendly format that is ready for implementation in the community. Evaluation processes are also sometimes included to provide a conduit for user feedback and further refinement of the toolkit package ( Card, 2001 ).

Practice Guidelines

Instituting practice guidelines, which have often been employed in using practice theory and wisdom since the beginning of the profession, has been another method recommended for the dissemination of EBPs ( Kirk & Reid, 2002 ). Using this format, treatment is directed by an outline of acceptable practices in specific areas of treatment. These practices would be determined by a professional body-charged with surveying, evaluating, and choosing both prescribed and proscribed interventions. Researchers have made arguments against such guidelines including: (1) the paucity of research needed to support good guidelines, (2) the lack of agreement on what constitutes evidence, (3) too little flexibility for practitioners, (4) little agency support, (5) and the fear of the use of guidelines as de facto standards in litigation against practitioners (Howard & Jensen, 1999). Despite these objections, Howard and Jensen (1999) argue that practice guidelines can go a long way toward improving social work interventions (for an excellent discussion of the potential problems and benefits of practice guidelines in social work please see the May 1999 issue of the journal Research on Social Work Practice ).

Other models

Historically other models have been explored to marry research and practice. Kirk and Reid (2002) describe efforts that grew out of industry and technology beginning in the 1960s and 70s such as the Research Development and Diffusion (RD&R) and Design and Development (D&D) models. These models describe a paradigm by which research and practice can be mutually informative in a constant feedback loop. However, as Kirk and Reid point out, these efforts would be enhanced if they were to be exposed to the same processes that they propose in order to become more flexible and useful across diverse social work contexts.

General recommendations

Beyond the more developed models described above, several researchers have made general recommendations for dissemination of evidence into practice. First, it is essential to secure organizational and practitioner buy-in ( Anderson, Cosby, Swan, Moore, & Broekhoven, 1999 ; Lewis, 1998 ; Mullen, 2004 ). Before any real progress is made toward dissemination stakeholders must both agree that EBP is valuable and important enough to merit a commitment of time, training, and other resources. Leadership is a crucial ingredient for change in this area ( Barratt, 2003 ). Although the dissemination of EBPs must occur at all levels, important issues such as protecting practitioner time for research and training as well monitoring and following up on implementation activities must be guided by administrators and other persons or agencies with authority. Also, some authors have described the importance of establishing a network of local organizations and practitioners so that they can pool resources such as training and research, become actively involved, and develop broad community goals ( Anderson, Cosby, Swan, Moore, & Broekhoven, 1999 ; Howard & Jensen, 1999). McKay and colleagues stress the importance of training and the establishment of an “engagement team” consisting of intake workers, clinical and administrative staff, and supervisors who oversee the implementation of interventions at each site ( McKay, Hibbert, Hoagwood, Rodriguez, Murray, Legerski, & Fernandez, 2004 ). Agencies and practitioners cannot be realistically expected to “go it alone” on tight budgets, timelines, and a research base that is a moving target. A much more efficient approach seems to be one of networking and sharing with other social workers, community organizations, educational institutions, and other stakeholders.

Unfortunately, the authors found few studies testing the efficacy of these approaches to the dissemination and utilization of research in practice. In essence, the research evidence on the use of EBPs has not been well developed. “Researchers have been relatively oblivious to the processes by which knowledge, once developed, might be effectively disseminated and used” ( Kirk & Reid, 2002 ).

QUALITATIVE INTERVIEWS

Based on themes identified in the literature review, the authors conducted qualitative interviews with experts in the field of EBP. The goal of the interviews was to survey expert researchers in order to explore current strategies, struggles, and observations about EBP to supplement and speak to the themes described in the literature.

Interviews with expert researchers experienced in mental health services research and evidence-based clinical interventions were conducted using open ended questions related to the topic of the dissemination and implementation of evidence based practices. Because this research is exploratory in nature, a convenience sample of interview candidates was selected on the basis of reputation and body of work in the field of EBP. In addition, a snowball method of interviewee selection was employed where respondents referred the authors to other experts for further data collection. All participants were researchers trained at the doctoral level. In total eight experts were interviewed including: five social worker professors, one professor of psychiatric epidemiology, one psychiatrist who directs a children’s mental health research program, and one national policy organization researcher.

Human Subjects Protections

Each potential respondent was invited to share thoughts and opinions regarding the use of EBP in mental health services and was provided a copy of the questions before the interview. Interviews were voluntary and the experts were not compensated for participating. Any identifying information regarding the individual interviewees was not included in the analysis and confidential interviews were maintained on password-protected computers in a locked office. Participants were given copies of the data collected in order to edit or make any additions to their responses.

Interview Schedule

The three authors interviewed all of the participants in the participants’ offices. For six of the eight interviews all three authors were present. For two of the interviews, only two authors were present. Each author took detailed notes during the interview highlighting major themes. Participants were provided with the following list of questions prior to the interview:

• What is your experience with Evidence Based Practice (EBP)?
• Have you done research around topics of EBP?
• What do you see as the barriers to implementing EBP in practice settings?
• What means of disseminating EBP have you seen employed?
• What are some of your ideas about how to improve the dissemination of EBP?
• Why do you think more practitioners don’t use EBP?
• What are the results of not using EBP?
• Where do you see gaps in EBP?
• How would you characterize the future of EBP?
• Do you know of any existing models or tools for the implementation of EBP? What are your thoughts about their usefulness?

Transcription

Authors took notes to highlight major themes in the interviews from each respondent. Following the interviews, the authors compiled notes for content analysis. To ensure inter-rater reliability the three interviewers transcribed all interviews separately. Transcription reports were compiled into one report for each participant to generate the most accurate representation of their comments.

Content analysis was conducted for each interview. Krippendorf (1980) defines content analysis as “a research technique for making replicable and valid inferences from data to their context” (p. 21). Janis (1965) defines it as:

Any technique (a) for the classification of the sign-vehicles (words that carry meaning), (b) which relies solely upon the judgment (which theoretically may range from perceptual discrimination to sheer guesses) of an analyst or group of analysts as to which sign-vehicles fall into which categories, (c) provided that the analyst’s judgments are regarded as the report of a scientific observer, (p. 55)

For the purpose of this analysis, semantical content analysis was conducted to classify sign-vehicles according to their meanings. The interviewers reviewed protocols for three types of semantical content analysis; designations analysis , which determines the frequency with which certain objects are mentioned, attribution analysis , which examines the frequency with which certain characterizations or descriptors are used, assertions analysis , which provides the frequency with which certain objects are characterized in particular ways. Assertions analysis involves combining designation analysis and attribution analysis. Such an analysis often takes the form of a matrix, with objects as columns and descriptors as rows.

