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713 Computers in education and learning

• Published: April 2019
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As we have already hinted, computers and the internet have made profound changes in how we learn. We begin this topic by reviewing influential visions and early prototypes suggesting how technology could revolutionize education. Early on, computers were used by educators to deliver online tutorials about subject material, administer drill-and-practice exercises on rote skills, act as supportive environ­ments for creatively exploring ideas through programming in English-like languages, and function as inexpensive, ubiquitous, and dynamic audio-visual resources. We shall then discuss other newer methods for using digital technologies to transform how students approach subject matter and how classrooms are organized. By using interactive simulation games, students learn by taking actions with respect to certain scenarios. Presentation aids such as PowerPoint and Prezi have replaced blackboards to present and elucidate concepts. Smart classrooms allow instructors and students access to technology that facilitates learning; inverted classrooms allow more effective use of class­room time by enabling students to prepare for lectures in advance and focus on working together with their teachers in class. Intelligent tutors are artificial intelligence (AI) programs that actively support student learning, diagnose student difficulties with the material, and then adapt tutoring strategies based on these findings. Next, we shall review how online learning has opened up new opportunities for adult and continuing education, whereby students can learn in their own time and at their own pace. The challenge online learning technology developers now face is to provide discussion forums, real-time chat capabilities, and methods for instructor feedback so that advantages of face-to-face interaction are not lost in web-based learning. Particularly exciting is the growth of worldwide learning communities via Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), an area of current expansion and creativity. While technology is now seen as instrumental in learning, there are still debates on the extent to which it should be used and how it should be used in education. A particularly prevalent dilemma is in middle and secondary schools. The issue is whether or not and how to encourage or disallow the use of mobile phones and other devices in classrooms.

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Theories of Learning

Related Papers

marlene kafui

This is about the learning theories.

Nazirah Mat Sin

This e-document is actually a documentation series of lectures I have attended, taught and browse from the internet. It is solely used for educational purposes. I would like to thank all my lecturers who had taught me, my students and other academics who had shared their knowledge. The purpose of uploading this e-document is strictly meant for sharing knowledge. I am no longer teaching the subject. Thus I hope by sharing this document would bring benefits to others.

Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology

Sasha Barab

susan uribe

This article examines theoretical frameworks and models that focus on the pedagogical aspects of online education. After a review of learning theory as applied to online education, a proposal for an integrated Multimodal Model for Online Education is provided based on pedagogical purpose. The model attempts to integrate the work of several other major theorists and model builders such as Anderson (2011).

Ahmet Selçuk Akdemir

Kamal Acharya

Bobbe Baggio

Firend Al. Rasch

This book was written in stages while working in higher education for the past sixteen years, while teaching in the U.K. when I was working on my Post-Graduate Certification in Education by www.amii.us The objective of this book is to put together in reader’s hands all they need to know regarding modern theories in higher education in a simplified manner. It is my conviction that Hean et al., (2009: 256) is right in viewing learning and teaching adults, should not be viewed as collection of theories in of itself, but rather, “a context which [cognitive] constructivist theories are applied”. The collection of theories presented here are widely available across education and psychology textbooks. This book is one section of the forthcoming book “Learning Theories: Everything you need to know about teaching in higher education” The forthcoming book will include additional sections such as; teaching styles, Curriculum Design, Assessment, and Learning Out- comes. The second part of the forthcoming book in 2020 will introduce the reader to essential concepts such as quality assurance and curriculum design in higher education; and the third part provides the requirements and essay examples, as part of the requirement of higher edu- cation associations that grants fellowships in education such as the Higher Education Academy in the U.K. and The American International Institute, USA.

MARY JOY ANTHONETTE BARRUGA

Sydney Silumbu

The two theories of learning discussed are Behaviorism and Constructivism. Skinner and Watson, the two major developers of the behaviorist school of thought sought to prove that behavior could be predicted and controlled (Skinner, 1974). They studied how learning is affected by changes in the environment. The constructivists viewed learning as a search for meaning. Piaget and Vygotsky described elements that helped predict what children understand at different stages (Rummel, 2008). Details of both theories illuminate the differences and connections between the behavioral and constructivist theories in relationship to how children learn and how their behavior is affected. How curriculum and instruction work with these theories to promote learning and how educators view learning with respect to both theories are also reviewed.

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Theories of learning.

Published by Clementine Quinn Modified over 5 years ago

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Presentation on theme: "Theories of learning."— Presentation transcript:

BTEC National Children’s Play learning and Development: Unit 1Learning aim B: Understand theories and models of development and how they relate to aspects.

