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What is Drama? Definition, Examples of Drama as a Literary Term

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Drama definition in literature: A drama is defined as a piece of literature of which the intended purpose is to be performed in front of an audience.

What is Drama in Literature?

Drama meaning: A drama is a type of literature that is written for the purpose of being performed in front of an audience. This type of writing is written in the form of a script, and the story is told through the lines of the characters played by actors.

Example of Drama

The television show Grey’s Anatomy is considered to be a genre. This show is written with the intended purpose of actors performing the lines for their viewing audience.

Types of Drama in Literature

Comedy : A comedy is a type of drama that is written to be entertaining or amusing for the audience.

• The television show Seinfeld is considered a comedy. This sitcom follows the lives of four friends and the humorous situations they encounter together.

Tragedy : A tragedy is a type of drama that can be described as serious in nature and often includes a catastrophic ending.

• William Shakespeare’s famous play Romeo and Juliet is an example of a tragedy. In this play, two young children fall in love and feel the need to hide this from their parents due to their feuding families. However, their rash thinking leads them to their ultimate deaths.

Farce : A farce is a subcategory of comedy. Theses low comedies include ridiculous and slapstick comedic situations in order to create humor for the audience.

• The movie Dumb and Dumber is an example of a farce. This movie follows the story of two caricatures on a mission to return a briefcase to a beautiful lady. Throughout the film the two encounter several ridiculous and crude situations.

Melodrama : While it originally referred to dramas that included accompanying music, melodramas now refer to plays that include highly emotional situations in order to play on the feelings of the audience.

• The play Les parents terribles by Jean Cocteau is an example of a melodrama that involves several layers of over dramatic situations including cheating and suicide.

Musical Drama : Musical dramas refer to plays in which characters engage in dialogue but also include scenes in which the passion of the character is so great he expresses himself in song.

• Andrew Lloyd Weber’s The Phantom of the Opera is a well-known example of a musical drama that tells the story of obsession.

The Function of Drama

Dramas serve the function of entertainment for the audience. While reading a story is powerful, watching the story be performed by actors adds a level of realism to the work. In the age of binge watching, many people enjoy spending leisure time watching dramas specifically in the forms of movies or television.

Summary: What is a Drama in Literature?

Define drama in literature: In summation, a drama is a work of literature written for the intended purpose of being performed for an audience. Dramas are written in the form of a script and actors perform interpretations of the characters involved in order to tell the story the viewers versus reading a story in novel form.

Final Example:

The hit Grease by Jim Jacobs and Warren Casey, is an example of a musical drama. In this popular play and movie, viewers are taken through the story of high school love between two teens who are completely opposite outside the love they share for each other.

What is Drama? What is Drama in Literature? Features, Types & Details Students Must Know

Life is a drama… written by God (some say) and realised by us (we all know). However, when it comes to understanding drama as a concept – in literary terms or otherwise – it is a drama of mess and absurdity, at times, if you are new to the world of drama as a subject matter of study. Otherwise, we all may love to watch a nice drama being enacted by our favourite stage actors. Who would not?

Now, coming to the point, I have tried to Drama as a literary concept as simple as possible. As a genre and an artistic expression, and also from the point of view of the audience, there are many things about Drama one must know as a student of literature. In this article, you will learn what is Drama. Also, with its definition, you will know different types of drama, vital components of drama and a few other essential features of it. So, without any delay, let’s get straight into the subject at hand. Let us begin right with the definition of drama.

What is Drama?

Drama, both as a standalone concept and within the realm of literature, holds significant importance as artistic expression. It is a genre that presents a narrative through the enactment of characters on a stage, often involving dialogue , actions, and conflicts that unfold in front of an audience. In the domain of literature, drama often refers to written works intended for performance, encompassing plays and theatrical scripts that are designed to be enacted by actors on a stage.

It is remarkable to note that in literature, drama differs from other forms of storytelling in its focus on dialogue and the interaction between characters to convey the narrative, themes, and emotions. The structure of a dramatic work typically includes acts and scenes , which guide the progression of the storyline and offer distinct moments of tension, climax, and resolution . Through dialogue and actions, characters reveal their motivations, conflicts, and growth, making drama a dynamic medium for exploring the human experience.

Great dramatic works (or plays) in literature often reflect the societal, cultural, and psychological aspects of the time in which they were written. Playwrights utilise their creations to delve into complex themes, highlight moral dilemmas, challenge social norms, and provoke thought and emotional engagement among their audiences. The power of drama lies not only in its ability to entertain but also in its capacity to engage with issues that resonate deeply with the human condition.

Hint for Literature Students: before you start studying drama:

Students of English literature (or literature in any other language) should mark that understanding the nuances of drama in literature is crucial for analysing plays. They must take efforts to make themselves dexterous in identifying literary devices such as dramatic irony, soliloquies, and monologues, and uncovering the layers of meaning beneath the surface of characters’ interactions. By delving into the structure, themes, and character development of dramatic works, they can have a richer understanding of the complexities and artistry within this genre.

What are the Components of a Drama?

Below, you will find a list of components of a drama. I have tried to keep the sequence open, as open as I could, and it does not necessarily mean any order. You can understand the importance of each component and use your intellect to identify which ones are indispensable and which ones may be left alone when the need arises.

1. Characters: Characters are the heart of any dramatic work. They drive the plot, convey themes, and engage the audience emotionally. Characters can be protagonists, antagonists, foils, or supporting roles. Each character has distinct traits, motivations, and relationships that shape their interactions and influence the story’s development.

Example: In William Shakespeare’s tragedy “Hamlet,” the titular character Hamlet, driven by his quest for revenge and internal conflicts, interacts with other characters like Ophelia, Polonius, and Claudius, each contributing to the unfolding drama.

2. Plot: The plot is the sequence of events that constitute the storyline. It includes the introduction, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. The plot structure creates tension and intrigue, guiding the audience through the narrative journey.

Example: The plot of Arthur Miller’s play “The Crucible” follows the escalation of accusations and trials during the Salem witch trials, building tension until the climactic courtroom scene.

3. Conflict: Conflict is the driving force behind the drama. It can be internal (within a character’s mind) or external (between characters or circumstances). Conflict propels the story forward and illuminates the characters’ struggles and growth. Conflict makes a drama engaging, reflective and consuming. A drama without conflict may seldom exist.

Example: In Sophocles’ tragedy “Oedipus Rex,” the protagonist’s quest to uncover the truth about his past and his role in his father’s murder leads to a profound internal conflict as well as clashes with other characters.

4. Dialogue: Dialogue is the spoken communication between characters. It reveals their personalities, intentions, emotions, and relationships. Effective dialogue captures the essence of the characters and advances the plot.

Example: The witty and engaging dialogue between Beatrice and Benedick in Shakespeare’s comedy “Much Ado About Nothing” not only entertains but also showcases their evolving romantic relationship.

5. Setting: The setting establishes the time, place, and environment in which the drama unfolds. It influences the mood, atmosphere, and context of the story.

Example: Tennessee Williams’ “A Streetcar Named Desire” is set in the bustling city of New Orleans, with its distinct ambience and cultural backdrop contributing to the characters’ experiences.

6. Theme: Themes are the underlying ideas or messages conveyed through the drama. They address universal truths, societal issues, and philosophical concepts. Themes enrich the narrative and provoke thought.

Example: In Henrik Ibsen’s “A Doll’s House,” the theme of women’s societal roles and the pursuit of self-identity is explored through the character of Nora Helmer.

7. Stage Directions: Stage directions provide guidance for actors, directors, and designers. They describe actions, gestures, emotions, and technical elements that enhance the performance and visualization of the drama.

Example: In Samuel Beckett’s “Waiting for Godot,” the sparse stage directions contribute to the existential atmosphere and emphasize the characters’ sense of aimlessness.

8. Symbolism: Symbolism involves the use of objects, actions, or characters to represent abstract ideas or concepts. Symbolic elements add depth and layers of meaning to the drama.

Example: In Lorraine Hansberry’s “A Raisin in the Sun,” the plant that Mama nurtures symbolizes her dreams of a better future for her family.

What are the types of Drama? 

There are several major types of drama, each with its own distinctive characteristics and purposes. Here is a list of some of the major types, along with examples and detailed descriptions:

1. Tragedy: Tragedy is a genre that explores the downfall of a protagonist due to tragic flaws, external circumstances, or a combination of both. Tragedies evoke emotions such as pity and fear and often end in catastrophe or death for the central character.

Example: William Shakespeare’s “Macbeth” follows the tragic journey of Macbeth’s ambition leading to his ultimate downfall and demise.

2. Comedy: Comedy is characterised by humour, wit, and lightheartedness. It often involves misunderstandings, mistaken identities, and humorous situations. Comedies aim to entertain and uplift the audience.

Example: Oscar Wilde’s “The Importance of Being Earnest” is a classic comedy that employs wit and satire to explore themes of social conventions and identity.

3. Tragicomedy (Dramedy): Tragicomedy combines elements of tragedy and comedy, often blending serious themes with humorous moments. These plays explore the complexities of life, encompassing both light and dark aspects.

Example: Tom Stoppard’s “Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead” reimagines the story of “Hamlet” from the perspective of two minor characters, balancing existential reflections with comedic exchanges.

4. Historical Drama: Historical dramas are set in a specific historical period and often involve real historical figures and events. They provide insight into the past while addressing universal themes.

Example: Friedrich Schiller’s “Mary Stuart” dramatizes the conflict between Mary, Queen of Scots, and Queen Elizabeth I, exploring power dynamics and personal struggles.

5. Musical Drama: Musical dramas combine theatrical performance with music, including songs and often dance routines. They can cover a wide range of themes and emotions, utilizing music to enhance storytelling.

Example: “Les Misérables” by Claude-Michel Schönberg and Alain Boublil adapts Victor Hugo’s novel into a musical drama that portrays the struggles of various characters against the backdrop of 19th-century France.