Because assertions analysis is the most comprehensive form of semantical analysis, the authors employed this method of examination. Past experience with EBP, levels of dissemination, barriers to dissemination, gaps in dissemination, methods of addressing barriers, results of not using EBP, and the future of EBP were designated as objects and 70 items were designated as descriptors.

Past Experience with EBP

The majority of participants had experience with EBP program design including; running an intervention, evaluating the effectiveness of interventions, the process of forensic evaluation of children referred for sexual abuse, adapting interventions, and coordinating advocacy, policy, technical assistance, and research synthesis efforts at the state level. Beyond program design, participants had developed evidence based interventions, taught EBP in the classroom, and developed tool kit models of EBP.

Levels of Dissemination

The experts had experience with tool kits, literature, and training as methods of disseminating evidence based practice. Inclusion of practitioners in design, developing programs in the communities where they will be implemented, state and agency dissemination, norm changing, appropriate targeting of stakeholders, Requests for Proposals (RFPs) for models, supervision, national networks, quality assurance, and masters education programs were mentioned as means of dissemination they have seen employed. One interviewee said that when evidence based practices are disseminated and implemented they look like “rocket science” in comparison to standard care because standard care is so poor. However, as one expert stated, “there is a lot more ‘talk’ about EBP than actual implementation.”

Interviewees mentioned training time and funding policies as the biggest barriers to implementing EBP. They cited lack of consumer input, lack of practitioner input, lack of translation research, and lack of EBP training in master’s level education as barriers. For example, one expert described how clients may not like interventions based on EBP because practitioners who employ EBPs tend to approach treatment as if they are the experts. However, practitioners need to use EBP and remain open to the idea that the consumer has something to teach.

A lack of practitioner involvement, testing EBP in research labs, limited provider skills, training time, and belief that EBP is too restrictive were each described by the experts as problems. “Most agencies are reactive and just trying to get by. EBP isn’t part of the culture.” Also mentioned were dissent among stakeholders, a lack of education across systems, lack of agency staff, misunderstanding of what EBP is, and professors who do not apply their EBP research to their teaching as ultimate barriers to implementing EBP.

There was less variation in responses to gaps in implementing EBP than in respondents’ description of barriers to implementation. Experts mentioned both the limited research of EBPs and unclear methods of training in EBP as gaps in the system of dissemination. Also cited was a lack of consumer input and the limited number of EBPs, a reluctance to over generalize interventions, and the difficulty of transferring programs from research into practice as limitations. Respondents claimed that lack of education and training in EBP were major problems that keep EBP from being disseminated and implemented in the practice community. One respondent suggested:

The language is off when we talk about dissemination. There is an assumption that development happens in one place and then it is rolled out elsewhere. You can get into trouble with this. You need to include practitioners and support staff. How do they integrate services? Roll-out is rejected by providers because there is no ownership. You need key constituents to sit around the table and create something that will fit–knowledge about practice outside of practice. You have to get practitioners invested in the process of adaptation. Without early involvement of administrators and practitioners, the treatment will not be sustained after the researcher leaves the setting.

Addressing Barriers

To address barriers the respondents recommended ongoing training, EBP in master’s level curriculum, stakeholder buy-in and consumer buy-in. For example, the Gibbs model that incorporates EBP, client preference, and practitioner expertise allows enough flexibility for all parties to feel invested in the intervention. Manualized treatments and beginning research in agencies, as well as tool kits, technical assistance on site, and systemization were identified as effective strategies to overcome the hurdles of disseminating and implementing EBP. According to some of the experts interviewed, state involvement in EBP curriculum for universities has proven to be a good method to address the barriers for disseminating EBPs.

Results of Not Using EBP

Research experts agreed that interventions may not be helpful, and may even be harmful, if they are not backed by research evidence. Some felt that in the future agencies will not be reimbursed if they fail to practice from an evidence base and the field of social work will fail to progress in the absence of EBPs. Social work will continue to be viewed as a second-class citizen in comparison to other professions that are more willing to embrace research evidence.

Respondents offered diverse views of the future of EBP. Some respondents stated that there will be more funding for EBP in the future. On the other hand, other respondents felt that EBP is a buzz term that will probably die out with time. The experts interviewed described the future of EBP moving toward more qualitative methods, training in EBP at the master’s level, incorporation of the art of clinical practice, diverse EBP models, well-developed research on EBP, studies in actual practice settings, and more sophisticated and informed implementation and dissemination efforts.

Strengths, Limitations, and Recommendations

This analysis is limited due to its sample size as well as by the lack of variation of professional affiliation. However, it does provide a starting point for future analysis. It is clear that experts in the field are indeed aware of the gaps and barriers to EBP dissemination. Future efforts would benefit from the incorporation of larger and more varied interview samples that include researchers and educators as well as agency administrators, direct service providers, and consumers of mental health and social work services. Additionally, future researchers should focus their attention on addressing barriers to dissemination and on the opinions and recommendations of other mental health services stake-holders such as clients, community members, and policy makers. Future EBP research needs to focus greater attention on strategies of effectively disseminating the programs that constitute the best practice standards.

The original aim of this study was to build a framework for the dissemination of evidence based mental health practices for social workers in community agencies through a review of the literature and interviews with experts in the field. Both the literature reviewed and the respondents offer similar observations and themes regarding EBP. The greatest agreement between the different researchers was found in the description of gaps and barriers to implementing and disseminating EBP. Problems include poor funding, a lack of training and support for agency staff and practitioners, a lack of consumer involvement, a failure to translate research into practice, and a lack of EBP education, particularly at the master’s level. Interviewees also described efforts to identify the most viable options to address barriers to implementing and disseminating. They, along with other researchers, have identified needs that must be addressed to move EBP forward. If social work does not meet these challenges, practitioners, and community organizations will not be best serving clients and will be in danger of losing competitive funding for services.

