middle english essay

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Middle English language

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• Pressbooks - An Open Companion to Early British Literature - Middle English Literature in the 14th and 15th Century
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Middle English language , the vernacular spoken and written in England from about 1100 to about 1500, the descendant of the Old English language and the ancestor of Modern English.

(Read H.L. Mencken’s 1926 Britannica essay on American English.)

The history of Middle English is often divided into three periods: (1) Early Middle English, from about 1100 to about 1250, during which the Old English system of writing was still in use; (2) the Central Middle English period from about 1250 to about 1400, which was marked by the gradual formation of literary dialects , the use of an orthography greatly influenced by the Anglo-Norman writing system, the loss of pronunciation of final unaccented -e , and the borrowing of large numbers of Anglo-Norman words; the period was especially marked by the rise of the London dialect , in the hands of such writers as John Gower and Geoffrey Chaucer; and (3) Late Middle English , from about 1400 to about 1500, which was marked by the spread of the London literary dialect and the gradual cleavage between the Scottish dialect and the other northern dialects. During this period the basic lines of inflection as they appear in Modern English were first established. Among the chief characteristic differences between Old and Middle English were the substitution of natural gender in Middle English for grammatical gender and the loss of the old system of declensions in the noun and adjective and, largely, in the pronoun.

The dialects of Middle English are usually divided into three large groups: (1) Southern (subdivided into Southeastern, or Kentish, and Southwestern), chiefly in the counties south of the River Thames; (2) Midland (corresponding roughly to the Mercian dialect area of Old English times) in the area from the Thames to southern South Yorkshire and northern Lancashire; and (3) Northern, in the Scottish Lowlands , Northumberland, Cumbria, Durham, northern Lancashire, and most of Yorkshire.

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Middle English – an overview

Historical period, the most important linguistic developments, a multilingual context, borrowing from early scandinavian, borrowing from latin and/or french, pronunciation, a period characterized by variation, our surviving documents.

The chronological boundaries of the Middle English period are not easy to define, and scholarly opinions vary. The dates that  OED3  has settled on are 1150-1500. (Before 1150 being the  Old English  period, and after 1500 being the  early modern English  period.) In terms of ‘external’ history, Middle English is framed at its beginning by the after-effects of the Norman Conquest of 1066, and at its end by the arrival in Britain of printing (in 1476) and by the important social and cultural impacts of the English Reformation (from the 1530s onwards) and of the ideas of the continental Renaissance.

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Two very important linguistic developments characterize Middle English:

• in grammar , English came to rely less on inflectional endings and more on word order to convey grammatical information. (If we put this in more technical terms, it became less ‘synthetic’ and more ‘analytic’.) Change was gradual, and has different outcomes in different regional varieties of Middle English, but the ultimate effects were huge: the grammar of English  c .1500 was radically different from that of Old English. Grammatical gender was lost early in Middle English. The range of inflections, particularly in the noun, was reduced drastically (partly as a result of reduction of vowels in unstressed final syllables), as was the number of distinct paradigms: in most early Middle English texts most nouns have distinctive forms only for singular vs. plural, genitive, and occasional traces of the old dative in forms with final – e occurring after a preposition. In some other parts of the system some distinctions were more persistent, but by late Middle English the range of endings and their use among London writers shows relatively few differences from the sixteenth-century language of, for example, Shakespeare: probably the most prominent morphological difference from Shakespeare’s language is that verb plurals and infinitives still generally ended in – en  (at least in writing).
• in vocabulary , English became much more heterogeneous, showing many borrowings from French, Latin, and Scandinavian. Large-scale borrowing of new words often had serious consequences for the meanings and the stylistic register of those words which survived from Old English. Eventually, various new stylistic layers emerged in the lexicon, which could be employed for a variety of different purposes.

One other factor marks out the bulk of our Middle English evidence from the bulk of our Old English or early modern English evidence, although it is less directly a matter of change in the language than in how it is represented in writing:

• the surviving Middle English material is dominated by regional variation, and by (sometimes extreme) variation in how the same underlying linguistic units are represented in writing. This is not because people suddenly started using language in different ways in different places in the Middle English period, but because the fairly standardized late Old English literary variety broke down completely, and writing in English became fragmented, localized, and to a large extent improvised.

Medieval Britain had many languages. English continued to be in contact with Celtic languages on many of the internal frontiers within the British Isles. Until the use of Scandinavian languages in mainland Britain died out (the precise date of which is a matter of uncertainty), it continued to be in contact with these also. And, crucially, it was in contact with Latin and with French.

After the Norman Conquest, the ruling elite in England (in church as well as state) were French speakers. Before the Conquest, England had been relatively ‘advanced’ in the extent to which the vernacular language, rather than Latin, was used in writing. After the Conquest, English became pushed out of these functions almost entirely. Latin predominates in most types of writing in the immediately post-Conquest period. When, quite soon afterwards, we find a flowering of vernacular writing in a number of different text types and genres, this is in French, not English. Likewise it was French, not English, that generally vied with Latin in a wide range of technical and official functions until very near the end of the Middle English period. (What to call the French used in Britain in this period is a difficult scholarly question. Traditionally the term ‘Anglo-Norman’ has been used, notably in the title of  The Anglo-Norman Dictionary . In fact, the present-day editors of that dictionary note that in many ways ‘Anglo-French’ is a more appropriate term, since it better reflects the wide variety of inputs shown by the French used in medieval Britain.  OED3  retains the term ‘Anglo-Norman’ largely to maintain consistency with the title of  The Anglo-Norman Dictionary .)

Up until about the middle of the fourteenth century, our surviving written records for Middle English of any variety are patchy, and can be characterized as a number of more or less isolated ‘islands’ of usage, reflecting the English of particular communities or even individuals who felt motivated, for various different reasons, to write something down in English. We have some substantial literary texts, such as the  Ormulum  or the  Ancrene Wisse  (both of which we will look at more closely below); in a very few cases, like the  Ancrene Wisse  and a small group of texts in a very similar language apparently from a very similar milieu, we can identify mini-traditions of English writing; but what we do not have are clear, well-established, persistent traditions of writing in English (whether for literary or non-literary purposes) from which any sort of standard written variety could grow.

From the later fourteenth century our records become more plentiful, especially for London, as the use of English increased in literary contexts and in a variety of different technical and official functions. English began more and more to be the default choice for major (broadly metropolitan) literary writers such as, in the late fourteenth century,  Geoffrey Chaucer,   John Gower  (who still also wrote major poems in French and Latin), and (although his milieu was rather different)  William Langland . We also continue to find substantial literary works from parts of the country far removed from London, and reflecting very distinct local varieties of English, such as  Sir Gawain and the Green Knight .

In this same period religious writings in English become more and more common; these include the first complete English translation of the Bible, the  Wycliffite Bible , which emerged from the circle of followers of the reformer John Wyclif . We also find increasing numbers of scientific and medical texts written in English.

As it came to share and, eventually, take over various functions from Latin and French, English was hugely influenced by these languages, in its stock of word forms, in the meanings these words showed, and in the phrases and structures in which they were used. Thus the vocabulary of such fields as law, government, business, and religion (among many others) became filled with words of Latin or French origin, as people began using English to express technical matters which had previously been the domain of Latin or French.

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The long succession of Viking Age raids, settlements, conquests, and political take-overs that played such a large part in Anglo-Saxon history from the late-eighth century onwards resulted in many speakers of varieties of early Scandinavian being found in Britain. In particular, there were areas of significant Scandinavian settlement in the east and north east of England (chiefly of speakers of East Norse varieties) and in the north west of England (chiefly of speakers of West Norse varieties), as well as in parts of Scotland. We speak of ‘early Scandinavian’ in this context because we are dealing with the antecedent stage of the later Scandinavian languages, Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish, etc. (As regards the divisions among the Scandinavian languages, Icelandic and Norwegian are both West Norse languages, while Swedish and Danish are East Norse languages; however, very few of the Scandinavian loanwords in English can be assigned with any confidence to specifically East Norse or West Norse input.)

Gradually, over the course of generations, the use of early Scandinavian died out in England, but not without leaving a significant impact on the vocabulary of English. When most borrowings occurred is a matter of some uncertainty; Old English texts up to about the year 1100 are estimated to contain only about 100 Scandinavian loanwords, many of them in isolated examples. Most of these words come from semantic areas in which there was significant cultural influence from the Scandinavians, such as seafaring, warfare, social ranks, law, or coins and measures. Many, many more Scandinavian borrowings are first recorded in Middle English texts, but it is very possible (and indeed likely) that most of these first entered some varieties of English in the Old English period. One major indicator of this is that very early Middle English texts from areas of high Scandinavian settlement are full of Scandinavian borrowings.

The long homiletic poem entitled the  Ormulum  is the work of an Augustinian canon called Orm (a name of Scandinavian origin) who probably lived in south Lincolnshire; the dating is controversial, but Orm may have started work on the text as early as the middle of the twelfth century and continued well into old age. It contains well over a hundred words of either certain or likely Scandinavian origin, including some which are of common occurrence in modern English such as  to anger, to bait, bloom, boon, booth, bull, to die, to flit, ill, law, low,  meek ,  to raise ,  root ,  to scare , skill, skin, to take, though, to thrive, wand, to want, wing, wrong . Perhaps most interestingly of all, it contains some of the earliest evidence for one of the most important Scandinavian borrowings, the pronoun  they  and the related object form  them  and possessive  their .

The example of  they ,  them , and  their  is very instructive about the nature and extent of Scandinavian influence on English. It is very rare for pronouns to be borrowed; the fact that these forms were borrowed probably reflects both the very close contact between Scandinavian and English speakers, and the close structural and lexical similarities between the two languages. Because so many words, forms, and constructions were already either identical or very similar, this made it much easier for even grammatical words to be borrowed.

Something else illustrated by  they ,  them , and  their  is the long process of internal spread, from variety to variety, shown by many words of Scandinavian origin after  they  entered English. Orm uses  they  invariably, but  them  and  their  vary in his text with the native forms  hem  and  her . In later northern or eastern texts  them  and  their  quite quickly become the normal forms, but this takes much longer in other varieties: the most important early Chaucer manuscripts, from London in the late fourteenth or early fifteenth centuries, have typically  they  for the subject form but still  hem  and  her  for the object and possessive forms.

The inherited similarities between English and early Scandinavian also make it extremely difficult to be certain in very many cases whether a word actually shows a Scandinavian borrowing at all, or an Old English word which is simply poorly attested in our surviving sources. The Scandinavian component in the total vocabulary of Middle English perhaps amounts to somewhere in the region of 2 or 3 per cent, but any figures must be treated with a good deal of caution. In spite of the relatively small total, many of the words occur with quite high frequency, especially in texts from more northerly and easterly areas. Some Scandinavian borrowings which were doubtless borrowed in either Old English or Middle English are first attested much later; this is especially the case with words preserved only in regional use.

The Latin component in the vocabulary of Old English was small, only amounting to a few per cent of the total of surviving Old English words, and many (but by no means all) of these words were doubtless of very rare occurrence, confined to very occasional use by scholars. The securely identified pre-Conquest borrowings from French amount to barely a handful, and even in very late, post-Conquest Old English not many more are recorded.

