classroom activities connected speech

Suprasegmentals

10 Connected Speech

John M. Levis and Kate Challis

Learning Objectives

To familiarize teachers with connected speech:

normal spoken form vs. citation/dictionary form
To enhance teachers’ ability to teach connected speech to students
To introduce teachers to high-frequency phrases in English that are often pronounced using these 6 categories of connected speech
To provide exercises for the most common connected speech phrases in English

10.1 What is connected speech?

10.2 why does connected speech matter.

10.3 Representing connected speech
10.4 Linking
10.5 Deletion
10.6 Modification
10.7 Reduction (Weak forms)

10.8 Multiple Processes

10.9 technology corner, 10.10 profunciation, 10.11 activities, 10.12 references.

Most people have noticed that there are often differences between the dictionary pronunciation of a word (its citation form) and the way it is pronounced when combined with other words in spoken language (its normal form). These differences happen because of the effects of connected speech on the expected pronunciations of words (Alameen & Levis, 2015). When people speak English naturally, their words are usually linked together smoothly without breaks between them. Sometimes , this leaves vowel and consonant sounds mostly the same, linking the sounds of one word to the sounds of another. Sometimes, connecting one word to another is done by adding sounds, deleting sounds, or changing sounds to make articulation smoother. These changes are completely normal but may make it challenging for English language learners to recognize words that they know in isolation.

Normal spoken form vs. dictionary form

The normal spoken form of a word refers to how it is commonly pronounced in natural speech. This form often includes elements of connected speech that connect adjacent sounds. Variations in the normal spoken form of a word may signal register variation (e.g., walking vs. walkin ’ ) and regional accent differences (e.g., FRUStrate vs. frusTRATE ).

The dictionary form , also known as the “citation form”, is the standardized pronunciation and form of a word as presented in dictionaries. It is a prescriptive, idealized pronunciation that does not account for speech context. This form provides a clear reference for how a word is articulated in isolation, without the influence of surrounding words or the rhythm of normal speech.

Types of Connected Speech Processes

There are many different ways connected speech processes can be categorized. Processes such as linking, insertion, deletion, and reduction occur within words (e.g., fact [fækt] vs. facts [fæks] ), but in this chapter, we describe connected speech processes as occurring across word boundaries. We provide some examples of the following types of connected speech: linking, deletion, insertion, modification, reduction, and multiple processes.

Linking is perhaps the most fundamental feature of connected speech. Linking occurs in all languages in different ways. Linking has been part of English for centuries, but there are no prescribed rules for when linking occurs. In an example of linking, the final [k] in The bike is stolen will connect to the vowel in is , so the sentence will be spoken as “ The by kiss stolen. ” In this example, the sounds stay the same, and final consonants attach to the following consonants so they sound like they are actually beginning consonant sounds. In other cases, the final sounds change or are deleted because of the sounds next to them.

In connected speech, deletions, additions, reductions, and changes of sounds into other sounds, or even combinations of these modifications, are also common. Deletions can occur when vowels or consonants drop to make it easier for speakers to pronounce. For example, if you hurt your knee, the doctor might say as you are recovering, “ You can’t favor it too much .” The [t] in can’t is likely to be deleted because [t] in the middle of three consonants [ntf] is almost always deleted in English. And in speaking casually, the second vowel in favor will be deleted, so that favor it can sound like favorite .

Additions in American English usually occur with connected final and initial vowels, such as in go about [g o w ə baʊt] and see Alan [si j ælən] . In the first phrase, [w] connects the two vowels (because the first vowel is pronounced further back in the mouth, as is [w]), while in the second, [j] connects the vowels because the first vowel is articulated more toward the front of the mouth, as is [j].

Reductions are ubiquitous in connected speech. They occur in English as a result of stress patterns in words and phrases. When vowels are not in stressed syllables, they mostly change to schwa in connected speech. For example, if you say “I went in to work on Thursday and Friday ,” the words in , on , and will all be reduced so that they are pronounced in almost the same way. If you pronounce the words in isolation, they will all sound different, but in connected speech, the differences disappear.

Connected speech processes can even change one sound into another, as in Aren ’t y ou going and Woul d y ou help me? In the first, the written <t> sounds like the sound expected of the spelling <ch> and in the second, the written <d> sounds like the sound expected of the letter <j> as in joy , or <ge>, as in gem . Finally, processes can occur together, as in “What do you want to do” being pronounced like “ Whadja wanna do”.

Connected speech processes and the changes they introduce to pronunciation are the normal way to speak English. They are not improper English, slang, or sloppy speech. In fact, they occur in even the most formal and careful registers of spoken English (Brown & Kondo-Brown, 2006). Lack of connected speech is so abnormal that it can be a way to diagnose neurodegenerative diseases (Boschi et al., 2017)!

Some types of connected speech may vary based on formal or informal situations (Cauldwell, 2013) or across English accent varieties (Brown & Crowther, 2022). This means that the realizations of connected speech processes in American English will not always be the same as those in British English or Australian English. Connected speech processes characterize normal speech in every type of spoken English, and research consistently indicates that learners improve both their listening comprehension and speech production when connected speech is taught (Musfirah, Razali, & Masna, 2019; Euler, 2014; Kul, 2016).

Why does connected speech happen?

Native English speakers tend not to be aware of producing connected speech (Hardcastle et al., 2010), suggesting that CSPs are automatic and deeply ingrained into our ways of speaking. Some researchers have considered connected speech to be primarily a function of the immediate phonemic environment (Baumann, 1996), especially the effects of coarticulation. This means that the position and movement of the mouth, tongue, teeth, throat, jaw, and face affect the production of adjacent sounds. Other researchers have argued that speech rate, the formality of the speech situation, and other social factors also influence connected speech (Lass, 1984; Anderson-Hsieh, Riney, & Koehler, 1994; Alameen, 2007). Casual, spontaneous speech has often been believed to have more linking and reduction than formal, planned speech (Hieke, 1984), but corpus-informed research by Shockey (2008) contradicts this finding for some CSPs, showing that linking frequency was consistent across casual and formal speech, as well as for fast and slow speech rates.

Connected speech in English often results from differences between stressed and unstressed syllables in English. These differences affect which words are more likely to have pronunciation changes in connected speech. Unstressed syllables are shorter and less carefully articulated than stressed ones, so unstressed syllables are far more likely to undergo vowel reduction. Unstressed syllables are also far more likely to be deleted or changed in connected speech. As a result, unstressed syllables are more likely to be compressed between stressed elements, which has two effects: They are pronounced quickly and less clearly, and this pronunciation makes stressed syllables become more noticeable, resulting in a regular, predictable stress-based rhythm for English speech.

Some descriptions of English pronunciation suggest that no matter how many unstressed elements there are in a sentence, they will all be pronounced in the same amount of time. This is not accurate. In the sentences below, the three stressed words (birds, eat, worms) remain the same and will take about the same amount of time to say. The unstressed syllables are always pronounced more quickly than the stressed ones (Munro, 2020). However, unstressed elements also take time to say, and more unstressed elements take more time than fewer.

Language learners often struggle with understanding and producing connected speech (Bley-Vroman & Kweon, 2002; Brown & Hilferty, 1986; Brown & Kondo-Brown, 2006; Henrichsen, 1984). Thus, connected speech is especially important for intelligibility and listening comprehension because learners often do not recognize known words when they occur in speech (Ash & Grossman, 2015; Kennedy & Trofimovich, 2008). This means that learners often struggle to understand the normal speech of fluent speakers or think that fluent speech is too fast.

Fortunately, explicit instruction focused on bottom-up listening (listening to the phonetic details of speech) and practicing connected speech consistently helps learners recognize and produce intelligible speech (Kissling, 2018). Cauldwell (2013) describes different types of speech in terms of plants. Very careful speech results in “greenhouse listening” (because each word is planted in its own individual pot). Classroom speech, which is careful and connected, is described as “garden listening” because words are connected but remain easy to distinguish from each other. And normal speech, the kind produced by native speakers when they are focused on communicating, is “jungle listening” because words connect to each other in unpredictable ways. As Celce-Murcia et al. (2010) say, “Our goal as teachers of listening is to help our learners understand fast, messy, authentic speech … [which] … is much more varied and unpredictable than what they need to produce in order to be intelligible” ( ).

Connected speech is also important because learners find it interesting and fun. Language learning that is fun has been shown to increase motivation (Stoimcheva-Kolarska, 2020) and long-term retention (Abourdan, 2009; Birsen, 2017). Connected speech feels like real speech to language learners, and it is. More importantly, learning to hear connected speech will make it easier to listen to the speech of others. Knowing how English speakers connect words together will make it possible to understand others in situations where they seem to be speaking fast, where several people are speaking together, and in normal speech situations where it may otherwise be hard to understand.

10.3 Representing Connected Speech

Although connected speech occurs in every register and genre of spoken English (Hardcastle et al., 2010), there is no consistent way to represent it in writing. Sometimes the dictionary spelling of words is modified intentionally in writing to better reflect connected speech pronunciations in normal speech. Some high-frequency phrases may also have commonly accepted spellings attested to exist for a long time. These spellings also make it easier to recognize connected speech. Consider the following examples:

Historically, these variant spellings, which are sometimes referred to as eye dialect (Picone, 2016), appeared almost exclusively in writing in order to represent direct speech (Weber, 1986), but today respelled forms appear widely across all forms of computer-mediated communication, such as social media and texting (Eisenstein, 2015), for example:

Connected speech in ESL/EFL textbooks and training materials sometimes also uses respelling, as in Weinstein (1982), whose book title Whaddaya Say? represents many connected speech processes. Other ESL/EFL materials focused on linking (Alameen & Levis, 2015) may use the French liaison symbol ‿ to show how sounds are linked across word boundaries. In the examples below, the first links by deleting the [h] in he , while the second connects the [r] to the following vowel sound. (In this book, we will use the French liaison symbol to signal linking.)

has he → ha‿se

four eggs → four‿eggs

10.4 Linking: what it is, when it happens, why it matters

Linking is the process of smoothly connecting one word to another word by connecting ending and beginning sounds. Sometimes linking occurs by preserving all the original sounds (C‿V linking), sometimes by deleting sounds (some types of C‿C linking), sometimes by adding sounds (V‿V linking), and sometimes by changing sounds into other sounds. Linking is normal for all types of speech, but it also differs across dialects and varieties of English.