Some of the misconceptions about EBPs must be addressed in order to facilitate dissemination and implementation of evidence based interventions. EBPs are not promoted by the experts interviewed in this study as the final draft of best practices for mental health services. Rather, they are being promoted as efficacious treatments for specific disorders in certain populations of individuals suffering from mental illnesses. While further testing is needed to validate findings regarding EBPs for additional mental health disorders and different cultural groups, the information currently available regarding EBPs may be a best beginning practices guide in treatment planning for individuals with mental illnesses. Empirically validated EBPs are not recommended as a ‘magic bullet’ for the treatment of all mental illnesses. Research has, and continues to, explore the populations and disorders that are responding to specific EBPs, develop approaches to the flexible and practical employment of EBPs, and acknowledge that it is equally important to understand when the utilization of EBPs in treatment planning is or is not indicated.

IMPLICATIONS

Perhaps the most important finding of this study with regard to future research is the paucity of studies testing and validating implementation and dissemination strategies. No such studies have been conducted in social work (Gibbs, 2002). This research is needed to meet the growing demand for practitioners to base decisions on evidence. Researchers must also face the challenge of developing collaborative relationships with agencies, practitioners, communities, and clients. If research is not tailored to the questions posed by these stakeholders as well as researchers, the likelihood of its implementation into everyday practice is greatly decreased. The challenge to researchers in academic settings has the added component of focusing on incorporating research on EBPs into teaching curriculum.

Any successful effort toward the dissemination of EBP will have to address the four areas of barriers described in the literature and by respondents: knowledge, lack of fit, suspicion, and resources. Efforts that are not active and multifaceted seem unlikely to succeed. Organizational, practitioner, community, and client buy-in are also essential to a well-formed dissemination approach. Leadership backed by the power to effect change will be crucial. It takes more than an individual practitioner, agency, or educational institution to effect a cultural change within social work mental health services.

Existing frameworks offer a step in the right direction. However, they do not appear to provide a comprehensive and united approach to improving the dissemination of EBPs. Anderson and colleagues’ framework highlights the importance of developing shared goals between community organizations and researchers to combat problems inherent in poor relationships and communication and thus has the potential for impacting all four barriers by increasing coordination, understanding, and efficiency. However, this framework seems overly general. More detailed solutions would assist researchers and community organizations in efforts toward translating research into practice and constructing common goals. Additionally, the question of leadership is not addressed. Forging networks and consensus building can take a heroic effort and consume a considerable amount of time and energy. Strong leadership is needed to catalyze this process of change. Gibbs and Gambrill similarly offer useful approaches, such as involving social work education in the process of change and helping individual workers to be flexible and skilled in processing and applying new research. However, a large burden is placed on the practitioner and the problem of resources in particular is not addressed. Many social workers do not have the time or access to needed resources such as the internet. Rosen and Proctor’s model is more specific than either Anderson and colleagues or Gibbs and Gambrill, however they do not offer solutions to the problems of resources, translation of research into practice, or needed professional and cultural buy-in. While the industry-inspired D&D models offers important insights into how researchers might form a feedback loop with practitioners in the field to form more user-friendly tools, these approach seems limited in its application, particularly in the absence of a sophisticated infrastructure to support activities. General methods such as toolkits and practice guidelines are potentially useful strategies, and may supplement any of the other models. While each framework offers important insights into the best approaches toward the dissemination of EBP, none stands alone or above the rest.

CONCLUSIONS

To encourage practitioners to implement EBPs a unified approach that incorporates the best of all of the strategies outlined above and addresses the major barriers identified in this paper:

• Increase EBP education (particularly at the master’s level) as well as access to high quality continuing education based on EBPs.
• Build partnerships toward sharing EBP resources, including technology, training, and technical assistance, between agencies and practitioners.
• Facilitate buy-in and ownership of EBPs at all levels of stakeholders including practitioners, administrators, researchers, policy makers, and community members.
• Translate research into user-friendly, digestible, and specific approaches, providing tools such as tool kits, guidelines, and technical support to both support and encourage the use of EBPs.
• Improve the communication, feedback loop and relationship between researchers and practitioners.
• Increase the number of EBPs available to the field.
• Test the different types and mechanisms of dissemination, perhaps through analyses based on a taxonomic framework like the one proposed by Walter, Nutley, and Davies, to organize future research efforts.

The most important factor in facilitating change toward the use of research in professional practice is whether or not the profession wants to change ( Naylor, 1995 ). As the call for EBP in mental health services grows, social workers will benefit by being more research-minded and thereby improve services for their clients. The call for the use of research evidence in practice is not limited to a trend of policy, but is also aligned with the professional code of ethics ( NASW, 1996 ) and meeting the expectations of an increasingly savvy consumer movement in mental health ( Mowbray & Holter, 2002 ). Major national reports, which often shape federal and private funding streams, continually call for the use of research-supported interventions. However, policies that encourage, if not require, the use of EBPs cannot succeed without adequate training, resources, technical assistance and other infrastructure support necessary to deliver evidence based mental health interventions, Even if social workers endorse the value of EBP, practitioners and administrators may not have the knowledge or the resources to implement research based practices. The search for research evidence alone is difficult, and the more complicated the decision the less available the evidence ( Gray, 1997 ). Additional demonstration projects, and research and policy efforts aimed at moving EBPs into community-based organizations there-by building professional and organizational capacity are needed to address these and other barriers. Social workers are poised to move this work forward by transferring the increasingly broad and sophisticated body of research mindfully into the hands of the community agencies and practitioners.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Edward J. Mullen and Sandra Nutley for their assistance with this project. In addition, the contributions of all experts interviewed for this project are gratefully acknowledged.

This work was supported by the National Institute of Mental Health Grant 5T32-MH014623-24.

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This work was presented at the AcademyHealth 2004 Annual Research Meeting, San Diego, CA; the National Service Research Award (NSRA) Trainee Conference, San Diego, CA; and the Fourth International Conference on Social Work in Health and Mental Health, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada.