5 orientations of learning

Behavioral Theories Of Learning

Constructivism Constructivism — particularly in its "social" forms — suggests that the learner is much more actively involved in a joint enterprise with.

Psychology of Music Learning Miksza Cognitivism Part II Vygotsky, Bandura.

Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon Social Cognitive and Constructivist Views of Learning: Chapter 9.

P ROJECT T EAM A PPROACH Charles Newell George Paitich Leymon Sheik-Yusuf Keith Shellum Rebecca Wiedmeyer EDU 383 – April 16, 2013.

Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development and scaffolding

How Do We Learn? -Learning Theories- 1/ 25 Zekeriya Aktürk Atatürk University Medical Faculty

Focused Teaching Promoting Accelerated Learning. Questions to Guide our Thinking What is the Zone of Proximal Development? How does it help learners?

Classical Conditioning

Development and Theorists

Instructional software. Models for integrating technology in teaching Direct instructional approach Indirect instructional approach.

 Learning is acquiring new or modifying existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values or preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of.

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imprtance of computer education

Mar 29, 2016

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Computers are not only storage devices and processing units, but also are excellent communication media. They are the means to access the Internet and get connected to the world.

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What is Computer? A computer is a device that accepts information (in the form of digitalized data) and manipulates it for some result based on a program or sequence of instructions on how the data is to be processed. Complex computers also include the means for storing data (including the program, which is also a form of data) for some necessary duration. A program may be invariable and built into the computer (and called logic circuitry as it is on microprocessoror different programs may be provided to the computer (loaded into its storage and then started by an administrator or user). Today's computers have both kinds of programming.

Advantages of computers • Storage of information • Quick data processing • Audio-visual aids • Better presentation of information • Access to the internet • Quick information between students, teachers and parents

Disadvantages • Excessive use of computer by students lacks the verbal and non verbal cues necessary for the development of social and emotional skills. • Leads to decreased educational effectiveness within a classroom and allow the problems down in the child’s schooling. • When computers are used in teaching, there are tendencies that the effective teaching will disappear between the teacher and the learner. This is due to the intervention of the attention that is given by the student to the computer machines. In other words, computers could become a barrier in communication between the teacher and the learner.

The gap between the rich and poor could also be affected since computer machines are seldom accessible by the poor students while advantage is evident to those rich students who usually studies in the leading schools and universities which usually computer and internet facilities. • Another consideration is that fundamental skills are sometime neglected. An example of this is the use of the spelling and grammar tools in word processing software which make the students rely on computer machines rather than doing the editing with their own as a way of enhancing their learning. • There are certain health disturbances that are associated with computers. Among of these are the eyestrain, repetitive motion injury and more. Computer integration in the teaching and learning process could also give some problems for those students who use to have poor eyesight or vision

Use of computer in education • The use of computers and technology in education has changed the learning process of the people in several ways and helped them to enhance their education process in a very short period of time. Moreover Internet has changed the way people work by giving them an access to various information on any subject be it any product, research or any other technical information. It has also changed the way people use to communicate by overcoming hassles of the traditional mail or phone with the use of emails and chats or voice chats which are simple and very effective. Internet has also reduced the gap in the teaching process. Now with the use of internet we can have many online courses that are offered my teachers who are located across boundaries who give training through video

conferencing thereby giving a personal touch to individuals who prefer to have a class room coaching but cannot afford to leave their current location. Thus through the use of computers schools, colleges and universities are making scientific, creative, and engineering advances to produce well qualified and highly skilled professionals.

Access to the internet • Internet can play an important role in education. As it is an enormous information base, it can be harnessed for retrieval of information on a variety of subjects. The Internet can be used to refer to information on different subjects. Both teachers and students benefit from the Internet. Teachers can refer to it for additional information and references on the topics to be taught. Students can refer to web sources for additional information on subjects of their interest. The Internet helps teachers set test papers, frame questions for home assignments and decide project topics. And not just academics, teachers can use web sources for ideas on sports competitions, extra curricular activities, picnics, parties and more. Students can search for the concepts or things which they wish to know, by

referring to relevant websites. The Internet is an ocean of information and surfing daily will increase the knowledge of these students greatly. Another advantage of computers is that the students will be able to gain knowledge of various subjects and things which are other than their school.