Linking is also closely related to syllable structure, which is language-dependent. This means that linking can be tricky at first for learners, especially if they come from a language background that has a very different syllable structure from English. Japanese, Korean, Chinese, and Vietnamese generally have fewer “legal” syllable structures than English. Even though Russian, Hindi, and Arabic have many consonant clusters (like English), the kinds of clusters differ from English. However, research has shown that as you practice, you will gain a stronger sense of phonological awareness in English, including an intuition for syllable structure (Saiegh-Haddad, 2019).

C‿V linking

In C-V linking, the consonant sound at the end of one word links to the vowel sound starting the next word as in walk on , found out , and laugh off . This kind of linking ensures that words beginning with vowels will actually sound like they begin with a consonant. The regular pattern for English is consonant + vowel, so this is a frequent linking pattern in English speech.

some of → su‿muv
run into → ru‿ninto
show up → sho‿wup
zoom in → zoo‿min
fall apart → fa‿lapart
rise up → ri‿zup
check in → che‿kin
give up → gi‿vup
work out → wur‿kout
look over → loo‿kover

When a word ends with a consonant cluster (more than one consonant in a row) and the next word begins with a vowel, the final consonant of the cluster is pronounced in the syllable of the next word. This resyllabification helps English preserve the final consonant as the beginning of the next word.

first aid → fir‿staid
post office → po‿stoffice
guest entrance → gue‿stentrance
best option → be‿stoption

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There are many consonant clusters that are “illegal” in English, but they also sometimes occur because of the tendency to link. For example, in calling someone using the phrase come here , speakers will actually delete the first vowel and say [kmɪɹ]. The consonant cluster [km] is not normally allowed in English, but in this case, it can be pronounced because of linking.

Sometimes, resyllabification creates different real words in English. For example:

it’s kind of nice →it’s kayn‿dof nice

These could reflect the sounds of two sets of words, either “it’s kind of nice” or “it’s kine dove nice.” However, native English speakers are unlikely to notice this second interpretation because of context clues that make the first sentence something that could be said in English and the second something that could not be said. In the example, “kine dove nice” is unlikely to occur for many reasons. One reason is because these words don’t appear together. By contrast, “kind of” is a high-frequency phrase. Another reason is that the word ‘kine’ (an old word for ‘cow’) is archaic and rare.

When resyllabification creates more frequent word phrases, they can be used for wordplay, such as the children’s rhyme about ice cream.

ice cream → I‿scream

I scream, you scream, we all scream for ice cream!

C‿C linking

C‿C linking also happens across word boundaries. When the consonant sound at the end of the first word is the same as that begins, the next word makes the same sound or a very similar sound, the tongue can stay in the same place in the mouth and lengthen the consonant sound. Examples of this are seen in full length , Ann knew , and miss some .

Other links can occur when the final stop consonant of the first word links to a different stop consonant beginning the second word, as in Bob ‿ took ‿ Tom ‿ toward ‿ that ‿ car . These types of links are often more difficult for learners to hear or produce because the first consonant often sounds like it is deleted or is not pronounced at all. In most cases, it is pronounced, but as a glottal stop (the unwritten sound in uh, oh! ) In these links, it is extremely common for one of the consonants to be held and then the second consonant to be fully pronounced.

drop by → draʔ‿by
get by → geʔ‿by
sit down → siʔ‿down
take down → tayʔ‿down
look forward to → look‿forwarʔ‿to(/ta)
wait for → wayʔ‿for(/fer)

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This is sometimes referred to as glottalization or to the phonetic process where the glottis (the space between the vocal cords) constricts during the production of a sound, often leading to a characteristic creaky voice or complete closure that stops the airflow momentarily. Glottalization reduces the vocal effort required to maintain a regular speech rhythm and occurs within words, between words, and at the end of words. Both -t and -d glottalization are natural sounding in both formal and informal registers of American English (Shockey, 2008).

V‿V linking (Glide Insertion)

When final vowels link to beginning vowels, the link often occurs because of a glide insertion that matches the first vowel in its place of articulation. For front vowels, the link to the second vowel is made with a brief [j], and for back vowels, the link is made with [w].

Link starting from front vowels

see it → see‿y‿it
he asked → he‿y‿asked
they all →they‿y‿all

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Link starting from back vowels

you always → you‿w‿always
two eggs → two‿w‿eggs
go out → go‿w‿out

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Another way to show these links is through respelling, using either <w> or <y> spellings. This is often more accessible to learners, and even native speakers may spell familiar words this way when they know the word but have never written it. For example, one student in a class once wrote <cwoperashun> for cooperation .

do it → do <w> it
I am → I <y> am
go on → go <w> awn
he is → he <y> is
see it → see <y> it
coffee or tea → coffee <y> or tea
two apples → two <w> apples
be able → be <y> able

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10.5 Deletion: What it is, when it happens, why it matters

Another type of connected speech change to pronunciation involves deletion (also called elision). Deletion occurs with consonants and vowels. When it occurs with vowels, it means that the number of syllables changes, which can cause meaning to be asked. Jenkins (2000), in her discussion of the Lingua Franca Core for intelligibility, argues that deletions are particularly challenging for L2 learners because they cannot easily reconstruct words when sounds and syllables are missing.

Consonant Deletion

When consonant clusters occur in spoken English, either within or across word boundaries, one or more consonant sounds may not be pronounced. For example, in the compound noun rest stop , the [stst] is simplified to [stst] so the word could be respelled res top and still sound the same. When one consonant “swallows” other consonant sounds, this is called deletion . It is more common for sounds to be deleted at the end of a syllable than at the beginning of a syllable because the clear pronunciation of beginning consonants is especially important to listeners (Shockey, 2008).

Commonly deleted consonants

grand prize → gran‿prize
sound proof → soun‿proof
last call → las‿call
lost cat → los‿cat
twelfth night → twelf‿night
left the → lef‿the
and for → an‿for
take care of myself → tay‿kaira‿myself
neck of the woods → necka‿the‿ woods

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Some very frequent phrases result in other deletions.

kind of → kin‿da→kain‿na (kinna)
want to → wan‿to→wan‿na (wanna)
held back →hel‿back
give me →gim‿me (gimme)
let me →lem‿me (lemme)

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The sound /h/ at the beginning of words is often weakly articulated and prone to deletion, especially when /h/ occurs at the beginning of an unstressed word. This happens most often with function words such as pronouns ( he, him, his, her, hers, himself, herself ). In fact, the pronoun it , which used to be hit , is a product of historical h-dropping! The use of h-dropping is used in this child’s rhyme “Fuzzy Wuzzy” in which the made-up word “ Wuzzy ” is pronounced identically to the last line, “ was he .”

Fuzzy Wuzzy was a bear Fuzzy Wuzzy had no hair Fuzzy Wuzzy wasn’t fuzzy, was he?

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h-dropping also occurs in all forms of the auxiliary verb to have ( have, has, had ). This leads to have, has, and had being pronounced as [əv], [əz] and [əd]. Phrases like should have , would have , and could have can thus be spelled as should’ve, would’ve, and could’ve .

should have → shou‿duv (should’ve)
would have → wou‿duv (would’ve)
could have → cou‿duv (could’ve)

Interestingly, when an <h> is replaced with an apostrophe <‘> in respelling words that are not contractions, this usually implies the presence of a British English accent, in which this feature continues to be strongly associated with urban, working-class British accents.

Harry’s right here! vs. ‘arry’s right ‘ere!

10.6 Modification: What it is, when it happens, why it matters

By now, it should be clear that the citation form of a word tends to change based on nearby sounds of surrounding words, i.e., its phonetic environment. Modification refers to the broad category of sound changes that involve changing expected sounds to better adapt to their phonetic environment. Linking is about connecting words between word boundaries. Insertion/deletion are about modifying words and phrases so that they comply with phonotactic constraints (meaning the “allowable” sound combinations), including adding or removing syllables. Modification in connected speech is about the naturally occurring sound changes that lead to smoother, more fluid speech, but they do not typically change the number of sounds or the basic structure of the words themselves. Native speakers tend not to be consciously aware of modifications in connected speech.

When /t/ or /d/ occurs between vowels, this often results in a “flap” /ɾ/ in North Aerican English, which is a sound produced by briefly tapping your tongue on the small ridge located just behind your upper front teeth on the roof of your mouth.

The flap sound is a lot like /d/ except it is much faster and less distinct, and it seems to occur immediately between syllable boundaries, similar to glides.Flapping is extremely common in all registers of American English, both within words and across word boundaries. If the /t/ or /d/ is preceded by a sonorous consonant sound, meaning with a relatively open airflow through the vocal tract such as /m, n, ŋ, l, r, w, j/, then a flap can still occur.

a lot of → uh‿lo‿ɾuv
but I → bu‿ɾeye
that it → tha‿ɾit
you hurt it → you‿hur‿ɾit
right away → ri‿ɾa‿way
what if → wuh‿ɾif
got to go → go‿ɾa‿go
get over it → ge‿ɾoh‿vu‿rit

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Some people use glottalization /ʔ/ in places where other people use flaps /ɾ/, that is, flaps (Eddington & Taylor, 2009).