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Combatting Trauma in Undocumented Children with Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Personal experience fuels briana dominguez's research on using trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy with undocumented, unaccompanied children.

Briana Dominguez graduated from Touro University’s Graduate School of Social Work last month. She was awarded the school’s Special Recognition Research Award for her research project examining the use of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) with undocumented children in New York City. She presented her findings at the National Academy of Medicine’s annual Social Work Student Night, where graduate students from NYC social work schools present their work that addresses physical, mental, or public health issues.

What did you learn in your research about therapy for undocumented children?

I learned that, unfortunately, there is very little research on Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT) with undocumented, unaccompanied children (UUC). This is unfortunate, since these children are moved about from one place to another until they are placed with a sponsor, and then they are forgotten about. There are attorneys willing to assist them pro bono with immigration legal issues; however, the children become even more traumatized because they have to talk about their experiences without a chance to process their trauma.

Why go to Touro’s Graduate School of Social Work and study resources for this population?

I came to the U.S. with my mom from Mexico when I was a toddler, so I have experienced many of the challenges immigrants face here. In college I volunteered as an interpreter at a law school clinic that represented minors in Special Immigrant Juvenile Status cases (SIJS) in immigration and family courts. Learning about the minors' life experiences, I realized how fortunate I was to come with a parent and to become documented. I wondered why there weren't more resources for them and felt I needed to do something. So I decided to pursue graduate school in social work and now I think I was destined to be part of Touro. Touro taught me there is more to social work than just case management. Touro's clinical focus put me on the right track for my career. 

What lessons did you take away from researching unaccompanied children?

Unaccompanied children come to the U.S. mostly from El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala, and Mexico. They have experienced trauma, dislocation, and loss. Without a parent or legal guardian they are at greater risk of having post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other symptoms, such as depression and anxiety from events related to their migration. They may have passed through regions considered the most dangerous, with violence from cartels that target children for kidnapping and ransom. In New York City, these children are suffering and at risk, but there are few studies on trauma work and evidence-based intervention models with this population. Policy and services in New York City, or recommendations to improve their mental health through social work interventions are sorely lacking.

What are your future plans? Do you expect to work with children and families?

Children are resilient and with the right services you get to see them heal and thrive. Most children want to be heard and have someone there to believe them. I want to use  TF-CBT with undocumented children and am very lucky to be working now at the Family Wellness Program at Children’s Aid, where I use this model to provide trauma-informed services to parents and children affected by intimate partner violence. I serve mostly Spanish-speaking families. This is a great opportunity to use the TF-CBT model in both English and Spanish. Eventually, I hope to open an organization to serve unaccompanied undocumented children. I imagine a community center where the children can feel safe, wanted and cared for, but also receive therapy and legal help.

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Article Contents

Introduction, materials and methods, study strengths and limitations, supplementary material, author contributions, post-disaster social connectedness in parent–child dyads: a qualitative investigation of changes in coping and social capital of rural australian families following bushfires.

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Lisa Stribley, Govind Krishnamoorthy, Vicki Dallinger, Jennifer Ma, Thomas Nielson, India Bryce, Bronwyn Rees, Alyssa Morse, Marg Rogers, Lorelle Burton, Post-Disaster Social Connectedness in Parent–Child Dyads: A Qualitative Investigation of Changes in Coping and Social Capital of Rural Australian Families Following Bushfires, The British Journal of Social Work , 2024;, bcae123, https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcae123

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The increasing frequency of natural disasters, such as bushfires, pose significant challenges for countries like Australia. This research investigates the changes in social connectedness following a bushfire disaster in 2019 in the rural community of Cudlee Creek, South Australia, Australia. Research has repeatedly highlighted the importance of social connectedness, social capital and secure attachment relationships in mitigating post-disaster mental health concerns. This study utilised semi-structured interviews with eight parent–child dyads twenty months post-disaster to understand changes in parent–child relationships, the quality of extended family ties and the role of the broader community in recovery and coping. Reflexive thematic analysis revealed three themes: (i) differences in children and parents in preferred forms of social support; (ii) a thinning of previously available support and (iii) altered patterns of communication in the parent–child relationships. The findings highlight the complex interactions of multi-systemic and intersectional disadvantages on social isolation and loss of social capital following disasters. The results also highlight the influence of stoic beliefs on patterns of miscommunication in parent–child dyads in rural contexts. Implications for the implementation of community-wide post-disaster supports, sociometric approaches to mental health screening and assessment, and targeted interventions for rural families.

Bushfires (or wildfires) pose an immediate threat of death and injury and cause extensive destruction of homes and workplaces. In addition, bushfires are a source of stress and trauma for individuals, particularly children and their families, with the potential of long-lasting repercussions on their mental health and well-being ( Krishnamoorthy et al. , 2020a , b ). Such were the challenges faced by residents of the rural Australian town of Cudlee Creek. The town faced a catastrophic bushfire in December 2019, resulting in substantial property damage, loss of livelihoods and wildlife destruction ( Local Recovery Team, 2020 ). The fire threatened townships, destroying vineyards and orchards, and killing wildlife and stock. The fire burnt 23,253 hectares, destroyed ninety-eight homes and damaged fifty-six homes, and either destroyed or extensively damaged 542 outbuildings ( Local Recovery Team, 2020 ).

Meta-analytic research has found that the pooled prevalence of psychological distress in the Australian general population (fifteen or more years of age) at two to three years post-bushfire is 14% ( Zhang et al. , 2022 ). Research has found an increased prevalence of depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in affected populations ( North, 2016 ). The psychosocial factors that contribute to coping and post-disaster recovery are complex and multifaceted, often entwining elements such as the severity of the disaster, social and cultural context, individual attributes and pre-existing social supports and psychological resources ( Tausczik et al. , 2012 ).

Among these factors, social connectedness, defined as the sense of belonging and the social support provided by family, friends and the broader community, has been identified as a vital protective factor in mitigating the adverse effects of natural disasters ( Cacioppo and Patrick, 2008 ). Disaster experiences are often conflictingly, characterised by an initial outpouring and mobilisation of received social support and aid followed by a profound loss of perceived social support and community ( Kaniasty, 2020 ). Understanding the influence of natural disasters on social relationships requires further investigation into the interplay of intrapersonal, interpersonal and community-based factors that contribute to the protection and promotion of long-term mental health post-disaster.