Need of Computer We live in a fast-moving world where almost everything must come instantly to us. In this computer era, we depend on the computer to help us complete tasks, and to solve problems. Computers are used in various fields like business, pharmacy, music, education, engineering, defense, transportation, and cooking as they help to ease certain tasks, provide information faster, and speed up the work. Wherever you go whether it is a mechanic’s shop or a fast food restaurant, some form of technology and computers are being used. It may be a computerized cash register or the machine that cleans out your engine but it is a computer and everyone needs basic computer skills to function in today’s job market. By computer education, we mean learning how the basic concepts related to

a computer works, gaining the basic knowledge of computer operation, knowing about the basic components of a computer, the basic concepts behind the use of computers and knowing how some of the elementary computer applications constitute computer education. Learning about the computer basics followed by a practical experience of using a computer is the key to computer education. As computers are widely used today, acquiring computer education is the need of the day today.

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Computers in Education - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Computers in Education

Many demands on schools. lifelong learning. changing roles for teachers and students ... in developmental psychology and genetic epistemology had one unique goal: how ... – powerpoint ppt presentation.

• The role of ICTs in Meaningful Education. Week 2
• How do you learn best?
• How might technology help you learn?
• many demands on schools
• lifelong learning
• changing roles for teachers and students
• demands from the knowledge society
• change because of ICTs
• knowledge society
• information economy
• life long learning
• globalisation.
• education and training is a crucial underpinning to Australias success in the information economy. Our education and training systems must equip all Australians to be enterprising, innovative, adaptable and socially responsible participants in the information economy.
• 1. All students will leave school as confident, creative and productive users of new technologies, including information and communication technologies, and understand the impact of those technologies on society
• 2. All schools will seek to integrate information and communication technologies into their operations, to improve student learning, to offer flexible learning opportunities and to improve the efficiency of their business practices.
• student role - active
• Curriculum - meaningful
• Social - cooperative
• Assessment deeper level of understanding
• teacher role facilitator, cognitive apprenticeship
• technology use primary source, communication, exploratory, discovery
• why standards?
• industry, competence, moving on
• what standards?
• basics, operations, office applications, learning technologies(?)
• whose standards?
• the Ed. Dept., the professional association, the ACS
• how to assess standards?
• implicit, explicit, performance
• Behavioral theories
• Theorists - Skinner, Thorndike, Gagne
• - observable indications of learning
• - sequence of stimulus - response actions
• Information processing theories
• Theorists - Atkinson, Ausubel, Gagne ( guided development of Artificial Intelligence)
• - model of memory
• - receive and store information
• Dewey learning as a social experience
• Vygotsky learning as a cognitive building process
• Piaget learning occurs through stages of cognitive development
• Bruner learning is cognitive growth through interaction with the environment
• Gardner learning is shaped by innate intelligencies
• GARDNER, the major proponent of the theory of multiple intelligences, is Professor of Education at Harvard University
• Short term memory (working memory there is a limit)
• Long term memory (permanent storage of memory skills)
• Episodic memory (Stored representation of a sequence of events)
• Declarative knowledge (factual knowledge base)
• Procedural knowledge (stored methods/ how to perform a process)
• Metacognitive knowledge (personal insights into the accomplishment of cognitive tasks)
• Type A encouraging the acquisition of ICT skills
• Type B using ICTs to enhance student abilities within existing curriculum
• Type C ICTs as an integral component of broader curriculum reforms
• Type D introducing ICTs as an integral component of the reforms
• http//www.dest.gov.au/sectors/school_education/pu blications_resources/profiles/making_better_connec tions.htm
• What are the qualities that teachers can bring into a learning environment that computers do not have?
• What do we know about the impact of ICTs?
• What are the flaws/ problems in proving the impact of ICTs on student learning?
• http//www.sbceo.k12.ca.us/ims/techcen/EETT/Impac tofET.pdf
• http//images.apple.com/education/research/pdf/Edu ResearchFSv2.pdf
• http//technologysource.org/article/impact_of_comp uters_on_schools/
• EdNA Schools Advisory Group (2000) " Learning in an online world School Education Action Plan for the Information Economy". Available at http//www.dest.gov.au/schools/publications/2000/l earning.htm Accessed February 2004.
• DETYA (2000) Learning for the Knowledge Society An Education and Training Action Plan for the Information Economy. Canberra Available at http//www.dest.gov.au/schools/publications/2000/l earning.htm Accessed February 2004.
• DEST (2001) Making better connections. Available at http//www.dest.gov.au/schools/publications/200 2/MBC.pdf Accessed August, 2004.
• Grabe and Grabe (2004) Integrating Technology for Meaningful Learnuing Chapter 2, pp37-78.
• Read Chapter 2 of study guide some of the associated readings. There are plenty of readings both from the lecture study guide that you can do be selective!
• Create a web page and record key aspects from your readings this week. You might like to reflect on the following questions
• What is meaningful learning?
• Do computers enhance student learning?
• What changes are needed for meaningful learning to occur?
• Computer skills -Explore the advanced features of Word
• Track changes
• Index Tables
• Headers footers