Assimilation

Assimilation refers to one sound taking on some or most of the same characteristics of a neighboring sound. The characteristics that are most often assimilated are the place of articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing. When assimilation occurs across word boundaries, the transitions between sounds become smoother. Assimilation occurs in all languages and makes rapid, fluid speech possible. Note that some of these assimilations result in the loss of eth, the voiced interdental fricative in words like they, the , and then . Cauldwell (2013) calls this process “eth death”.

and then → an‿nen
and they → an‿ney
on the → aw‿ne
you have → yoov
in the → in‿ne
I would → I‿ud (I’d)
find them → fi‿nem

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Blending (Palatalization)

A very common sound change in English connected speech is blending, sometimes called palatalization . Blending happens when the tongue touches the palate while a consonant is being pronounced. Look at the picture and locate the palate.

A cross-section of the human mouth, with lips, teeth, and tongue labeled in comparison to the palate.

In some languages, such as Russian and Czech, palatal consonants are phonemic, meaning they are considered to be stand-alone sounds. However, in English, palatalization can also be allophonic, meaning it is a “subcategory” of other sounds or groups of sounds. Palatalization in English usually occurs across multiple consonant sounds, especially those which cross word boundaries. Although the degree to which these consonants are palatalized varies across speaker and context, it occurs so frequently and across so many different kinds of speech that it is important to be able to recognize this pattern.

/s/ + /j/ → /ʃ/
/z/ + /j/→/ʒ/
/d/ + /j/ →/dʒ/
/t/ + /j/ →/tʃ/
pass your plate → pa‿shur‿plate
where’s your → wear‿zhur
What are you thinking? → wha‿tcha‿thin‿king
What do you think? → wha‿djoo‿thinkʔ
What did you think? → wha‿dja‿thinkʔ

10.7 Reduction (Weak Forms)

Reduction is everywhere in English because of the effects of stress on pronunciation. Unstressed syllables are also called reduced syllables, which include sounds that are less distinct and clearly articulated. Their vowels are more prone to being pronounced as the same world, schwa, and their consonants are more prone to change (deletion or blending).

Discourse-level reduction occurs because of words that are known to have two types of pronunciation: weak forms (or normal forms) and strong forms (when a weak form is especially emphasized). Weak forms are high-frequency one-syllable words that are almost never stressed in speech and connect to stressed words. Some weak forms are shown below.

When combined with other words, weak forms are hard to hear, especially in high-frequency phrases.

to you → ta ‿ ya, tya
of the → uh‿th
you know → y‿no
I don’t know → I‿dunno
see you → see‿ya
you never know → ya‿never‿know

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The categories of connected speech can sometimes be a bit blurry. The reality is that multiple phonetic processes often interact simultaneously to produce natural-sounding speech. For this reason, Cauldwell (2013) describes connected speech as “jungle listening”. Even if two native English speakers were chatting together in a quiet room, they would produce so many overlapping sounds that it would sometimes be difficult to isolate and identify individual sounds, similar to how it would be difficult to discern where one plant begins and another ends within a jungle.

The point is that the categories we have described in this chapter are simplifications that help organize a complex topic into more manageable pieces for the learner. In tspeech, these processes usually overlap. Native speakers produce multiple connected speech processes simultaneously, usually without ever being aware that their words sound quite different from the dictionary form. The interaction of these processes not only helps maintain the rhythm and flow of speech but also supports the speaker’s linguistic identity and social signaling within specific dialects or language communities.

Technology can demonstrate the difference between linked and unlinked words by looking at the waveforms of recordings. Alameen (2014, p. 146) shows this difference using the words say it . The linked version shows no space between the words, but the unlinked form has a clear space between the words.

A waveform of the linked phrase "say-it" and the unlinked phrase "say, it."

Although connected speech is especially difficult for language learners, it can even be challenging for native speakers in some situations, leading to mishearings that can be comical. For example, one of the authors, in speaking to a staff member about a newly painted room, said “It’s a very yellow room.” The staff member replied, “It’ll look better with marijuana” (or so the author heard). This made no sense in so many ways, and the author finally figured out that the staff member had said, “It’ll look better with a mural on it.” “mural on it” and “marijuana” have the same stress patterns, and the unstressed syllables were not clear enough to hear what was intended.

Some of the most well-known types of mishearings have been named Mondegreens, a term coined by Sylvia Wright (1954), who reported interpreting the phrase “laid him on the green” as “Lady Mondegreen”. These mishearings often occur in songs when the mixture of music and unfamiliar words and grammar force listeners to come up with words that seem to match the sounds they are hearing. In the Christmas carol, The 12 Days of Christmas, most people hear “four calling birds” even though the original words include the archaic word “colly” instead. In another example, the song “In a Gadda da Vida” was originally supposed to be “In the Garden of Eden” but the band members had a difficult time singing the original words.

The following memes show how spelling variations to highlight connected speech features are used to mark humor. In the first line, just and remember both have deletions. Notice how the word-final/t/ and word-initial <re>, which are reduced in normal spoken form, are purposely misspelled. While the second line is full of respellings that do not reflect actual variations in pronunciation, part of the humor in this meme is the use of pronunciation respellings (Picone, 2016), perhaps suggesting that if the kitten could speak, it would speak informally, or like an young child.

Creative spellings of connected speech are sometimes used in song lyrics. In fact, the practice of spelling song lyrics to better reflect how they sound is common in all types of popular music, as in the examples below.

it’s wonderful → ‘s wonderful

“‘s wonderful! ‘s marvelous! That you should care for me! ‘s awful nice! ‘s paradise! ‘s what I love to see!” (Gershwin, 1928)

“She wanna roll, we ’bout to go, what’s hatnin'” (Bieber, 2013)

she wants to roll → she wanna roll
we (are) about to go → we ’bout to go
what’s happening → what’s hatnin’

Description and Analysis

Exercise 10-1. common connected speech changes.

Background: In normal speech, words are fluently connected to each other. This makes speech sound too fast and can make it hard to understand what is being said because sounds are not connected to the right word or change from what is expected.

Directions: Write all italicized phrases with underlining so learners can see them. Play recordings of each phrase and ask learners what is happening to the underlined letters. For example, for the first row, ask “How any consonant sounds are pronounced in the underlined section?” When someone says “one” ask them why (because the two sounds are identical, so only one is said).

(Two of the same sounds become one sound)

take care hip pocket in November

(Border sounds stay the same but connect to different words)

kicks at the ball

slid on the ice

(Two sounds change into a different sound)

hit your head

pass your papers in

(A consonant sound is not pronounced)

brand new car

fast driver

the tenth circle

(Two vowels link together)

A snow angel

play it again

true answers

Listening Discrimination

Exercise 10-2. lining or no linking.

Directions: Listen to each phrase. Are the words linked together? Answer Yes or No.

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Exercise 10-3. Identifying linking

Directions: Identify which underlined letters are linked correctly. Answer “1” or “2”.

The weak kick (1) missed Tim (2).

Did you say kiss you (1) or miss you?

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Listen and answer

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I built it (1) not billed it. (2)

Did you do it (1) or did you? (2)

I never run. (1) I’d rather ride, (2)

You laugh at (1) me. Don’t laugh again, (2)

I’m eating right now. (1) Can Tom answer? (2)

I want you (1) to count your money (2)

Is it a brand name (1)or a knock-off? (2)

I fell on (1) John’s sidewalk. (2)

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Exercise 10-4. Gapped dictation,

Directions: Listen to the sentences and fill in the blanks. Blanks may have more than one word that are linked together.

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_________ married ________ ________ seven years.
Things ________ never ________ better.
________ never had any problems ________.
________ got ________ deal ________ time.
_______ got _______ start early ______ morning ______ do _______.
That’s ________ nice restaurant. ________ ________ expensive.
It’s gotten ________ point ________ can’t even tell.
This ________ way ________ got ________ be.
Someone ________ stay ________ keep ________ eye ________kids.
________ better go ________answer ________ phone
________ already mentioned that ________ while ago
________ better bring ________ umbrella.

Controlled Production

Exercise 10-5. types of linking.

Directions: Read each phrase and link the words together smoothly.

English keeps its distinctive rhythm is by linking or joining words together within each phrase group. 1bis linking happens in almost every possible way. Consonants link to identical or similar consonants, to vowels, and to consonants

Linking Type – Final consonant joins to following /j/ sound (as in you, your)

Didn’t you try?

Did you kiss your cat?

Would you come over?

I miss you a lot.

Close your door.

Place your bets.

Raise your hand.

Linking Type – Final consonant joins to next vowel

Take it slowly

Cats and Dogs

sleep in late,

I’m always on time

walked a mile

swims every day

Linking type – Two different consonants join together in different ways

Take something,

I’m listening.

A cat carrier,

a famous doctor

A white buffalo,

the class clown,

Just sit over there

Linking Type – Two of the same consonants become one sound.

hip pocket,

I’m making it.

laugh freely

Exercise 10-6. Vowel linking.

Directions: Link the final vowel to the beginning vowel using either a <y> or <w> sound.

Linking using a <y>

They asked for it.

He uses it.

Did you see Ellen?

I owned it.

Ray etched it.

Kay eats there.

Linking using a <w>

Joe ought to go.

A yellow apple.

How are you?

How often do you go?

You owned it?

Joe ate it?

He has blue eyes.