The importance of social connectedness for families in a post-disaster context can be understood through social capital theory (SCT). SCT refers to the resources individuals and communities can access through their social networks. Relationships in SCT are categorised into bonding, linking and bridging social capital ( Aldrich, 2012 ). Bonding social capital refers to the strong ties between individuals who share similar characteristics, such as family members or close friends. Linking social capital refers to the connections between individuals who are not necessarily similar, such as relationships between employers and employees. Bridging social capital refers to the relationships between individuals from different social groups, such as people from different ethnic or socioeconomic backgrounds ( Aldrich, 2012 ). Social capital plays a crucial role in disaster risk management, including providing food, initiating debris removal, providing childcare, financial aid and immediate psychological support. Natural disasters have the potential to decrease social capital, as individual members, families and communities’ networks get disconnected or weakened ( Choo and Yoon, 2022 ).

For children, arguably the most important source of support in post-disaster contexts may lie in their relationships with their parents and caregivers. Attachment theory, introduced by Bowlby (1969) , posits that individuals have an inherent need to form strong emotional bonds with caregivers, which serve as a foundation for psychological development and social relationships. Secure attachments are formed when caregivers are consistently responsive and available, fostering an environment of safety and reliability. Secure attachments are shown to buffer against the psychological impacts of disasters by promoting emotional regulation, and the ability to seek and utilise support effectively ( Sroufe et al. , 2005 ). Insecure attachments, on the other hand, arise from inconsistent or unresponsive caregiving, leading to feelings of uncertainty and worthlessness ( Bowlby, 1969 ). Insecure attachments can exacerbate vulnerability to stress and trauma, highlighting the importance of nurturing secure relationships for disaster recovery ( O’Connor and Elklit, 2008 ).

Research indicates that there may be variations in the perceptions of social support within family units, between children and their parents or caregivers in a post-disaster context ( Wisner, 2016 ). Parents and guardians often prioritise their role as caregivers, while children emphasise the importance of peer relationships and emotional support from friends ( Rothi and Leavey, 2006 ). These contrasting perceptions are often influenced by shifts in the parent–child relationship in the wake of natural disasters, where parents may experience increased stress, emotional distress and compromised ability to address their children’s additional needs for emotional support and reassurance ( Cobham and McDermott, 2014 ). While it has been established that social connectedness has positive effects on the physical ( Drukker et al. , 2005 ) and mental wellbeing of adults and children more broadly, there is a need to discern how changes in the parent–child relationship following natural disasters may affect familial coping mechanisms and the development of social connectedness and resilience in children. Research highlights the complex interplay between children’s perceptions of threat, family support systems and community cohesion in mitigating the impact of disasters on family functioning. These studies collectively advocate for a child-centred approach and the need to further understand children’s subjective experiences in affected families ( Peek et al. , 2010 ).

Furthermore, there have been calls for more comprehensive approaches to disaster support that address the needs of children and parents in ways tailored to the specific contexts of disaster-affected communities ( Van Beek and Patulny, 2022 ). For instance, living in a remote or rural location is a significant risk factor for social isolation and loneliness ( L’Heurex et al. , 2020 ). Rural communities face unique challenges in accessing support services due to geographic isolation, limited access to transportation and a lack of resources and infrastructure ( Kapucu et al. , 2013 ). Understanding the dynamics of social connectedness in rural families post-disaster will support the development of tailored interventions and social services that respond appropriately to the specific social connectedness, resilience and wellbeing needs of children and their families.

Summary and research context

The potential, long-term negative impact of natural disasters on children’s mental health is well documented ( Masten and Narayan, 2012 ). However, research on post-disaster resilience and recovery in children is limited, primarily due to the complex interplay between family relationships, peer interaction, school environments, community support and developmental processes. Studies have predominantly employed quantitative methodologies, focusing on the clinical implications associated with natural disasters and PTSD ( Le Roux and Cobham, 2021 ). Few studies have explored the critical dyad of parent–child relationships in these contexts, which may confer a unique source of social connectedness or conflict in managing mental health and resilience outcomes following disaster experiences ( Norris et al. , 2002 ).

Qualitative methods are ideally placed to investigate the relational dynamics in parent–child dyads as they can provide a rich, textured understanding of participants’ lived experiences, meanings, interpretations and subjective experiences. Australia is a bushfire-prone country, and bushfire risk (and its management) regularly form part of the national crisis response ( Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 2020 ). Cudlee Creek, an area with mixed horticultural properties, hobby farms and rural lifestyle blocks. The town has a population of 425 residents in 2021 ( ABS, 2022 )—with over 300 residents moving out of the area after the bushfire. The participants of the study were caregiver–child dyads that continued to live in the area following the bushfires.

Research aims

The study aimed to (i) map the similarities and differences in social connectedness and coping between children and parents impacted by the bushfires; and (ii) compare the relative influence of social connectedness on coping and mental health post-disaster for children and parents.

Study design

The University of Southern Queensland Human Research Ethics Committee (Ethics approval number: H21REA030) granted the study ethical approval. To explore the influence of social connectedness on post-bushfire recovery, potential participants needed to meet the following eligibility criteria: (i) they were between five and seventeen years old at the time of the fires and, (ii) they were affected by the bushfires through property damage or (iii) their family property was within 500 m of the fire impact zone.

Participants were recruited through five local schools’ communication platforms in the fire zone, word-of-mouth referrals, and a parent Facebook group. The South Australian Department for Education and five school principals provided permission to source participants for the study. To minimise burdens on the schools, permission for the recruitment and interviewing of participants was obtained for three months (i.e. one school term). Detailed informed consent was obtained from each child and their parent before participation and interview recording. Participants were informed of local mental health services and supports. Eight parent–child dyads participated, with one family providing two sibling participants. All the parents interviewed identified as women and were the biological mothers of the children in the dyads. Eight child participants (three girls and five boys) were interviewed. The average age of the children was 10.4 years (range = nine to twelve years).