In Middle English this picture changes radically. If we look at the vocabulary of Middle English as a whole, the evidence of dictionaries suggests that the number of words borrowed from French and/or Latin outstrips the number of words surviving from Old English by quite a margin. However, words surviving from Old English (as well as a few of the Scandinavian borrowings, especially  they ) continue to top the high frequency lists (as indeed mostly remains the case even in modern-day English).

The formulation ‘French and/or Latin’ is an important one in this period. Often we can tell that a word has come from French rather than Latin very clearly because of differences of word form: for instance, English  peace  is clearly a borrowing from Anglo-Norman and Old French  pais , not from Latin  pac -,  pāx . Some other pretty clear examples are  marble ,  mercy ,  prison ,  palfrey ,  to pay ,  poor , and  rule . It is often much more difficult to be certain that a Middle English word has come solely from Latin and not partly also from French; this is because, in addition to the words it inherited from Latin (which typically showed centuries of change in word form), French also borrowed extensively from Latin (often re-borrowing words which already existed in a distinct form). Some typical examples are  animal ,  imagination ,  to inform ,  patient ,  perfection ,  profession ,  religion ,  remedy .

Given these factors, any figures for the relative proportions of French and Latin borrowings in the Middle English period have to be hedged about with many provisos. However, the broad picture is clear. In Middle English, borrowing from French is at least as frequent as borrowing from Latin, and probably rather more frequent.

By 1500, over 40 per cent of all of the words that English has borrowed from French had made a first appearance in the language, including a very high proportion of those French words which have come to play a central part in the vocabulary of modern English. By contrast, the greatest peak of borrowing from Latin was still to come, in the early modern period; by 1500, under 20 per cent of the Latin borrowings found in modern English had yet entered the language.

The greatest peak of first examples of French borrowings in English comes in the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries. This probably largely corresponds to the realities of linguistic change, since we know that this is the period in which English was taking on many technical functions from Latin and, especially, French, at least so far as written records were concerned. However, this is precisely when our volume of surviving Middle English material also goes up dramatically, and so we cannot always rule out the possibility that words existed in English rather earlier. Certainly, some much earlier texts, such as the thirteenth-century  Ancrene Wisse , show considerable borrowing from French at an early date, and we cannot always be certain that an absence of earlier attestations necessarily means that a word did not exist in at least some varieties of English at an earlier date.

Mixed language texts pose many difficult challenges. One quite common pattern is for accounts, records, and other official documents to have Latin as the ‘matrix’ language, but to switch freely to a vernacular language to name particular things or concepts. Whether the vernacular language in question is French or English can be very difficult to tell, or in many cases plain impossible. In fact, many scholars who have spent time working on such documents take the view that the writers themselves probably did not always distinguish very clearly between one clearly defined vocabulary as ‘English’ and another as ‘French’; the considerable overlap, of words belonging to both languages (as a result of earlier borrowing), in a context in which new words were being borrowed all of the time, would indeed have made it almost impossible to make such a clear distinction, especially in many areas of technical vocabulary. For some examples of some of the implications for OED data see the entries for oillet  n., pane  n.¹,  pastern  n., pullen  n., rack  v.², russet  n. and adj.

Since our surviving Middle English evidence is so characterized by regional variation, it is very difficult to summarize ‘typical’ Middle English pronunciation, just as it is difficult to summarize ‘typical’ Middle English morphology, or grammar.

As a general rule of thumb, anyone entirely unfamiliar with Middle English who wants to be able to pronounce Middle English word forms is better off trusting the Middle English spelling, rather than making assumptions on the basis of the modern English pronunciation. In particular, vowel letters normally have values much closer to what is typical in modern continental European languages, than to the values that they have in modern English.

• for example, the  i  in  fīn  ‘fine’ represents a long monophthong similar to that in modern English  meet , while the  e  in  mēten  ‘to meet’ represents a sound more similar to that in modern English  make  (but a monophthong, not a diphthong).

See Edmund Weiner’s piece on early modern English to see how the  Great Vowel Shift  changed this situation. See also the  OED  entries for  A  n.,  E  n.,  I  n.,  O  n.,  U  n. for much more detail on the development of the various sounds represented by these letters.

The majority of later Old English texts are written in a fairly uniform type of literary language, based on the West Saxon dialect. The linguistic forms employed show considerable regularity, as do the spellings used to represent them.

The political and cultural upheavals of the Norman Conquest completely changed this situation: people who chose to write in English in the early Middle English period typically had to improvise, in order to find ways of representing a particular local variety of Middle English in writing. To do this they often had to draw upon spelling traditions that were more typically used in writing Latin or French. Variation reigns supreme. Some groups of manuscripts show very similar language represented in very similar orthography, but in the broader picture these appear isolated pockets.

In later Middle English spelling habits typically become rather more stable, and we generally find more consistency in the strategies used for representing particular sounds in writing. However, a considerable degree of spelling variation remains the rule rather than the exception, and it is quite typical to find the same word spelled in slightly different ways within a single page of a single manuscript. If we look at the full repertory of surviving spelling forms, the situation can still seem quite bewildering; for instance, the  Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English  records around 500 different spellings for  through .

As well as showing variation in how to represent sounds in spelling, our surviving late Middle English writings also continue to reflect a wide variety of different regional varieties of English. Although London and its dialect became of increasing importance in official functions and in literary production, and many of the major late Middle English writers were based in or near the capital, the real dominance of a metropolitan variety over all others in literary use comes only in the early modern period.

London English of the late-fourteenth and fifteenth centuries showed a wide variety of inputs, among which a number of features from the central and east midlands figured strongly. It is in no way an interrupted continuation of the predominantly south-western Old English literary language, and in many key respects it reflects the language of parts of the country for which we have little or no evidence from the Old English period.

There also continued to be a great deal of variation within London English, in written forms as well as spoken. The focused usage of a number of official documents, often referred to as ‘Chancery English’, had a significant input into the practices of early modern English printers, but this is only one aspect of a very complex story, which is still subject to considerable uncertainty and debate.

This complicated picture is complicated still more by the nature of our surviving documents, which is discussed in the following section.

We have much more surviving Middle English evidence than we have for Old English, but still far less than we have for the developing, London-based standard language of the sixteenth century and later. The information that we do have is patchy and uneven: we have a pretty good record for London and the surrounding area from about the end of the fourteenth century onwards, but for most parts of Britain throughout the period we have only isolated flashes of illumination.

Our surviving evidence for Middle English also poses a number of interesting challenges for historical lexicography. The overwhelming majority of our information comes from hand-written manuscripts. (From the last quarter of the fifteenth century onwards there are also printed books, and of course there is also some written text on coins, paintings, memorials, etc.) Manuscript evidence can present many difficult challenges for dating and interpretation.

Many (but by no means all) collections of functional records, e.g. recording business transactions, are in hands which are either contemporary or very nearly contemporary with the information being recorded. But this is much more rarely the case with literary works (taking this in a broad sense, to include e.g. technical or religious treatises); these are often recorded only in much later manuscripts, and even when the manuscripts are contemporary or nearly contemporary, they may show extensive departures from the language of the author.

In a very few cases, we have manuscripts surviving in the hand of the author, known technically as ‘holograph’ manuscripts. Pretty certain cases include: the  Ormulum  (see above); from the fourteenth century, the  Ayenbite of Inwyt  by Dan Michel of the Northgate; and, from the fifteenth century, various works by Thomas Hoccleve and John Capgrave. Most literary works survive in copies by non-authorial hands. These pose various interconnected problems.

Firstly, we need to assign a date to the manuscript in which our evidence occurs. This is often not a simple matter. Some manuscripts are dated on the basis of pieces of internal evidence, such as a dated inscription in one of the scribal hands, or a reference to a particular historical event. Other manuscripts contain no clear indication of date themselves, but are dated on the basis of careful comparison with the hands of other manuscripts which can be dated more confidently on other grounds. In this way, palaeographers have built up a careful picture of the development of the various different scripts that scribes used in medieval Britain. However, very many hedges, provisos, and qualifications are necessary at every stage in this process: even datable manuscripts can often only be dated very approximately, and dating to a particular year can only rarely be relied on as 100 per cent secure; the palaeographical dating that builds on these foundations is dependent on the skill and judgements of palaeographers, who will rarely claim precision for a particular dating, and who will often differ from one another in their judgements. Normally, palaeographical datings are expressed as an approximate date range. In some cases, palaeographers may only feel confident in assigning a manuscript to somewhere within a period of as much as a hundred years (this is quite often the case with fifteenth-century manuscripts).

Once we have a date for our manuscript, we then have the problem of trying to decide whether it is reflecting the contemporary language of the scribe, or the language of the original author, or of an earlier stage in a chain of copying, or whether it shows some sort of mixed language, with features from various different points in the chain.

Modern work on the habits of medieval English scribes suggests that their behaviour can be divided into three types:

• scribes who ‘translate’ consistently into their own dialect
• scribes who copy more-or-less precisely, letter-for-letter, from their exemplar
• scribes who ‘translate’ only partially, replacing some words or forms with those from their own dialect, but leaving others unchanged

Since our surviving manuscripts sometimes stand at the end of a long chain of copying, in which successive scribes may have adopted different approaches, the possible permutations become very complex indeed.

All of this has some important implications for historical lexicographers, including:

• it is only quite rarely, and in very special circumstances, that we can be absolutely certain that the precise reading we find in a manuscript is authorial.
• but equally, we cannot normally assume that the language of a manuscript precisely reflects the contemporary usage of its scribe, especially as regards vocabulary: even a consistent ‘translator’ may have left in some words or forms which he would not have selected in his own day-to-day linguistic usage.
• comparison between different manuscripts of a work often indicates that a particular word is very likely to have been used by the original author, but various scribes have made their own choices about spelling; the different spellings adopted may well correspond to different pronunciations, and leave us in doubt about the authorial form.
• thus, dating of words and forms from the Middle English period is often hedged around with uncertainty – not only do we have only a very partial reflection of actual linguistic use, but we also cannot be certain that we even have a faithful ‘snapshot’ of a particular moment in time.

Further reading on Middle English

• Simon Horobin and Jeremy Smith,  An Introduction to Middle English  (2002)
• Roger Lass, ‘Phonology and morphology’, in Norman Blake, ed.  The Cambridge History of the English Language, vol. ii: 1066–1476  (1992), 23–155.
• Roger Lass and Margaret Laing,  A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English,1150–1325:  Introduction ..
• Angus McIntosh, M. L. Samuels, and Michael Benskin,  A Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English  (1986)
• Philip Durkin ‘“Mixed” etymologies of Middle English items in  OED3 : some questions of methodology and policy’, in  Dictionaries 23  (2002), 142–55.
• Philip Durkin,  The Oxford Guide to Etymology  (2009)

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Author: Philip Durkin, OED Deputy Chief Editor

Old English – an overview

Old English refers to the language as it was used in the long period of time from the coming of Germanic invaders and settlers to Britain up to the Norman Conquest of 1066, and beyond into the first century of Norman rule in England.

Old English in the OED

Old English is the term used to refer to the oldest recorded stage of the English language, i.e. from the earliest evidence in the seventh century to the period of transition with Middle English in the mid-twelfth century.

Dating Middle English evidence in the OED

These notes explain some of the principles and procedures involved in the dating of Middle English sources in the OED.