6. Absurdist Drama: Absurdist dramas challenge traditional narrative structures and explore the absurdity of human existence. They often feature illogical situations, disjointed dialogue, and existential themes.

Example: Samuel Beckett’s “Waiting for Godot” is a quintessential absurdist play where two characters engage in nonsensical conversations while waiting for someone named Godot.

7. Political Drama: Political dramas centre around political conflicts, ideologies, and power struggles. They can focus on individuals, groups, or entire societies dealing with political issues.

Example: George Orwell’s “Animal Farm” uses allegory to portray the rise of totalitarianism and the corruption of political ideals through the actions of farm animals.

8. Melodrama: Melodramas emphasize heightened emotions and moral contrasts. They often feature clearly defined heroes and villains, and their plots revolve around intense emotional situations.

Example: Henrik Ibsen’s “Ghosts” is a melodrama that tackles taboo subjects like venereal disease and societal expectations within a family.

How to Study a Drama the Best Way?

Studying a drama effectively requires a systematic approach that delves into its various components and layers. Here’s a step-by-step guide to help you navigate the process:

1. Preliminary Reading: Begin by reading the drama thoroughly. Read it once to grasp the overall plot and storyline. Take note of initial impressions, emotions, and questions that arise as you read.

2. Contextual Research: Research the playwright’s background, the historical period, and cultural influences at the time the drama was written. Understanding the context enhances your interpretation of the work.

3. Character Analysis: Analyse the characters’ personalities, motivations, and relationships. Take note of how they evolve throughout the drama. Pay attention to their roles in advancing the plot and conveying themes.

4. Plot Structure: Break down the drama’s plot into acts and scenes. Identify the introduction, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. Map out the progression of conflicts and events.

5. Theme Exploration: Identify the central themes and underlying messages of the drama. Consider how characters, dialogue, and events contribute to the exploration of these themes.

6. Dialogue Examination: Analyse the dialogue between characters. Identify key speeches, monologues, and dialogues that reveal character traits, emotions, and thematic elements. Look for literary devices such as metaphors, similes, and symbolism.

7. Stage Directions and Setting: Study the stage directions and setting descriptions. Visualise how the playwright intended the scenes to be staged and how the environment contributes to the mood and themes.

8. Conflict Identification: Identify the primary conflicts within the drama. Distinguish between internal conflicts (within characters) and external conflicts (between characters or external forces).

9. Symbolism and Imagery: Identify symbolic elements and recurring imagery throughout the drama. Consider how these symbols enhance the meaning and depth of the story.

10. Comparative Analysis: Compare the drama with other works by the same playwright or within the same genre. Identify similarities and differences in themes, characters, and techniques.

11. Cultural and Societal Analysis: Consider how the drama reflects the cultural and societal values of its time. Explore how it addresses relevant issues and challenges norms.

12. Critical Interpretation: Read critical analyses, reviews, and scholarly articles about the drama. Engaging with different perspectives can enrich your understanding and help you form your own interpretation.

13. Personal Response: Reflect on your emotional and intellectual responses to the drama. What aspects resonated with you? How did the drama affect your thoughts and emotions?

14. Discussion and Interaction: Engage in discussions with peers, classmates, or online communities. Sharing insights and perspectives can lead to deeper understanding.

15. Writing and Presentation: Summarise your analysis in a well-structured essay, presentation, or discussion. Support your points with evidence from the text and external research.

16. Revisiting and Reflecting: After completing your analysis, revisit the drama with fresh insights. Reflect on how your understanding has evolved and consider new interpretations.

By following this comprehensive guide, you’ll be able to delve deeply into the layers of the drama, uncovering its nuances and appreciating the artistry and messages woven into the narrative. This methodical approach will enable you to attempt a comprehensive and insightful analysis of the drama you’re studying.

Conclusion: 

So, in this article, we have understood the definition of Drama, the major types of Drama with examples and also the chief components that form a good drama. Moreover, we also tried to form a list of actions or activities that we can execute to study and understand a play better and comprehensively. I am sure if you go through this study guide carefully, you will have a better approach to studying drama. All the best! Do well and keep learning!

By Alok Mishra for the English Literature Education Platform

Read related articles from this category:

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List of important literary terms associated with studying drama or play – Literature Guides

Anticlimax – meaning of literary term: definition in context of literature and beyond

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14 Comments . Leave new

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What are the feature of drama

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This is a very helpful article. I am a BA first semester student. Totally confused where to begin. This one helped me understand many things about drama. I also explored other articles on the site helpful for beginners in English literature. Please keep posting more. Thanks so much

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Thanks for reading, and this comment, Sanjana! I will write that article soon. I intend to keep writing articles about whatever I have to teach first-semester students of the new CBCS course, with an English major.

Keep exploring! All the best!

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Essays About Drama: Top 5 Examples and 5 Prompts

The word drama covers many meanings and subjects; if you are writing essays about drama, discover our guide with interesting essay examples and writing prompts featured here.

What is drama to you? Many know it as a situation or event in which emotions run high. For others, the grand, intricate stage plays of Shakespeare and others of his time come to mind. Regardless, these and all other definitions of drama share one thing in common: emotion.

In all its forms, from theatre to television to cinema to even day-to-day interaction, drama is always centered around emotion, tension, and conflict- things we experience daily. Drama is, quite literally, our life, complete with all its imperfections, troubles, twists, and turns. 

For help with your essays, check out our round-up of the best essay checkers

1. The History of Drama by Homer Stewart

2. why the news is not the truth by peter vanderwicken, 3. drama reflection essay (author unknown), 4. kitchen sink dramas by rodolfo chandler, 5. love yourself, not your drama by crystal jackson, 6. shakespeare’s theater: an essay from the folger shakespeare editions by barbara mowat and paul werstine, 1. what is drama, 2. types of drama, 3. the history of drama, 4. is the world over-dramatized today, 5. a dramatic incident of the past.

“Perhaps the most theatrical form of drama was opera which is still popular in today’s society. Broadway is certainly a sight that attracts thousands of people annually. In addition, the playwrights of today are striving to make the theatrical experience meaningful to the lives of viewers so that it is not just simply “pleasant entertainment”. Many themes that drama plays in modern times focus on are social problems, tragedies involving the elements of love and hate and as well as social problems that affect the inhabitants of today.”

Stewart gives readers a brief history of drama and its subjects. In different eras, the plays were based around themes and ideas prevalent in those times; for example, the Romantic Period focused on the “experiences of ordinary people.” He also references several playwrights, including Friedrich von Schiller and Percy Bysshe Shelley. In modern times, drama is centered around critical social issues while still managing to be engaging and entertaining.

“Pulitzer turned them into stories with a sharp dramatic focus that both implied and aroused intense public interest. Most newspapers of the time looked like the front page of the Wall Street Journal still does. Pulitzer made stories dramatic by adding blaring headlines, big pictures, and eye-catching graphics. His journalism took events out of their dry, institutional contexts and made them emotional rather than rational, immediate rather than considered, and sensational rather than informative.”

Vanderwicken criticizes the state of news today, saying that many stories are dramatized and outright fabricated to make them more entertaining. He attributes this to Joseph Pulitzer of Pulitzer Prize fame, who introduced He also gives historical examples of instances where the media has exaggerated – news today is too dramatic, and it must change.

You might also be interested in these essays about Macbeth .

“I felt that this learning experience is a very huge step because it takes us from doing a play which is very immature in to something that is big and has maturity in it. It helps me to practice in fluency, public speaking and mostly self-confidence. In the play I developed my ways of acting and how to put emotions in to the character, in which those emotions were not really me.”

This essay describes lessons one can learn from performing drama, such as confidence and speaking fluently. The author also reflects on an experience performing in drama, where the author learned to be more expressive, speak better, and become more hardworking. There is also a brief discussion on the elements of drama, including plot and setting. Drama is important and can teach you essential skills and lessons. 

“In the late 1950s in Britain, the “Kitchen Sink movement”, which is also known as “Kitchen Sink realism” occurred. This cultural movement stemed from ideas about working class activities. A typical writer of kitchen sink dramas is John Osborne, for example his drama “Look back in anger” which aroused many strong opinions when it was first performed as a drama. It is set in a small flat in the west midlands, which is typical of working class people.”

Chandler describes a period in drama where “kitchen sink dramas” depicted working-class stories. He uses John Osborne’s “Look Back in Anger” as an example, briefly describing the play. Jimmy, one of the characters, was known as an “angry young man,” This term was later used to describe young people critical of the social and political state of the world.

“We learn to recognize co-dependence, narcissism, and toxicity for what they are rather than making excuses because we liked the look of someone. In other words, we grow up. We stay in love with our own toxic patterns and keep the cycle of damage going, or we recognize the collateral damage of all our drama and start wanting better for ourselves. We make choices. We experience consequences. If we grow up, we’ll even connect the two.”

Jackson’s essay discusses drama from another perspective, the drama that comes with love life. She gives readers tips on how to care for yourself better and look past all the tension, confusion, and drama that comes with dating. If we look at potential partners from a deeper, more constructive point of view, we can avoid toxic relationships and have a healthy love life. 

“When performance required that an actor appear “above,” as when Juliet is imagined to stand at the window of her chamber in the famous and misnamed “balcony scene,” then the actor probably climbed the stairs to the gallery over the back of the stage and temporarily shared it with some of the spectators. The stage was also provided with ropes and winches so that actors could descend from, and reascend to, the “heavens.””

In their essay, Mowat and Werstine discuss the conventions of performing Shakespearean drama during his time, including the performance of some scenes in different areas of the theater and men playing women’s roles. They also discuss how the theaters they performed in, such as the Globe Theatre, enhanced the plays’ dramatic effect.

5 Prompts for Essays About Drama

The word drama has many meanings and is used differently, as seen in the essay examples above. In your essay, give the word’s etymology, explain the different sides of drama, from theatre to school life, and give examples of how they exemplify the meaning. Explain how they are all connected as well. 