All the dyads had experienced: fire damage to the fencing in their family homes due to the fires; children evacuated during the fires, and at least one family member remained in the fire zone after children were evacuated to put out spot fires and protect the family home. One dyad experienced the loss of their family home due to the bushfire, and four dyads had other extended family members also impacted by the bushfires. The data collection took place approximately twenty to twenty-three months post-event, allowing time for participants to reflect on the longer-term impacts of the bushfire. Despite the relatively small number of dyads, the data collected provided rich, in-depth data on the experiences of the families who remained in the community post-bushfire. The interviews yielded detailed accounts of participants’ experiences, allowing for meaningful analysis to address the study aims.

An interview guide consisting of open and close-ended questions directed the interviews ( Supplementary Appendix ). All the interviews were transcribed manually by the first author (L.S.) into Microsoft Word. A parent or a nominated adult was present for the child interviews to provide support if required. None of the children opted to have their parents assist them in the interviews and opted to not have them in the room during the data collection process. Arts-based interview questions were utilised to engage the children in a developmentally appropriate manner (e.g. can draw a picture for me of yourself before the bushfire?). Interview questions focused on the child’s mental health and functioning following the bushfires and social connectedness. Similarly, parent interviews focused on perceptions of their child and family’s mental state and coping before and after the bushfires and changes in social connectedness for the family. The average duration of the child interviews was seventeen minutes (range = 13–30 min), and of the parent interviews was thirteen minutes (range = 20–44 min).

Data analysis

The data were analysed using thematic and content analysis, applying the COREQ checklist ( Tong et al. , 2007 ) and employing a mix of deductive and inductive analysis ( Braun and Clarke, 2021 ). Pre-defined codes were developed based on key concepts from social capital theory (e.g. bonding, bridging and linking social capital; Aldrich, 2012 ) and attachment theory (e.g. secure and insecure attachment patterns; Bowlby, 2008 ). The inductive analysis allowed for identification of unexpected patterns in the data. Findings from the cycles of analysis were combined by comparing the strength of supporting evidence between the two coders (L.S. and G.K.). Final themes reflect a combination of theoretical concepts and researchers’ interpretations of emergent patterns.

Three themes were identified from the data ( Table 1 ). All themes are supported by quotes from child and parent interviews to demonstrate the influence of social connectedness in the recovery of children and parents following a bushfire natural disaster. Identifying information has been redacted from the quotes to minimise the risk of members of the small rural community being identifiable. Parent and child quotes corresponding to each dyad are presented together in each section.

Themes corresponding to intra-dyad and inter-dyad comparisons.

Differences in available and preferred supports

We’re quite social, so have other families come or you know, we’ll, you know, socialise with other people. Quite sporty, involved with quite a few different sporting clubs (Child from Dyad 3) We had a lot of support, a lot of support from friends. People we have known for a long time…it definitely made a difference (Parent from Dyad 3).

We didn’t know many people, so it was hard to find help when the bushfires happened (Child from Dyad 4) My neighbours aren’t particularly connected with us… We moved here from the city for a less stressful and complicated life.less expenses and stress. The bushfires changed all that. I was away from my friends and family…and everything after [the bushfires] we needed seemed to be in the city…it’s been harder for us since (Parent from Dyad 4)

The quotes highlight the impact of social isolation, intersectional disadvantage and cumulative burdens experienced by members of rural communities’ post-disaster. The excerpt also illustrates how marginalised families often resort to engaging with urban centres to access the required infrastructure and supports required post-disaster.

We talked to Mum and my brothers (Child from Dyad 8). she’s pretty good at talking, so she will let you know how she’s feeling and if she’s upset or whatever (Parent from Dyad 8).

I kind of just talked to my friends online. And then seeing them at school…that was good to hang out (Child from Dyad 6). It was the fact that he was online on his headset actually talking to his friends. It helped a lot, gave a lot of distraction too (Parent from Dyad 6).

… Fire Support were our immediate source of support in our area, quite literally on the ground, and I’m forever grateful to those amazing people who just turned up and asked what we needed and seemed to just make it happen (Parent from Dyad 3).

Going away to …Beach for a short holiday allowed us to leave behind the stress of the disaster, focusing instead on each other. (Parent from Dyad 4) It was a nice break from the bushfire. (Child from Dyad 4)

Thinning of social support networks

The cumulative loss reverberated through these networks, leading to a discernible ‘thinning’ of available support. Within rural communities affected by bushfires, it was observed that the immediate recovery efforts substantially decreased the availability of pragmatic support from family and friends. The focus on securing disaster recovery grants and other government supports and services interfered with time previously allocated to spending time with loved ones. The process of accessing post-disaster support also emerged as a complex concern.

‘It was very stressful, and it went on for most of the year….I’m the director of my Mum and Dad farm so I, I was getting grants for them. I didn’t have time for much else to be honest’ (Parent from Dyad 1). ‘Sometimes at school…when it’s fun or whatever. I feel bad…I think I should be helping my parents at home with things’ (Child from Dyad 1).

I was lucky that I could send my child off to my sister’s house and so she [daughter] was sort of out of the picture. I know lots of other people who couldn’t do that. I just had too much to do and I didn’t want to worry about her [daughter]. I know she needed me but I had so much to get on top of (Parent from Dyad 5). [At my aunt’s home] They always talk about it….every time we went up to the rental they talked about [loss from the bushfires] and then it just, I had to go out the room sometimes (Child from Dyad 5)

they’re like, oh, you’re fine .because your property didn’t burn down like your house didn’t burn down, your shed didn’t burn down, you didn’t lose any livestock (Child from Dyad 2) I think the biggest problem was that they just didn’t have, like, they hadn’t experienced it themselves, they were quite distant from it, and it was just hard for them to understand (Parent from Dyad 2)

…. people don’t complain about this sort of thing. You just deal with it, you know. Everyone just gets on with it, and you’ll deal with it …you fix it and you’ll sort it and you’ll move on. People are proud and don’t ask for help (Parent from Dyad 6). …I always feel like it wasn’t so bad for us. Like we know so many families… need more help than us…but they are ok. So you don’t want to carry on [complain] too much (Child from Dyad 6)