Early Modern English – an overview

The early modern English period follows the Middle English period towards the end of the fifteenth century and coincides closely with the Tudor (1485–1603) and Stuart (1603-1714) dynasties.

History of English

Middle English (c. 1100 – c. 1500)

Norman Conquest

The event that began the transition from Old English to Middle English was the Norman Conquest of 1066, when William the Conqueror (Duke of Normandy and, later, William I of England) invaded the island of Britain from his home base in northern France, and settled in his new acquisition along with his nobles and court. William crushed the opposition with a brutal hand and deprived the Anglo-Saxon earls of their property, distributing it to Normans (and some English) who supported him.

The conquering Normans were themselves descended from Vikings who had settled in northern France about 200 years before (the very word Norman comes originally from Norseman ). However, they had completely abandoned their Old Norse language and wholeheartedly adopted French (which is a so-called Romance language, derived originally from the Latin, not Germanic, branch of Indo-European), to the extent that not a single Norse word survived in Normandy.

However, the Normans spoke a rural dialect of French with considerable Germanic influences, usually called Anglo-Norman or Norman French, which was quite different from the standard French of Paris of the period, which is known as Francien. The differences between these dialects became even more marked after the Norman invasion of Britain, particularly after King John and England lost the French part of Normandy to the King of France in 1204 and England became even more isolated from continental Europe.

Anglo-Norman French became the language of the kings and nobility of England for more than 300 years (Henry IV, who came to the English throne in 1399, was the first monarch since before the Conquest to have English as his mother tongue). While Anglo-Norman was the verbal language of the court, administration and culture, though, Latin was mostly used for written language, especially by the Church and in official records. For example, the “Domesday Book” , in which William the Conqueror took stock of his new kingdom, was written in Latin to emphasize its legal authority.

However, the peasantry and lower classes (the vast majority of the population, an estimated 95%) continued to speak English – considered by the Normans a low-class, vulgar tongue – and the two languages developed in parallel, only gradually merging as Normans and Anglo-Saxons began to intermarry. It is this mixture of Old English and Anglo-Norman that is usually referred to as Middle English.

French (Anglo-Norman) Influence

The Normans bequeathed over 10,000 words to English (about three-quarters of which are still in use today), including a huge number of abstract nouns ending in the suffixes “-age”, “-ance/-ence”, “-ant/-ent”, “-ment”, “-ity” and “-tion”, or starting with the prefixes “con-”, “de-”, “ex-”, “trans-” and “pre-”. Perhaps predictably, many of them related to matters of crown and nobility (e.g. crown , castle , prince , count , duke , viscount , baron , noble , sovereign , heraldry ); of government and administration (e.g. parliament , government , governor , city ); of court and law (e.g. court , judge , justice , accuse , arrest , sentence , appeal , condemn , plaintiff , bailiff , jury , felony , verdict , traitor , contract , damage , prison ); of war and combat (e.g. army , armour , archer , battle , soldier , guard , courage , peace , enemy , destroy ); of authority and control (e.g. authority , obedience , servant , peasant , vassal , serf , labourer , charity ); of fashion and high living (e.g. mansion , money , gown , boot , beauty , mirror , jewel , appetite , banquet , herb , spice , sauce , roast , biscuit ); and of art and literature (e.g. art , colour , language , literature , poet , chapter , question ). Curiously, though, the Anglo-Saxon words cyning (king), cwene (queen), erl (earl), cniht (knight), ladi (lady) and lord persisted.

While humble trades retained their Anglo-Saxon names (e.g. baker , miller , shoemaker , etc), the more skilled trades adopted French names (e.g. mason , painter , tailor , merchant , etc). While the animals in the field generally kept their English names (e.g. sheep , cow , ox , calf , swine , deer ), once cooked and served their names often became French (e.g. beef , mutton , pork , bacon , veal , venison , etc). Sometimes a French word completely replaced an Old English word (e.g. crime replaced firen , place replaced stow , people replaced leod , beautiful replaced wlitig , uncle replaced eam , etc). Sometimes French and Old English components combined to form a new word, such as the French gentle and the Germanic man combined to formed gentleman . Sometimes, both English and French words survived, but with significantly different senses (e.g. the Old English doom and French judgement , hearty and cordial , house and mansion , etc).

But, often, different words with roughly the same meaning survived, and a whole host of new, French-based synonyms entered the English language (e.g. the French maternity in addition to the Old English motherhood , infant to child , amity to friendship , battle to fight , liberty to freedom , labour to work , desire to wish , commence to start , conceal to hide , divide to cleave , close to shut , demand to ask , chamber to room , forest to wood , power to might , annual to yearly , odour to smell , pardon to forgive , aid to help , etc). Over time, many near synonyms acquired subtle differences in meaning (with the French alternative often suggesting a higher level of refinement than the Old English), adding to the precision and flexibility of the English language. Even today, phrases combining Anglo-Saxon and Norman French doublets are still in common use (e.g. law and order , lord and master , love and cherish , ways and means , etc). Bilingual word lists were being compiled as early as the 13th Century.

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Excerpt from “Le Chanson de Roland” in Norman French (c. 1160) (23 sec) .

The pronunciation differences between the harsher, more guttural Anglo-Norman and the softer Francien dialect of Paris were also carried over into English pronunciations. For instance, words like quit , question , quarter , etc, were pronounced with the familiar “kw” sound in Anglo-Norman (and, subsequently, English) rather than the “k” sound of Parisian French. The Normans tended to use a hard “c” sound instead of the softer Francien “ch”, so that charrier became carry , chaudron became cauldron , etc. The Normans tended to use the suffixes “-arie” and “-orie” instead of the French “-aire” and “-oire”, so that English has words like victory (as compared to victoire ) and salary (as compared to salaire ), etc. The Normans, and therefore the English, retained the “s” in words like estate , hostel , forest and beast , while the French gradually lost it ( état , hôtel , forêt , bête ).

French scribes changed the common Old English letter pattern “hw” to “wh”, largely out of a desire for consistency with “ch” and “th”, and despite the actual aspirated pronunciation, so that hwaer became where , hwaenne became when and hwil became while . A “w” was even added, for no apparent reason, to some words that only began with “h” (e.g. hal became whole ). Another oddity occurred when hwo became who , but the pronunciation changed so that the “w” sound was omitted completely. There are just some of the kinds of inconsistencies that became ingrained in the English language during this period.

During the reign of the Norman King Henry II and his queen Eleanor of Aquitaine in the second half of the 12th Century, many more Francien words from central France were imported in addition to their Anglo-Norman counterparts (e.g. the Francien chase and the Anglo-Norman catch ; royal and real ; regard and reward ; gauge and wage ; guile and wile ; guardian and warden ; guarantee and warrant ). Regarded as the most cultured woman in Europe, Eleanor also championed many terms of romance and chivalry (e.g. romance , courtesy , honour , damsel , tournament , virtue , music , desire , passion , etc).

Many more Latin-derived words came into use (sometimes through the French, but often directly) during this period, largely connected with religion, law, medicine and literature, including scripture , collect , meditation , immortal , oriental , client , adjacent , combine , expedition , moderate , nervous , private , popular , picture , legal , legitimate , testimony , prosecute , pauper , contradiction , history , library , comet , solar , recipe , scribe , scripture , tolerance , imaginary , infinite , index , intellect , magnify and genius . But French words continued to stream into English at an increasing pace, with even more French additions recorded after the 13th Century than before, peaking in the second half of the 14th Century, words like abbey , alliance , attire , defend , navy , march , dine , marriage , figure , plea , sacrifice , scarlet , spy , stable , virtue , marshal , esquire , retreat , park , reign , beauty , clergy , cloak , country , fool , coast , magic , etc.

A handful of French loanwords established themselves only in Scotland (which had become increasingly English in character during the early Middle English period, with Gaelic pushed further and further into the Highlands and Islands), including bonnie and fash . Distinctive spellings like “quh-” for “wh-” took hold (e.g. quhan and quhile for whan and while ), and the Scottish accent gradually became more and more pronounced, particularly after Edward I’s inconclusive attempts at annexation. Scottish English’s radically distinct evolution only petered out in the 17th Century after King James united the crowns of Scotland and England (1603), and the influence of a strongly emerging Standard English came to bear during the Early Modern period.

Middle English After the Normans

During these Norman-ruled centuries in which English as a language had no official status and no regulation, English had become the third language in its own country. It was largely a spoken rather than written language, and effectively sank to the level of a patois or creole. The main dialect regions during this time are usually referred to as Northern, Midlands, Southern and Kentish, although they were really just natural developments from the Northumbrian, Mercian, West Saxon and Kentish dialects of Old English. Within these, though, a myriad distinct regional usages and dialects grew up, and indeed the proliferation of regional dialects during this time was so extreme that people in one part of England could not even understand people from another part just 50 miles away.

The universities of Oxford and Cambridge were founded in 1167 and 1209 respectively, and general literacy continued to increase over the succeeding centuries, although books were still copied by hand and therefore very expensive. Over time, the commercial and political influence of the East Midlands and London ensured that these dialects prevailed (London had been the largest city for some time, and became the Norman capital at the beginning of the 12th Century), and the other regional varieties came to be stigmatized as lacking social prestige and indicating a lack of education. The 14th Century London dialect of Chaucer, although admittedly difficult, is at least recognizable to us moderns as a form of English, whereas text in the Kentish dialect from the same period looks like a completely foreign language.

It was also during this period when English was the language mainly of the uneducated peasantry that many of the grammatical complexities and inflections of Old English gradually disappeared. By the 14th Century, noun genders had almost completely died out, and adjectives, which once had up to 11 different inflections, were reduced to just two (for singular and plural) and often in practice just one, as in modern English. The pronounced stress, which in Old English was usually on the lexical root of a word, generally shifted towards the beginning of words, which further encouraged the gradual loss of suffixes that had begun after the Viking invasions, and many vowels developed into the common English unstressed “schwa” (like the “e” in taken , or the “i” in pencil ). As inflectons disappeared, word order became more important and, by the time of Chaucer, the modern English subject-verb-object word order had gradually become the norm, and as had the use of prepositions instead of verb inflections.

Passage from “Ormulum” (late 12th Century) (17 sec) (from Palgrave Macmillan Opens in a new window ).

The “Ormulum” , a 19,000 line biblical text written by a monk called Orm from northern Lincolnshire in the late 12th Century, is an important resource in this regard. Concerned at the way people were starting to mispronounce English, Orm spelled his words exactly as they were pronounced. For instance, he used double consonants to indicate a short preceding vowel (much as modern English does in words like diner and dinner, later and latter, etc); he used three separate symbols to differentiate the different sounds of the Old English letter yogh; and he used the more modern “wh” for the old-style “hw” and “sh” for “sc”. This unusual phonetic spelling system has given philologists an invaluable snap-shot of they way Middle English was pronounced in the Midlands in the second half of the 12th Century.