Exercise 10-7. Vowel linking with “the”

Directions : Link the word “the” to the following vowel using a <y> link. To link, pronounce “the” as [ði]. When there is no following vowel, there is no link. Pronounce “the” as [ðə].

the other ones

on the other hand

the only explanation

the appropriate answer

the usual suspects

the next ones

on the one hand

the perfect explanation

the beginning

the mistaken answer

the birdcage

Exercise 10-8. Linking in Rhyming Sayings.

Directions: Match the sayings to their explanations. Then practice saying each one by using linking.

Birds of a feather flock together.
He’s really cruisin’ for a bruisin’.
Different strokes for different folks.
A friend in need is a friend indeed.
Haste makes waste.
Might makes right.
No pain, no gain.
Whatever floats your boat.
You snooze, you lose
Doing something quickly makes more work
Power determines what people accept
Sleeping causes you to lose good things
Similar people always find each other
That person’s looking for trouble.
Getting something good requires working really hard
Different people like different things
People who help you in bad times are the best friends
It’s not for me, but it sounds like it’s good for you

Extension Activity: Discuss whether you believe these sayings are accurate.

Exercise 10-9. Riddles 1 (from R. Wong, 1987).

Directions: In groups of 5, read a riddle to with correct linking. Then discuss the answer.

What’s round like an apple, Shaped like a pear, With a slit in the middle, All covered with hair? (a peach)

Round as an apple, flat as a hip, Got two eyes and can’t see a bit? (a button)

Walk on the living, they don’t even mumble, Walk on the dead, they grumble and grumble. (leaves)

Comes in at every window, And every door crack, Runs around and round the house, But never leaves a track. (the wind)

Brothers and sisters have I none, But that m,an’s father was my father’s son. (a man looking at his own picture)

Exercise 10-10. Riddles 2.

Directions: Read with correct linking the riddles from the contest between Bilbo and Gollum in the Hobbit: Watch the clip

Thirty white horses on a red hill, First they champ, Then they stamp, Then they stand still. (Teeth)

Voiceless it cries, Wingless flutters, Toothless bites, Mouthless mutters. (Wind)

A box without hinges, key, or lid, Yet golden treasure inside is hid. (An egg)

All things they devour us: Birds, beasts, trees, flowers; Gnaws iron, bites steel; Grinds hard stones to meal; Slays king, ruins town, And beats high mountain down. (Time)

Exercise 10-11. Puns.

Directions: Listen to, then read the puns (humorous statements that are the result of two statements that sound the same or are very close to the same so that both meanings come to a listener’s mind). Then discuss whether you think the jokes are funny. (Not all people find puns very funny, as this article from the Atlantic shows: “Why do people hate puns?” ).

Becoming a vegetarian is one big missed steak. (mistake)
What do you call the wife of a hippie? A Mrs. Hippie (Mississippi)
How does Moses make coffee? Hebrews it. (he brews it)
What did the buffalo say to his child? Bison. (Bye, son)
Ladies, if your husband can’t appreciate fruit jokes, you need to let that mango. (man go)
Do you know any good rope jokes? I’m a frayed knot. (I’m afraid not).
Why was six afraid of seven? Because seven ate nine. (seven eight nine)
Why are bananas so good? Because they have appeal. (a peel)
Another example of a pun “an ant elope” vs. “an antelope” (from Alameen, 2014, p. 2)

Exercise 10-12. Connected speech. (Adapted from R. Wong, 1987)

Directions: Read the dialogue between two men who are fishing. Their lines are respelled to reflect how they sound. (The actual spelling is provided after the respelling. (Based on a comic from the 1980s)

Respelling (Actual words)

Fisherman A: Hiya Mac. (Hi (you), Mac.)
Fisherman B: Lobuddy. (Hello, Buddy.)
Fisherman A: Binear long? (Have you) been here long?)
Fisherman B: Cuplours. (Couple of hours.)
Fisherman A: Ketchineny? (Catching any?)
Fisherman B: Goddafew. (Got a few.)
Fisherman A: Kindarthey? ((What) kind are they?)
Fisherman B: Bassencarp. (Bass and carp.)
Fisherman A: Enysizetoum? (Any size to them?)
Fisherman B: Cuplapouns. ((A) couple of pounds.)
Fisherman A: Watchayoozin? (What are you using?)
Fisherman B: Bunchawurms. ((A) bunch of worms.)
Fisherman A: Goddago. (Got to go.)
Fisherman B: Tubad. OK. Takideezy. (Too bad. Take it easy.)
Fisherman A: Seeyarown. Gluk. (See you around. Good luck.)

Aboudan, R. (2009). Laugh and learn: Humor and learning a second language. International Journal of Arts and Sciences , 3 (3), 90-99.

Alameen, G. (2007). The use of linking by native and non – native speakers of American English . Iowa State University. https://doi.org/10.31274/rtd-180813-16165

Alameen, G. (2014). The effectiveness of linking instruction on NNS speech perception and production . Doctoral dissertation, Iowa State University.

Alameen, G., & Levis, J. M. (2015). Connected speech. In M. Reed & J. Levis (Eds.), The handbook of English pronunciation (pp. 157-174). Wiley Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118346952.ch9

Anderson-Hsieh, J., Riney, T., & Koehler, K. (1994). Connected speech modifications in the English of Japanese ESL learners. Issues and Developments in English and Applied Linguistics , 7 , 31-52.

Ash, S., & Grossman, M. (2015). Why study connected speech production. In R. Willems (ed.), Cognitive neuroscience of natural language use (pp. 29-58). Cambridge Univesity Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781107323667.003

Baumann, M. (1996). The production of syllables in connected speech. Unpublished dissertation, Radboud University.

Bieber, J. (2013). What’s Hatnin’.

Birsen, P. (2017). Effect of gamified game-based learning on L2 vocabulary retention by young learners. (Master’s thesis, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü).

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Boschi, V., Catricala, E., Consonni, M., Chesi, C., Moro, A., & Cappa, S. F. (2017). Connected speech in neurodegenerative language disorders: a review. Frontiers in Psychology, 8 , 208495. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00269

Brown, J. D., & Crowther, D. (2022). Shaping learners’ pronunciation: Teaching the connected speech of North American English. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003144779

Brown, J. D., & Hilferty, A. (1986). The effectiveness of teaching reduced forms of listening comprehension. RELC Journal, 17 (2), 59-70. https://doi.org/10.1177/003368828601700204

Brown, J. D., & Kondo-Brown, K. (Eds.). (2006). Perspectives on teaching connected speech to second language speakers (Vol. 1). National Foreign Language Resource Center.

Cauldwell, R. (2014). Listening and pronunciation need separate models of speech. In J. Levis & S. McCrocklin (Eds). Proceedings of the 5th Pronunciation in Second Language Learning and Teaching Conference (pp. 40-44). Ames, IA: Iowa State University.

Celce-Murcia, M., Brinton, D. M., & Goodwin, J. M. (2010). Teaching pronunciation: A course book and reference guide. Cambridge University Press.

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Helping students with connected speech

There is a huge difference between what our students see printed on a page and what we actually say in everyday speech.

In a recording of a TESOL Spain Presentation on Youtube (well worth watching), Mark Hancock makes the following joke:

Patient: Doctor, Doctor, I’ve got two theik, a near rake, sore rise, bruise darms a stummer cake and I far tall the time.

Doctor: I see, perhaps you’d like to way tin the corridor?

(Try reading it aloud)

The joke [apologies for the vulgarity 😉 ] showcases a good number of examples of features of connected speech. Teacher can tend to shy away from highlighting these in the classroom, but research shows that teaching learners about connected speech can really make a difference in terms of how well they understand native speakers. See for example, Authentic Communication: whyzit important ta teach reduced forms (Brown 2006) . Equally, some ability to use these features in their own speech will also be likely to make students more confident and fluent speakers.

Features of connected speech

As a brief overview, there is a strong tendency in English to simplify and link words together in the stream of speech, in order to help the language flow rhythmically. Some of the most common features:

Assimilation

This is when the sound at the end of one word changes to make it easier to say the next word. For example:

‘ten boys’ sounds like ‘ tem boys’ (the /n/ sound changes to the bilabial /m/ to make it easier to transition to the also bilabial /b/)

Incidentally bilabial just means two lips together, which is a good example of the kind of jargon that puts people off!

This is when the last consonant of the first word is joined to the first vowel of the next word. This is very very common in English, and can be very confusing for students. For example:

‘an apple’ sounds like ‘a napple’ (Teacher, what is a napple?)

Elision means that you lose a sound in the middle of a consonant cluster, sometimes from the middle of a word. E.g. ‘sandwich’ becomes ‘sanwich’.

Or from the end of a word. For example:

‘fish and chips’ ‘fishnchips’

This is when an extra sound ‘intrudes’. There are three sounds that often do this /r/ /j/ and /w/

E.g. ‘go on’ sounds like ‘gowon’

I agree sounds like ‘aiyagree’

Law and order sounds like ‘lawrunorder’

[I probably should have used a phonemic keyboard!]

If you want to discover more about features of connected speech- and I think it’s fascinating stuff, there’s a list of useful books at the end of the post, but now let’s look at some activities to help raise awareness and encourage more natural sounding speech.

Connected speech activities

I remember reading somewhere that there are three ways to deal with pronunciation in the classroom: integrating it into other activities, dealing with it discretely, and completely ignoring it. 😉 Let’s assume we aren’t going to do the latter, and look at the other two approaches.