Drama in the context of theatre has four primary forms: comedy, tragedy, tragicomedy, and melodrama. Discuss each type of drama and elaborate on its characteristics. If you wish, compare and contrast them as well. Be sure to give examples of plays when explaining them.   

In your essay, you can also discuss the different periods in the history of drama. Explain what occurred in these periods, how drama changed, and their effects on modern drama. You need not explore too many periods; just make sure you write about key developments and explain them adequately. 

In the world today, the resilience of survivors is glorified and dramatized, while we see media outlets making headlines out of mere gossip and celebrity news. From this, it can be argued that society is centered around making a drama out of nothing. Why is this the case? Discuss your opinion on this issue- feel free to research if you need inspiration. 

Look back to a past event marked by tension, emotion, and drama. Narrate the events and explain how they made you feel- did you learn anything from them? This can be either your own experience or just an event from history or the news. You can read this essay for further inspiration. 

Note: drama can mean different things to different people, so what you consider “dramatic” is up to you.For help picking your next essay topic, check out our top essay topics about love .

Definition of Drama

Types of drama,  american drama and the postmodernism, dramatic sentences – use of drama in sentences, examples of drama in literature, example #1: much ado about nothing (by william shakespeare), example #2: oedipus rex (by sophocles), example #3: the importance of being earnest (by oscar wilde), example #4: the heiress (by henry james), function of drama, synonyms of drama, post navigation.

What Is Drama? Literary Definition and Examples

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In literature, a drama is the portrayal of fictional or non-fictional events through the performance of written dialog (either prose or poetry). Dramas can be performed on stage, on film, or radio. Dramas are typically called plays, and their creators are known as “playwrights” or “dramatists.” 

Performed since the days of Aristotle (c. 335 BCE), the term “drama” comes from the Greek words δρᾶμα (an act, a play) and δράω (to act, to take action). The two iconic masks of drama—laughing and crying faces—symbolize two ancient Greek Muses : Thalia, the Muse of comedy, and Melpomene, the Muse of tragedy.

What Makes Drama so Dramatic? 

To make their plays dramatic, playwrights strive to progressively build the audience’s feelings of tension and anticipation as the story develops. Dramatic tension builds as the audience keeps wondering “What happens next?” and anticipating the outcomes of those events. In a mystery, dramatic tension builds throughout the plot until an exciting or unanticipated climax is revealed.

Dramatic tension is all about keeping the audience guessing. In the ancient Greek tragedy Oedipus the King , will Oedipus ever figure out that by killing his father and sleeping with his mother he had caused the plague that destroyed his city, and what will he do about it if he does? In Shakespeare’s Hamlet , will Prince Hamlet ever avenge his father’s death and get rid of his pesky ghost and visions of floating daggers by murdering the play’s antagonist Claudius?

Dramas depend heavily on spoken dialogue to keep the audience informed about the characters’ feelings, personalities, motivations, and plans. Since the audience sees characters in a drama living out their experiences without any explanatory comments from the author, playwrights often create dramatic tension by having their characters deliver soliloquies and asides.

Types of Drama

Dramatic performances are generally classified into specific categories according to the mood, tone, and actions depicted in the plot. Some popular types of drama include:

• Comedy : Lighter in tone, comedies are intended to make the audience laugh and usually come to a happy ending. Comedies place offbeat characters in unusual situations causing them to do and say funny things. Comedy can also be sarcastic, poking fun at serious topics. There are also several sub-genres of comedy, including romantic comedy , sentimental comedy, comedy of manners, and tragic comedy —plays in which the characters take on tragedy with humor in bringing serious situations to happy endings.
• Tragedy : Based on darker themes, tragedies portray serious subjects like death, disaster, and human suffering in a dignified and thought-provoking way. Rarely enjoying happy endings, characters in tragedies, like Shakespeare's Hamlet , are often burdened by tragic character flaws that ultimately lead to their demise.
• Farce : Featuring exaggerated or absurd forms of comedy, a farce is a nonsensical genre of drama in which characters intentionally overact and engage in slapstick or physical humor. Examples of farce include the play Waiting for Godot  by Samuel Beckett and the hit 1980 movie Airplane! , written by Jim Abrahams.
• Melodrama : An exaggerated form of drama, melodramas depict classic one-dimensional characters such as heroes , heroines , and villains dealing with sensational, romantic, and often perilous situations. Sometimes called “tearjerkers,” examples of melodramas include the play The Glass Menagerie  by Tennessee Williams and the classic movie of love during the Civil War , Gone With the Wind , based on Margaret Mitchell’s novel.
• Opera : This versatile drama genre combines theater, dialogue, music, and dance to tell grand stories of tragedy or comedy. Since characters express their feelings and intentions through song rather than dialogue, performers must be skilled actors and singers. The decidedly tragic La Bohème , by Giacomo Puccini, and the bawdy comedy Falstaff , by Giuseppe Verdi are classic examples of opera.
• Docudrama : A relatively new genre, docudramas are dramatic portrayals of historic events or non-fictional situations. More often presented in movies and television than in live theater, popular examples of docudramas include Apollo 13  and 12 Years a Slave , based on the autobiography written by Solomon Northup .

Classic Example of Comedy and Tragedy

Perhaps no two plays better illustrate the juxtaposition of the masks of drama—comedy and tragedy—than these two William Shakespeare classics.

Comedy: A Midsummer Night’s Dream

In his romantic comedy A Midsummer Night’s Dream , Shakespeare explores one of his favorite themes—“love conquers all”—with a humorous twist. Due to a series of comical and unpredictable situations, young couples keep falling in and out of love. As they struggle with the foibles of love, their equally amusing real-world problems are magically resolved by a mischievous sprite named Puck . In the Shakespearian happy ending, old enemies become fast friends and the true lovers are united to live happily ever after.

A Midsummer Night’s Dream is cited as an example of how playwrights utilize the ageless conflict between love and social convention as a source of humor.

Tragedy: Romeo and Juliet

Young lovers live anything but happily ever after in Shakespeare’s unforgettable tragedy Romeo and Juliet . In what is still one of the most-performed plays in history, the love between Romeo and Juliet is doomed by the raging feud between their families, the Montagues and the Capulets. The night before the star-crossed lovers are secretly married, Romeo kills Juliet's cousin in a duel, and Juliet fakes her death to avoid being forced by her parents to marry a family friend. Unaware of Juliet’s plan, Romeo visits her grave and, believing she is dead, kills himself. When she learns of Romeo’s death, Juliet truly does kill herself.

Shakespeare creates heartbreaking dramatic tension in  Romeo and Juliet t hrough the technique of switching moods between hope and despair,

Drama Key Terms

• Drama: The portrayal of fictional or non-fictional events in theater, film, radio, or television .
• Thalia: The Greek Muse of Comedy , depicted as one of the two masks of drama.
• Melpomene: The Greek Muse of tragedy, the other mask of drama.
• Dramatic tension: The most basic element of drama used to stir the emotions of the audience.
• Comedy: The humorous genre of drama intended to keep the audience laughing on the way to the play’s happy ending.
• Tragedy: The portrayal of darker subjects like death, disaster, betrayal, and human suffering .
• Farce: An over-the-top form of purposely over-acted and exaggerated comedy .
• Melodrama: The depiction of simple classic characters like heroes and villains dealing with sensational, romantic, and often perilous situations.
• Opera: The artful combination of dialogue , music, and dance to tell grand stories of tragedy or comedy.
• Docudrama: Historical or non-fictional events portrayed dramatically.
• Banham, Martin, ed. 1998. “The Cambridge Guide to Theatre.” Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43437-8.
• Carlson, Marvin. 1993. “Theories of the Theatre: A Historical and Critical Survey from the Greeks to the Present.” Cornell University Press
• Worthen, W.B. “The Wadsworth Anthology of Drama.” Heinle & Heinle, 1999. ISBN-13: 978-0495903239
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• 6 Tips for Writing Children's Plays and Scripts
• "Cheating Out," "Breaking Curtain," and More Curious Theatre Jargon
• Choose the Right Setting for Your Play
• Aristotle's Tragedy Terminology
• Definition and Theatrical Examples of Memory Plays
• How to Read and Enjoy a Dramatic Play
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• Layout of the Ancient Greek Theater
• Stage Directions for Actors: The Basics
• August Wilson's Pittsburgh Cycle
• Biography of Henrik Ibsen, Norwegian Playwright
• The Most Controversial Plays of the 20th Century
• Mrs. Malaprop and the Origin of Malapropisms
• Biography of Tennessee Williams, American Playwright

Literary Devices

Literary devices, terms, and elements, definition of drama, common examples of drama.

Television dramas:

Significance of Drama in Literature

Examples of drama in literature.

ANTIGONE: My own flesh and blood—dear sister, dear Ismene, how many griefs our father Oedipus handed down! Do you know one, I ask you, one grief that Zeus will not perfect for the two of us while we still live and breathe? There’s nothing, no pain—our lives are pain—no private shame, no public disgrace, nothing I haven’t seen in your grief and mine.

( Antigone by Sophocles)

HAMLET: O, that this too too sullied flesh would melt, Thaw, and resolve itself into a dew, Or that the Everlasting had not fixed His canon ‘gainst self-slaughter! O God, God, How weary, stale, flat, and unprofitable Seem to me all the uses of this world! Fie on ‘t! ah fie! ‘Tis an unweeded garden That grows to seed. Things rank and gross in nature Possess it merely.

TOM: But the wonderfullest trick of all was the coffin trick. We nailed him into a coffin and he got out of the coffin without removing one nail. . . . There is a trick that would come in handy for me—get me out of this two-by-four situation! . . . You know it don’t take much intelligence to get yourself into a nailed-up coffin, Laura. But who in hell ever got himself out of one without removing one nail?