Many of Orm’s spellings were perhaps atypical for the time, but many changes to the English writing system were nevertheless under way during this period:

• the Old English letters ð (“edh” or “eth”) and þ (“thorn”), which did not exist in the Norman alphabet, were gradually phased out and replaced with “th”, and the letter Ȝ (“yogh”) was generally replaced with “g” (or often with “gh”, as in ghost or night );
• the simple word the (written þ e using the thorn character) generally replaced the bewildering range of Old English definite articles, and most nouns had lost their inflected case endings by the middle of the Middle English period;
• the Norman “qu” largely substituted for the Anglo-Saxon “cw” (so that cwene became queen , cwic became quick , etc);
• the “sh” sound, which was previously rendered in a number of different ways in Old English, including “sc”, was regularized as “sh” or “sch” (e.g. scip became ship );
• the initial letters “hw” generally became “wh” (as in when , where , etc);
• a “c” was often, but not always, replaced by “k” (e.g. cyning / cyng became king ) or “ck” (e.g. boc became bock and, later, book ) or “ch” (e.g. cild became child , cese became cheese , etc);
• the common Old English “h” at the start of words like hring (ring) and hnecca (neck) was deleted;
• conversely, an “h” was added to the start of many Romance loanword (e.g. honour , heir , honest , habit , herb , etc), but was sometimes pronounced and sometimes not;
• “f” and “v” began to be differentiated (e.g. feel and veal ), as did “s” and “z” (e.g. seal and zeal ) and “ng” and “n” (e.g. thing and thin );
• “v” and “u” remained largely interchangeable, although “v” was often used at the start of a word (e.g. ( vnder ), and “u” in the middle (e.g. haue ), quite the opposite of today;
• because the written “u” was similar to “v”, “n” and “m”, it was replaced in many words with an “o” (e.g. son , come , love , one );
• the “ou” spelling of words like house and mouse was introduced;
• many long vowel sounds were marked by a double letter (e.g. boc became booc , se became see , etc), or, in some cases, a trailing “e” became no longer pronounced but retained in spelling to indicate a long vowel (e.g. nose , name );
• the long “a” vowel of Old English became more like “o” in Middle English, so that ham became home , stan became stone , ban became bone , etc;
• short vowels were identified by consonant doubling (e.g siting became sitting , etc).

Sumer is icumen in” (c. 1260) (35 sec) .

The “-en” plural noun ending of Old English (e.g. house / housen , shoe / shoen , etc) had largely disappeared by the end of the Middle English period, replaced by the French plural ending “-s” (the “-en” ending only remains today in one or two important examples, such as children , brethren and oxen ). Changes to some word forms stuck while others did not, so that we are left with inconsistencies like half and halves , grief and grieves , speech and speak , etc. In another odd example of gradual modernization, the indefinite article “a” subsumed over time the initial “n” of some following nouns, so that a napron became an apron , a nauger became an auger , etc, as well as the reverse case of an ekename becoming a nickname .

Although Old English had no distinction between the formal and informal second person singular, which was always expressed as thou , the words ye or you (previously the second person plural) were introduced in the 13th Century as the formal singular version (used with superiors or non-intimates), with thou remaining as the familiar, informal form.

Resurgence of English

It is estimated that up to 85% of Anglo-Saxon words were lost as a result of the Viking and particularly the Norman invasions, and at one point the very existence of the English language looked to be in dire peril. In 1154, even the venerable “Anglo-Saxon Chronicle” , which for centuries had recorded the history of the English people, recorded its last entry. But, despite the shake-up the Normans had given English, it showed its resilience once again, and, two hundred years after the Norman Conquest, it was English not French that emerged as the language of England.

There were a number of contributing factors. The English, of necessity, had become “Normanized”, but, over time, the Normans also became “Anglicized”, particularly after 1204 when King John’s ineptness lost the French part of Normandy to the King of France and the Norman nobles were forced to look more to their English properties. Increasingly out of touch with their properties in France and with the French court and culture in general, they soon began to look on themselves as English. Norman French began gradually to degenerate and atrophy. While some in England spoke French and some spoke Latin (and a few spoke both), everyone, from the highest to the lowest, spoke English, and it gradually became the lingua franca of the nation once again.

The Hundred Year War against France (1337 – 1453) had the effect of branding French as the language of the enemy and the status of English rose as a consequence. The Black Death of 1349 – 1350 killed about a third of the English population (which was around 4 million at that time), including a disproportionate number of the Latin-speaking clergy. After the plague, the English-speaking labouring and merchant classes grew in economic and social importance and, within the short period of a decade, the linguistic division between the nobility and the commoners was largely over. The Statute of Pleading, which made English the official language of the courts and Parliament (although, paradoxically, it was written in French), was adopted in 1362, and in that same year Edward III became the first king to address Parliament in English, a crucial psychological turning point. By 1385, English had become the language of instruction in schools.

The following passage is taken from a late 14th Century work called “Mandeville’s Travels” about travels in foreign land:

In þ at lond ben trees þ at beren wolle, as þ ogh it were of scheep; whereof men maken clothes, and all þ ing þ at may ben made of wolle. In þ at contree ben many ipotaynes, þ at dwellen som tyme in the water, and somtyme on the lond: and þ ei ben half man and half hors, as I haue seyd before; and þ ei eten men, whan þ ei may take hem. And þ ere ben ryueres and watres þ at ben fulle byttere, þ ree sithes more þ an is the water of the see. In þ at contré ben many griffounes, more plentee þ an in ony other contree. Sum men seyn þ at þ ei han the body vpward as an egle, and benethe as a lyoun: and treuly þ ei seyn soth þ at þ ei ben of þ at schapp. But o griffoun hath the body more gret, and is more strong, þ anne eight lyouns, of suche lyouns as ben o this half; and more gret and strongere þ an an hundred egles, suche as we han amonges vs. For o griffoun þ ere wil bere fleynge to his nest a gret hors, Ȝif he may fynde him at the poynt, or two oxen Ȝoked togidere, as þ ei gon at the plowgh.

Beginning of the “Sir Gawain and the Green Knight” (late 14th Century) (61 sec) (from Norton Anthology of English Literature Opens in a new window ).

There are clearly many more recognizable words in this sample than in the Old English passage, especially once the continued use of þ (“thorn”) to represent the sound “th” is accepted. Another now obsolete character Ȝ (“yogh”, more or less equivalent in most cases to the modern consonantal “y” as in yellow or sometimes like the “ch” in loch ) is also used in this passage, and the letters “v” and “u” seem to be used more or less interchangeably (e.g. vpward for upward , ryueres for rivers , treuly for truly ). The indications of a language in a state of flux are also apparent in the variety of spellings of the same words even within this short passage (e.g. contré and contree , þan and þanne , water and watres ). Some holdovers from Old English inflections remain (e.g. present tense verbs still receive a plural inflection, as in beren , dwellen , han and ben ), and many words still have the familiar medieval trailing “e” (e.g. wolle , benethe , suche , fynde , etc), but the overall appearance is much more modern than that of Old English.

Throughout the Middle English period, as in Old English, all the consonants were pronounced, so that the word knight , for example, would have been pronounced more like “k-neecht” (with the “ch” as in the Scottish loch ) than like the modern English knight . By the late 14th Century, the final “e” in many, but not all, words had ceased to be pronounced (e.g. it was silent in words like kowthe and thanne , but pronounced in words like ende , ferne , straunge , etc).

Chaucer and the Birth of English Literature

Texts in Middle English (as opposed to French or Latin) begin as a trickle in the 13th Century, with works such as the debate poem “The Owl and the Nightingale” (probably composed around 1200) and the long historical poem known as Layamon’s “Brut” (from around the same period). Most of Middle English literature, at least up until the flurry of literary activity in the latter part of the 14th Century, is of unknown authorship.

Geoffrey Chaucer began writing his famous “Canterbury Tales” in the early 1380s, and crucially he chose to write it in English. Other important works were written in English around the same time, if not earlier, including William Langland’s “Piers Plowman” and the anonymous “Sir Gawain and the Green Knight” . But the “Canterbury Tales” is usually considered the first great works of English literature, and the first demonstration of the artistic legitimacy of vernacular Middle English, as opposed to French or Latin.

In the 858 lines of the Prologue to the “Canterbury Tales” , almost 500 different French loanwards occur, and by some estimates, some 20-25% of Chaucer’s vocabulary is French in origin. However, the overall sense of his work is very much of a re-formed English, a complete, flexible and confident language, more than adequate to produce great literature. Chaucer introduced many new words into the language, up to 2,000 by some counts – these were almost certainly words in everyday use in 14th Century London, but first attested in Chaucer’s written works. Words like paramour , difficulty , significance , dishonesty , edifice , ignorant , etc, are all from French roots, but when he wanted to portray the earthy working man of England (e.g. the Miller), he consciously used much more Old English vocabulary, and he also reintroduced many old words that had fallen out of favour, such as churlish , farting , friendly , learning , loving , restless , wifely , willingly , etc. The list of words first found in Chaucer’s works goes on: absent , accident , add , agree , bagpipe , border , box , cinnamon , desk , desperate , discomfit , digestion , examination , finally , flute , funeral , galaxy , horizon , infect , ingot , latitude , laxative , miscarry , nod , obscure , observe , outrageous , perpendicular , princess , resolve , rumour , scissors , session , snort , superstitious , theatre , trench , universe , utility , vacation , Valentine , village , vulgar , wallet , wildness , etc, etc.

Beginning of the “General Prologue” to Chaucer’s “Canterbury Tales” (67 sec) .

Such was the pace of continuous change to the language at this time, that different forms of words were often used interchangeably, even by the same author, and this flexibility (or inconsistency) in spelling is quite noticeable in Chaucer’s work (e.g. yeer and yere , doughtren and doughtres , etc). However, it should be noted that, because Chaucer’s work was copied by several different scribes, and we have no original in Chaucer’s own hand, different manuscripts have different spellings, none of which are definitive (e.g. the same word is variously rendered as site , sighte , syth , sigh and cite in different manuscripts).

In 1384, John Wycliffe (Wyclif) produced his translation of “The Bible” in vernacular English. This challenge to Latin as the language of God was considered a revolutionary act of daring at the time, and the translation was banned by the Church in no uncertain terms (however, it continued to circulate unofficially). Although perhaps not of the same literary calibre as Chaucer (in general, he awkwardly retained the original Latin word order, for instance), Wycliffe’s “Bible” was nevertheless a landmark in the English language. Over 1,000 English words were first recorded in it, most of them Latin-based, often via French, including barbarian , birthday , canopy , child-bearing , communication , cradle , crime , dishonour , emperor , envy , godly , graven , humanity , glory , injury , justice , lecher , madness , mountainous , multitude , novelty , oppressor , philistine , pollute , profession , puberty , schism , suddenly , unfaithful , visitor , zeal , etc, as well as well-known phrases like an eye for an eye , woe is me , etc. However, not all of Wycliffe’s neologisms became enshrined in the language (e.g. mandement , descrive , cratch ).

By the late 14th and 15th Century, the language had changed drastically, and Old English would probably have been almost as incomprehensible to Chaucer as it is to us today, even though the language of Chaucer is still quite difficult for us to read naturally. William Caxton, writing and printing less than a century after Chaucer, is noticeably easier for the modern reader to understand.

Richard is an English teacher with over 25 years of experience. He has dedicated his life and career to his passion for English, literature, and pedagogy, guiding multiple generations of students on their journey to discovery.