Integrated activities

I strongly believe that students should be made aware of the basics of connected speech right from the start. I don’t mean that you should be teaching your beginners exactly what catenation is, but you can certainly show them how words link together and what happens to sounds in the stream of speech. You don’t have to be an expert, and you don’t even need to know very much about the technical aspects; you just need to listen to yourself very carefully and notice what is happening in your mouth as you speak.

Drilling and using the board

At lower levels, we tend to teach quite a lot of functional chunks, such as ‘What’s your name?’ Phonetically that could be transcribed as /wɔ:tsjəneɪm/. However, this is likely to confuse (terrify) the students. Instead, using the board, you can just show the students how the words link by using arrows, and write the schwa /ə/over the top of ‘your’ . Alternatively, you can use your fingers to show how the three words (separate fingers) meld into one long sound (push fingers together). And model and drill the phrase as it is said naturally.

If students struggle with longer phrases, try the technique of back-chaining, starting from the last sound and working up to the whole sound bit by bit. For example with ‘Where do you come from?’ you drill ‘frum’ ‘kumfrum’ ‘dz-kumfrum’ ‘where-dz-kumfrum’ I have no idea why this works- but it does.

Using recording scripts

Where new language has been recorded (or by recording it yourself), ask students to first look at the chunk of language written down and try saying it a few times. Then play the recording several times and ask them to write down what they hear, however they want to spell it. Use the two written forms to elicit the differences (such as the use of the schwa) and then drill the more natural pronunciation. You could of course just say the phrase for them, but it can be hard to keep repeating something exactly the same way.

Make it part of presenting new language

Whenever you are dealing with new language, you need to be thinking about the meaning, the form AND the pronunciation. So if you’re teaching ‘Have you ever + past participle’, make sure you’re teaching it as something like /əvju:w’evə/ not ‘Have… you… ever…’ You don’t need to explain that the first /h/ is elided or that there’s an intrusive /w/- just provide a good model.

Incidentally, I say ‘something like’ because individual ways of connecting and simplifying speech do vary a bit.

Be aware of the difficulties connected speech may cause with listening

If students struggle to understand something in a recording, or that you say, be aware that they may actually know all the words, just not recognise them in the stream of speech. A great example of this is the student who asked me what ‘festival’ meant. I went into an explanation, giving examples of different festivals…but teacher, he said, why do you always say it at the beginning of the lesson? (I was saying First of all…).

If students don’t understand a phrase, see if they do understand it written down and then take the opportunity to highlight the differences between the written and spoken forms.

Discrete activities

As well as teaching connected speech as you go along, it is also worth doing some discrete activities for the purpose of awareness-raising.

A good activity to start learners thinking about connected speech and weak forms is to dictate just part of some phrases. For example: ‘uvbin’. After students have written these down as best they can (this should be a light-hearted activity), you dictate the full phrase, in this case ‘I’ve been to Paris.’.
After doing a listening activity, try doing a dictation where you handout the recording script, with chunks of 2-3 words missing. These should include some aspects of connected speech. Students have to complete the gaps, which will help to develop their decoding skills.
Mark Hancock has some great activities in Pronunciation Games and on the HancockMacDonald website. I particularly like The Word Blender , a game for A2/B1 students which starts to help students identify some of the features of connected speech.

This is necessarily a very brief and somewhat simplistic overview. For more information and ideas, you could try:

Sound Foundations- Adrian Underhill- Macmillan

Pronunciation- Dalton and Seidlhofer- OUP

Pronunciation Games- Mark Hancock-CUP

Sharon Noseley-Kallandzhs’ DELTA Phonology_Assignment_and_Lesson_Plan

Sharon Noseley-Kallandzhs’ powerpoint on features of connected speech

If you are currently taking CELTA, can I suggest my e-book, The CELTA Teaching Compendium, available from Amazon and Smashwords , containing everything you need to know for CELTA teaching practice.

46 responses to “ Helping students with connected speech ”

Thanks for this Rachel this is really useful for me as some of my students have been having listening issues and they seem to stem from their inability to distinguish words from each other. They know they words they just hear them all together! I confessed that I wasn’t the best versed in how to teach connected speech (and week sentence stress) as for some reasons it wasn’t an issue I came across that often in Ukraine (but have much more here in Spain yet Russian is suppose to not really have sentence stress where as Spanish does, though very different.) I wonder if certain nation groups find it easier than others. What has your/other peoples experience been?

Hi Chris, Thanks for stopping by and commenting. I think that all languages have features of connected speech, but perhaps it is more of an issue in a more stress-timed language like English, because we have to ‘mash’ words together in order to keep the rhythm, whereas a more syllable timed language (like Spanish), pronounces each syllable more clearly.I understand that Russian is supposed to be more stress-timed, so that may explain the difference you perceive. Incidentally, the whole syllable or stress-timed thing is a bit of a mine-field as the distinction isn’t clear cut, it seems to be more of a continuum. The clearest contrast I have found is between European Portuguese (more stress timed) and Brazilian Portuguese (more syllable timed) and certainly in my experience it is easier for the Portuguese to produce English- sounding connected speech.

I thought it was the other way round with Spanish and Russian (which shows my lack of research but definitely explains a lot including why I found Russian easier to distinguish words from each other.) Can’t believe I got it the wrong way round!

You just made me go and check in case it was me- which is the problem with jargon!

thanks rachael, like chris i found this another informative post. and many thanks for link to the hancockmacdonald site and that great word blender activity. i often refer to the phonology section in Learner English by Swan and Smith but it does not have any refs to connected speech. ta mura

Hi Mura, No, I noticed that Learner English doesn’t mention this when I looked up Portuguese to make sure I had it right. I love Mark Hancock’s stuff- little known fact- I used a lot of his stuff before Pronunciation Games was published as he and his partner, Annie MacDonald, were colleagues at Cultura Inglesa in Brazil.

following up the video link to Mark Hancock’s Spain talk found a great guide on “vulnerable” phonemes that I could use to help my students (have updated my accent post to inculde link to the relevant part of the video http://wp.me/pgHyE-9S ) ta mura

Good idea to add this link- thank you.

Thanks Rachael for bringing our attention to an issue that is often overlooked in EFL classrooms.As said it is not just for speaking but listening too..I’ve uploaded my mega assignment for my DELTA on phonology which led to a connected speech focused lesson..the plan took so long because I had to start off teaching the IPA then move on..loved Mark Hancock’s CDs and exercises btw..they were a great help to prepare the class for a connected speech lesson.. I had to upload it to your fb page as couldn’t work it out here! Keep up the great work on your blog!

I am looking forward to seeing the assignment- will try to upload it here. Personally, I love connected speech, but realise it can be very off-putting at first.

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One of my favourite topics Rachael – another great post. Also loved the ‘festival’ example. Brilliant.

Thanks, Sophia- one of mine too.. evangelising in fact!

Another great post, Rachael and some new (for me) terms. “Catenation” ? I would have thought [I woodathought] it was a medical procedure 🙂

Connected speech is one of the topics I personally find very interesting too. Most of my adult students have major difficulties understanding spoken language (for example, in films) due to the features of connected speech you outlined above. I’ll be sure and integrate your suggestions into my lessons. Thank you.

LOL It does sound like a very uncomfortable medical procedure! It is certainly important, and yet often overlooked.

Love this kind of ongoing dialogue in the comments section. Just wanted to add the pointing out how some of these connected speach ideas play out in the L1 is often helpful to get students feeling a bit more comfortable with their use in the L2. Most learners are not aware of the fact that these are feautures found in their own language. For example in Japanese, there are reduced vowels that undergo elision (the fist /u/ in Tsukue) and there is assimilation as well just as Brown mention in the article the /n/ can become /m/. By having the students break down these feautures in their own language, it can help reduce the feeling that English is a particulary nasty language which, in its spoken form is somehow just trying to trip a learner up. That being said, these features do seem to be a bit more prominent in English than say in Japanese.

Yes, I think that’s a very good point! I think students definitely can feel that English pronunciation is a special circle of hell.. It can also help, I think, to point out that connected speech is how we make it EASIER to say things.

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it was very useful for me .. i felt this was the reason of success…thanks alot.. goppu wadwal

Reblogged this on New Teaching Era .

Hi Rachel, Great blog and a lovely post – as a teacher and trainer quite terrified of teaching pronunciation, you’ve given me some great inspiration and I’ll be trying out some of these ideas very soon. I promise 🙂 Great links and resources too btw, thanks again! Gabrielle

Thanks, Gabrielle. I think it can all be rather intimidating, and I have plenty of my own no go areas!

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Thanks, Lizzie, and may i recommend your DELTA posts too.

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Hi Rachael, am Emmanuel from Nigeria you jut help me understood what connected speech is all about,you a the best and am happy you made me understood more God bless you.

Thanks, Emmanuel 🙂

Excellent blog! Thanks for creating it. What, do you think, is the order of difficulty level (context: non-natives listening to natives of English) amongst the 4: Rhythm, Elision, Assimilation and Linking?

Many thanks, Naveed. I would guess that rhythm is probably the easiest to ‘get’ followed by linking, and assimilation and elision the hardest..which is why I think the latter two are probably best taught mainly for receptive use.

There are some activities that I’ve already been doing and there are also some new ones. I really like The Word Blender activity. It’s a breath of fresh air compared to just drilling your students with words. I’m sure my students will enjoy this.

Reblogged this on Kaur Gibbons' Thoughts and commented: Useful for my recent pronunciation workshops.

very useful 🙂

Thanks soo much Rachael. i need more information about connected speech. would you?

I can recommend some reading if that helps?

This is such a great page 🙂 I was freaking out about phonology as I’m taking my delta soon. Thank youuuuuuuuuuuuuuuu.

