employment discrimination essay

Employment Discrimination and Equal Opportunities Essay

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Employment Discriminatory Practice

Equal employment opportunity commission (eeoc) as a strategic resource.

Employment discrimination is a burning problem in current society even though people truly believe they have already deprived themselves of racial, gender, age, or other prejudices (Cohn, 2009).

The story of one woman is proof of how gender discrimination in the workplace remains to be a problem. She is a successful lawyer with a Master’s degree and a several-year experience. Because of personal reasons, she had to change her place of living and work. Within a short period, she got an attractive proposition and signed a contract with a small company. She studied each point of the contract. There was no point about gender discrimination; she could not even think that such a factor would matter.

During the first deal, the woman was the only female representative of the company. The director controlled all processes. She was constantly interrupted by the director and substituted by other male representatives.

Her ideas were rejected, though some of them were interesting even according to the other participants’ opinions. The next several meetings were the same. When the woman decided to clear up the situation, she got an answer that her female views were not appropriate for the cases, and she was hired to show that the company got both, female and male, representatives. In a month, she changed the work as she did not want to look for official evidence of employment discrimination and did not find it necessary to continue discussions with such prejudiced male directors.

Nowadays, when a person needs to find some evidence or explanation of something, he/she addresses the Internet and surf the web. Within a short period, several interesting suggestions are found. A professional in the human service field can go to website and use the information offered by the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission team. The structure of the site is not complicated. It is easy to get access to different categories and read the information available.

The content of the site may become a powerful strategic resource due to a variety of facts about employment discrimination. Legal examples and explanations are offered. Laws and regulations that can be used in practice are described. Current news and changes are mentioned on its Home page ( U.S. Equal employment opportunity commission , 2015).

The point is that any employment discrimination case may become a real puzzle due to its complex nature (Landy, 2005). As soon as the puzzle is more or less clarified, it is possible to use the information on the site under discussion and get one or more solutions to the problem. It is easy to find examples of discrimination in the workplace, learn the definitions, and be ready to support the chosen position using the legally approved facts offered. Another helpful point is the possibility to contact the commission and clear up any point directly. As this site is a “.gov” type, all information should be approved by the government and considered to be valid.

Cohn, S. (2009). Race and gender discrimination at work . Oxford: Westview Press.

Landy, F.J. (2005). Employment discrimination litigation: Behavioral, quantitative, and legal perspectives . San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.

U.S. Equal employment opportunity commission. (2015). Web.

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Home — Essay Samples — Social Issues — Discrimination — The Issue Of Employment Discrimination In America

The Issue of Employment Discrimination in America

• Categories: Discrimination

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The last great stigma

Workers with mental illness experience discrimination that would be unthinkable for other health issues. can this change.

by Pernille Yilmam   + BIO

It is not difficult to find stories about the burdens and barriers faced by employees or job-seekers with mental illness. For example, it was recently reported that Scotland’s police denied a position to a promising trainee because of her use of antidepressants – in keeping with a rule that officers must be without antidepressant treatment for at least two years. In other cases, people have reported being fired from jobs at a university, a nursing home facility, a radio station, and a state agency following requests for medical leave due to postpartum depression, anxiety, depression and bipolar disorder, respectively. A US government commission maintains a select list of resolved lawsuits against companies that involved claims of mistreatment based on a worker’s mental health condition.

Often, the impact of negative attitudes toward mental illness is less overt than in these examples. More than a decade ago, a university professor named Suzanne published a book in which she openly discussed her life with bipolar disorder. The personal details that she revealed in the book, she told me, became a foundation for discriminatory treatment at her workplace. She said she experienced professional isolation in the hallways and meeting rooms: that colleagues stopped inviting her to collaborate with them, that she was shut down in department meetings and cut off from participating in decision-making committees. She attributes these developments to knowledge of her mental illness.

‘I experienced a very noticeable chill, averted eyes, actually being cut off when speaking in meetings,’ Suzanne recalled. ‘Lots of loaded language, of the “Well, SOME people just need to take their meds” variety, in meetings. This was the stage of my professional career where I started calling myself “the crazy lady in the corner”.’ At one point, when she had to take medical leave to address symptoms associated with her condition, a colleague opined that she was ‘lucky’ to have the option.