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Studies on Learning Effects of AR-Assisted and PPT-Based Lectures

• Regular Article
• Open access
• Published: 14 September 2020
• Volume 31 , pages 1–10, ( 2022 )

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You have full access to this open access article

• Jia Zhang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0673-4289 1 ,
• Shao-Hsuan Yen 1 ,
• Tzu-Chien Liu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8079-9091 2 ,
• Yao-Ting Sung   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3538-3756 2 &
• Kuo-En Chang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5785-1218 1  

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While common, computer presentations given during classroom lectures do not always improve learning effects; thus, this study incorporated three elements into technology-assisted classroom lectures: emphasis, augmentation, and integration. These three elements cannot be implemented simultaneously when using PowerPoint (PPT) presentations during classroom lectures. Therefore, the virtual and physical integration of augmented reality (AR) was employed to establish an assisted course lecturing tool for implementing these three elements. Teachers can refer to important content from textbooks (emphasis) while lecturing, and students can then use an AR device to scan the content and to call out related supplementary materials (augmentation) in facilitating their learning. These scanning and calling out functions of AR enable teachers to integrate technology-assisted tools with textbooks to enhance the effectiveness of classroom lectures. The pre- and posttest quasi-experimental research design was used to determine differences in the learning outcomes of two groups of AR-assisted and PPT-based course lectures. The experimental results indicate that the AR-assisted lecture was significantly more effective than the PPT-based lecture, and a similar result was obtained from a delayed test. According to interviews held with students, during the AR-assisted lecture, the students tended to focus on only one teaching medium and on the textbook content. By contrast, students of the PPT-based lecture became distracted while focusing on two different media sources simultaneously, resulting in the textbook content often being neglected.

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Introduction

Presentation software is widely used in education and particularly in classroom lectures (James et al. 2006 ; Mantei 2000 ; Williams and Eggert 2002 ). Comparative studies on the effectiveness of computer presentations versus chalk and talk methods have drawn numerous conclusions over many years of discussion. The findings suggest that most teachers and students prefer the use of PowerPoint (PPT) presentations in classroom lectures (Jordan and Papp 2014 ; Rickman and Grudzinski 2000 ; Hill et al. 2012 ). Students prefer computer presentations over chalk and talk methods given the diverse forms of multimedia used in PPT presentations (Akhlaghi and Zareian 2015 ; Apperson et al. 2006 ; Hill et al. 2012 ; Savoy et al. 2009 ; Ledbetter and Finn 2018 ; Seth et al. 2010 ). However, inconsistent results have been obtained regarding the best means of achieving better learning outcomes. Some studies have demonstrated that computer presentations are more effective than chalk and talk methods (Dean et al. 2016 ; Jalali and Talebi 2014 ; Lowry 1999 ), whereas others have been unable to verify that superior learning outcomes are obtained through computer presentations (Bamne and Bamne 2016 ; Barlett and Strough 2003 ; Nouri and Shahid 2005 ; Pros et al. 2013 ; Sugahara and Boland 2006 ; Waheeda and Murthy 2015 ). To explore this inconsistency, researchers have used literature reviews and have performed meta-analyses. Shapiro et al. ( 2006 ) and Levasseur and Sawyer ( 2006 ) reviewed the benefits of computer presentations, while Baker et al. ( 2018 ) selected 48 research papers from the literature and conducted a meta-analysis to identify the benefits of computer presentations, obtaining the most recent research results.

Baker et al. ( 2018 ) revealed that although computer presentation teaching can improve students’ affection (Ledbetter and Finn 2018 ), motivation (Szabo and Hastings 2000 ), and interest levels (Hill et al. 2012 ), it does not affect learning outcomes. In addition, Baker et al. ( 2018 ) suggested that PPTs used in classroom lectures must be designed in accordance with the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer 2001 ; Mayer and Moreno 2002 ) if cognitive load is to be prevented during learning. Increasing students’ levels of interaction and attention during the teaching process was also recommended.

Jordan and Papp ( 2014 ) maintained that using PPT-based lectures excites students’ attention but that students as a result become less focused on textbooks (Ahmadi et al. 2007 ). This leaves fewer opportunities for students to interact with teaching materials, resulting in no improvement in learning effects. Furthermore, Hill et al. ( 2012 ) noted that students may miss essential content from a textbook when they focus on the content of a computer presentation.