Hi, Rachel! I really like your blog! I was wondering if you could give me any help on how to work with connected speech for my 9th graders class, relating to the question forms DID YOU. I would appreciate if you could help me! Thank you very much!!!!!!

Hi Rachel! First of all I’d like to thank you for you blog. I have been reading many articles and things you write. I really enjoyed it and I am learning a lot. As connected speech is something new for lesson plans, I would like to know if you have any suggestions about how to work the connected speech of DID YOU with my students who are A2. Thanks very much for your contribution!!!

Hi Fernanda,

The final sound of did and the first sound of you can kind of meld together to produce a /dz/ sound, but some people would keep the ‘yuh’ sound. The most important thing, I think is the weak vowel in ‘you’. So you end up with something that sounds like ‘didja’. Sorry, out and about, so can’t use phonemic script, but hope that helps.

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Hi Rachel, I find the post really useful. One thing I also do is reproduce the chunk as a similar phrase/word in Spanish (from Argentina). Sometimes regular phrases can sound like taboo expressions, so I’m careful about teens, but it does work, because the places of articulation are the same. For example, “What’s your” name?” would sound something like “guacho” name (guacho=bastard) Or funny sounds like: “Could you” spell it? = “cuchu” spell it (and that makes most students burst out laughing, although later, when listening to native speakers, they spot exactly that sound)

Thanks, Cecilia. I can imagine that your students find this approach memorable 😉

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Hi Rachel, your post was really helpful, i’m teaching my students about connected speech and what i’m looking for is a text that contains some examples of the connected speech phenomena, so that i can use it to assess their progress. if you have such an activity i would be thankful thank you 🙂

Any audio where the pronunciation is reasonably natural will contain examples of connected speech. There are lots of examples where this has been highlighted and made a lesson focus in the Navigate coursebook series I worked on, or may I recommend TubeQuizard http://www.tubequizard.com/ , which takes snippets of youtube videos and exploits them to work on pronunciation for listening.

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How to Teach Linking in Connected Speech

Linking in connected speech , also known as “catenation”, is the process by which words ending with consonants don’t sound like they have their normal written word transition when they are followed by vowels. This is sometimes described as the words merging, as if “an orange” becomes “anorange”. However, I find it is far more useful to explain it as the consonant moving to the beginning of the following word, making it sound like “a norange”. This is because this explanation more clearly represents possible confusions like “an app” and “a nap”, and can also make this pronunciation point seem like a more manageable change.

Such linking between words is a common reason for students finding fast speech difficult to understand. However, it can also help them, as it makes the final consonant in words like “can’t” clearer than usual (though moved to a different place). Catenation is also much easier to explain than other features of connected speech like intrusive sounds and weak forms, making it is a great place to start to looking at how English can sound at natural speeds. This article gives some teaching tips.

What students need to know about linking in connected speech

What students need to most understand about linking is:

it happens when one word ends with a consonant sound and the next begins with a vowel sound (“get on”, etc)
the effect is like the two words merging (“geton”) or like the consonant moving to the beginning of the second word (“ge ton”)
although most students don’t really need to think about this during speaking, linking is well worth practising orally because of its importance for listening comprehension
catenation can also sometime help make the pronunciation clearer (e.g. as the sounds in “can’t exercise” are much more clearly pronounced than in “can’t take”)
although there are often small differences in pronunciation that show word transitions (so that “a nail” doesn’t usually sound exactly the same as “an ale”), it is usually much easier and more reliable to use the context to work out which of the two possibilities is being said (that “keep stalking” is a crime, so your boss probably means “keeps talking”, etc)

How to present linking in connected speech

Long before presenting this point, it’s best for the teacher to make sure that they use as much natural linking as they can in their own speech, both in modelling the target language and in classroom phrases like “Can you two mo vover here?” for “move over here”. As well as helping with comprehension of natural speech, this also gives you examples that you can refer back to when you get around to actually presenting catenation.

As students will be studying this mainly to help their listening comprehension, probably the best time to present catenation is when students can’t fill a gap with the right word because they are confused about where the word transition is. For example, students might be tricked into writing “mart” instead of “art” if the word before it in the recording ends with M. When you pick up the error, the first step is to get students to use the context to work out that the answer makes no sense and what similar-sounding answer matches the topic better. You can then drill what the word sounded like with linking to show them why they made that mistake, explain the final consonants and initial vowels rule, drill some other similar examples, and perhaps move onto the lesson ideas below.

If you’ve already decided to do a lesson on catenation and want to make the need for it really clear to your students, the best way might be with pairs of phrases that have to be distinguished through context like:

an app/ a nap
an aim/ a name
grade A/ grey day
might rain/ my train
might earn/ my turn
an ice tea/ a nice tea

If you want to tie catenation to one particular language point, it can work with almost anything that has more than one word, such as:

phrasal verbs and other idioms (“get on with”, etc)
functional language and situational phrases (complaints phrases, phrases in the airport, etc)
determiners, quantifiers, etc before nouns (“some advice”, etc)

A good way of presenting both that language point and linking in connected speech is to give students the target phrases with the final consonant written with the next word, as in “Ca nI help you?” and “Would you li kea cu pof tea?” for offers. After moving the letters to where they usually go in a written sentence, students try to work out why they were written in those places, try to remember where the linking was in the initial sentences, and/ or practise pronouncing them with linking.

Especially if this is your first lesson on connected speech, it’s best to choose language that doesn’t also have similar but trickier aspects of connected speech like intrusion.

How to practise linking in connected speech

As long as students understand that it is mainly to help with comprehension, it is well worth some limited speaking practise such as marking the linking on a useful sentence and then practising saying it that way. For example, you could give students different sentences to mark the linking on and then drill, show their sentences one by one to the whole class as they say them that way for other people to mark the linking on, then discuss what linking they heard and what other linking is possible.

A good practice task that focuses more on listening is dictating phrases, sentences or short texts which are chosen for the amount and maybe trickiness of the linking they include. These can be done as a traditional dictation, done with students dictating to each other (after marking and practising the linking), or done as a dictogloss/ grammar dictation in which they listen with their pens down, try to reconstruct the text together from memory, then listen again to check.

Linking Consonant to Vowel
Linking Quiz

One comment

Extremely amazing article! A lot of useful information how to practise linking in connected speech… much obliged to the author Alex Case…. Gifted!!!!!!!

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Pronunciation Special Interest Group at IATEFL

Why Teaching the Hidden Patterns of Connected Speech Matters

by Ivana Duckinoska-Mihajlovska

As English continues to dominate as a global language, the interaction landscape has changed dramatically. The number of non-native speakers (NNS) of English is overtaking the number of native speakers (NS), meaning that English is frequently used as a tool for communication between NNSs (Hancock, 2022). This shift has influenced research in English as a Second Language (ESL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL), prompting the introduction of the Lingua Franca Core (Jenkins, 2000). This framework provides recommendations on which pronunciation features should be targeted in the ESL/EFL classroom to ensure intelligible communication among NNSs. This list does not include the production of connected speech as this is a feature which can reduce rather than enhance international intelligibility. A more recent resource, Teaching English Pronunciation for a Global World (Walker & Archer, 2024), offers further research-informed practices for teaching English pronunciation with an emphasis on international intelligibility. For more information on key terms such as intelligibility, ELF and others, check this previous blog post .

However, incorporating work on connected speech can be helpful for some students, especially when taught receptively to support listening comprehension. Some teachers may still want to use native accents as speech models in the classroom, preparing learners for communication with NSs as well. In such cases, it is crucial that learners understand the nature of the English rhythm. In fact, the rhythmic organisation of the English language is such that some words receive more prominence , while others can be reduced, combined with other sounds or even disappear altogether. This leads to connected speech processes, where words in spoken English deviate from the forms we see in the dictionary. Various course books may include slightly different classifications of connected speech features; nevertheless, they generally include the following common changes:

Assimilation: This process occurs when one sound is influenced by and becomes similar to another sound, sometimes blending into a completely new sound. E.g., “How could you do that?” /kʊ d j u/ can sound like /kʊ dʒ ju/ (where /d/ + /j/ = /dʒ/).
Reduction: Unstressed sounds lose their quality, often changing to a schwa due to the demands of sentence stress. E.g., “I was standing alone.” /w ɒ z/ becomes /aɪ w ə z ˈstændɪŋ əˈləʊn/.
Linking: This process allows two or more words to sound like one, enabling smooth transition between words. E.g., “an apple”, “some milk”, “say again.”
Elision: In this process, sounds or entire syllables are omitted. E.g., “you an (d) me”, “tas (k) s.”
Intrusive sounds : An extra sound is added, usually /r/ , /w/ or /j/ , is added to ease pronunciation. E.g., “Anna is coming.” /ˈænə (r) ɪz ˈkʌmɪŋ/.

These changes are a natural consequence of the rhythmic organisation of English and are not a result of less careful speech. For example, Alameen and Levis (2015) suggests that while connected speech features may be more prevalent in rapid speech, they are still present in a more controlled speech because they support the regularity of English rhythm. The authors also point out that a lack of familiarity with these may negatively impact not only learners’ listening skills, but also their pronunciation. Therefore, teachers should ensure that learners become familiar with connected speech features.

Teaching students to perceive connected speech

Listening exercises in course books are often the first thing that comes to mind when teaching connected speech and helping learners’ tune their ears to such speech. While these exercises are useful for developing listening skills, they do not fully prepare learners for real-world communication, as they present speech in a highly controlled manner that differs considerably from authentic speech. The style and pace of speech in these exercises rarely reflect the interactive communication of real life. For this reason, teachers should consider using more authentic speech, such as excerpts from TED talks and podcasts, to demonstrate how connected speech features work in real-life scenarios. Thus, the initial goal is to raise awareness of these features and their importance in maintaining the natural English rhythm.