I n light of such stories, it’s not surprising that concerns about revealing mental health problems at work are commonplace. It’s estimated that 15 per cent of working-age adults have a mental health condition, and in a 2021 survey in the US, three-quarters of workers reported one or more symptoms of mental illness. One study surveying more than 800 people with major depressive disorder worldwide found that between 30 and 45 per cent reported experiencing discrimination in the workplace, with people in high-income countries reporting it at higher rates. A third of US employees polled by the American Psychiatric Association said they were worried about the consequences at work if they sought help for their mental health condition. In England, 61 per cent of survey respondents who were severely affected by mental illness said that ‘the fear of being stigmatised or discriminated against’ stopped them from applying for jobs and promotions. While there are signs that stigma related to mental illness has decreased over time (at least in some countries), stigma and discrimination continue to pose a problem in many workplaces.

Since the 1990s, a number of laws around the world have prohibited discrimination against employees with physical and mental disabilities. Among these are the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 in the US, the Disability Discrimination Act 1992 in Australia, and Article 13 of the Amsterdam Treaty of 1997 in the European Union. While these laws have done much to advance protections for people with disabilities, their impact on the treatment of people with mental illness – which constitutes a form of disability for many – has clearly had limits.

Mental illness-related discrimination persists as a multilayered problem characterised by fear, misconceptions and underenforced laws. The encouraging news is that scientists have been developing interventions to help reduce stigma and discrimination related to mental illness – approaches that should receive much more attention if advocates, employers and governments want to make workplaces fairer for all.

Job seekers reluctant to mention a mental illness history were more likely to be employed six months later

Discrimination against people with mental illness is often rooted in preconceived notions about what mental illness is and how it affects someone’s ability to work. These negative misconceptions are forms of mental illness stigma . Research has found that stigma is sometimes expressed by employers and colleagues as an issue of trust: eg, a belief that people with mental illness need more supervision, that they lack initiative, or that they are unable to deal with clients directly. Some might believe that people with mental illness are dangerous, or that they should hold only manual, lower-paying jobs. Research also suggests that many employers and coworkers believe people with mental illness should participate in the workforce, but are reluctant to work with them directly – which has been described as a type of ‘not in my backyard’ phenomenon.

Discriminatory behaviours have been investigated as well. In the US, researchers found that fictitious job applications that mentioned an applicant’s hospitalisation for mental illness led to fewer callbacks than applications noting a hospitalisation for a physical injury. Similar results were observed in Norway. In Germany, scientists found that job seekers who were more reluctant to mention their mental illness history in applications and interviews were more likely to be employed six months later. In addition to the potential impact on hiring, some people with mental illness have told researchers they believe they have been refused a promotion due to their condition.

In one revealing study , Matthew Ridley, an economist at Warwick University in the UK, had pairs of strangers collaborate on a virtual task. Before the task, each participant was shown characteristics of the person they had been matched with, which in some cases included mental illness. Ridley then asked if they wanted to be paired with someone else instead. The participants, he found, tended to be willing to give up some of their anticipated financial compensation to avoid working with a person who had significant depression or anxiety symptoms. When asked why, they indicated that they thought people with a mental illness would be less efficient in completing the task, would require more support, and would be less fun to work with. (For their part, among the participants who revealed to Ridley that they had a mental illness, a majority said they would pay to not have that fact revealed to their partner.)

In the end, participants were paired randomly and, when Ridley analysed the results, he found no differences in task success or enjoyment, regardless of whether someone worked with a person who had a mental illness. The findings capture how negative assumptions can come into play – and prove to be inaccurate – even in the context of a temporary collaboration.

T he perpetuation of mental illness stigma and discrimination comes at a cost not only to the affected individual, but also to companies and societies. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that mental illness costs the global economy $1 trillion annually. Among the reasons for these astronomical costs are the higher rates of sick days and unemployment among people with mental illness. The increased absences are partly due to lack of access to treatment; in 2021, it was estimated that only half of all US adults with mental illness had received mental health services in the past year. But a potential aggravating factor is that some employees with mental illness refrain from using their work-associated health insurance for treatment, out of fear that their employer will learn about their condition, resulting in their dismissal, or other forms of discrimination.