Numerous researchers have recently proposed principles for the design of effective presentations for improving the learning outcomes of computer presentation teaching, and the effects of these principles have been verified (Bartsch and Cobern 2003 ; Berk 2011 ; Berney and Betrancourt 2016 ; Gier and Kreiner 2009 ; Hallett and Faria 2006 ; Hallewell and Lackovic 2017 ; Johnson and Christensen 2011 ; Kim 2018 ; Miller and James 2011 ; Schnettler 2006 ; Tangen et al. 2011 ; Valdez 2013 ; Wecker 2012 ). Penciner ( 2013 ) proposed that when a teaching presentation is based on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, two aspects can strengthen the effectiveness of technology-assisted classroom lectures: emphasis and augmentation. When using Penciner’s design, the points that students should focus on are emphasized, and related augmented supplementary materials are provided.

Debevec et al. ( 2006 ) investigated the effects of different combinations of technology-assisted and physical classroom lectures (chalk and talk) on learning outcomes and found the use of both technology-assisted and physical classroom lectures to result in superior outcomes than the use of either single approach. To enhance interactions with and attention to computerized supplementary and textbook materials (Jordan and Papp 2014 ), teachers should integrate technologies with textbook use in developing classroom lectures. However, the three intensive teaching elements of emphasis, augmentation, and integration are impossible to employ simultaneously when providing a PPT presentation during a classroom lecture. Therefore, virtual and physical integration functions of augmented reality (AR) can be used to incorporate these three elements and to assist teachers in delivering classroom lectures.

Since the 1990s, various applications of AR have been developed; however, due to equipment-related limitations, its development has not been popularized. In recent years, as mobile technologies have become ubiquitous, education researchers have developed numerous applications of AR based on such technologies (Chang et al. 2014 , 2015 , 2018 ; Chang and Huang 2018 ; Chao et al. 2014 , 2016 ; Gervautz and Schmalstieg 2012 ; Hsiao et al. 2013 ; Ibáñez and Carlos 2018 ; Zhang et al. 2014 ). One of these applications involves using an AR function to provide and superimpose virtual information of supplementary teaching materials over textbook content. For instance, Huang et al. ( 2016 ) used AR technologies to combine virtual information and textbook content to help learners gradually read through textbooks and corresponding supplementary materials. Zhang et al. ( 2015 ) built an AR system to assist teachers with curriculum instruction using virtual supplementary content. Cheng and Tsai ( 2014 ) used AR to convert artwork from storybooks into 3D images or dynamic videos to enhance interest in reading and to present abstract concepts illustrated in storybooks with simple images to reduce the complexity of learning materials. Ibáñez et al. ( 2014 ) used AR to present abstract concepts of electromagnetism in the form of superimposed 3D-simulated circuit diagrams to improve the learning outcomes of high school students. Chang et al. (in press) used a model of augmented 3D characters to enable students to perform practice exercises and to make observations to understand explanations of motor skills given in textbooks. The above AR applications involved learners using handheld devices to scan textbook content to reveal superimposed supplementary materials. This combined use of textbooks and virtual information exemplifies the three intensive teaching elements.

Emphasis, augmentation, and integration are implemented through the use of a combination of textbooks and virtual information. During classroom lectures, teachers can refer to the emphases from a textbook and draw the attention of their students. In addition, the students can read augmented supplementary materials of the specific emphasis when necessary. Under such circumstances, students can use AR devices to scan for emphases and to call out related supplementary materials, facilitating their learning. The scan and call out functions of AR devices enable teachers to integrate technology-assisted tools with textbooks, enhancing the benefits of technology-assisted classroom lectures.

Although the above studies integrated AR devices with textbooks, most were only concerned with students’ learning and were not concerned with teachers’ classroom lectures. Nonetheless, teachers often use PPTs in classroom lectures. Therefore, exploring the effectiveness of PPTs and AR devices integrated with textbooks and determining any differences in students’ learning outcomes is necessary. This study involved developing an AR-assisted course lecturing tool with emphasis, augmentation, and integration features and applied the developed tool in classroom lectures for the elementary sixth grade to determine its effect on learning outcomes. Participants of the study were divided into two groups. Those in the control group were taught by teachers who used PPT presentations while those in the experimental group were taught with use of an AR mobile device designed to help students notice emphases and related augmentations. The experimental results indicate that the experimental group achieved more favorable posttest and delayed test scores than the control group. We also conducted interviews with students from both groups, and the results show that students from the experimental group preferred the use of AR mobile devices during lectures over not using such devices, and these students also exhibited a stronger learning concentration effect.

AR-Assisted Lecturing

The AR-assisted lecturing tool used in this study adopts the Streamlined Viewport Strategy System (SVSS) AR engine developed by Zhang et al. ( 2012 ). For this tool, students use handheld devices to scan textbook learning content; afterwards, supplementary materials are overlaid onto the learning content on the device screen for the students to view. This differs from PPT slide teaching, which uses another instructional medium to present supplementary material so that textbook learning content and supplementary materials are presented separately.