( The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams)

Tennessee Williams played with many conventions of the form of drama, one of the main ones being the idea of the “fourth wall.” Drama is usually presented as being separate from the audience, and the characters are unable to interact directly with the audience. In Williams’s play The Glass Menagerie , the main character Tom breaks down this fourth wall to directly address the audience throughout the scenes, especially at the beginning and end. In this excerpt, Tom remembers something from his childhood and addresses both the audience and Laura, who is absent from the scene. Williams made an even more collaborative experience of drama than what came before him.

THE PLAYER: The whole thing was a disaster! – he did nothing but cry all the time – right out of character – just stood there and cried […] Audiences know what to expect, and that is all they are prepared to believe in.

ABIGAIL: I want to open myself! . . . I want the light of God, I want the sweet love of Jesus! I danced for the Devil; I saw him, I wrote in his book; I go back to Jesus; I kiss His hand. I saw Sarah Good with the Devil! I saw Goody Osburn with the Devil! I saw Bridget Bishop with the Devil!

Test Your Knowledge of Drama

1. Which of the following statements is the best drama definition? A. A work of literature meant to be read in private. B. A tragic narrative that involves the death of one or more characters. C. A work of fiction meant to be presented in performance by one or more actors. [spoiler title=”Answer to Question #1″] Answer: C is the correct answer.[/spoiler]

3. In which of the following countries were the first recorded drama examples found? A. Japan B. Greece C. India [spoiler title=”Answer to Question #3″] Answer: B is the correct answer.[/spoiler]

4. Which of the following genres in plays can be considered a drama example? A. Tragedy B. Comedy C. History D. All of the above [spoiler title=”Answer to Question #4″] Answer: D is the correct answer. Any narrative that is presented onstage can be considered a drama.[/spoiler]

• Literary Terms

When & How to Write Drama

• Definition & Examples
• When & How to Write Drama

How to Write Drama

• Start with characters . The best dramas are usually character- driven. They have a cast of main characters (usually fewer than 10), plus a handful of supporting characters. These characters should all be very distinct from one another, and the main characters should be authentic and life-like. This way, the audience can relate to them and cares what happens to them.
• Introduce conflict. All stories revolve around conflict, and this is especially true in drama. The conflict could be anything – the simplest example is political conflict or war, but you might also have competing love interests, clashes in personality, or simply a struggle against misfortune.
• Don’t forget about comic relief. Unless you’re writing a tragedy (see section 6), there should be at least some amount of humor in your drama. Otherwise, the negative emotions will get overwhelming and the experience will be too unpleasant for the reader. Give a few funny lines to your characters, or add an amusing situation somewhere to cut the tension – just make sure that this comic relief arises naturally from the story and it doesn’t feel like you’re cramming it in.

When to Use Drama

Drama is great for a creative writing project. It offers opportunities to work on character development, story structure, and a whole other set of writing skills. Every once in a while, you may also find a place for drama in formal essays , but you have to be careful.

For example, history essays are often more enjoyable to read if you craft them with a “dramatic” eye – focusing on a small set of main characters, contrasting these characters and their various desires, and fully describing the conflict at the center of the story. These techniques, in combination with good research and persuasive logic, can turn a good essay into a great one. However, you do have to be careful – too much drama in a formal essay can start to seem distracting, and you don’t want to give the impression that you’re more committed to the entertainment value than to the research and analysis.

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dramatic literature

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dramatic literature , the texts of plays that can be read, as distinct from being seen and heard in performance.

The term dramatic literature implies a contradiction in that literature originally meant something written and drama meant something performed . Most of the problems, and much of the interest, in the study of dramatic literature stem from this contradiction. Even though a play may be appreciated solely for its qualities as writing, greater rewards probably accrue to those who remain alert to the volatility of the play as a whole.

In order to appreciate this complexity in drama, however, each of its elements— acting , directing , staging, etc.—should be studied, so that its relationship to all the others can be fully understood. It is the purpose of this article to study drama with particular attention to what the playwright sets down. The history of dramatic literature in Western culture is discussed in the article Western theatre , with some discussion of dramatic literature also included in articles on the literatures of various languages, nations, or regions—for example, English literature , French literature , German literature , and so on. For a discussion of the dramatic literatures of other cultures , see African literature , African theatre , East Asian arts , Islamic arts , South Asian arts , and Southeast Asian arts .

General characteristics

From the inception of a play in the mind of its author to the image of it that an audience takes away from the theatre , many hands and many physical elements help to bring it to life. Questions therefore arise as to what is and what is not essential to it. Is a play what its author thought he was writing, or the words he wrote? Is a play the way in which those words are intended to be embodied, or their actual interpretation by a director and the actors on a particular stage? Is a play in part the expectation an audience brings to the theatre, or is it the real response to what is seen and heard? Since drama is such a complex process of communication , its study and evaluation is as uncertain as it is mercurial .

All plays depend upon a general agreement by all participants—author, actors, and audience—to accept the operation of theatre and the conventions associated with it, just as players and spectators accept the rules of a game. Drama is a decidedly unreal activity, which can be indulged only if everyone involved admits it. Here lies some of the fascination of its study. For one test of great drama is how far it can take the spectator beyond his own immediate reality and to what use this imaginative release can be put. But the student of drama must know the rules with which the players began the game before he can make this kind of judgment. These rules may be conventions of writing, acting, or audience expectation. Only when all conventions are working together smoothly in synthesis, and the make-believe of the experience is enjoyed passionately with mind and emotion, can great drama be seen for what it is: the combined work of a good playwright, good players, and a good audience who have come together in the best possible physical circumstances.

Drama in some form is found in almost every society, primitive and civilized, and has served a wide variety of functions in the community . There are, for example, records of a sacred drama in Egypt 2,000 years before the Common Era, and Thespis in the 6th century bce in ancient Greece is accorded the distinction of being the first known playwright. Elements of drama such as mime and dance , costume and decor long preceded the introduction of words and the literary sophistication now associated with a play. Moreover, such basic elements were not superseded by words, merely enhanced by them. Nevertheless, it is only when a play’s script assumes a disciplinary control over the dramatic experience that the student of drama gains measurable evidence of what was intended to constitute the play. Only then can dramatic literature be discussed as such.

The texts of plays indicate the different functions they served at different times. Some plays embraced nearly the whole community in a specifically religious celebration, as when all the male citizens of a Greek city-state came together to honour their gods or when the annual Feast of Corpus Christi was celebrated with the great medieval Christian mystery cycles . On the other hand, the ceremonious temple ritual of the early Noh drama of Japan was performed at religious festivals only for the feudal aristocracy . But the drama may also serve a more directly didactic purpose, as did the morality plays of the later Middle Ages, some 19th-century melodramas , and the 20th-century discussion plays of George Bernard Shaw and Bertolt Brecht . Plays can satirize society, or they can gently illuminate human weakness; they can divine the greatness and the limitations of humans in tragedy , or, in modern naturalistic playwriting, probe the human mind. Drama is the most wide-ranging of all the arts: it not only represents life but also is a way of seeing it. And it repeatedly proves Samuel Johnson’s contention that there can be no certain limit to the modes of composition open to the dramatist.

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Terms Related to What Is Drama?

a form of literature presented where parts are written for actors to perform and the action is revealed primarily through the dialogue of the characters and the action includes high emotional content; the modern usage includes television and film.

the various structures created upon which plays were or are performed including box set, picture frame stage with proscenium arch, thrust stage, arena, and open air.

Stage directions  –

playwright’s directions in the play to the actors such as possibly where to stand or whether a line should be spoken loudly or quietly.

refers to all aspects necessary to produce a play such as arranging for scenery and props, costumes, securing the performance hall, and so on: the staging of a play.

Stage business –

incidental actions or movements of an actor to enhance the performance such as wringing hands or sitting a certain way on a chair.

Orchestra  –

the part of the stage where the orchestra performs generally in a lower section in front of the stage; from “the dancing place” in Ancient Greek Theater.

in staged performances, a group of “townspeople” who articulate different perspectives; from the Greek chorus

Chorogos  –

the leader of the chorus

a part of the play where specific action occurs; from the Ancient Greek skene, a building behind the platform stage which served as the dressing room for the actors.

items used to create the scene including furnishings and props; lighting, music, costumes, and sound effects are also used in plays.

Colonnade  –

a line of pillars with a roof behind the skene in Ancient Greek Theater

a section of a play which generally includes more than one scene

Prologos  –

the prologue; in Ancient Greek tragedy, the opening section where an actor gives a background or introduction to the play.

a part of Ancient Greek tragedy where the chorus enters and comments on the prologos following the prologos.

Episodia  –

episodes or scenes following the parodos where the actors play out the conflict.

Stasimon (strophes, antistrophes)  –

a section between the episodia where the chorus enters and comments on the action in groups representing different positions: strophes and antistrophes.

Ancient Greek Theater (Dionysus, Sophocles, Euripides)  –

the presentation of drama and comedy dating back about 400-500 BC to Sophocles and Euripides in Ancient Greece.

Elizabethan Theater  –

developed during the 1500, a form of theater which where plays were performs in the courtyards of inns and evolved into a highly sophisticated form of theater with elaborate theaters; includes Shakespearean plays.

Pageants  –

recreations of Biblical stories during the 1100s and 1200s; also called mystery plays; forerunners of Elizabethan Theater.

mystery plays  –

developed during the 900s through the 1500s which are representations of stories from the Bible and gradually fell from popularity with the production of drama such as the works of Shakespeare.

Morality plays  –

developed and performed from the 1300s and 1400s which were allegories demonstrating Christian principles.

Master of Revels  –

an appointed person to decide which plays would be performed in Elizabethan Theater.

Globe Playhouse  –

an elaborate theater built in 1599 which includes various sections: hell, heaven, rear stage, music gallery, and huts.

Groundlings  –

the commoners who stood and watched the plays in the courtyard presentations.

Modern Theater  –

began in the late 1800s and is characterized by events and characters based on reality; inspired by the realism movement in art and literature.