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Essays on Middle English literature

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MIDDLE ENGLISH LITERATURE: AN INTRODUCTION

An introduction to Middle English Literature, including: discussion of the historical context from Anglo-Norman period to the 14th Century, the development of the Middle English language, the medieval synthesis of Judeo-Christian faith and classical philosophy, Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy, and an analysis of Geoffrey Chaucer's "Truth" as representative of the medieval worldview.

Related Papers

Katie Robison

This dissertation argues that late medieval dream poets viewed writing as a serious means of therapy, capable of healing both pscyhological and physiological ailments. Blending together the poetic revelatory tradition (influenced by Apocalpytic writings) with new understandings of health and medicine, fourteenth-century dream visions sought to treat the illnesses of their poetic personae by applying medical principles to literary bodies. It is the dream frame in particular, as both a reflection of the poet’s physical and mental condition and a catalyst for introspection and transformation, that enabled these poets to write through and for their bodies, ultimately facilitating healing. I take as case studies four late medieval dream visions: Le Roman de la Rose, Piers Plowman, The House of Fame, and L’Advision-Christine.

New Literary History

Ingrid Nelson

This essay proposes a biopolitics of lyric that comprises ethics, politics, and poetic form, exemplified in the philosophical lyrics of the medieval poet Geoffrey Chaucer. Lyric biopolitics is grounded in premodern and modern theories of “form, “rule,” and “life.” Rethinking formalism with respect to biopolitics draws on form’s plural meanings, acknowledges the intersection between ethics and politics in the categories of “life” and “rule,” and reveals how the physical, metaphysical, and aesthetic senses of form converge on the structures that shape life. Taking its cue from Agamben’s exploration of the medieval regula vitae (rule of life) as a foundation for a biopolitics of the rule, this essay suggests that a set of Chaucer’s philosophical lyrics, known as the Boethian lyrics, articulate a poetics of the rule, as sovereign rule and self-governance, navigable through medieval lyric form. Analyses of Chaucer’s poems “Fortune,” “Truth,” “Gentilesse,” and “Lak of Stedfastnesse” suggest a biopolitics of lyric that acknowledges the real conditions of medieval political existence and suggest a secular form-of-life. In Chaucer’s poetics of the rule, the rhetorical neatness of a rule’s formulation unfurls into the complexities of practice by way of medieval lyric forms that belie their apparent containment. These forms, like rules, are not bounded wholes but spaces of practice through which life is lived.

Maura Nolan

Jesse McDowell

What unites medieval scholars is the common understanding that Boethian thought has comprehensive influence on the literature and philosophy of medieval Europe, including the many works of Geoffrey Chaucer. Yet not much attention has been given to its nuanced appropriation in the Canterbury Tales. In the early and high middle ages, Boethian ideas burst out of literary works where destiny, chance, and providence govern themes across genres. Characters in these literary situations either overcome Fortuna or fall victim to her. Translations of De Consolatione Philosophiae abound throughout the period, and Chaucer the translator and poet intimated Boethian ideas in his works. In the Tales, Chaucer masterfully enacts elements of Fortuna and Providence in ways that seem united but are in fact disparate. By probing similar syntactical and philosophical passages of Chaucer’s own translation in the Boece, I argue that the narrative concerning Boethian themes in the Man of Law’s Tale stands alone as it evinces a different manifestation of destiny and chance in the performance of language and gender in Constance’s spiritual journey in the rudder-less ship than any other tale. Read against the Knight’s Tale, chance and destiny don’t solicit the powers of planetary agents striking down event-altering actions from the aether at will, void of attention to gender but focused on language, but rather elevate and yet expose the human condition to exile through theological imagery and spiritual vision. Chaucer plays out Boethian themes in chance and destiny in both tales, yet the shape of these themes reduces human agency in one and increases it in another; he prides human agency in The Man of Law’s Tale and diminishes it in The Knight’s Tale. These competing narratives could provide a methodology for analyzing the narratives in Chaucer’s contemporaries that might also exude a multiplicity of Boethian narratives.

Ancient Philosophy and Modern Philosophy

HARRIS ( K O N S T A N T I N O S ) NOTTAS , CO AUTHORS DTMS ET AL D T M S AS WELL AS MANY OTHER ANAGRAMS

Still convalescing and catching up on Reading, Reviews and such Here are 2 great samples

Zdravko Planinc

Facts on File Companion to British Poetry Before 1600

My three contributions cover Piers Plowman (Passus 17), The Piers Plowman Tradition, and the “Maye Eclogue” in Spenser's Shepheardes Calender.

Gillian Adler

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Wayne J Hankey

Mansoor Ahmed Khan

Khalil Andani

Angus Gowland

Neophilologus

Tassana Leesongsak

Ayesha Erum

The Edinburgh Critical History of Middle Ages and Renaissance Philosophy, edited by Andrew LaZella and Richard A. Lee, Jr.