The denial of reasonable workplace accommodations could also make a person’s job more difficult and absences more likely. For a person who uses a wheelchair, an accommodation might be a ramp where there are stairs; for a person with a mental health condition, such as an anxiety disorder or ADHD, it could mean having a private office or noise-cancelling headphones to help with concentration problems, or flexibility in one’s work hours in order to attend healthcare appointments or accommodate heightened symptoms. It could also mean requesting leave for a mental health condition – up to 12 weeks in the US, similar to medical leave for physical injuries or for sickness. But some employees might avoid requesting the accommodations they are legally allowed to receive, simply because they suspect that doing so puts their job security and potential for advancement at risk.

The greater amount of absences among people with mental illness can make firings more likely. Losing a job can worsen mental illness, and people often stop applying for new jobs because they anticipate stigma and discrimination.

A list of the top 10 disabilities in US discrimination claims included depression, anxiety disorder and PTSD

Of course, one’s experience of work itself – a major cause of stress for many people – can also contribute to mental illness. One woman I spoke with, whom I’ll call Sara, shared that unsupportive and hostile work environments have made her anxiety even worse than it used to be. She believes that having to take time off work for her mental health led to her sudden termination from her previous job.

Under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), US employers are legally prohibited from discriminating based on physical or mental disabilities at any point during hiring, firing or professional evaluation. The same is true in Australia, based on the Disability Discrimination Act. Other countries have passed antidiscrimination legislation since then too, including South Africa’s Mental Health Care Act 17 of 2002 and India’s Equality Bill, 2019.

Yet, as we’ve seen, decades after the implementation of the ADA, problems remain. Studies continue to document stigma and discrimination against workers with mental illness. In 2020, a list of the top 10 disabilities in US discrimination claims included depression, anxiety disorder and PTSD. In Australia, a commission concluded back in 2004 that the country’s antidiscrimination legislation had been less effective in helping people with mental illness than those with mobility and sensory disabilities. In the EU, where Article 13 of the Amsterdam Treaty created a binding agreement to illegalise discrimination based on disabilities, researchers and clinical professionals were quick to point out its vagueness and lack of defined scope. An EU-funded consensus paper from 2010 documented the continued problem of discrimination against employees and job-seekers with mental illness.

Reports such as these call into question whether even a major law like the ADA can adequately address discrimination related to employee mental illness. And they should prompt us to reconsider how best to combat the problem. One question we can ask is: what might limit the impact of such laws in curbing discrimination against people with mental illness, compared with discrimination against people with physical disabilities? Let’s consider three potential answers.

F irst, discriminatory behaviour is not always obvious, and sometimes it is not even intentional. Compared with an employee who uses a wheelchair, it might be easier to dismiss a socially anxious person’s need to work from home. Compared with someone who is getting treatment for cancer, it might be easier to question whether an employee newly diagnosed with bipolar disorder will ever return as a valuable employee after their medical leave. Compared with a trauma-induced concussion, it might be easier to wonder whether a hypersensitivity to noise, related to PTSD, is really legitimate. Mental illnesses and their effects on people’s daily lives are often less apparent to others than the effects of a physical disability.

Second, laws like the ADA work only if people open up about their disabilities. The physical disability community has in the past decades led a cultural shift from exclusion and shame toward inclusivity and empowerment. People with physical disabilities have community, speak up and exercise their rights. Although there are ongoing efforts by people with mental illness to raise awareness about their experiences, many individuals stay quiet due to shame about their own condition or fear of how others will respond.

Even employers who want to hire people with mental illness can be subject to misguided beliefs

Lastly, the public stigma against mental illness bleeds into what people are expected to be able to handle and achieve. While physical disability is commonly perceived as a challenge with movement, mental illness is perceived as a challenge with thinking. Physical disabilities are seen as being caused by accidents or other unfortunate circumstances, while mental illnesses are often incorrectly seen as a choice or an inherent character flaw. Other misconceptions are that mental illness generally is untreatable or renders people violent or unable to work. An employer might therefore deem a person with mental illness unable to meet their job responsibilities, even when this assumption is unfounded.