.effects of the bushfire, go on for so long…everyone …is still dealing with it a year later, like whether it be the stress, the financial stress the, we still don’t have a home stress we’re still rebuilding back. My parents’ fences only just got built…. There is no time to stop and think about everything we lost or could have lost.. Honestly thought Dad was gonna die [in the bushfires]. I really did. He still has a really weak heart. A lot of heart problems. But he didn’t die…but there’s no time for that. Everyone is busy trying to get their life back, so you carry on (Parent from Dyad 4)

Altered patterns of parent–child communication

its been like two years…we are a bit tuned in to the weather…checking about for the rain, like we had after the fires…I’m also more tuned in to how they are going, like the mental impact of looking at black [burnt trees and landscape] all the time…I guess its just trying to protect my family from all of it’ (Parent from Dyad 3) ‘We had to go to grandma’s [birthday] in [another Australian state], and I could tell everybody was nervous about leaving…mum was starting to get stressed, so I was trying to help. I can tell now when its starting to get like that…’ (Child from Dyad 3)

I was pretty chill with the fires…. I found it more entertaining and fun than it being a big disaster, which it very much was. (Child from Dyad 5) all this time that he’s been saying I wasn’t really affected by it, umm, truthfully, he didn’t react in any big way…. But after that, he stopped watching David Attenborough, and he’s always been really environmentally concerned…. He still hasn’t been back to the park. Won’t go there. (Parent from Dyad 5).

He won’t open up to me about these things… It’s his way of coping is to keep the atmosphere really calm… I think he needs everyone around him calm. And if he tells me he thinks …maybe I won’t be calm and I will get stressed… it’s hard. I know the more I ask and push, the more he will shut down’ (Parent from Dyad 1) ‘Felt sad for…. couple months. Then I had, like, anxiety over sleeping in my own room for months, like ages. Yes. That. I don’t know why I was just like that. And I didn’t want to talk about it because I didn’t know why…it was annoying when they were asking me about it because they were make me feel like a problem …like I’m a wuss and weak… I didn’t want to make it a thing for everyone to be worried about’ (Child from Dyad 1)

As illustrated in the quotes, dyads described a cycle of approach and withdrawal in their parent–child relationships. Parents spoke of difficulties understanding their children’s emotional needs, leading to increased vigilance for signs of distress. Children, primarily boys from four of the dyads, perceived this increased vigilance as intrusive, causing them to withdraw further and mask their emotional needs. This cycle seemed to lead to feelings of helplessness in parents and conflict in parent–child dyads.

I think we, we talk better. As in we talked before, but I think….a relationship that’s more even (Child from Dyad 5) I certainly feel like our relationship between the three of us is a little more, umm, as friends more, less like ‘I’m the adult decision maker, and you’re just the kids (Parent from Dyad 5)

We just felt so grateful. That probably is a keyword as well. Grateful that we you know that [husband] was safe after fighting the fires on Kangaroo Island. It’s the small things, but you realise how fragile life is.your kids, the house, our farm… you know we are so grateful for all that stuff (Parent from Dyad 2) Lots of things have changed.like Christmas and Easter…but we still got the TV, still got [gifts]. Still have my family. (Child from Dyad 2)

Climate change predictions highlight the increased risk of substantial storm, flood and drought events ( Cleugh et al. , 2011 ) and increased severity and frequency of catastrophic bushfires (Australian Academy of Science, 2015). This study aimed to investigate changes in social connectedness in parent–child dyads following a bushfire event. The findings of this study are consistent with the social capital theory ( Aldrich, 2012 ) and with the extant literature on the relationship between social connectedness in adults and positive mental health outcomes (Bryant et al. , 2017). The ‘recovery advantage’ to those with stronger pre-bushfire social connections was evident in the narratives of this study. Overall, our findings align with previous research on family functioning post-disaster. For example, Pujadas et al. (2013) found similar patterns of family communication in their study of nineteen families after the 2011 Slave Lake wildfires. They found families focused on emotional support, community involvement and positive reframing to cope with the disaster’s aftermath and foster resilience (Pujadas et al. , 2013).

Several participants described challenges related to social isolation, socioeconomic difficulties or being new to the community. While not systematically assessed across all participants, these factors appeared to influence post-disaster experiences for several families in the study. The disadvantage experienced by those who were more socially isolated seemed to interact with other domains of inequality and marginalisation, such as socioeconomic difficulties. Further research is needed to more comprehensively examine how various forms of marginalisation may impact social connectedness and disaster recovery in rural communities (e.g. Fraser and Blake, 2020 ) and innovative methods to promote the social capital of these families is warranted.

The findings provide preliminary support for the notion that parents from both socially isolated and connected dyads may prefer more bridging social capital in the form of relationships across the community. They highlighted the benefits of community events in making links with other community members while also providing them with a respite from post-disaster recovery stressors. Reports of limited bridging capital amongst the families in this study may reflect the paucity of access to local community-based organisations in rural regions of Australia ( AIHW, 2022 ).

The study’s findings of children’s preferences for contact with friends and peers in the school setting highlight the importance of considering developmental differences in post-disaster support. Schools constitute a significant community structure for children and relate to a broad range of child-specific services and referral agencies. They embody structure, safety and social connections, which are vital for positive post-disaster outcomes and resilience ( Ayre and Krishnamoorthy, 2020 ; McDonald-Harker et al. , 2021 ). Schools are well placed to facilitate engagement with social resources and trauma-informed support ( Mutch, 2015 ; Schimke et al. , 2022 ) and provide access to multi-disciplinary care post-disaster ( Curtin et al. , 2020 ; Krishnamoorthy and Ayre, 2021 ). Children, families and staff in school communities can offer input into screening and assessment processes and assist in providing information to families ( Bellamy et al. , 2022 ; Bowyer et al. , 2023 ). Allowing integrated services within schools improves access to services for overburdened parents.

Changes in the parent–child relationships post-disaster appear to be characterised by a cycle of hyper-attunement and masking/withholding for fears of being burdensome. Research on such patterns of hyper-attunement in parents could be understood as a mechanism by which parents seek to limit their distress and that of their child and to keep their child mentally safe and healthy ( Williamson et al. , 2017 ). Studies have also linked this hypervigilance to parental beliefs about their children being ‘permanently damaged’, leading to a heightened sense of future danger, preoccupation with child’s vulnerability and ruminations about traumatic stress reactions in their children ( Hiller et al. , 2018 ). While it is important to note that no assessments of parent–child attachment were undertaken in this this study, previous research highlights that parents exhibiting insecure attachment styles may face challenges in their reflective functioning (RF) capabilities ( Fonagy et al. , 2002 ; Krishnamoorthy et al. , 2020a , b ).