Teaching students to produce connected speech

EFL learners must understand that the presence or absence of connected speech features can vary from speaker to speaker and their style of speaking; still, they are present to a varying degree in the speech of native and highly proficient speakers of English. Once learners have an awareness of these features, they can focus on production through a variety of controlled and communicative activities. It is generally recommended that teachers should focus on one feature at a time (e.g., Alemeen & Levis, 2015). The idea is not to overwhelm our learners with production activities that include a whole array of connected speech features, but rather practise one particular feature. No connected speech feature is more relevant than the others, so one possible way to practise them is to make a priority list based on the learners’ needs and classroom time constraints.

Starting out can be a bit intimidating, but there are numerous useful resources available. One particularly practical book is Mark Hancock’s PronPack: Connected Speech for Listeners (2022), which guides readers through the whole process and is suitable for learners at levels B1-C2 learners. Of course, this is just one recommendation; if you have any other interesting and favourite resources, please share them in the comments below.

Hopefully, this post will trigger your interest in exploring connected speech processes further. It is never too late for teachers or teacher trainers to delve deeper into learning about connected speech processes and productive ways of integrating them in their teaching practice.

You can check previous blog posts here for other teaching ideas. Don’t forget to leave your comments below and follow us on social media.

Alameen, G., and Levis, J. M. (2015). Connected speech. In M. Reed & J. M. Levis (Eds.), The Handbook of English Pronunciation (pp. 157–174). Wiley Blackwell. http://doi.org/10.1002/9781118346952.ch9

Jenkins, J. (2000). The phonology of English as an international language . Oxford University Press.

Hancock, M. (2022). PronPack: Connected speech for listeners . Hancock-McDonald ELT.

Walker, R., & Archer, G. (2024). Teaching English pronunciation for a global world. Oxford University Press.

Connected speech 2

An advanced student of mine speaks both clearly and usually correctly, but can often sound over formal and at times stilted.

He has learnt his English "through the eye" and has trouble interpreting the utterances of native speakers who do not monitor their output. His delivery is an attempt at a precise version of every sound. With native speakers, articulatory precision is a stylistic device, a conscious choice if we want to emphasize a point, be insistent or threatening. In normal social interaction though, this is not usually the case and articulatory imprecision is the more natural and functional option.

Aspects of connected speech

Intrusion and linking

Working on connected speech

Integrating work on connected speech

Speech is a continuous stream of sounds, without clear-cut borderlines between them, and the different aspects of connected speech help to explain why written English is so different from spoken English.

So, what is it that native speakers do when stringing words together that causes so many problems for students?

When two vowel sounds meet, we tend to insert an extra sound which resembles either a / j /, / w / or / r / , to mark the transition sound between the two vowels, a device referred to as intrusion. For example:

Intruding / r/ The media / r /are to blame. Law(r)and order.
Intruding / j / I / j / agree. They / j /are here!
Intruding / w/ I want to/ w /eat. Please do/ w /it.

Word boundaries involving a consonant and a vowel are also linked, as we tend to drag final consonants to initial vowels or vice versa. For example:

Get on. ( geton )
Not at all. ( notatall )
It´s no joke. ( snow joke )

As I have mentioned, a native speaker's aim in connecting words is maximum ease and efficiency of tongue movement when getting our message across. In minimizing our efforts, we weaken our articulation. If articulation is weakened too much, the sound may disappear altogether, a process known as elision. It is the vowels from unstressed syllables which are the first to be elided in non-precise pronunciation.

int(e)rest,
diff(e)rent,
chris(t)mas
san(d)wich The same process can occur across word boundaries, for example,
the firs(t) three
you an(d) me
we stopp(ed) for lunch
you shouldn´t (h)ave
tell (h)im.

If your learners have not worked on these forms before, you might wish to set some lesson time aside to work specifically on these features of connected speech. One way of introducing them to sound deletions could be to write a few short phrases on the board. For example:

That´s an interesting idea.
Are you coming out tonight?
It´s the tallest building.
You must tell him.

Try if possible to use language you have recently been working on in the classroom. Then ask the class to count the number of sounds in each word, and write the numbers which they give you on the board above the words, like this:

Now play a recording of the phrases, or read them yourself, and ask the learners to listen again and write down how many sounds they hear. Prompt them if necessary, asking if, for example, the "t" is really pronounced twice between "must" and "tell" , or only once.

Drill the phrases then ask the students to practise these phrases themselves. You could also read out the phrases, once using the elided forms, then again in a more clipped, emphatic manner.
Ask the learners which sounds more natural. Highlight that the features of connected speech not only make the phrase more natural sounding but that it is also easier to pronounce the words in this way.

Exercises like this help to show learners the differences between written and spoken English, and they highlight the importance of listening to words rather than relying on their written forms. Integrating work on connected speech

It is a good idea to try and integrate work on connected speech into everyday lessons. When studying grammar for example, don't focus solely on the form of the words, draw attention to the way they are pronounced in natural conversation.

The Nile is the longest river in the world.
The Vatican is the smallest country in the world.
Ask the students to listen to the sounds while you repeat the phrases a few times and see if they can spot the disappearance of the " t " on the superlative adjective.
Drill the phrases, chorally and individually. Students might like to write their own general knowledge quiz, using questions such as, "Which is the tallest building in the world?".
As they read their questions, make sure they elide the final "t" (unless of course, the next word begins with a vowel). Such exercises provide practice of both grammatical form and pronunciation, and the repetition helps students to begin using these features of connected speech in a natural manner.

Anything which you have recently been working on in class can be used as a basis for pronunciation work. For example, a useful way of practising the intruding sounds / r /, / w / and / j / is when studying phrasal verbs.

Do / w / up lay / j / up Go / w / away Go / w / out

Drill the verbs chorally and individually before providing a more personalized practice activity in which students ask each other questions using the verbs you are focusing on.

Phrasal verbs can also be used to show how we tend to link final consonants and initial vowels across word boundaries.

Get out ( getout ) Put on ( puton ) Come out ( cumout )

Students often find pronunciation work fun and stimulating, as well as valuable. However, they will need time and confidence in order to assimilate the features of connected speech and to make them their own. Research does suggest though, that by simply drawing students' attention to these forms, you are giving them considerable help towards making sense of the language they hear.

Tag: connected speech

Action research: pronunciation project #2.

This is the second in a series of posts documenting a mini research project I’m doing with a group of C1/C2 students to see how effective explicit pronunciation instruction activities can be. If you haven’t already, please read the first post to get a better idea of the methods I’m using. Download the slides and handout for this second mini lesson plan below:

Full credit to Mark Hancock for the excellent -ed endings maze, you can get it and many more from this excellent website he runs together with Annie McDonald. You can also get loads more great materials from his Instagram page . If you get the chance to attend one of his seminars/webinars, go for it, loads of great ideas.

This particular lesson plan focuses on -ed endings of regular verbs and consonant to vowel linking in phrasal verbs. If you’re following along with the project with your students, please let me know how it’s going in the comments.

Action Research: Pronunciation Project

This is the first of a series of blog posts I plan to write on a little pronunciation project I’m going to run with a C1/C2 group of Catalan/Spanish speaking students. If you’d like to try to run the same experiment with your own groups, you can download the materials I’m going to use at the bottom of this post.

How much can high-level students’ spoken pronunciation be improved by explicit focus on connected speech during class time? The plan is to use both reactive teaching/error correction and explicit, mini-lessons on specific elements of connected speech to work on students’ spoken output. Their progress will then be tracked through the use of submitted voice recordings.

Baseline Level

In order to gauge students current level of spoken pronunciation, I wrote a text, which you’ll find below, that contains many elements of connected speech:

Dusty Dreams

I have always wanted to play in a rock and roll band but I can’t seem to find the time to practice enough. If you don’t put in the hours, you’re always going to put off fulfilling an ambition. I want to do it, but the harder I try to pick up the guitar, the busier I get, and at the weekends I tend to go out most nights and those dreams are left back in the corner gathering dust with my guitar.

In class today I collected their baseline recordings. They completed a simple comprehension task on the text, then each recorded themselves reading the text on their own mobile phones and sent me the resulting audio file.

I will also have them record themselves completing a Cambridge “long turn” task during the next class in order to gather a non-scripted sample of their spoken output.

Pronunciation Development

The pronunciation work students will complete will take a number of forms:

Explicit teaching of sentence stress, weak forms, and other elements of connected speech.
Use of tubequizard.com in their free time as ear-training/decoding.
Exposure to a “model” version of the target text, read by me, for students to compare/mimic.
Activities and worksheets such as Mark Hancock and Annie McDonald’s mazes.
Reactive hot and cold error correction.

Tracking Development

The idea is to spend 15-20 mins a week explicitly focusing on pronunciation and then have students rerecord the original “Dusty Dreams” text in 6-8 weeks and compare the second recording to their original. I will also periodically collect long turn attempts to track the progress of more spontaneous/authentic speech. I also plan to use other texts or dialogue transcripts for later recordings as well as tracking students’ scores on C2 Proficiency reading comprehension tasks.

This is my first real attempt at action research, I’m probably doing a bunch of stuff wrong, but it’s exciting and my students seem to be up to the challenge! I’ll keep you posted.

If you’d like to follow along with your own students, you can download the first lesson plan, with the baseline text and a micro-lesson on weak forms of “to” and “for”, below:

Feel free to comment or give advice!

Listening: I got double-scammed!