Participatory drama  – 

where actors mingle and interact with members of the audience

Ten-minute plays  –

a short play which is performed in no more than ten minutes

Kabuki dramas  –

Japanese dance drama characterized by ornate costumes and make-up

No plays  –

highly stylized Japanese performance art from which Kabuki dramas evolved

Theater of the Absurd  –

a movement in drama beginning around the 1960s where exaggerated characters and action using symbols seems absurd.

Surrealistic stage setting  –

the use of colors, props, costumes, lighting, music, and/or scenery that are outside the boundaries of everyday usage such as usual shapes and colors of walls or furniture.

Expressionistic stage setting  –

the creation of scenery, costumes, props, and/or lighting in an exaggerated way that reflects the theme or mood of the play such as drab dark colors and lighting to show the depressed mood of the characters.

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Entertainism

The Elements of Drama: Theme, Plot, Characters, Dialog, and More

Drama is a composition of prose or poetry that is transformed into a performance on stage. The story progresses through interactions between its characters and ends with a message for the audience. What are the different elements of drama? How are they related to each other? How do they affect the quality and thereby the popularity of a play? Read on to find out.

The six Aristotelian elements of drama are, plot , character , thought , diction , spectacle , and song . Out of these, the first two are the most important ones according to Aristotle.

Drama can be defined as a dramatic work that actors present on stage. A story is dramatized, which means the characters and events in the story are brought to life through a stage performance by actors who play roles of the characters in the story and act through its events, taking the story forward. In enacting the roles, actors portray the character’s emotions and personalities. The story progresses through verbal and non-verbal interactions between the characters, and the presentation is suitably supplemented by audio and visual effects.

Through the characters involved, the story has a message to give. It forms the central theme of the play around which the plot is built. While some consider music and visuals as separate elements, others prefer to club them under staging which can be regarded as an independent element of drama. Lighting, sound effects, costumes, makeup, gestures or body language given to characters, the stage setup, and the props used can together be considered as symbols that are elements of drama. What dictates most other dramatic elements is the setting; that is the time period and location in which the story takes place. This Buzzle article introduces you to the elements of drama and their importance.

The theme of a play refers to its central idea. It can either be clearly stated through dialog or action, or can be inferred after watching the entire performance. The theme is the philosophy that forms the base of the story or a moral lesson that the characters learn. It is the message that the play gives to the audience. For example, the theme of a play could be of how greed leads to one’s destroyal, or how the wrong use of authority ultimately results in the end of power. The theme of a play could be blind love or the strength of selfless love and sacrifise, or true friendship. For example, the play Romeo and Juliet , is based on a brutal and overpowering romantic love between Romeo and Juliet that forces them to go to extremes, finally leading them to self-destruction.

The order of events occurring in a play make its plot. Essentially, the plot is the story that the play narrates. The entertainment value of a play depends largely on the sequence of events in the story. The connection between the events and the characters in them form an integral part of the plot. What the characters do, how they interact, the course of their lives as narrated by the story, and what happens to them in the end, constitutes the plot. A struggle between two individuals, the relation between them, a struggle with self, a dilemma, or any form of conflict of one character with himself or another character in the play, goes into forming the story’s plot. The story unfolds through a series of incidents that share a cause-and-effect relationship. Generally, a story begins with exposing the past or background of the main and other characters, and the point of conflict, then proceeds to giving the central theme or climax. Then come the consequences of the climax and the play ends with a conclusion.

The characters that form a part of the story are interwoven with the plot of the drama. Each character in a play has a personality of its own and a set of principles and beliefs. Actors in the play have the responsibility of bringing the characters to life. The main character in the play who the audience identifies with, is the protagonist. He/she represents the theme of the play. The character that the protagonist conflicts with, is the antagonist or villain. While some characters play an active role throughout the story, some are only meant to take the story forward and some others appear only in certain parts of the story and may or may not have a significant role in it. Sometimes, these characters are of help in making the audiences focus on the play’s theme or main characters. The way in which the characters are portrayed and developed is known as characterization. Here is a list of characters in Romeo and Juliet .

The story of a play is taken forward by means of dialogs. The story is narrated to the audiences through the interaction between the play’s characters, which is in the form of dialogs. The contents of the dialogs and the quality of their delivery have a major role to play in the impact that the play has on the audiences. It is through the dialogs between characters that the story can be understood. They are important in revealing the personalities of the characters. The words used, the accent, tone, pattern of speech, and even the pauses in speech, say a lot about the character and help reveal not just his personality, but also his social status, past, and family background as given by the play. Monologues and soliloquies that are speeches given to oneself or to other characters help put forward points that would have been difficult to express through dialogs. “What’s in a name? That which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet” from Romeo and Juliet in which Juliet tells Romeo of the insignificance of names or “To be, or not to be”, a soliloquy from Hamlet are some of the greatest lines in literature.

The time and place where a story is set is one of its important parts. The era or time in which the incidents in the play take place, influence the characters in their appearance and personalities. The time setting may affect the central theme of the play, the issues raised (if any), the conflict, and the interactions between the characters. The historical and social context of the play is also defined by the time and place where it is set. The time period and the location in which the story is set, affect the play’s staging. Costumes and makeup, the backgrounds and the furniture used, the visuals (colors and kind of lighting), and the sound are among the important elements of a play that dictate how the story is translated into a stage performance. The Merchant of Venice has been set in the 16th century Venice. Romeo and Juliet has been set in the era between 1300 and 1600, perhaps the Renaissance period which is the 14th and 15th centuries.

Performance

It is another important element of drama, as the impact that a story has on the audiences is largely affected by the performances of the actors. When a written play is transformed into a stage performance, the actors cast for different roles, the way they portray the characters assigned to them, and the way their performances are directed are some important factors that determine the play’s impact. Whether an actor’s appearance (includes what he wears and how he carries himself on stage) suits the role he is playing, and how well he portrays the character’s personality are determinants of how well the play would be taken by the audiences. Different actors may play the same roles in different renditions of a play. A particular actor/actress in a certain role may be more or less accepted and appreciated than another actor in the same role. As different actors are cast for different roles, their roles are more or less appreciated depending on their performances. The stage performances of a play’s characters, especially those in lead roles, directly affect the success and popularity of a play.

Although considered as a part of the staging, factors such as music and visuals can be discussed separately as the elements of drama.

This element includes the use of sounds and rhythm in dialogs as well as music compositions that are used in the plays. The background score, the songs, and the sound effects used should complement the situation and the characters in it. The right kind of sound effects or music, if placed at the right points in the story, act as a great supplement to the high and low points in the play. The music and the lyrics should go well with the play’s theme. If the scenes are accompanied by pieces of music, they become more effective on the audiences.

Visual Element

While the dialog and music are the audible aspects of drama, the visual element deals with the scenes, costumes, and special effects used in it. The visual element of drama, also known as the spectacle, renders a visual appeal to the stage setup. The costumes and makeup must suit the characters. Besides, it is important for the scenes to be dramatic enough to hold the audiences to their seats. The special effects used in a play should accentuate the portion or character of the story that is being highlighted.

Apart from these elements, the structure of the story, a clever use of symbolism and contrast, and the overall stagecraft are some of the other important elements of drama.

The structure of the story comprises the way in which it is dramatized. How well the actors play their roles and the story’s framework constitute the structure of drama. Direction is an essential constituent of a play. A well-directed story is more effective. Stagecraft defines how the play is presented to the audiences. The use and organization of stage properties and the overall setting of a play are a part of stagecraft, which is a key element of drama.

Symbols are often used to give hints of the future events in the story. They complement the other elements of a scene and make it more effective. The use of contrasts adds to the dramatic element of a play. It could be in the form of contrasting colors, contrasting backdrops, an interval of silence followed by that of activity and noise, or a change in the pace of the story.

The dramatization of a story cannot be called successful unless the audiences receive it well. It may improve through constructive criticism or due to improvisations introduced by the actors. And a generous appreciation from the audiences encourages everyone involved in the making of a play, to continue doing good work.

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Drama and Theater Research Resources

Use the links below to jump directly to any section of this guide:

Drama and Theater Basics

The history of western drama, theater and the stage , from script to stage , dramatic works, actors, and playwrights , how to read and analyze dramatic works, resources for teaching drama and theater.

Dramatic literature and the performances that bring it to life have captivated the human imagination for centuries. People have gathered everywhere from the open-air theaters of ancient Athens to modern day high school auditoriums to encounter these works of art. The resources compiled here will help you bring those experiences into the home and classroom. Through this guide, you'll learn about the history of drama and theater, find links to archives of dramatic works, and read introductions on everything from stage terminology to early English playbooks.

The resources below will help you understand what drama and theater are, and explain why studying them is an important aspect of any arts education. In addition to dictionary and encyclopedia entries, you'll find resources that distinguish between different dramatic genres and introduce you to each one.

What is Drama and Why is it Unique?

Drama is the only form of literature that is written to be performed, typically by actors on a stage. The resources below will help you understand how "drama" is defined, and how it is different from other works of prose and poetry. 

"Drama" (Wikipedia)  

Wikipedia's entry includes a general definition of drama, as well as sections on dramatic history, genres of drama, and links to many additional external resources. 

"Theater" (Wikipedia)

Wikipedia's entry on theater provides an introduction to the concept, as well as an explanation of the various types of theater. Reading this entry will help clarify what distinguishes drama from theater.

"Dramatic Literature" ( Encyclopedia Britannica ) 

This encyclopedia entry delves more deeply into the difference between drama and literature and how the two forms work together. What constitutes a play, and how does the text of a play differ from its performance? 

"What is Drama?" (Victoria and Albert Museum) 

The Victoria and Albert theater archive provides online access to numerous resources about the history of drama and performance, plus a large collection of data related to the topic. 

"What's the Difference between Drama and Theater?" ( The Guardian )

This post from  T he Guardian 's theater blog explores the difference between drama on the page and theater on the stage. It also introduces a third term: the "post-dramatic theater."