Antidiscrimination laws are important, but they do not eliminate the tolls of stigma and capitalism. Employers want to make money, and a mental illness can be seen as a financial liability. Even employers who say they want to hire people with mental illness can be subject to misguided beliefs. And even when companies do grant accommodations, they might be limited. Sara, who in addition to struggling with anxiety has long had difficulty with focusing in distracting environments, was recently diagnosed with ADHD. Together with her psychiatrist, she submitted a request to her large corporate employer to work from home on two weekdays of her choosing, which would enable her to better focus on computer tasks – something that for her is much more difficult in a distracting open-office environment. She told me that it took six months for the accommodation request to be processed; in the end, she was allowed to work from home only on Mondays.

If people can develop the compassion needed to understand why ramps should be installed for use by employees with wheelchairs, there must be a way to heighten compassion for those who would benefit from, for example, a less distracting work environment. But history suggests it won’t be enough to make discriminatory practices illegal. It will require a change in perceptions.

F or many employees or job candidates with a mental illness, the prospect of workplaces free of stigma and discrimination may seem unattainable. ‘I cannot say anything definite that helps [reduce discrimination],’ Suzanne tells me. ‘If you keep your head down and do your job, then good people will eventually accept that this person is still fulfilling their job.’ There are, however, scientifically supported strategies that could be used in efforts to reduce mental illness stigma – and, consequently, discrimination – in workplaces. To the frustration of many anti-stigma advocates, these strategies have not yet been widely implemented.

One basic stigma-reducing strategy is based on social contact. Research suggests that people who have regularly interacted with someone who has personal experience with mental illness (such as a family member, friend or colleague) are often less likely to stigmatise and discriminate, and may be more likely to engage in empathic conversations about mental illness with employees. A law like the ADA should in theory have facilitated more social contact: if it freed more employees to disclose their mental illness and ask for reasonable accommodations, their coworkers would have learned that someone can have a mental illness and still be smart and productive. But, again, many people still do not disclose their mental illness (for fear of discrimination or other reasons), and coworkers cannot learn from what is not disclosed.

Educating HR professionals about mental illness could help reduce discriminatory practices

Another promising method for improving attitudes and behaviour toward employees with mental illness is psychoeducation. Broadly speaking, psychoeducation, also known as mental health education or mental health literacy, is a method of teaching what mental health is, why people might develop mental illnesses, and how these illnesses can be prevented and treated. It can also include the sharing of actionable strategies for coping with symptoms and crises, both acutely and preventatively. Psychoeducation incorporates components of group therapy and cognitive behavioural therapy, and is frequently used by psychiatrists and therapists in clinical settings. It was originally developed to support patients with severe mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder, and their families.

Excitingly, psychoeducation can also be used to help change the way workers with mental illness are perceived. While it has been most studied among patient groups as a method to reduce symptom severity and increase healthy coping strategies, it has been employed in professional settings too. For example, a systematic review of studies indicated that psychoeducational training for managers can improve their ‘knowledge, attitudes and self-reported behaviour in supporting employees experiencing mental health problems’. One study reported that managers who received psychoeducational training felt more confident in talking with employees about mental illness and were more likely to reach out to an employee who had an extended absence due to mental illness or stress. Researchers have also suggested that educating human-resources professionals about mental illness could help reduce discriminatory practices. Recently, the implementation of psychoeducational programmes in six companies within high-stress industries (such as hospitality) was found to reduce ratings of stress among workers and mental illness stigmatisation among workers.

The results from these studies are encouraging. Because psychoeducation can be delivered virtually in group settings and can be led by non-experts who’ve received appropriate training, it is also a cost-effective, scalable method. (Full disclosure: last year, I founded a nonprofit that has started to offer psychoeducational services in schools and other organisations.) But, for now, this approach appears to be rarely deployed in workplaces outside of research studies.

T he psychoeducation programmes in these studies typically take place in weekly, one- to two-hour sessions, lasting from a few weeks to months, and they are most often led by mental health professionals. They tend to focus on teaching people about and facilitating conversations on the causes, types, presentation and treatments of mental illness. The programmes often spend a considerable amount of time debunking common myths about mental health, and provide exercises to enable participants to help themselves or others with a mental illness. These exercises might include cognitive-behavioural tools for ‘fact-checking’ thought patterns, problem-solving skills, daily mood journals, and breathing exercises. A major goal is to challenge ideas about mental illness that underlie stigma and discrimination.