The Cambridge Companion to Chaucer

Ardis Butterfield

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| | | | | | | | | | | |      . Last updated on January 2, 2023. Art: Giotto, , 1304-6, Fresco. Cappella Scrovegni, Padua, Italy. Learning Materials Business Studies Combined Science Computer Science Engineering English Literature Environmental Science Human Geography Macroeconomics Microeconomics Middle English Examples As a language enthusiast or a student of English literature, delving into the rich history of the English language is a fascinating endeavour. Middle English , spoken from the late 11th century to the late 15th century, provides vital insights into the evolution of the language. With intriguing examples of vocabulary, syntax and literature, understanding Middle English enables an appreciation of the linguistic journey that has led to Modern English. This article will offer an in-depth exploration, including examination of example texts, analysis of Middle English dialects, and glimpse into classic literature such as Canterbury Tales. Moreover, it will discuss linguistic variations found in different regions, shedding light on the richness of Middle English as it paved the way for the language as it is known today. Create learning materials about Middle English Examples with our free learning app! Instand access to millions of learning materials Flashcards, notes, mock-exams and more Everything you need to ace your exams Millions of flashcards designed to help you ace your studies Cell Biology What are the main differences between Middle English dialects? Which grammatical change occurred in Middle English literature related to verb endings? How were double negatives used in Middle English, as seen in Canterbury Tales? What was the period of Middle English? What are some important texts of Middle English? What were some distinct characteristics of Middle English grammar? What key aspects characterized Middle English sentence structure? What is a significant linguistic aspect found in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales that later became a staple of English poetry? What change in the use of auxiliary verbs took place in Middle English literature? Review generated flashcards to start learning or create your own AI flashcards Start learning or create your own AI flashcards 5 Paragraph Essay Argumentative Essay Cues and Conventions English Grammar English Language Study Essay Prompts Essay Writing Skills Global English History of English Language Comparative Method Conventions of Standard English Early Modern English Great Vowel Shift Historical Development Inflectional Morphemes Irish English King James Bible Language Family Language Isolate Middle English Noah Webster Dictionary Old English Language Old English Texts Old English Translation Piers Plowman Proto Language Samuel Johnson Dictionary Scottish English Shakespearean English Welsh English International English Key Concepts in Language and Linguistics Language Acquisition Language Analysis Language and Social Groups Lexis and Semantics Linguistic Terms Listening and Speaking Multiple Choice Questions Research and Composition Rhetorical Analysis Essay Single Paragraph Essay Sociolinguistics Summary Text Synthesis Essay Textual Analysis The Middle English Language: Example Texts and Analysis Middle English , which spans from the 11th to the 15th century, was a significant period in the development of the English language. During this era, the language underwent significant changes in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation as a result of Norman Conquest and increased contact with Latin and French. To gain a deeper understanding of Middle English , we need to look closely at example texts, their analysis, and the linguistic features they exhibit. Some of the most well-known and important texts of Middle English are: Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Wycliffe's Bible Translation The Cloud of Unknowing Mystery plays and miracle plays When analyzing these texts, we should pay special attention to the linguistic features that characterize Middle English. For instance, Middle English grammar exhibited some distinct characteristics like: The decline of inflections The simplification of the case system in nouns The development of modal auxiliary verbs Formation of compound tenses Middle English Words Examples: Vocabulary and Meanings In Middle English, many new words were borrowed from Latin, French, and other languages. This new wave of vocabulary ignited a shift in meaning for these words and the English lexicon as a whole. A few examples of common Middle English words and their meanings include: Quene Queen Ich I Ycleped Called, named Hende Courteous, gentle Welkin Sky Borrowed words from French or Latin often retained their original spelling, but with alternative meanings. For example, the term 'squier' meaning 'squire' originally comes from the Old French word 'esquierre.' Middle English Sentences Examples: Structure and Syntax When analyzing Middle English sentences, one should note the differences in syntax and grammatical structure from Modern English. There was greater word order flexibility in Middle English, and the use of various forms of inflections to convey meaning was more common. This, along with the Old English influence, led to a distinct sentence structure. Here is an example of a sentence from Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales , with its translation into Modern English: Some key aspects of Middle English sentence structure include: Greater freedom in word order due to inflections conveying grammatical information More frequent use of double negatives for emphasis Prepositions were often placed at the end of clauses, rather than next to the noun they were modifying The use of 'thee' and 'thou' for the second-person singular pronoun, with 'you' reserved for plural or more formal situations By studying Middle English examples and understanding the context of this period in language history, one can gain valuable insights into the linguistic changes that shaped the development of the English language. Furthermore, this knowledge will help you appreciate the rich linguistic heritage and the remarkable transformation the language underwent over the centuries. Middle English in Classic Literature: Canterbury Tales and Beyond Classic literature from the Middle English period is a treasure trove of linguistic variation and offers vivid insights into the development of the English language. Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales is one such pivotal work that illustrates the richness of Middle English. In addition to Canterbury Tales, other literary masterpieces of the time, such as Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Mystery plays and miracle plays, all showcase the variety and inventiveness of Middle English. Middle English examples in Canterbury Tales: Text and Interpretation Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, comprising over 17,000 lines written in verse, serves as an excellent resource for exploring the beauty, complexity, and characteristics of Middle English. Drawing upon a diverse range of sources, Chaucer introduces numerous linguistic features from different dialects and languages, such as French and Latin. Here, we will delve into some of the most notable examples found in Canterbury Tales and interpret their meanings within the context of Middle English language development. Some vital linguistic aspects found in Canterbury Tales are: Chaucer's use of iambic pentameter, which became a staple of English poetry New vocabulary borrowed from Latin and French, as well as creative coinages by Chaucer himself The frequent use of double negatives for emphasis and dramatic effect Varied syntax that showcases the greater word order flexibility in Middle English Let us now examine fragments from Canterbury Tales: This example reveals Middle English spelling variations and word choice, as seen with 'Aprill' and 'shoures soote.' Additionally, the lack of capitalisation on months indicates a linguistic norm differing from Modern English conventions. This sentence illustrates different word order, where 'he was a carpenter' comes after 'craft' instead of the expected Modern English syntax. Examples of grammatical changes in Middle English Literature The grammatical landscape of Middle English literature underwent numerous adjustments, as seen in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. Various grammatical features from Old English evolved or became simplified, with new structures and constructions emerging to form the grammar we recognize today. Some crucial grammatical changes observed in Middle English literature are: Decline of inflections, leading to the emergence of a simpler grammatical system Distinguishing between plural and singular using '-en' and '-eth' as verb endings Double negatives employed for emphasis, a device which is discouraged in Modern English Formation of compound tenses through auxiliary verbs, such as 'have' and 'had' Introduction of auxiliary verbs like 'will,' 'shall,' 'may,' 'might,' and 'must' to express modality Greater use of prepositions at the end of clauses or sentences By examining canonical texts such as Canterbury Tales and other works from the Middle English period, we can gain a broader understanding of the linguistic legacy passed down through generations. The inherent adaptability and transformative nature of the English language is evident in the grammatical changes witnessed throughout Middle English literature. This knowledge enriches our appreciation for the language's rich history and helps us better comprehend its evolution over time. Exploring Middle English Dialects and Literature Examples When studying Middle English, it is crucial to explore the range of dialects and literature examples that emerged during this period. Harnessing an in-depth understanding of dialects and regional variations allows us to better appreciate the richness of Middle English language and literature. Diversity in Middle English: Dialects Examples and Regional Variation The Middle English period witnessed a variety of dialects and regional variations taking shape due to several factors, such as the influence of Old English dialects, Latin and French borrowings, socio-political developments, and contact with other languages. Some of the most predominant dialects during this period are listed below: South Western Each of these dialects had its unique vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation, resulting in differing regional characteristics and literary works across the country. Main differences between Middle English dialects include: Sound changes in vowels and consonants Varied vocabulary and borrowed words Grammatical structures and constructions Use of regionalisms and colloquial expressions Regional variation is most noticeably observed in Middle English literature. For instance, Northern dialect features can be found in Middle English alliterative poems, such as 'Sir Gawain and the Green Knight,' whereas Chaucer's 'Canterbury Tales' demonstrates features of the London dialect. These differences in dialects provide valuable insights into the regional identities present during the Middle English period and set the stage for the development of Modern English dialects. Middle English Literature Examples: Works and Authors The Middle English period saw the creation of an array of literary works, each reflecting unique dialectal features and regional variations. Famous works and their associated authors include: Sir Gawain and the Green Knight – Anonymous (Northern dialect) Piers Plowman – William Langland (West Midland dialect) The Pearl Poet – Anonymous (Northern dialect) Historia Regum Britanniae – Geoffrey of Monmouth (Latin influence) John Gower's Confessio Amantis – John Gower (Southern dialect) The Owl and the Nightingale – Anonymous (South Western dialect) These works exhibit the richness and diversity of Middle English dialects and provide valuable examples of regional variation in language. Examples of Middle English sentences across Dialects and Texts Comparing sentences from different dialects and texts allows us to appreciate the variety within the Middle English language and the nuances of regional variation. Here, we examine sentences from various Middle English dialects: Northern dialect (Sir Gawain and the Green Knight): Middle English: Tulké þat out of tulé other telés con dyluer Translation: Knight who, out of Troy, did teach men stories West Midland dialect ( Piers Plowman ): Middle English: Here the lered canen fynde; such a lyf telle thyne erchebisshop of Canterbury Translation: There the learned men may find; such a life tell your Archbishop of Canterbury These examples underline the unique language features across dialects and demonstrate regional variation in Middle English literary works. The study of dialects affords a deeper understanding of the development of the English language and appreciation for the wealth of literature in this period. Middle English Examples - Key takeaways Middle English, spoken from the late 11th century to the late 15th century, underwent significant changes in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. Key texts of Middle English include Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, and Wycliffe's Bible Translation. Examples of Middle English words: Quene (Queen), Ich (I), Ycleped (Called, named), Hende (Courteous, gentle), Welkin (Sky). Major dialects of Middle English: Northern, Midland, South Western, Southern, and London - each with its unique vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. Examples of grammatical changes in Middle English: decline of inflections, simplification of case system in nouns, development of modal auxiliary verbs, and formation of compound tenses. Flashcards in Middle English Examples 9 Sound changes in vowels and consonants, varied vocabulary and borrowed words, grammatical structures and constructions, use of regionalisms and colloquial expressions. Distinguishing between plural and singular using '-en' and '-eth' as verb endings. Double negatives were used for emphasis and dramatic effect. Middle English spans from the 11th to the 15th century. Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Wycliffe's Bible Translation, The Cloud of Unknowing, and mystery plays and miracle plays. The decline of inflections, the simplification of the case system in nouns, the development of modal auxiliary verbs, and the formation of compound tenses. Learn with 9 Middle English Examples flashcards in the free StudySmarter app We have 14,000 flashcards about Dynamic Landscapes. Already have an account? Log in Frequently Asked Questions about Middle English Examples Test your knowledge with multiple choice flashcards. Join the StudySmarter App and learn efficiently with millions of flashcards and more! Keep learning, you are doing great. Discover learning materials with the free StudySmarter app About StudySmarter StudySmarter is a globally recognized educational technology company, offering a holistic learning platform designed for students of all ages and educational levels. Our platform provides learning support for a wide range of subjects, including STEM, Social Sciences, and Languages and also helps students to successfully master various tests and exams worldwide, such as GCSE, A Level, SAT, ACT, Abitur, and more. We offer an extensive library of learning materials, including interactive flashcards, comprehensive textbook solutions, and detailed explanations. The cutting-edge technology and tools we provide help students create their own learning materials. StudySmarter’s content is not only expert-verified but also regularly updated to ensure accuracy and relevance. StudySmarter Editorial Team Team English Teachers 10 minutes reading time Checked by StudySmarter Editorial Team Study anywhere. Anytime.Across all devices. Create a free account to save this explanation.. Save explanations to your personalised space and access them anytime, anywhere! By signing up, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and the Privacy Policy of StudySmarter. Sign up to highlight and take notes. It’s 100% free. Join over 22 million students in learning with our StudySmarter App The first learning app that truly has everything you need to ace your exams in one place Flashcards & Quizzes AI Study Assistant Study Planner Smart Note-Taking About Michelle Waters Curriculum Vitae Tools I Use Podcast Episodes How To Be Our Podcast Guest Member Login Member Helpdesk Support Portal Resource Partners Writing Partners Certificate Verification How To Contribute by Michelle Boyd Waters, M.Ed.   