Genres of Drama and Theater  

"List of Genres" (Drama Online)  

Drama Online offers resources on many aspects of drama and theater, including a comprehensive and detailed list of dramatic genres. Each genre includes an explanation, as well as examples of works within that specific genre. 

"Theater Practitioners and Genres" (The British Library)

The British Library's online collection includes resources on a number of different theatrical styles, including the "theater of cruelty" and the "theater of the absurd." It also includes links to interviews, clips, excerpts, and more. 

"Types of Dramatic Literature" (Quizlet)

Quizlet's helpful study set contains dozens of flashcards on the main types of dramatic literature, including melodrama, farce, and satire.

In Our Time : "Tragedy" (BBC)  

This podcast from the BBC focuses exclusively on the popular genre of tragedy, exploring its origins and its place within modern society. 

Drama has been an important part of western culture since the early Greek and Roman empires. Over the centuries and across countless different societies and cultures, the purpose and prominence of dramatic literature has changed significantly. The resources in this section will help you understand those changes by focusing on particular periods in the history of drama.

Greek and Roman Drama

In ancient Greece and Rome, dramatic spectacle was often used to convey political views. Ancient Greek tragedy is also tied to the Aristotelian idea of "catharsis"—the purgation of powerful emotion through pity and fear. Many comedies and tragedies from this era, including those of Sophocles and Aeschylus, remain popular today. The resources below will help you understand classical theater.

"Theater of Ancient Rome" (Wikipedia)  

The Wikipedia entry on the theater of Ancient Rome provides an overview of the characteristics of Roman tragedy and comedy, describes the physical spaces of the Roman theaters, and offers links for further exploration. 

"Theater of Ancient Greece" (Wikipedia)  

The Wikipedia entry on the theater of Ancient Greece is a good starting point for exploring the importance of drama and theater in Greek society. It includes a section on the masks worn in classical Greek theater.

Articles on Greek and Roman Drama (Theatrehistory.com) 

Here, you'll find a collection of articles pertaining to both Greek and Roman drama, most of which are excerpted from Alfred Bates's 1906 book The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization.  

The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization (Internet Archive)

You can download Alfred Bates's seminal book on drama in various formats courtesy of this Internet Archive page, including ePub, Kindle, and PDF.

"Greek and Roman Theater Glossary" (The Ancient Theatre Archive)   

Here, you'll find a sampling of definitions pertaining to Greek and Roman drama. Clicking on each term will bring you to a page with more information and helpful images. 

"Virtual Tour of Greek and Roman Theater" (The Ancient Theatre Archive)  

Check out this "virtual reality" tour of various ancient Greek and Roman theaters. It includes information on the modern-day locations of the ruins, seating capacity, reconstructed floor plans, and a detailed history with external resources. 

"Dr. J's Illustrated Greek Theater" ( Dr. J's Illustrated Guide to the Classical World )  

This illustrated guide, part of a larger guide compiled by Dr. Janice Siegel, outlines the setup and layout of a typical theater in Ancient Greece. 

Archive of Performances of Greek and Roman Drama 

This research project aims to study ancient Greek and Roman texts in performance in a wide variety of different media. The online database contains a broad range of information on dramatic performance.  

Early Modern Drama

Few eras are better known for the quality of their dramatic art than Renaissance England. The theater flourished during the 16th– and 17th–century rules of Queen Elizabeth and King James VI, with plays by Ben Jonson, Christopher Marlowe, and William Shakespeare drawing crowds by the hundreds. The resources below will introduce you to the period and its many masterpieces.

"English Renaissance Theater" (Wikipedia)   

The Wikipedia entry on English Renaissance theater provides basic information on the period's theaters and playhouses, playwrights, actors, and performances.  

Early Modern Drama Database  

A vast tabular record of every recorded early modern English play performed in London between 1573 and 1642, this database includes each work's date, author, genre, company, and the theater where it was first performed. 

"Elizabethan Theater" (Victoria and Albert Museum)   

This informational article on theater during the Elizabethan era from the Victoria and Albert Museum includes a helpful, introductory section on William Shakespeare. 

"Database of Early English Playbooks" (Univ. of Pennsylvania)   

This database, maintained by the University of Pennsylvania, allows you to search for any early modern English dramatic work and access a wide range of information on each text.  

"Why Should We Study Elizabethan Theater?" (Oxford Univ.)   

In this podcast, Professor Tiffany Stern of Oxford University discusses why Elizabethan theater is still important and relevant in the world today.

Modern and Postmodern Drama

Twentieth-century and postmodern drama deviate from earlier theatrical eras in numerous ways. Below, you'll find resources that delve into the difficult-to-define aspects of postmodernism, and that introduce you to the most famous and experimental texts of the period. 

"A History of British Theater" (BBC)  

This timeline from the BBC details the progression of British theater from 1350 to 2015. Although it's limited in that in only discusses British theater, it is a helpful outline of how drama has changed from the early modern to contemporary periods. 

"A to Z of Modern Drama" ( The Guardian ) 

Michael Billington, theater critic for The Guardian , has a collection of articles about "what makes modern theatre tick," from "absurdism" to the comedic performers he dubs "zanies."

"Postmodern Theater" (Wikipedia)   

This Wikipedia entry covers the basic groundwork of what might constitute the "postmodern" work, which is rooted in mid-20th century European postmodern philosophy.

Examples of Postmodern Dramatic Works (Drama Online Library)   

This collection includes detailed descriptions of many postmodern dramatic texts, including what exactly makes them "postmodern." Each explores contemporary issues in non-normative ways. 

Forced Entertainment Theater Company

Forced Entertainment, based in Sheffield in England, is one of the most well-known experimental theater companies in the world. Through their performances, they push theater to its limits and question what it can express about contemporary society. 

In order to understand how a performance comes together, you must understand the venue in which it is performed. There are many different components of any theater, all of which contribute to and impact the performance itself. In this section, you'll find resources describing these different elements, along with examples of well-known theatrical spaces around the world. 

Types of Stages 

"Stage (Theatre)" (Wikipedia)

Wikipedia's entry on the stage includes a definition of the term, a section on types of staging, and another section on stage terminology. You'll also find links to further resources. 

"What the Types of Theatre Stages and Auditoria?" (Theatre Trust)   

The U.K.'s national advisory public body for theaters offers a list of the most common types of stage arrangements, including some photos and images for reference. 

"What Spaces Make Up a Theatre?" (Theatre Trust) 

This page from Theatre Trust details the most common elements of a theater complex, and includes high-quality photos for reference. 

"Creating and Staging a Devised Performance" (BBC)  

This guide from the BBC's study support resource Bitesize  offers staging diagrams and lists the pros and cons of each stage type. 

Stage Terminology

There are many terms and phrases used in relation to the theater. Did you know that "stage left" refers to the left side of the stage from the performer's point of view, rather than the audience's vantage point? Use the resources below to familiarize yourself with many other theater-related words.

Glossary of Technical Theater Terms (Theatrecrafts.com) 

This beginner's guide, from a website devoted to entertainment technology resources and history, focuses on the fundamentals of technical theater. 

"60+ Theater Terms Every Actor Should Know" (Backstage) 

This list is intended for actors, but it's informative for anyone hoping to learn about theater productions. It includes sections on architecture, tech, the actors, and the crew. 

"The Theater Dictionary" (Theatre Development Fund) 

This dictionary from the Theatre Development Fund (TDF) defines a wide variety of theater-related terms, and each term includes both a written definition and a video explication.

"Drama Vocabulary" (Teachers Pay Teachers)

This resource pack from the popular website Teachers Pay Teachers includes a worksheet with 27 different dramatic terms, as well as an accompanying quiz to test the vocabulary.                                                          

Famous Theaters Around the World

Below, you can find links to the official websites of many well-known theatrical venues. We've directed you to the theater's "About Us" pages, but we invite you to explore each website further. Of course, this is just a small selection of a vast network, so we have also included a list and database to consult for further examples. 

Shakespeare's Globe 

The reconstructed Globe Theatre, located on the south bank of the river Thames in London, is one of the most well-known theaters in the world. Built only a few feet from the site of the original Globe of Shakespeare's day, this theater is renowned for its original practice productions, which aim to mimic the conditions of early modern theater. The theater also puts on more experimental productions. 

The Public Theater 

The Public Theater in Greenwich Village, New York, was designed to provide accessible theater to everyone. The theater group is known for their Shakespeare in the Park performances, they also put on a wide variety of plays and musicals. 

The Old Vic 

Located in South London, the Old Vic is an independent, not-for-profit theater that opened in 1818. To this day, it hosts many of the greatest stage actors in the world. 

"17 Amazing Theater Cities That Aren't London or New York" (Mic)   

This article lists a number of locations that aren't immediately recognized as "theater cities," but that boast thriving theater scenes to rival New York and London. 

"Theaters Database" (Theatre Trust)   

Theatre Trust offers a searchable database of U.K. theaters from the early modern period to the current day. Enter a search term, or click "Browse A - Z." 

Hours upon hours of work precede any successful opening night. In order to mount a production, a director must be chosen and a tech crew brought on board, auditions are needed to select the cast, and an often lengthy rehearsal schedule follows. Below are resources that allow you to explore various approaches to the production process.

Rehearsal and the Cast

The rehearsal process is what brings an entire performance together; from read-throughs to blocking and direction, every aspect of a performance must be rehearsed in order to prepare it for an audience. Everyone's rehearsal experience is different, but the resources below explore some common components. 

"What Really Goes On in the Rehearsal Room?" ( The Guardian )   

This blog post from The Guardian 's theater blog discusses the rehearsal process. It considers the secretive and private nature of the rehearsal room. 

"Can You Ever Have Too Much Rehearsal?" ( The Guardian ) 

This post, also from The Guardian 's theater blog, questions how much rehearsal should precede a performance, and asks whether too much rehearsal can hurt rather than help a production. 