The lecturing steps of the AR-assisted tool involve the teacher first describing the concepts of each textbook learning item; the student then uses AR to scan the learning item and to read the supplementary material. After the student has completed learning activities associated with the current learning item, the teacher proceeds to describe concepts of the next learning item. The student then once again uses the handheld device to scan the textbook and to read the supplementary material. These process is repeated for each concept until a learning unit has been completed. In contrast, in PPT slide teaching, each item of textbook learning content is described by the teacher with computer slides, and the students then independently study the content of each slide.

Figure  1 illustrates lectures based on PPT slides and AR-assisted tools. Figures  2 and 3 illustrate two means of presenting supplementary materials. Figure  2 illustrates the separate presentation of textbook and supplementary materials during PPT-based lectures. Figure  3 illustrates how supplementary materials are overlaid onto a textbook during a lecture using AR-assisted tools.

Students in a classroom a viewing a PPT slide and b using the AR-assisted tool

Presentation of supplementary material in a PPT slide

Example of augmented information presented by the AR tool

Experimental Design and Procedure

We used a pretest–posttest quasi-experimental design to investigate the effects of the different technology-assisted lectures on learning outcomes. Comparisons were drawn between empirical results of learning outcomes corresponding to classroom lectures based on PPT slides and AR tools. We also used interview data to perform a qualitative analysis. After the experiment, the participants’ feedback was collected to examine the effects of two different technology-assisted lectures on interactions between the learners and media used in teaching materials.

The experiment was applied to two groups: a PPT lecture group (control group) and AR lecture group (experimental group). The experiment lasted 80 min. The same lesson content, a sixth-grade social science unit titled “History Close to Everyday Life,” was used for both groups. The unit is divided into four core subunits: “The 321 Art Alley Settlement,” “The Shuidui Village,” “Treasure Hill,” and “The Morisaka Forestry Village.” The experiment was divided into four stages: prior knowledge assessment, experimental intervention, learning achievement assessment and delayed posttesting.

By commencing formal teaching activities, the researchers first described the experimental process to the participants. The participants then completed a 10 min pretest. After the participants completed the test, equipment operation training was provided for 10 min to ensure that students of the experimental group could efficiently use the AR tool. As a result, negative effects of technological barriers were avoided as much as possible.

The experimental intervention stage involved the application of formal teaching activities. The instructor taught lessons to students of the experimental and control groups using supplementary materials with two types of technology in combination with a textbook; the lecture lasted 40 min.

In the posttest stage, the participants completed a learning achievement test, which was followed by interviews held between the researchers and five students randomly selected from each group. Two weeks after the formal teaching experiment, a delayed posttest was performed. Questions given through the delayed posttest were the same as those given for the pretest and posttest but with the questions and answers rearranged. The delayed posttest represented the final stage of the experimental study.

Participants

The study sampled two classes of sixth-grade elementary school students. Each class involved lectures supported with different forms of technological assistance. The effective sample included 52 students; 26 students were included in each group. The lectures were delivered in mixed-ability classrooms, and no participants had previously completed the “History Close to Everyday Life” unit.

Experimental Tools

Experimental equipment.

Students were provided with 6.44-inch Sony Xperia Z Ultra C6802 smartphones equipped with the Android 4.4 operating system. Each mobile phone was 179.4 mm (length) × 92.2 mm (width) × 6.5 mm (thickness) in size, weighed approximately 212 g and featured a built-in 8-megapixel camera for AR scanning. Additionally, to ensure the efficient operation of the wireless network during the experiment, two wireless access points were installed in the classroom for use during the experiment.

Learning Achievements

We used a paper-based pretest and posttest to evaluate learning outcomes and to determine whether the use of AR technologies could effectively improve the students’ learning outcomes. The tests included 15 multiple-choice questions (1 point per question for a total of 15 points) with four choices provided for each. The test content was designed based on relevant concepts taken from the learning units, and the questions were reviewed by elementary school teachers who served as expert validators of the test.

The pretest and posttest were the same; however, the ordering of questions and answers given in the posttest assessment were randomly adjusted relative to those of the pretest. A pilot test was completed by sixth-grade elementary students who did not participate in the formal experiment. Following a reliability analysis, the internal consistency of questions yielded a Cronbach’s alpha value of .738.

To understand how the learners interacted with the instructional media during the experiment, students from the two groups were randomly selected for interviews after the experiment. During the interviews, the interviewers used neutral language and encouraged the interviewees to express their thoughts on their learning experiences during the experiment to avoid interfering with the participants’ responses.