A Plethora Of Writing Examples For Middle School (& High School) October 14, 2014 in  Pedagogy When I started my first job as a professional newspaper reporter (This job also served as an internship during my junior year in college — I just didn’t leave for about 6 years.), I quickly realized that all my experience, and all my years of journalism education had not been enough to help me write stories about drug busts, fatal car accidents and tornadoes. All the theoretical work I’d done, and all of the nifty little scholastic and collegiate stories I had done, did not prepare me for real world writing. At that point, I had to find a solution quickly. After all, I had a deadline to meet, and it was only a few hours away. One of my colleagues, who also served as a mentor, had the solution. She introduced me to the newspaper’s “morgue.” This was a room filled with filing cabinets in which we kept old — dead — stories arranged by reporter. Whenever I wasn’t’ sure how to write a story, all I had to do was check the morgue for similar stories. If I needed to write a story about a local drug bust, for example, I’d find another story on a similar incident, study its structure, and mentally create a formula in which to plugin the information I’d gathered. Once I’d gained more experience, and had internalized the formula for that particular type of story, I felt free to branch out as the situation — and my training — warranted. I do the same thing when I want to write a type of letter, brochure, or report that I’ve never written before. This is what writing looks like in the real world. Of course, if you’re a new teacher like me, there is one problem with providing mentor texts to my students: I have a dearth of middle school level writing sitting around in my file cabinets. Fortunately, the Internet is full of sources, so I scoured the bowels of Google to find examples. I know how busy you are, so I’m sharing. Expository writing examples for middle school Below are several sources of expository writing samples for middle school students. The Write Source Expository Writing Samples Holt, Rinehart, Winston Expository Essay Models Finally, here is an article in the New York Times that will help you teach your students  real-world expository writing skills . Descriptive writing examples for middle school Descriptive Writing Samples from Novels Milwaukee Public Schools Descriptive Essay Samples (p. 137) Holt, Rinehart, Winston Descriptive Essay Models Narrative writing examples for middle school Writing Samples by Steve Peha (PDF) The Write Source Narrative Writing Samples Oregon Department of Education Scored Writing Samples (Ideas and Organization) Oregon Department of Education Scored Writing Samples (Sentence Fluency and Conventions) Oregon Department of Education Scored Writing Samples (Voice and Word Choice) Oregon Department of Education High School Scored Narrative and Argumentative Writing Samples Holt, Rinehart, Winston Narrative Essay Models Argumentative/persuasive writing examples for middle school The Write Source Persuasive Writing Samples Holt, Rinehart, Winston Persuasive Essay Models Reflective writing examples for middle school Reflective essay examples from Lake Washington Girls Middle School If you know of any other online writing example sources, please feel free to share them in the comments below. Related topics: Argumentative Writing , Informative Writing , Mentor Texts , Narrative Writing About the author  Michelle Boyd Waters, M.Ed. I am a secondary English Language Arts teacher, a University of Oklahoma student working on my doctorate in Instructional Leadership and Academic Curriculum with an concentration in English Education and co-Editor of the Oklahoma English Journal. I am constantly seeking ways to amplify students' voices and choices. This is very, very helpful. Thank you for sharing! As a new middle school teacher (coming from elementary) this was very helpful and encouraging. Thank you very much for letting me know. I’m glad that I was able to help you! Thank you! I’m glad I can help. Your welcome This is super helpful. Thank you! These links are a fantastic help. Thank you! This helped me BUNCHES! Thanks so much! thanks so much!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! XD These links are now dead 🙁 Thank you for notifying me! I have updated the post to include new (live!) links. Some of them are geared towards high school, but I think we can still use them as exemplars of what we want our students to aim for. Comments are closed. Have a language expert improve your writing Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free. Knowledge Base The Beginner's Guide to Writing an Essay | Steps & Examples An academic essay is a focused piece of writing that develops an idea or argument using evidence, analysis, and interpretation. There are many types of essays you might write as a student. The content and length of an essay depends on your level, subject of study, and course requirements. However, most essays at university level are argumentative — they aim to persuade the reader of a particular position or perspective on a topic. The essay writing process consists of three main stages: Preparation: Decide on your topic, do your research, and create an essay outline. Writing : Set out your argument in the introduction, develop it with evidence in the main body, and wrap it up with a conclusion. Revision:  Check your essay on the content, organization, grammar, spelling, and formatting of your essay. Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes Table of contents Essay writing process, preparation for writing an essay, writing the introduction, writing the main body, writing the conclusion, essay checklist, lecture slides, frequently asked questions about writing an essay. The writing process of preparation, writing, and revisions applies to every essay or paper, but the time and effort spent on each stage depends on the type of essay . For example, if you’ve been assigned a five-paragraph expository essay for a high school class, you’ll probably spend the most time on the writing stage; for a college-level argumentative essay , on the other hand, you’ll need to spend more time researching your topic and developing an original argument before you start writing. 1. Preparation 2. Writing 3. Revision , organized into Write the or use a for language errors Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check. Before you start writing, you should make sure you have a clear idea of what you want to say and how you’re going to say it. There are a few key steps you can follow to make sure you’re prepared: Understand your assignment: What is the goal of this essay? What is the length and deadline of the assignment? Is there anything you need to clarify with your teacher or professor? Define a topic: If you’re allowed to choose your own topic , try to pick something that you already know a bit about and that will hold your interest. Do your research: Read  primary and secondary sources and take notes to help you work out your position and angle on the topic. You’ll use these as evidence for your points. Come up with a thesis:  The thesis is the central point or argument that you want to make. A clear thesis is essential for a focused essay—you should keep referring back to it as you write. Create an outline: Map out the rough structure of your essay in an outline . This makes it easier to start writing and keeps you on track as you go. Once you’ve got a clear idea of what you want to discuss, in what order, and what evidence you’ll use, you’re ready to start writing. The introduction sets the tone for your essay. It should grab the reader’s interest and inform them of what to expect. The introduction generally comprises 10–20% of the text. 1. Hook your reader The first sentence of the introduction should pique your reader’s interest and curiosity. This sentence is sometimes called the hook. It might be an intriguing question, a surprising fact, or a bold statement emphasizing the relevance of the topic. Let’s say we’re writing an essay about the development of Braille (the raised-dot reading and writing system used by visually impaired people). Our hook can make a strong statement about the topic: The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability. 2. Provide background on your topic Next, it’s important to give context that will help your reader understand your argument. This might involve providing background information, giving an overview of important academic work or debates on the topic, and explaining difficult terms. Don’t provide too much detail in the introduction—you can elaborate in the body of your essay. 3. Present the thesis statement Next, you should formulate your thesis statement— the central argument you’re going to make. The thesis statement provides focus and signals your position on the topic. It is usually one or two sentences long. The thesis statement for our essay on Braille could look like this: As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness. 4. Map the structure In longer essays, you can end the introduction by briefly describing what will be covered in each part of the essay. This guides the reader through your structure and gives a preview of how your argument will develop. The invention of Braille marked a major turning point in the history of disability. The writing system of raised dots used by blind and visually impaired people was developed by Louis Braille in nineteenth-century France. In a society that did not value disabled people in general, blindness was particularly stigmatized, and lack of access to reading and writing was a significant barrier to social participation. The idea of tactile reading was not entirely new, but existing methods based on sighted systems were difficult to learn and use. As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness. This essay begins by discussing the situation of blind people in nineteenth-century Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille and the gradual process of its acceptance within blind education. Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging effects of this invention on blind people’s social and cultural lives. Write your essay introduction The body of your essay is where you make arguments supporting your thesis, provide evidence, and develop your ideas. Its purpose is to present, interpret, and analyze the information and sources you have gathered to support your argument. Length of the body text The length of the body depends on the type of essay. On average, the body comprises 60–80% of your essay. For a high school essay, this could be just three paragraphs, but for a graduate school essay of 6,000 words, the body could take up 8–10 pages. Paragraph structure To give your essay a clear structure , it is important to organize it into paragraphs . Each paragraph should be centered around one main point or idea. That idea is introduced in a  topic sentence . The topic sentence should generally lead on from the previous paragraph and introduce the point to be made in this paragraph. Transition words can be used to create clear connections between sentences. After the topic sentence, present evidence such as data, examples, or quotes from relevant sources. Be sure to interpret and explain the evidence, and show how it helps develop your overall argument. Lack of access to reading and writing put blind people at a serious disadvantage in nineteenth-century society. Text was one of the primary methods through which people engaged with culture, communicated with others, and accessed information; without a well-developed reading system that did not rely on sight, blind people were excluded from social participation (Weygand, 2009). While disabled people in general suffered from discrimination, blindness was widely viewed as the worst disability, and it was commonly believed that blind people were incapable of pursuing a profession or improving themselves through culture (Weygand, 2009). This demonstrates the importance of reading and writing to social status at the time: without access to text, it was considered impossible to fully participate in society. Blind people were excluded from the sighted world, but also entirely dependent on sighted people for information and education. See the full essay example Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on: Academic style Vague sentences Style consistency See an example The conclusion is the final paragraph of an essay. It should generally take up no more than 10–15% of the text . A strong essay conclusion : Returns to your thesis Ties together your main points Shows why your argument matters A great conclusion should finish with a memorable or impactful sentence that leaves the reader with a strong final impression. What not to include in a conclusion To make your essay’s conclusion as strong as possible, there are a few things you should avoid. The most common mistakes are: Including new arguments or evidence Undermining your arguments (e.g. “This is just one approach of many”) Using concluding phrases like “To sum up…” or “In conclusion…” Braille paved the way for dramatic cultural changes in the way blind people were treated and the opportunities available to them. Louis Braille’s innovation was to reimagine existing reading systems from a blind perspective, and the success of this invention required sighted teachers to adapt to their students’ reality instead of the other way around. In this sense, Braille helped drive broader social changes in the status of blindness. New accessibility tools provide practical advantages to those who need them, but they can also change the perspectives and attitudes of those who do not. Write your essay conclusion Checklist: Essay My essay follows the requirements of the assignment (topic and length ). My introduction sparks the reader’s interest and provides any necessary background information on the topic. My introduction contains a thesis statement that states the focus and position of the essay. I use paragraphs to structure the essay. I use topic sentences to introduce each paragraph. Each paragraph has a single focus and a clear connection to the thesis statement. I make clear transitions between paragraphs and ideas. My conclusion doesn’t just repeat my points, but draws connections between arguments. I don’t introduce new arguments or evidence in the conclusion. I have given an in-text citation for every quote or piece of information I got from another source. I have included a reference page at the end of my essay, listing full details of all my sources. My citations and references are correctly formatted according to the required citation style . My essay has an interesting and informative title. I have followed all formatting guidelines (e.g. font, page numbers, line spacing). Your essay meets all the most important requirements. Our editors can give it a final check to help you submit with confidence. Open Google Slides Download PowerPoint An essay is a focused piece of writing that explains, argues, describes, or narrates. In high school, you may have to write many different types of essays to develop your writing skills. Academic essays at college level are usually argumentative : you develop a clear thesis about your topic and make a case for your position using evidence, analysis and interpretation. The structure of an essay is divided into an introduction that presents your topic and thesis statement , a body containing your in-depth analysis and arguments, and a conclusion wrapping up your ideas. The structure of the body is flexible, but you should always spend some time thinking about how you can organize your essay to best serve your ideas. Your essay introduction should include three main things, in this order: An opening hook to catch the reader’s attention. Relevant background information that the reader needs to know. A thesis statement that presents your main point or argument. The length of each part depends on the length and complexity of your essay . A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea. The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons: It gives your writing direction and focus. It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point. Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say. A topic sentence is a sentence that expresses the main point of a paragraph . Everything else in the paragraph should relate to the topic sentence. At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises). Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text. The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago . Is this article helpful? Other students also liked. How long is an essay? Guidelines for different types of essay How to write an essay introduction | 4 steps & examples How to conclude an essay | Interactive example More interesting articles Checklist for academic essays | Is your essay ready to submit? Comparing and contrasting in an essay | Tips & examples Example of a great essay | Explanations, tips & tricks Generate topic ideas for an essay or paper | Tips & techniques How to revise an essay in 3 simple steps How to structure an essay: Templates and tips How to write a descriptive essay | Example & tips How to write a literary analysis essay | A step-by-step guide How to write a narrative essay | Example & tips How to write a rhetorical analysis | Key concepts & examples How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples How to write an argumentative essay | Examples & tips How to write an essay outline | Guidelines & examples How to write an expository essay How to write the body of an essay | Drafting & redrafting Kinds of argumentative academic essays and their purposes Organizational tips for academic essays The four main types of essay | Quick guide with examples Transition sentences | Tips & examples for clear writing Get unlimited documents corrected ✔ Free APA citation check included ✔ Unlimited document corrections ✔ Specialized in correcting academic texts Essay Writing: A complete guide for students and teachers P LANNING, PARAGRAPHING AND POLISHING: FINE-TUNING THE PERFECT ESSAY Essay writing is an essential skill for every student. Whether writing a particular academic essay (such as persuasive, narrative, descriptive, or expository) or a timed exam essay, the key to getting good at writing is to write. Creating opportunities for our students to engage in extended writing activities will go a long way to helping them improve their skills as scribes. But, putting the hours in alone will not be enough to attain the highest levels in essay writing. Practice must be meaningful. Once students have a broad overview of how to structure the various types of essays, they are ready to narrow in on the minor details that will enable them to fine-tune their work as a lean vehicle of their thoughts and ideas. In this article, we will drill down to some aspects that will assist students in taking their essay writing skills up a notch. Many ideas and activities can be integrated into broader lesson plans based on essay writing. Often, though, they will work effectively in isolation – just as athletes isolate physical movements to drill that are relevant to their sport. When these movements become second nature, they can be repeated naturally in the context of the game or in our case, the writing of the essay. THE ULTIMATE NONFICTION WRITING TEACHING RESOURCE 270  pages of the most effective teaching strategies 50+   digital tools  ready right out of the box 75   editable resources  for student   differentiation   Loads of   tricks and tips  to add to