In a 2022 policy brief on mental health at work, the WHO argued for greater efforts to improve mental health literacy and support employees with mental illness. Psychoeducational programmes could be a prime tool for pursuing these goals, a staple for companies that aim to comply with antidiscrimination law and improve employee wellbeing. If psychoeducation helps key stakeholders, such as employers and human-resources professionals, to treat employees and job candidates with greater understanding, that might also lead to fewer sick days, enhanced productivity and more employment among people with mental illness. Perhaps work itself will become a less prominent driver of stress.

Some companies currently provide offerings such as unlimited vacation days, meditation apps or yoga sessions as a way to show support for employees’ wellbeing. But these sorts of benefits likely do little to address stigma or discrimination in workplaces. Moreover, implicit in this strategy is the idea that mental illness is a problem that can and should be addressed by individual employees, without putting broader workplace conventions and beliefs into question.

‘In contrast to my mental illness, my concussion was immediately accommodated’

While a severe version of a state such as psychosis or mania can be devastating for the person experiencing it, most people who have a mental health condition are not dealing with crises from day to day. Yes, someone with mental illness might be more easily distracted, more sensitive to noise or less social, but that doesn’t mean that their symptoms will inevitably hamper their job performance. What does hamper performance is when companies neglect to provide reasonable accommodations, even when studies suggest that the benefits associated with providing such accommodations outweigh the costs.

Wouldn’t most companies be inclined to provide structural and logistical support for an employee who suddenly became paraplegic, or who suffered another disabling physical ailment? One former tech industry employee told me that she saw a marked difference in how her leave-taking was received depending on whether it was mental health-related or not. ‘A while after returning from my mental health leave,’ she says, ‘I got a concussion for which I needed partial leave. The symptoms I had were so similar to my PTSD but, in contrast to my mental illness, my concussion was immediately accommodated with a 90-day medical leave and temporary part-time work schedule without any stigma.’ Sara, too, noticed a stark difference when she needed medical leave and other task-related accommodations to recover from shoulder surgery, as opposed to accommodations related to her mental health.

The evidence of ongoing and unnecessary burdens on workers with mental illness calls for honest consideration of what previous antidiscrimination measures have and have not achieved. Employers and governments have yet to fulfil the promise of landmark antidiscrimination laws for the many millions of people who go to work with mental health conditions. Fortunately, there is hope that evidence-backed approaches such as psychoeducational programmes could – if more widely embraced – provide an effective tool for making workplaces fairer and more supportive.

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Transgender individuals continue to experience institutional violence and discrimination. Although the nation has made tremendous strides in improving the welfare of transgender people, a lot still needs to be done to ensure that their rights can be respected. Besides enacting appropriate laws to protect the rights of transgender individuals, it would be imperative to ensure that the society is actively involved in finding a lasting solution to the problem. Institutional violence and discrimination cannot be tackled without the participation of […]

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The world is full of many different forms of discrimination. You see people judged based on their religion, race, gender, physical appearance, and so much more. Women are more often than not treated differently than men. This shows significant disadvantages for women in the workplace. Women get treated as less than men in most job related situations. However, it doesn't stop there. Women are treated as less than men in almost every aspect of everyday life, because the truth is […]

Civil Rights and Civil Liberties

Native American and African American were not the only ones that had been discriminated against and deprived of their civil rights. Asian Americans were also denied their civil rights and discriminated against. As a matter of fact, Asians are the most hated of all immigrants group and subjected to the same discrimination as were African Americans and American Indians. Countless Asian Americans were moved by the growth of African American, Chicano, and Native American civil rights movement in the 60’s […]

Gender Discrimination in the Workplace

One of the greatest disputes in the United States today involves gender discrimination in the workplace. Issues such as unequal pay, pregnancy discrimination, and sexual harassment are all covered by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and the Title VII. However, in many businesses, the discrimination based on gender continues to occur. Title VII prohibits job discrimination in all aspects of the workplace, from firing procedures to promotion and benefits. This law applies to businesses with fifteen or more employees, however […]