The pretest and posttest results were used to analyze the effects of technology-assisted lectures on learning outcomes. Table 1 presents the pretest and posttest mean and standard deviation of scores for each group.

To eliminate individual variations in the prior knowledge of each group, a one-way ANCOVA was used first to exclude the pretest scores of each group and to then verify differences in learning outcomes of the two groups.

Before conducting the ANCOVA, a test of the homogeneity of regression slopes was performed to confirm that differences did not exist between the covariate variable (pretest scores) and dependent variable (posttest scores). Homogeneity test results of the regression coefficients for each group were measured as F (1,48) = .001, p  = .978 > .05, not reaching a the .05 significance level. Thus, the pretest and posttest scores for each group show a consistent linear relationship, and an ANCOVA was thus subsequently performed.

The results of the ANCOVA, F (1,49) = 17.234, p  = .000 < .001, reached significance, showing that after excluding effects of the pretest scores, the two technology-assisted lectures significantly affected the participants’ learning outcomes. A post hoc comparison of the adjusted means shows that the AR lecture group ( M  = 12.778) performed better than the PPT lectured group ( M  = 10.145).

Delayed Posttest

The delayed posttest was performed two weeks after the experiment to assess the learners’ retention of the course content. Table 2 presents the means and standard deviations of the posttest and delayed posttest scores for each group. A one-way ANCOVA was used to test differences in the learners’ levels of retention across two lecturing approaches. Prior to performing the ANCOVA, a test of the homogeneity of regression slopes was performed to determine whether differences existed between the covariate variable (pretest scores) and dependent variable (delayed posttest scores). The homogeneity test results of the regression coefficients for each group, F (1,48) = .045, p  = .834 > .05, did not reach a .05 significance level, showing that the pretest and delayed posttest scores of each group show a consistent linear relationship. The ANCOVA was then performed.

The results of the ANCOVA, F (1,49) = 5.877, p  = .019 < .05, reached significance and demonstrate that after excluding the effect of pretest scores, the two lecturing approaches significantly affected the learners’ levels of retention. A post hoc comparison of adjusted means shows that the AR lecture group ( M  = 12.348) performed better than the PPT lecture group ( M  = 10.460).

Interview Feedback

To understand the differences in students’ interactions with the textbooks and AR handheld devices or PPT slides, five students were randomly selected from each group and interviewed. Interview records were analyzed to determine interactions and their causes. The following question was asked during the interviews: “During a lecture, do you pay more attention to the content of handheld devices (or slides) or to the textbook? Why?” The results of the analysis indicate that students from the AR lecture group first read the textbook content and then focused on the handheld device. In other words, the students focused on one medium of teaching material (textbook or handheld) at a time. For the PPT lecture group, however, students alternated their attention between two forms of teaching material during the lecture; they read the textbook while viewing the computer slides. These results are consistent with the study’s hypothesis that the use of AR while integrating related teaching materials can prevent learners from expending excessive cognitive resources on shifting their focus between instructional media.

When students from the PPT lecture group reviewed the textbook content, they divided their attention between the instructional media. This division of attention derived from the interview analysis may be attributed to the following:

To understand concepts presented in the textbook, students must compare content from the textbook and slides.

Slides may contain information that can be used to answer questions included in the textbook.

The textbook only includes pictures whereas the slides include animations.

Both the textbook and slides present unique content and key points that must be learned.

The slides provide more interesting supplementary materials that can enhance students’ understanding of the textbook content.

In comparison, students from the AR lecture group focused their attention on a single teaching medium during their learning process. The use of handheld devices to scan textbook content facilitated the students’ concentration, and the AR overlay reduced the spatial distance between the two types of media. In addition to these two key factors, other possible causes of learning outcomes derived from the interview analysis include the following:

The handheld device presents videos or animations that are more interesting than the textbook and that can facilitate students’ understanding of concepts listed in the textbook.

Students can listen to the teacher while viewing the handheld device.

It is unnecessary for students to continually watch the blackboard or copy material from the blackboard.

Students can operate handheld devices independently.

When students cannot understand the content presented, they can repeatedly view it until they understand it.

The use of AR to supplement teaching materials is more convenient for students and helps them learn.

When AR is used, most supplementary content is not given in the textbook.

Using AR for the first time is refreshing, and AR can excite students’ interest.

AR content can be organized to help students more fully understand key concepts presented in textbook content.