"First Day of Rehearsals" (Royal Shakespeare Company) 

Byron Mondahl, an actor in the Royal Shakespeare Company's recent production of Hamlet,  details his experience of the first day of rehearsal. 

"Rehearsal Process for 'Much Ado About Nothing'" (YouTube) 

In this video, a director and actors from the National Theatre in London discuss the rehearsal process. They speak to the importance of reading classic play texts, understanding why the character say what they do, and translating that into performance. 

Technical Theater Roles

While actors may be the face of a performance, those who work backstage are just as integral to the production. Those in technical theater roles ensure that everything runs smoothly. The links below will help you understand this aspect of the theatrical world.  

"Technical Theatre" (Wikibooks)  

This entry from Wikibooks offers a brief and basic overview of the various roles involved in technical theater, from the costume designer to the master electrician. 

Technical Theater Subreddit (Reddit)   

This subreddit is dedicated to people involved or interested in technical theater, providing a place to ask questions or seek advice on anything regarding the topic. 

"Glossary of Technical Theatre Terms—Jobs" (Theatrecrafts.com)   

Theatrecrafts.com provides another helpful glossary of terms, this one dedicated specifically to the various jobs that occur backstage. 

"Who Works in a Theater?" (Theatre Trust) 

Theatre Trust provides a slightly more in-depth and detailed glossary of different roles in technical theater, and describes all the ways they contribute to making a performance possible. 

Theatrical Performance

If you're acting in a production, you'll need guidance on preparing for the performance and understanding your audience. Here, you'll find resources to help you understand the unique challenges posed by performing live.  

"Exercise Class: Preparing for Performance" ( The Guardian )   

This advice from a RADA graduate gives some suggestions for how to prepare, physically and mentally, before a performance. The exercises are intended for actors to relieve stress and nerves.

"Stage vs. Screen: What the Big Difference" (New York Film Academy)   

This short but informative piece highlights the differences between watching a film and a live theater performance. It is important for any performer to understand these differences, particularly the expectations of a live theater audience.  

Should Stage Actors be Movie Stars? ( Slate )   

This piece also delves into the differences between performing on stage and on screen, questioning whether movie stars should be stage stars and vice versa. 

"What Makes a Great Theatre Actor?" (BBC)   

This guide from the BBC describes what, in the author's opinion, makes great theater actors. It highlights the difficult nature of live performance. 

Now that you understand the basic principles of drama and theater, it's time to delve into some celebrated dramatic works and learn about the people who wrote and performed them.  Below, you'll find links to texts and resources on some of the most familiar figures in the world of drama and theater. 

Famous Playwrights

Provided below are links to the Goodreads pages of some of the most celebrated playwrights of all time. These pages include a helpful biography, complete list of works, as well as quotes and forums. Although this is a very small selection, it is a good starting point to learn about some of the most often-performed and discussed dramatic works. 

• William Shakespeare 
• Anton Chekhov
• Henrik Ibsen
• Oscar Wilde
• Tennessee Williams 
• Luigi Pirandello
• Lorraine Hansberry
• Samuel Beckett
• George Bernard Shaw
• Frances Hodgson Burnett
• Arthur Miller

Famous Dramatic Works

Don't know what plays to read first? Start here. You'll find different authors' lists of the greatest or most popular plays of all time, along with databases that host hundreds of dramatic texts.

"50 Best Plays of All Time" (Time Out)  

Here is one author's list of the 50 best plays ever written, from A Raisin in the Sun to Our Town . While every list is of course subjective, this list will introduce you to well-loved plays that have stood the test of time .

101 Greatest Plays ( The Guardian )  

Michael Billington, a theater critic for The Guardian , wrote a book on his picks for "101 greatest plays." The article above comments on his choices, and considers some of the "greats" he left off the list. 

"50 Classic Plays Every Student Should Read" (Online College Courses)

This list of classic plays from an online learning center contains a brief description of each play and why you should read it, along with a link to Amazon for each one.

"The Most Popular High School Plays and Musicals" (NPR)

This article from NPR discusses the most popularly performed plays and musicals among high school students since the 1940s. 

"Plays" (Drama Online)

Drama Online provides links to over 2,000 plays and accompanying resources. You can listen to a full-cast performance of Arthur Miller's  The Crucible,  or read and interpret Shakespeare's  Macbeth  with the help of the "Play Tools" tab. (Note: while some of the site's content is free, other resources require a subscription that your school or library may have purchased.)

Folger Digital Texts

Here, you'll find meticulously edited digital texts from the Folger Shakespeare Library. When you click the "Read" button on the right, you'll be directed to a page with links to each of Shakespeare's plays.

Famous Dramatic Actors 

Get to know the actors who have brought dramatic literature to life. Below, you'll find a few authors' lists of the greatest actors to point you toward further research, along with articles and books that delve more deeply into the careers of particular stars.

"Greatest Stage Actor Poll in Pictures" ( The Telegraph ) 

Dame Judi Dench was voted the greatest stage actor in a poll by The Stage . Here,  The Telegraph offers a photo and short blurb on each of the other actors who received the most votes. 

"Who is the Greatest Stage Actor Ever?" ( The Guardian )

In this article, The Guardian comments on the same poll by  Th e Stage.  It helpfully critiques it for omissions and an overwhelming focus on British performers, while offering its own suggestions for actors who should have made the list. 

"Thespis" (Wikipedia)

Meet the ancient Greek poet Thespis, who according to Aristotle was the first to appear onstage as a character. This Wikipedia article has sections on Thespis's "alleged works" and legacy.

"Theater Actor" (Biography.com)

Explore Biography.com's webpage on famous theater actors, from Edwin Booth to Ian McKellen. Click on an actor's name and photo, and you'll be redirected to their biography page.

Great Shakespeare Actors: Burbage to Branagh (Amazon)

This series of essays by Shakespeare scholar Stanley Wells is aimed at a broad readership. Wells discusses the greatest performers of Shakespeare's works, from great tragedienne Sarah Siddons to the actor and director Kenneth Branagh.

It's often said that plays and dramatic works are meant to be seen on the stage, not read on the page. Still, there is much to be gained from reading the text of a play. You'll become more alert to the nuances of the language, and will gain a greater appreciation for the play's structure and thematic focus. Here, you'll find resources to help you read, interpret, and write about dramatic literature.

"How to Read a Play" (School Theatre)   

This illustrated guide offers 30 steps to better understand and analyze a play text, from paying close attention to the character's journey to analyzing scenic metaphor.

"Writing about Drama" (Univ. of North Carolina)   

The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill has created a guide to writing an essay on dramatic works that walks you through the important points of analysis to consider. 

"How to Read and Enjoy a Dramatic Play" (ThoughtCo)   

This blog post considers how reading a play-text can enhance understanding of the performance and how to get the most out of it. 

"Top Tip for Analysing Drama" (YouTube)

This short video from an English teacher offers strategies for analyzing drama, noting that different tools must be used to analyze plays and novels.

While many of the resources above may help teachers plan lessons, the links below are designed specifically for that purpose. You'll find suggestions for which plays to teach, websites dedicated to the art of teaching drama, classroom activities, and entire drama units. 

"Best Works of Shakespeare to Teach in High School" (ThoughtCo)

This post from a veteran secondary school educator suggests a list of eight Shakespeare texts that high school students find interesting and informative. 

Theatre Links 

This website by Justin Cash hosts over 5,000 links to resources from across the globe on drama practitioners, styles, scripts, and stagecraft. 

Drama Activities and Games (TPT)

This Teachers Pay Teachers resource for middle school and high school students offers "drama trunk" cards for warm ups, improvisation, storytelling, language activities, and more.

Introduction to Drama (TPT)

Another Teachers Pay Teachers resource, this drama unit for middle school and high school students is comprised of six, 50-minute lesson plans, homework tasks, extension activities, and more.

"Shakespeare Teacher Resources," LitCharts Complete Guide to Shakespeare Resources

For a large selection of resources specifically devoted to teaching Shakespeare, take a look at another guide in this series,  LitCharts Complete Guide to Shakespeare Resources.

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• How to write a literary analysis essay | A step-by-step guide

How to Write a Literary Analysis Essay | A Step-by-Step Guide

Published on January 30, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on August 14, 2023.

Literary analysis means closely studying a text, interpreting its meanings, and exploring why the author made certain choices. It can be applied to novels, short stories, plays, poems, or any other form of literary writing.

A literary analysis essay is not a rhetorical analysis , nor is it just a summary of the plot or a book review. Instead, it is a type of argumentative essay where you need to analyze elements such as the language, perspective, and structure of the text, and explain how the author uses literary devices to create effects and convey ideas.

Before beginning a literary analysis essay, it’s essential to carefully read the text and c ome up with a thesis statement to keep your essay focused. As you write, follow the standard structure of an academic essay :

• An introduction that tells the reader what your essay will focus on.
• A main body, divided into paragraphs , that builds an argument using evidence from the text.
• A conclusion that clearly states the main point that you have shown with your analysis.

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Table of contents

Step 1: reading the text and identifying literary devices, step 2: coming up with a thesis, step 3: writing a title and introduction, step 4: writing the body of the essay, step 5: writing a conclusion, other interesting articles.

The first step is to carefully read the text(s) and take initial notes. As you read, pay attention to the things that are most intriguing, surprising, or even confusing in the writing—these are things you can dig into in your analysis.

Your goal in literary analysis is not simply to explain the events described in the text, but to analyze the writing itself and discuss how the text works on a deeper level. Primarily, you’re looking out for literary devices —textual elements that writers use to convey meaning and create effects. If you’re comparing and contrasting multiple texts, you can also look for connections between different texts.

To get started with your analysis, there are several key areas that you can focus on. As you analyze each aspect of the text, try to think about how they all relate to each other. You can use highlights or notes to keep track of important passages and quotes.

Language choices

Consider what style of language the author uses. Are the sentences short and simple or more complex and poetic?