Image Credit: blogs.thisismoney.co.uk

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This is a listening lesson for high B1+. I designed this lesson for my DELTA receptive skills assessed class. It’s based around a listening text from Speak Out Upper-Intermediate (Pearson), in which a woman describes how she had her bag stolen while sitting in a café. I chose this text because this type of crime is an extremely common occurence here in Barcelona.

Below you can download the lesson procedure, students’ and teachers’ handout, an annotated version of the transcript and the listening file.

Lesson Procedure

Lisas bad day student handout

Lisas bad day Teacher’s copy

The most important thing to bear in mind is that this is a class which focuses on developing students’ listening skills rather than simply testing their comprehension of a text so feel free to replay sections of the text as many times as it takes for them to get the message.

It’s important to follow the steps as laid out in the procedure. The pre-listening tasks, in which students make predictions about what will happen next, aid students in their comprehension as they are given the opportunity to apply their own knowledge and experience to the text.

After listening the language focus section on connected speech will help students to identify and decipher fast connetced speech, for example, the pronunciation of past modals “can’t/must/might have”. I’m currently working on my grammar assessment class in which I will come back to past modals of speculation. It should make a good follow-up class to this one so watch this space.

Sandy Millin: Advanced Pronunciation

Check out this great lesson plan from Sandy Millin on advanced pronunciation. Students are introduced to different forms of connected speech and put it into practice by transcribing part of a listening text.

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Connected Speech Made Easy: A Lesson Plan for Listening Skills

by charlielesson
April 11, 2023 April 16, 2023

Before starting my DELTA course, I probably wouldn’t have been able to explain what bottom-up processing skills were. Let alone top-down ones! Now I understand that it involves students using their knowledge of individual sounds and letters to build up larger units of meaning.

This is particularly important in developing listening skills. Students need to be able to recognize and understand individual words and sounds in order to understand the larger context of a conversation or speech. One technique that can be used to develop these skills is the use of transcripts.

In my Cambridge DELTA course, I developed a lesson plan on developing bottom-up processing skills using transcripts with a particular focus on coalescent assimilation. The topic of the class was on takeaway food, and the lesson was designed as a listening exercise. The tutor had this to say about the lesson:

Overall, Charlie, this was a useful lesson for the learners in which you met your aims mainly successfully.
You planned a range of useful procedures, around a Test-Teach-Test sequence, using a mostly appropriate dialogue and this helped you meet your aims.
This was an effective Pass lesson.

Connected Speech Made Easy: Lesson materials

On my blog I have also shared other lesson plans from my DELTA course. One on practicing expressions of ability here and future possibility here.

I focussed on specific phonological processes and used transcripts to support their understanding of the conversation. The listening source actually comes from a recording myself and a fellow teacher made. I did this as I wanted to try and replicate real-world examples of connected speech. The context of the lesson was something that was relevant to the students. The lesson met its aims as it helped students improve their listening comprehension skills.

If you’re interested in using this lesson plan in your own classroom, you can download the presentation for free.

Free presentation for Lesson Plan for Listening Skills

However, to get access to the full lesson plan procedure and materials, you will need to purchase it. It’s a worthwhile investment if you’re looking to develop your students’ listening skills and help them become more confident and competent communicators in English.

British Council Teaching English Africa

The schwa in connected speech.

Author: Anna Phillips | Published on 2 April 2024

One of the most important sounds in the English language and definitely the most common, is the schwa, a sound that literally means ‘null’. Which goes a long way to explain why our students find it so difficult to hear in connected speech.

As English is a stress-timed language, understanding how the schwa works in connected speech is crucial for students seeking increased fluency and superior listening skills.

The schwa is responsible for why many of our students don’t hear prepositions, auxiliary verbs, connectors and articles in speech as they are often replaced by the schwa sound and not stressed.

Here are 3 activities to try in the classroom:

Bottom-up Listening Dictation

a. Read the sentence “I’m an English student learning about the schwa, what am I going to learn?”. Make sure you read it at normal speaking speed, using connected speech features. (Change the sentence depending on level, create more challenge for B1+ students)

b. Ask students to note down how many words they think you read. Have them compare their ideas with their partners.

c. Show students the sentence and check their answers

d. Explain that some of the words weren’t heard properly because they are weak forms (an, about, the, am, to).

e. Annotate the schwa on the sentence.

f. Repeat the activity with 4 new sentences.

Reading to the beat

a. Show the students the sentence 'Man plays drums'

b. Have them read the sentence, clap the beat – 1,2,3

c. Write the next sentence 'The Man plays drums', continue to clap the beat.

d. Repeat the process with these sentences:

i. The man plays the drums

ii. The man is playing the drums

iii. The man has been playing the drums

e. The beat should never change. It should take you the same amount of time to pronounce sentence a. and sentence iii.

f. Explain to students that this is because of the weak forms in the sentences

g. Split the class and give each group a sentence, challenge them to keep to the beat

What are the lyrics?

a. Choose a song that your students like (any song works for this!)

b. Print of the lyrics and create gaps for any weak form that is in the song

c. Students listen to the song and try to hear what’s missing.

d. Analyse the lyrics’ grammatical structures and have students deduce what is missing using their linguistic knowledge

e. Elicit why these words are less important to hear than the content words

f. Practice the lyrics using the weak form

IMAGES

Engaging Ways to Teach Parts of Speech In Your Classroom
Connected speech
Connected Speech Made Easy: A Lesson Plan for Listening Skills
Connected speech
CONNECTED SPEECH
Connected Speech Practice

COMMENTS

Connected speech
Connected speech. Teaching pronunciation used to involve little more than identifying and practising the sounds of which a language is composed, that is to say, its phonemes. Recently however, there has been a shift of focus towards the other systems operating within phonology, which may be more important in terms of overall intelligibility.
Connected speech
Weak forms: In connected speech, many words are pronounced in a weak form. In the classroom Intensive listening activities can help raise awareness of the features of connected speech, as can teaching phonemic symbols to illustrate these features. Modelling and drilling contextualised language can help learners to approximate connected speech.
Connected Speech
Classroom speech, which is careful and connected, is described as "garden listening" because words are connected but remain easy to distinguish from each other. And normal speech, the kind produced by native speakers when they are focused on communicating, is "jungle listening" because words connect to each other in unpredictable ways.
Helping students with connected speech
A good activity to start learners thinking about connected speech and weak forms is to dictate just part of some phrases. For example: 'uvbin'. After students have written these down as best they can (this should be a light-hearted activity), you dictate the full phrase, in this case 'I've been to Paris.'.
How to Teach Linking in Connected Speech
Catenation between final consonants and initial vowels teaching tips. Linking in connected speech, also known as "catenation", is the process by which words ending with consonants don't sound like they have their normal written word transition when they are followed by vowels. This is sometimes described as the words merging, as if "an ...
Why Teaching the Hidden Patterns of Connected Speech Matters
The idea is not to overwhelm our learners with production activities that include a whole array of connected speech features, but rather practise one particular feature. No connected speech feature is more relevant than the others, so one possible way to practise them is to make a priority list based on the learners' needs and classroom time ...
Connected speech 2
Connected speech 2. An advanced student of mine speaks both clearly and usually correctly, but can often sound over formal and at times stilted. Author. Vanessa Steele. He has learnt his English "through the eye" and has trouble interpreting the utterances of native speakers who do not monitor their output.
connected speech
The pronunciation work students will complete will take a number of forms: Explicit teaching of sentence stress, weak forms, and other elements of connected speech. Use of tubequizard.com in their free time as ear-training/decoding. Exposure to a "model" version of the target text, read by me, for students to compare/mimic.
Connected Speech Made Easy: A Lesson Plan for Listening Skills
Connected Speech Made Easy: Lesson materials. € 2.00. With this download you'll get access to the full lesson plan procedure, materials and link to the Wordwall task featured in the lesson. It's a worthwhile investment if you're looking to develop your students' listening skills and help them become more confident and competent ...
The Schwa in connected speech
Here are 3 activities to try in the classroom: Bottom-up Listening Dictation. a. Read the sentence "I'm an English student learning about the schwa, what am I going to learn?". Make sure you read it at normal speaking speed, using connected speech features. (Change the sentence depending on level, create more challenge for B1+ students) b.

10 Connected Speech

Learning Objectives

10.1 What is connected speech?

10.8 Multiple Processes

Normal spoken form vs. dictionary form

Types of Connected Speech Processes

Why does connected speech happen?

10.3 Representing Connected Speech

10.4 Linking: what it is, when it happens, why it matters

C‿V linking

C‿C linking

V‿V linking (Glide Insertion)

Link starting from front vowels

Link starting from back vowels

10.5 Deletion: What it is, when it happens, why it matters

Consonant Deletion

10.6 Modification: What it is, when it happens, why it matters

Assimilation

Blending (Palatalization)

10.7 Reduction (Weak Forms)

Description and Analysis

Listening Discrimination

Exercise 10-3. Identifying linking

Exercise 10-4. Gapped dictation,

Controlled Production

Linking Type – Final consonant joins to following /j/ sound (as in you, your)

Linking Type – Final consonant joins to next vowel

Linking type – Two different consonants join together in different ways

Linking Type – Two of the same consonants become one sound.

Exercise 10-6. Vowel linking.

Linking using a <y>

Linking using a <w>

Exercise 10-7. Vowel linking with “the”

Exercise 10-8. Linking in Rhyming Sayings.

Exercise 10-9. Riddles 1 (from R. Wong, 1987).

Exercise 10-10. Riddles 2.

Exercise 10-11. Puns.

Exercise 10-12. Connected speech. (Adapted from R. Wong, 1987)

Helping students with connected speech

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Rachael Roberts

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