Gender Wage Gap Issue

The gender wage gap is an important issue for me because as a female minority, I’m already at two disadvantages in America. I chose this particular topic to become more educated in hopes to pass on knowledge and shed a light on this economic issue for others who don’t understand. This issue is important to our society because women are still being paid less than in men in 2019. According to an online survey conducted by Payscale, the comparison of […]

Age Diversity and Discrimination in the Workplace

In the present workforce of today’s society, diversity represents the range of human differences,including but not limited to race, ethnicity, gender identity, sexual orientation, age, social class, physical ability or attributes, religious or ethical values system, national origin, and political beliefs. Age diversity is defined as the ability of an organization to accept people from various age categories within the organization’s business environment. The ability to manage both the age group of people and merge them in a single working environment is […]

Gender Stereotypes against Women and Men

Stereotypes by gender affect everyday living of women and men worldwide, especially the citizens of America. Both males and females of ethnicities, religions, and/or races have been impacted by gender stereotypes. This topic has been in existence since the beginning of time and is a subconscious trait that everyone has. Discrimination against gender is displayed in various settings including, but not limited to; religious groups, the workforce and everyday living of the “American Dream”. Gender stereotyping is prominent in all […]

Reflections on the Gender Discrimination Scandal in Japanese Universities

Recently, an article writtenby Greg Wheeler called “The Tokyo Medical University entrance exam scandal: lessons learned” was published in the International Journal of Educational Integrity. In the article, the author outlines the news that TMU secretly cut scores of female applicants in order to reduce the number of female medical students, and such sexism is not unique to many Japanese universities. Such measures have deprived many women of the chance to attend good universities and some female college students of […]

Legislations are Used to Serve Many Purposes

Legislations are used to serve many purposes, such as maintain order and to give citizens rules and regulations about how the country functions. Kenji Yoshino believes that we should not depend on legislations when the corrections can be done within the social environment itself. He calls this the “New Civil Rights”. Yoshino’s “New Civil Rights” framework can be used to resolve issues such as discrimination in the workplace. Discrimination can be solved within the workplace itself, instead of depending on […]

Women and Wage Gaps in the Government

In the article from USA Today Women still earn less than men in the Iowa State Government. there has always seemed to be a wage gap between men and women. An examination of recent released data of state employee salary data shows that women who work in state government positions continue to be paid less than men. The median salary for female state employees in fiscal year 2018 was $50,815 concerning $4,850 but the median salary for male employees of […]

Salesforce and the Gender Wage Gap

Back in 2015, the cloud computing company, Salesforce, took a long overdue stand on the gender wage gap. Salesforce leadership noticed that by and large their male employees were compensated at greater rates than their female counterparts. In order to eradicate the wage gap within the company, they grouped employees, gender blind, in comparable roles and analyzed salaries and bonuses in order to determine the reason for any compensation differences. Salesforce then took the progressive approach on adjusting compensation according […]

Career Crises that Affect Women

Introduction Women have always been the glue that keeps families together; we are the ones with strong shoulders that men lean on. In the 21st century, we are not just wives, mothers, businesswomen, doctors, lawyers, and Indian Chiefs, but also providers of extra income to help take care of our families. Many more women today who have chosen to work outside the home must also work double duty if they have a family. They don't only put in 8 hours […]

Social and Economic Interactions

Although social and economic interactions among the genders are evolving, these great transformations don’t take away the fact that gender inequalities in American society still exist. Glass Ceiling in the 21st Century Success stories of the very few women cracking (only some breaking through) the glass ceiling or women defying societal norms by becoming a part of the working class are constantly making the headlines, but this can be deceiving because women still aren’t given a chance to reach their […]

Essay Gender Discrimination

Gender discrimination is described as the discrimination of an individual based on their sex. Various states have their own laws regarding gender discrimination which makes them illegal. Gender discrimination is usually more prevalent in the workplace. Even states that have anti-discrimination laws have not prevented this from happening. In the workplace, it happens more to women and the culprits are usually both sexes (Bobbitt-Zeher and Donna, 2011). Women who are qualified may be passed over for job placement or job […]