What word choices stand out as interesting or unusual? Are words used figuratively to mean something other than their literal definition? Figurative language includes things like metaphor (e.g. “her eyes were oceans”) and simile (e.g. “her eyes were like oceans”).

Also keep an eye out for imagery in the text—recurring images that create a certain atmosphere or symbolize something important. Remember that language is used in literary texts to say more than it means on the surface.

Narrative voice

Ask yourself:

• Who is telling the story?
• How are they telling it?

Is it a first-person narrator (“I”) who is personally involved in the story, or a third-person narrator who tells us about the characters from a distance?

Consider the narrator’s perspective . Is the narrator omniscient (where they know everything about all the characters and events), or do they only have partial knowledge? Are they an unreliable narrator who we are not supposed to take at face value? Authors often hint that their narrator might be giving us a distorted or dishonest version of events.

The tone of the text is also worth considering. Is the story intended to be comic, tragic, or something else? Are usually serious topics treated as funny, or vice versa ? Is the story realistic or fantastical (or somewhere in between)?

Consider how the text is structured, and how the structure relates to the story being told.

• Novels are often divided into chapters and parts.
• Poems are divided into lines, stanzas, and sometime cantos.
• Plays are divided into scenes and acts.

Think about why the author chose to divide the different parts of the text in the way they did.

There are also less formal structural elements to take into account. Does the story unfold in chronological order, or does it jump back and forth in time? Does it begin in medias res —in the middle of the action? Does the plot advance towards a clearly defined climax?

With poetry, consider how the rhyme and meter shape your understanding of the text and your impression of the tone. Try reading the poem aloud to get a sense of this.

In a play, you might consider how relationships between characters are built up through different scenes, and how the setting relates to the action. Watch out for  dramatic irony , where the audience knows some detail that the characters don’t, creating a double meaning in their words, thoughts, or actions.

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Your thesis in a literary analysis essay is the point you want to make about the text. It’s the core argument that gives your essay direction and prevents it from just being a collection of random observations about a text.

If you’re given a prompt for your essay, your thesis must answer or relate to the prompt. For example:

Essay question example

Is Franz Kafka’s “Before the Law” a religious parable?

Your thesis statement should be an answer to this question—not a simple yes or no, but a statement of why this is or isn’t the case:

Thesis statement example

Franz Kafka’s “Before the Law” is not a religious parable, but a story about bureaucratic alienation.

Sometimes you’ll be given freedom to choose your own topic; in this case, you’ll have to come up with an original thesis. Consider what stood out to you in the text; ask yourself questions about the elements that interested you, and consider how you might answer them.

Your thesis should be something arguable—that is, something that you think is true about the text, but which is not a simple matter of fact. It must be complex enough to develop through evidence and arguments across the course of your essay.

Say you’re analyzing the novel Frankenstein . You could start by asking yourself:

Your initial answer might be a surface-level description:

The character Frankenstein is portrayed negatively in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein .

However, this statement is too simple to be an interesting thesis. After reading the text and analyzing its narrative voice and structure, you can develop the answer into a more nuanced and arguable thesis statement:

Mary Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to portray Frankenstein in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as.

Remember that you can revise your thesis statement throughout the writing process , so it doesn’t need to be perfectly formulated at this stage. The aim is to keep you focused as you analyze the text.

Finding textual evidence

To support your thesis statement, your essay will build an argument using textual evidence —specific parts of the text that demonstrate your point. This evidence is quoted and analyzed throughout your essay to explain your argument to the reader.

It can be useful to comb through the text in search of relevant quotations before you start writing. You might not end up using everything you find, and you may have to return to the text for more evidence as you write, but collecting textual evidence from the beginning will help you to structure your arguments and assess whether they’re convincing.

To start your literary analysis paper, you’ll need two things: a good title, and an introduction.

Your title should clearly indicate what your analysis will focus on. It usually contains the name of the author and text(s) you’re analyzing. Keep it as concise and engaging as possible.

A common approach to the title is to use a relevant quote from the text, followed by a colon and then the rest of your title.

If you struggle to come up with a good title at first, don’t worry—this will be easier once you’ve begun writing the essay and have a better sense of your arguments.

“Fearful symmetry” : The violence of creation in William Blake’s “The Tyger”

The introduction

The essay introduction provides a quick overview of where your argument is going. It should include your thesis statement and a summary of the essay’s structure.

A typical structure for an introduction is to begin with a general statement about the text and author, using this to lead into your thesis statement. You might refer to a commonly held idea about the text and show how your thesis will contradict it, or zoom in on a particular device you intend to focus on.

Then you can end with a brief indication of what’s coming up in the main body of the essay. This is called signposting. It will be more elaborate in longer essays, but in a short five-paragraph essay structure, it shouldn’t be more than one sentence.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale about the dangers of scientific advancement unrestrained by ethical considerations. In this reading, protagonist Victor Frankenstein is a stable representation of the callous ambition of modern science throughout the novel. This essay, however, argues that far from providing a stable image of the character, Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to portray Frankenstein in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as. This essay begins by exploring the positive portrayal of Frankenstein in the first volume, then moves on to the creature’s perception of him, and finally discusses the third volume’s narrative shift toward viewing Frankenstein as the creature views him.

Some students prefer to write the introduction later in the process, and it’s not a bad idea. After all, you’ll have a clearer idea of the overall shape of your arguments once you’ve begun writing them!

If you do write the introduction first, you should still return to it later to make sure it lines up with what you ended up writing, and edit as necessary.

The body of your essay is everything between the introduction and conclusion. It contains your arguments and the textual evidence that supports them.

Paragraph structure

A typical structure for a high school literary analysis essay consists of five paragraphs : the three paragraphs of the body, plus the introduction and conclusion.

Each paragraph in the main body should focus on one topic. In the five-paragraph model, try to divide your argument into three main areas of analysis, all linked to your thesis. Don’t try to include everything you can think of to say about the text—only analysis that drives your argument.

In longer essays, the same principle applies on a broader scale. For example, you might have two or three sections in your main body, each with multiple paragraphs. Within these sections, you still want to begin new paragraphs at logical moments—a turn in the argument or the introduction of a new idea.

Robert’s first encounter with Gil-Martin suggests something of his sinister power. Robert feels “a sort of invisible power that drew me towards him.” He identifies the moment of their meeting as “the beginning of a series of adventures which has puzzled myself, and will puzzle the world when I am no more in it” (p. 89). Gil-Martin’s “invisible power” seems to be at work even at this distance from the moment described; before continuing the story, Robert feels compelled to anticipate at length what readers will make of his narrative after his approaching death. With this interjection, Hogg emphasizes the fatal influence Gil-Martin exercises from his first appearance.

Topic sentences

To keep your points focused, it’s important to use a topic sentence at the beginning of each paragraph.

A good topic sentence allows a reader to see at a glance what the paragraph is about. It can introduce a new line of argument and connect or contrast it with the previous paragraph. Transition words like “however” or “moreover” are useful for creating smooth transitions:

… The story’s focus, therefore, is not upon the divine revelation that may be waiting beyond the door, but upon the mundane process of aging undergone by the man as he waits.

Nevertheless, the “radiance” that appears to stream from the door is typically treated as religious symbolism.

This topic sentence signals that the paragraph will address the question of religious symbolism, while the linking word “nevertheless” points out a contrast with the previous paragraph’s conclusion.

Using textual evidence

A key part of literary analysis is backing up your arguments with relevant evidence from the text. This involves introducing quotes from the text and explaining their significance to your point.

It’s important to contextualize quotes and explain why you’re using them; they should be properly introduced and analyzed, not treated as self-explanatory:

It isn’t always necessary to use a quote. Quoting is useful when you’re discussing the author’s language, but sometimes you’ll have to refer to plot points or structural elements that can’t be captured in a short quote.

In these cases, it’s more appropriate to paraphrase or summarize parts of the text—that is, to describe the relevant part in your own words:

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The conclusion of your analysis shouldn’t introduce any new quotations or arguments. Instead, it’s about wrapping up the essay. Here, you summarize your key points and try to emphasize their significance to the reader.

A good way to approach this is to briefly summarize your key arguments, and then stress the conclusion they’ve led you to, highlighting the new perspective your thesis provides on the text as a whole:

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

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By tracing the depiction of Frankenstein through the novel’s three volumes, I have demonstrated how the narrative structure shifts our perception of the character. While the Frankenstein of the first volume is depicted as having innocent intentions, the second and third volumes—first in the creature’s accusatory voice, and then in his own voice—increasingly undermine him, causing him to appear alternately ridiculous and vindictive. Far from the one-dimensional villain he is often taken to be, the character of Frankenstein is compelling because of the dynamic narrative frame in which he is placed. In this frame, Frankenstein’s narrative self-presentation responds to the images of him we see from others’ perspectives. This conclusion sheds new light on the novel, foregrounding Shelley’s unique layering of narrative perspectives and its importance for the depiction of character.

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Essay on Drama in English

A drama is a medium through which any kind of story is enacted through performance and dialogue. It has a plot, characters, conflict, music and dialogue. It tries to entertain an individual or a group of individuals. Generally, dramas are performed by the actors in a place called stage or theatre.

The actors in a drama are normally humans. But, broadly speaking, actors also are seen in the form of cartoons, puppets, or sometimes robots that perform with the help of human.

Generally, drama is divided into four categories. One is comedy, tragedy, Melodrama and tragicomedy.

Dramas are seen performing in many functions organized in the schools. They are generally based on any social cause like �Stop Cutting Trees�, �Save Water etc. It helps students to improve their knowledge of a particular subject. Likewise, drama has become an important part of human life.

In many schools, different drama clubs are formed. The aim is to allow students to think creatively. It helps students to be enough confident so to live a better life.

Questions on Drama

What is drama explain, what are drama and its forms.

A drama is a medium through which any kind of story is enacted through performance and dialogue. Drama is divided into four categories. One is comedy, tragedy, Melodrama and tragicomedy.

What are the characteristics of drama?

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