your teaching tool bag All explanations are reinforced with  concrete examples. Links to  high-quality video  tutorials Clear objectives  easy to match to the demands of your curriculum Planning an essay The Boys Scouts’ motto is famously ‘Be Prepared’. It’s a solid motto that can be applied to most aspects of life; essay writing is no different. Given the purpose of an essay is generally to present a logical and reasoned argument, investing time in organising arguments, ideas, and structure would seem to be time well spent. Given that essays can take a wide range of forms and that we all have our own individual approaches to writing, it stands to reason that there will be no single best approach to the planning stage of essay writing. That said, there are several helpful hints and techniques we can share with our students to help them wrestle their ideas into a writable form. Let’s take a look at a few of the best of these: BREAK THE QUESTION DOWN: UNDERSTAND YOUR ESSAY TOPIC. Whether students are tackling an assignment that you have set for them in class or responding to an essay prompt in an exam situation, they should get into the habit of analyzing the nature of the task. To do this, they should unravel the question’s meaning or prompt. Students can practice this in class by responding to various essay titles, questions, and prompts, thereby gaining valuable experience breaking these down. Have students work in groups to underline and dissect the keywords and phrases and discuss what exactly is being asked of them in the task. Are they being asked to discuss, describe, persuade, or explain? Understanding the exact nature of the task is crucial before going any further in the planning process, never mind the writing process . BRAINSTORM AND MIND MAP WHAT YOU KNOW: Once students have understood what the essay task asks them, they should consider what they know about the topic and, often, how they feel about it. When teaching essay writing, we so often emphasize that it is about expressing our opinions on things, but for our younger students what they think about something isn’t always obvious, even to themselves. Brainstorming and mind-mapping what they know about a topic offers them an opportunity to uncover not just what they already know about a topic, but also gives them a chance to reveal to themselves what they think about the topic. This will help guide them in structuring their research and, later, the essay they will write . When writing an essay in an exam context, this may be the only ‘research’ the student can undertake before the writing, so practicing this will be even more important. RESEARCH YOUR ESSAY The previous step above should reveal to students the general direction their research will take. With the ubiquitousness of the internet, gone are the days of students relying on a single well-thumbed encyclopaedia from the school library as their sole authoritative source in their essay. If anything, the real problem for our students today is narrowing down their sources to a manageable number. Students should use the information from the previous step to help here. At this stage, it is important that they: ●      Ensure the research material is directly relevant to the essay task ●      Record in detail the sources of the information that they will use in their essay ●      Engage with the material personally by asking questions and challenging their own biases ●      Identify the key points that will be made in their essay ●      Group ideas, counterarguments, and opinions together ●      Identify the overarching argument they will make in their own essay. Once these stages have been completed the student is ready to organise their points into a logical order. WRITING YOUR ESSAY There are a number of ways for students to organize their points in preparation for writing. They can use graphic organizers , post-it notes, or any number of available writing apps. The important thing for them to consider here is that their points should follow a logical progression. This progression of their argument will be expressed in the form of body paragraphs that will inform the structure of their finished essay. The number of paragraphs contained in an essay will depend on a number of factors such as word limits, time limits, the complexity of the question etc. Regardless of the essay’s length, students should ensure their essay follows the Rule of Three in that every essay they write contains an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Generally speaking, essay paragraphs will focus on one main idea that is usually expressed in a topic sentence that is followed by a series of supporting sentences that bolster that main idea. The first and final sentences are of the most significance here with the first sentence of a paragraph making the point to the reader and the final sentence of the paragraph making the overall relevance to the essay’s argument crystal clear.  Though students will most likely be familiar with the broad generic structure of essays, it is worth investing time to ensure they have a clear conception of how each part of the essay works, that is, of the exact nature of the task it performs. Let’s review: Common Essay Structure Introduction: Provides the reader with context for the essay. It states the broad argument that the essay will make and informs the reader of the writer’s general perspective and approach to the question. Body Paragraphs: These are the ‘meat’ of the essay and lay out the argument stated in the introduction point by point with supporting evidence. Conclusion: Usually, the conclusion will restate the central argument while summarising the essay’s main supporting reasons before linking everything back to the original question. ESSAY WRITING PARAGRAPH WRITING TIPS ●      Each paragraph should focus on a single main idea ●      Paragraphs should follow a logical sequence; students should group similar ideas together to avoid incoherence ●      Paragraphs should be denoted consistently; students should choose either to indent or skip a line ●      Transition words and phrases such as alternatively , consequently , in contrast should be used to give flow and provide a bridge between paragraphs. HOW TO EDIT AN ESSAY Students shouldn’t expect their essays to emerge from the writing process perfectly formed. Except in exam situations and the like, thorough editing is an essential aspect in the writing process.  Often, students struggle with this aspect of the process the most. After spending hours of effort on planning, research, and writing the first draft, students can be reluctant to go back over the same terrain they have so recently travelled. It is important at this point to give them some helpful guidelines to help them to know what to look out for. The following tips will provide just such help:  One Piece at a Time: There is a lot to look out for in the editing process and often students overlook aspects as they try to juggle too many balls during the process. One effective strategy to combat this is for students to perform a number of rounds of editing with each focusing on a different aspect. For example, the first round could focus on content, the second round on looking out for word repetition (use a thesaurus to help here), with the third attending to spelling and grammar. Sum It Up: When reviewing the paragraphs they have written, a good starting point is for students to read each paragraph and attempt to sum up its main point in a single line. If this is not possible, their readers will most likely have difficulty following their train of thought too and the paragraph needs to be overhauled. Let It Breathe: When possible, encourage students to allow some time for their essay to ‘breathe’ before returning to it for editing purposes. This may require some skilful time management on the part of the student, for example, a student rush-writing the night before the deadline does not lend itself to effective editing. Fresh eyes are one of the sharpest tools in the writer’s toolbox. Read It Aloud: This time-tested editing method is a great way for students to identify mistakes and typos in their work. We tend to read things more slowly when reading aloud giving us the time to spot errors. Also, when we read silently our minds can often fill in the gaps or gloss over the mistakes that will become apparent when we read out loud. Phone a Friend: Peer editing is another great way to identify errors that our brains may miss when reading our own work. Encourage students to partner up for a little ‘you scratch my back, I scratch yours’. Use Tech Tools: We need to ensure our students have the mental tools to edit their own work and for this they will need a good grasp of English grammar and punctuation. However, there are also a wealth of tech tools such as spellcheck and grammar checks that can offer a great once-over option to catch anything students may have missed in earlier editing rounds. Putting the Jewels on Display: While some struggle to edit, others struggle to let go. There comes a point when it is time for students to release their work to the reader. They must learn to relinquish control after the creation is complete. This will be much easier to achieve if the student feels that they have done everything in their control to ensure their essay is representative of the best of their abilities and if they have followed the advice here, they should be confident they have done so. WRITING CHECKLISTS FOR ALL TEXT TYPES ⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐ (92 Reviews) ESSAY WRITING video tutorials 234 COMMENTS Middle English language Middle English language, the vernacular spoken and written in England from about 1100 to about 1500, the descendant of the Old English language and the ancestor of Modern English. (Read H.L. Mencken's 1926 Britannica essay on American English.) The history of Middle English is often divided into 1.1: Introduction to Middle English Literature The Church. The most important philosophical influence of the Middle Ages was the Church, which dominated life and literature. In medieval Britain, "the Church " referred to the Roman Catholic Church. Although works such as Chaucer's Canterbury Tales reveal an exuberant, and often bawdy, sense of humor in the Middle Ages, people also ... Middle English Middle English (abbreviated to ME [1]) is a form of the English language that was spoken after the Norman Conquest of 1066, until the late 15th century. The English language underwent distinct variations and developments following the Old English period. Scholarly opinion varies, but the University of Valencia states the period when Middle English was spoken as being from 1150 to 1500. [2] Middle English literature The term Middle English literature refers to the literature written in the form of the English language known as Middle English, from the late 12th century until the 1470s.During this time the Chancery Standard, a form of London-based English, became widespread and the printing press regularized the language. Between the 1470s and the middle of the following century there was a transition to ... Middle English In terms of 'external' history, Middle English is framed at its beginning by the after-effects of the Norman Conquest of 1066, and at its end by the arrival in Britain of printing (in 1476) and by the important social and cultural impacts of the English Reformation (from the 1530s onwards) and of the ideas of the continental Renaissance. Middle English (c. 1100 Norman Conquest. The event that began the transition from Old English to Middle English was the Norman Conquest of 1066, when William the Conqueror (Duke of Normandy and, later, William I of England) invaded the island of Britain from his home base in northern France, and settled in his new acquisition along with his nobles and court. Characteristics of Middle English Literature Middle English Literature "Middle English literature" refers to English literature that developed during the roughly 300-year period from 1150 CE to around 1450 after the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes (aka the Anglo-Saxons) settled in England in the latter part of the fifth century and eventually gave the country its name and language. Essays and Articles on Middle English Literature Misreading English Meter: 1400-1514 - Nicholas Myklebust. The Medieval English Begging Poem [Chaucer, Lydgate, Hoccleve] - Dave Henderson. Law, Gender, and Judgment in Middle English Debate Poetry - Wendy A. Matlock. Reading Lydgate's Troy Book: Patronage, Politics, and History in Lancastrian England - Diana Fawsitt. Essays on Middle English literature Essays on Middle English literature by Everett, Dorothy, 1894-1953. Publication date 1978 Topics Chaucer, Geoffrey, -1400 -- Criticism and interpretation, English literature -- Middle English, 1100-1500 -- History and criticism, Civilization, Medieval, in literature Publisher A Handbook of Middle English Studies A Handbook of Middle English Studies presents twenty-six original and accessible essays by leading scholars, analyzing the relationship between critical theory and late-medieval literature. The collection offers a range of entry points into the rich field of medieval literary studies, exploring subjects including the depiction of the self and ... MIDDLE ENGLISH LITERATURE: AN INTRODUCTION An introduction to Middle English Literature, including: discussion of the historical context from Anglo-Norman period to the 14th Century, the development of the Middle English language, the medieval synthesis of Judeo-Christian faith and classical ... This essay proposes a biopolitics of lyric that comprises ethics, politics, and poetic form ... Middle English Period: Summary & Example Middle English was a combination of the Anglo-Norman dialect and Old English. The primary change between Middle English and Old English was the simplification of grammar. Many famous texts arose during this period, including The Canterbury Tales (1387-1400), The Book of Margery Kempe (c.1440), and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (c.1400). Anthology of Middle English Literature (1350-1485) Luminarium: Anthology of Middle English Literature. Featuring Geoffrey Chaucer, Sir Thomas Malory, William Langland, Margery Kempe, John Gower, Julian of Norwich, Everyman, and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Also includes sections on medieval lyrics and medieval morality plays. Works, biographies, articles and links to additional resources. Introduction This book examines Middle English literature and includes works by Geoffrey Chaucer, John Gower, William Langland, and John Lydgate. Essays deal with topics ranging from romances to drama, chronicles, and other narrative forms, as well as gossip, orality and aurality, translation, and multilingualism. The book also looks at vernacular texts ... Middle English: Language Examples & Canterbury Tales The Middle English Language: Example Texts and Analysis. Middle English, which spans from the 11th to the 15th century, was a significant period in the development of the English language.During this era, the language underwent significant changes in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation as a result of Norman Conquest and increased contact with Latin and French. Middle English In an essay of one to two pages, explain the main characteristics of Middle English literature. Example: Heroic characters battling good versus evil were prominent in Middle English literature ... Free Essay: The Middle English Period (1100-1500) The Middle English Period (1100-1500) Middle English (ME) was the dominant and traditional spoken language form in many parts of England during the Middle Ages. The Middle Ages are so called as the middle period between the decline of the Roman Empire and prior to the period called the Renaissance. Brief History of the Middle English. How to Structure an Essay The basic structure of an essay always consists of an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. But for many students, the most difficult part of structuring an essay is deciding how to organize information within the body. This article provides useful templates and tips to help you outline your essay, make decisions about your structure, and ... A Plethora Of Writing Examples For Middle School (& High School) Expository writing examples for middle school. Below are several sources of expository writing samples for middle school students. The Write Source Expository Writing Samples; Holt, Rinehart, Winston Expository Essay Models; Finally, here is an article in the New York Times that will help you teach your students real-world expository writing ... Free Essay: Middle English Revised Copy. Middle English played an important role in the history of the English language. Middle English began about 1150-1500. Dialect diversity was major in this period that people from one part of England could not understand people in another part. Although, slowly, the dialect spoken in London was becoming the standard. Essay Structure: The 3 Main Parts of an Essay Basic essay structure: the 3 main parts of an essay. Almost every single essay that's ever been written follows the same basic structure: Introduction. Body paragraphs. Conclusion. This structure has stood the test of time for one simple reason: It works. It clearly presents the writer's position, supports that position with relevant ... The Beginner's Guide to Writing an Essay Come up with a thesis. Create an essay outline. Write the introduction. Write the main body, organized into paragraphs. Write the conclusion. Evaluate the overall organization. Revise the content of each paragraph. Proofread your essay or use a Grammar Checker for language errors. Use a plagiarism checker. Essay Writing: A Complete Guide for Students and Teachers ESSAY WRITING PARAGRAPH WRITING TIPS. Each paragraph should focus on a single main idea. Paragraphs should follow a logical sequence; students should group similar ideas together to avoid incoherence. Paragraphs should be denoted consistently; students should choose either to indent or skip a line. assignment essay homework paper phd report resume review speech thesis