RF relates to the ability of adults to think about their personal and their child’s mental states, as well as the influence of these states on their parent–child relationship ( Fonagy et al. , 2002 ). It is noteworthy to mention that a specific dimension of RF termed ‘hyper-mentalisation’ is characterised by an over-attribution (or misattribution) of mental states, occasionally incommensurate with the observable cues in the child’s behaviour ( Sharp et al. , 2011 ). Specifically, misalignment in ascribing accurate emotional states in children may inadvertently perpetuate destabilising interactions—such as the approach-withdrawal patterns identified in the findings. Although scant literature addresses hyper-mentalisation post-bushfires and no assessments of RF or mentalisation were conducted in the study, further research is warranted to explore the relationship between these constructs in a post-disaster context.

The difficulties in accurately mentalising children’s needs may be related to the limited communication between some dyads of emotional reactions and needs. This was linked to the endorsement of a stoic coping style, concerns about burdensomeness and pride in self-reliance during post-disaster recovery. Previous research has highlighted the role of stoicism and self-reliance as significant factors influencing help-seeking in men in post-disaster contexts (e.g. Whittaker, 2019 ). In this study, there appears to be evidence to suggest the presence of such attitudes in the interviews of caregivers. While the research suggests the prevalence of such attitudes in regional and rural communities in Australia ( Whitaker, 2019 ), more targeted research in the Cuddlee Creek community may need to be conducted to confirm such beliefs and copings styles.

While this study did not include assessments of post-traumatic stress within the dyads, a large body of literature confirms the substantial negative influence of parent post-traumatic stress symptoms on children’s coping ( Afzal et al. , 2023 ; Miko et al. , 2023 ). Such findings have prompted scholars to recommend a focus on reducing parents’ post-traumatic stress symptoms & distress and bolster their coping to enable them to be more emotionally available and appropriately attuned to the needs of their children. A family-focused screening approach for mental health may allow the detection of psychological concerns in both children and their parents—particularly in cases where anxious parents are seeking support for their children’s mental health. In the context of the present research, the access to social capital, and sense of social connectedness of the families may have been mitigated by parent mental health concerns ( Afzal et al. , 2023 ). Further investigations of these issues in the context of post-disaster rural and regional areas are warranted.

Given the growing prevalence of mental health concerns in children and adolescents ( Lu et al. , 2022 ), the findings of this study hold important implications for social work practice in a post-disaster context to mitigate child mental health concerns and promote family coping. Guidance on preventative practice—including positive parenting practices that encourage supportive and developmentally appropriate communication and limits on children’s exposure to disaster-related information ( Phoenix Australia Centre for Post-traumatic Health, 2013 ; Dallinger et al. , 2022 ). Social workers are well placed to personalise such guidance by incorporating the influence of multi-systemic factors on families in rural areas—such as the challenges related to the bushfires including financial strain and increased familial conflict ( Taylor and Goodman, 2015 ). Social work responses to supporting parents and children may need to also consider those with clinical levels of post-traumatic stress and other mental health concerns. Research has shown that universal screening of children in schools in post-disaster areas can inform a stepped-care approach to providing varying levels of mental health support for children and their families ( McDermott and Cobham, 2014 ). The implementation of such stepped-care practices will likely require a systematic approach to understanding the specific and idiosyncratic needs of rural centres—including key assets and resources that can be mobilised in post-disaster contexts ( McDermott, 2014 ).

The qualitative nature of this study both enhances its richness and introduces limitations. By prioritising children’s autonomy and personal experiences within the context of natural disasters, the research provides nuanced insights into the parent–child dyadic post-disaster social connectedness after an Australian bushfire. This approach, however, relies on self-reported accounts, potentially missing the objective assessment of actual behaviours and receipt of support. While the study captures the essence of children’s experiences, it acknowledges limitations in the depth of their qualitative responses. In addition, given the timing of the interviews (twenty to twenty-three months after the bushfire), and the traumatic nature of the events, it is possible that recollection abilities of parents and children may have been impacted. This may constrain the comprehensive understanding of their emotional and social dynamics post-disaster. Moreover, the study’s focus exclusively on bushfire events restricts the generalisability of findings to other types of natural disasters, each entailing distinct challenges and support mechanisms. Another dimension lies in the diverse interpretations of social connection, evident in the differentiation between parents and children. This variability in perspectives challenges the alignment of findings with established theoretical models. The study thus underscores the complexity of post-disaster social connectedness and highlights potential discrepancies between lived experience and theoretical constructs.

This study investigated the effect of dyadic social connectedness on the recovery of children and parents in the aftermath of bushfires in a rural community in Australia. The results revealed the complex multi-systemic influences on the impact of the bushfires on the social capital of families and the attachment relationship between children and their parents. Among the identified differences, parents often tended to seek community-level support, while children found solace in family and friends. These differences were consistent with prior research and hold important implications for influence on community-wide recovery-oriented events and school-based supports for rural families that are isolated or have less available social support. Patterns of insecure attachment and communication—characterised by the cycle of limited emotional communication, fears of being burdensome and hypervigilance for the mental state of others—is a novel finding. Given the prevalence of stoic and self-reliance attitudes among rural communities, this finding holds important implications for the design of screening and intervention programmes aimed at promoting post-disaster mental health and well-being in families. With evidence of increasing frequencies of natural disasters like bushfires, the present research highlights the importance of adopting sociometric planning, assessment and monitoring approaches to disaster resilience and recovery and the need to continually honour and understand the lived experiences of children and their families impacted by natural disasters.

Supplementary material is available at British Journal of Social Work Journal online.

Data collection and analysis were performed by L.B. and G.K. The first draft of the manuscript was written by V.D., G.K. and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Conflict of interest statement : The authors have no other competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.

No funds, grants or other support was received.

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