Gender and Diversity

For the first article Pride and Prejudice: Employment Discrimination against Openly Gay Men in the United States by András Tilcsik, is one of the first large studies to study the discrimination against openly gay men in the U.S. They talked about stereotyping and hiring discrimination with gay men and what they must go through. They noted that employers who were looking for applicants with stereotypical male heterosexual traits were more likely to discriminate against gay applicants than employers who do […]

Gender and Sexualities

Everyone has an opinion on what the word gender means to them. Some believe male and female are the only two genders, with strict beliefs on each of these genders’ rightful roles in society. Others believe gender is just a social construct, with each individual having the right to identify as either masculine, feminine, or in some cases, neither. Because of this long-standing debate between definitions of gender and the contexts of sexuality, this remains a sensitive subject while the […]

Gender Inequlaity in the Workplace in the United States

The first gathering devoted to women’s rights in the United States was held July 19, 1848 in Seneca Falls, New York by a lady named Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Women back then were fighting for the lack of educational and economic opportunities, and the absence of a voice in political debates. Women have come very far since 1848 and in the twentieth century women started to make major contributions in the labor force, education systems, academic, and public events. However, many […]

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Nizhny Novgorod , city and administrative center of Nizhegorod oblast (region), western Russia . The city lies at the confluence of the Volga and Oka rivers, 260 miles (420 km) east of Moscow .

Although some authorities give an earlier date, the city was founded, according to a major chronicle, in 1221 by Yury Vsevolodovich, prince of Vladimir, as Russian colonization was advancing to the Volga into lands formerly occupied by the Mordvinians . Nizhny Novgorod’s strategic site on the great Volga route from the Baltic to Central Asia —with links via the navigable Oka River to the Vladimir-Moscow region and via the Kama River to the Ural Mountains and Siberia—ensured its importance. In 1392 the town was incorporated into the principality of Moscow and soon became a Russian stronghold against the Volga Tatars. From there, Ivan III the Great in 1469 and Ivan IV the Terrible in 1552 launched their expeditions against the Tatar capital of Kazan . The Russian conquest of the Volga in the mid-16th century brought about increased trade for Nizhny Novgorod. The annual fair that was established in that city in 1817 became the largest and most important in Russia, attracting traders and goods from across Europe and Asia. The fair continued until the Russian Revolution of 1917. The well-known writer Maxim Gorky was born in Nizhny Novgorod in 1868, and in 1932 the town was renamed in his honor by the Soviet regime, although its original name was restored in 1990.

The great volume of trade passing through the city led to the early utilization of serf labor in manufacturing, causing an earlier onset of factory industrialization than in much of Russia, especially in heavy industry and engineering. The town’s industrial importance grew steadily, stimulated in World Wars I and II by the destruction of plants to the west. Modern Nizhny Novgorod is one of the largest cities of Russia and the center of a large metropolitan area strung out along the Volga and lower Oka rivers. The city is home to the Gorky Automobile Plant (Gorkovsky Avtomobilny Zavod; GAZ), one of the largest in Russia, and also produces many types of ships and river craft, diesel engines, machinery and machine tools, and a wide range of chemical and consumer goods. Of its satellite towns, Bor, across the Volga, makes glass, notably safety glass for cars; Dzerzhinsk makes chemicals and fertilizers; Balakhna and Pravdinsk make paper; Bogorodsk produces leather goods and footwear; and Kstovo has a major oil refinery. Power for the metropolis comes from two thermal-electric plants in Nizhny Novgorod—the Balakhna peat-burning station and the hydroelectric station at Zavolzhye. During the general deindustrialization trend in Russia in the post-Soviet period, the city preserved its industrial profile, and, at the beginning of the 21st century, of the country’s cities with more than one million residents, it had the highest proportion of the working population employed in industry. Nizhny Novgorod is the focus of excellent communications by river, road, rail, and air. Railways connect it with Moscow, Kirov (on the Trans-Siberian line), and Arzamas , and electrified suburban lines serve the metropolitan area.

Nizhny Novgorod has numerous institutions of higher learning, including the N.I. Lobachevsky State University (founded 1918). There is also a state art museum and one of the oldest drama theaters in Russia (established 1798). The city’s historic buildings include the 16th-century kremlin and the 17th-century Archangel Cathedral. Pop. (2010) 1,250,619.