The experimental results show that among students studied with no notable differences in prior knowledge, the learning outcomes of both student groups were significantly improved; thus, the teaching experiment served as an effective learning activity for both groups. Pretest scores for the AR lecture group were found to be lower than those of the PPT lecture group, but posttest scores of the AR lecture group were significantly higher than those of the PPT lecture group. Furthermore, an analysis of the delayed test results shows that the learning retention outcomes of the two groups differed significantly. This result shows that the integration of AR with textbook content benefited the students’ levels of learning retention. This finding is consistent with those of other studies showing that AR facilitates knowledge retention effect (Ibáñez et al. 2014 ).

According to our interview data, students of the AR lecture group preferred the integration of textbook content with AR (i.e., the integration of textbooks and augmentation within the same visual range), as this prevented them from needing to search through related teaching materials from two different physical locations. This result supports the spatial contiguity principle (Mayer 2001 ), which is violated when using PPT presentations (DuFrene and Lehman 2004 ; Jordan and Papp 2014 ; Tufte 2003 ). Students of the PPT lecture group were unable to place the textbook content and slide augmentations within the same visual range during the instructional process, disrupting their concentration and reducing the frequency of teacher–student interactions and the number of discussion opportunities in classroom lectures (Jordan and Papp 2014 ). As concluded by Ahmadi et al. ( 2007 ) and Hill et al. ( 2012 ), distractions resulting from the spreading of content across two media sources can result in the neglect of essential content and can affect learning outcomes.

In addition to satisfying the spatial contiguity principle, the AR course lecture satisfied the temporal contiguity principle (i.e., augmentation is presented on the AR device screen when the AR device is used to scan learning objects from the textbook during a lecture, satisfying the temporal contiguity principle). Related studies have suggested that the cognitive theory of multimedia learning can be applied to presentation design to improve PPT course lecturing effects (Berk 2011 ; Grech 2018 ; Jordan and Papp 2014 ; Nagmoti 2017 ; Pate and Posey 2016 ). However, this effect may not be significantly improved, as PPT course lecturing cannot be integrated with textbook teaching, resulting in the temporal and spatial contiguity principles not being satisfied.

According to the above findings and to some related studies (Huang et al. 2016 ; Zhang et al. 2015 ; Ferrer-Torregrosa et al. 2015 ), the virtual features of AR allow augmented messages to be used as augmentations and to be superimposed on an original textbook, resulting in superior instructional outcomes. Our posttest and delayed test scores emphasize that teaching materials should be superimposed onto each other and be presented in a similar position to enhance knowledge transfer and to reduce the cognitive load on students (Moreno and Mayer 1999 ). The findings also verify that AR integration and superimposition functions can affect learning outcomes. Ozcelik and Acarturk ( 2011 ) maintained that when temporal and spatial distances between related information presentations can be reduced, students’ external cognitive loads are alleviated, enhancing learning. The results of this study respond to related studies seeking to explain how AR improves learning outcomes using the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Sommerauer and Müller 2014 ; Akçayır et al. 2016 ).

To facilitate learning, technology-assisted devices and textbooks must be integrated, and the elements of emphasis, augmentation, and integration must be applied to the teaching process. However, computer presentation alone is unable to provide these elements. Therefore, this study used AR scanning and virtual integration functions to establish a tool for AR-assisted lecturing that integrates these three elements. To determine the effect of AR course lecturing on students’ learning outcomes, we employed a quasi-experimental research method and found the AR lecture group to achieve notably higher posttest scores than the PPT lecture group. A similar result was obtained from the delayed test. In interviewing the student participants, it was found that the students enjoyed the AR-assisted lecture. Students were able to concentrate heavily on the learning content, and they noticed the textbook content as well. Moreover, the augmentation function of the AR tool enabled the students to view textbook content and multimedia augmentations simultaneously.

In addition to achieving emphasis, augmentation, and integration in AR course teaching that connects technology-assisted devices with textbooks in classroom lectures, the AR presentation method satisfies temporal and spatial contiguity principles of multimedia learning cognitive theory. Timely presentation and superposition applied after AR scanning is impossible to achieve with computer presentations alone. Approaches that satisfy all principles of multimedia learning cognitive theory should be developed in the future to further enhance teaching effects.

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The work was supported by the National Science Council, Taiwan, Republic of China [Grant Numbers MOST 107-2511-H-003-027-MY3] and the “Institute for Research Excellence in Learning Sciences” of National Taiwan Normal University (NTNU) from The Featured Areas Research Center Program within the framework of the Higher Education Sprout Project by the Ministry of Education in Taiwan.

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Zhang, J., Yen, SH., Liu, TC. et al. Studies on Learning Effects of AR-Assisted and PPT-Based Lectures. Asia-Pacific Edu Res 31 , 1–10 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-020-00533-x

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