introduction research paper template

How to Write a Research Paper Introduction (with Examples)

The research paper introduction section, along with the Title and Abstract, can be considered the face of any research paper. The following article is intended to guide you in organizing and writing the research paper introduction for a quality academic article or dissertation.

The research paper introduction aims to present the topic to the reader. A study will only be accepted for publishing if you can ascertain that the available literature cannot answer your research question. So it is important to ensure that you have read important studies on that particular topic, especially those within the last five to ten years, and that they are properly referenced in this section. 1 What should be included in the research paper introduction is decided by what you want to tell readers about the reason behind the research and how you plan to fill the knowledge gap. The best research paper introduction provides a systemic review of existing work and demonstrates additional work that needs to be done. It needs to be brief, captivating, and well-referenced; a well-drafted research paper introduction will help the researcher win half the battle.

The introduction for a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

• Present your research topic
• Capture reader interest
• Summarize existing research
• Position your own approach
• Define your specific research problem and problem statement
• Highlight the novelty and contributions of the study
• Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The research paper introduction can vary in size and structure depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or is a review paper. Some research paper introduction examples are only half a page while others are a few pages long. In many cases, the introduction will be shorter than all of the other sections of your paper; its length depends on the size of your paper as a whole.

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Table of Contents

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The introduction in a research paper is placed at the beginning to guide the reader from a broad subject area to the specific topic that your research addresses. They present the following information to the reader

• Scope: The topic covered in the research paper
• Context: Background of your topic
• Importance: Why your research matters in that particular area of research and the industry problem that can be targeted

The research paper introduction conveys a lot of information and can be considered an essential roadmap for the rest of your paper. A good introduction for a research paper is important for the following reasons:

• It stimulates your reader’s interest: A good introduction section can make your readers want to read your paper by capturing their interest. It informs the reader what they are going to learn and helps determine if the topic is of interest to them.
• It helps the reader understand the research background: Without a clear introduction, your readers may feel confused and even struggle when reading your paper. A good research paper introduction will prepare them for the in-depth research to come. It provides you the opportunity to engage with the readers and demonstrate your knowledge and authority on the specific topic.
• It explains why your research paper is worth reading: Your introduction can convey a lot of information to your readers. It introduces the topic, why the topic is important, and how you plan to proceed with your research.
• It helps guide the reader through the rest of the paper: The research paper introduction gives the reader a sense of the nature of the information that will support your arguments and the general organization of the paragraphs that will follow. It offers an overview of what to expect when reading the main body of your paper.

What are the parts of introduction in the research?

A good research paper introduction section should comprise three main elements: 2

• What is known: This sets the stage for your research. It informs the readers of what is known on the subject.
• What is lacking: This is aimed at justifying the reason for carrying out your research. This could involve investigating a new concept or method or building upon previous research.
• What you aim to do: This part briefly states the objectives of your research and its major contributions. Your detailed hypothesis will also form a part of this section.

How to write a research paper introduction?

The first step in writing the research paper introduction is to inform the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening statement. The second step involves establishing the kinds of research that have been done and ending with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to address. Finally, the research paper introduction clarifies how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses. If your research involved testing hypotheses, these should be stated along with your research question. The hypothesis should be presented in the past tense since it will have been tested by the time you are writing the research paper introduction.

The following key points, with examples, can guide you when writing the research paper introduction section:

• Highlight the importance of the research field or topic
• Describe the background of the topic
• Present an overview of current research on the topic

Example: The inclusion of experiential and competency-based learning has benefitted electronics engineering education. Industry partnerships provide an excellent alternative for students wanting to engage in solving real-world challenges. Industry-academia participation has grown in recent years due to the need for skilled engineers with practical training and specialized expertise. However, from the educational perspective, many activities are needed to incorporate sustainable development goals into the university curricula and consolidate learning innovation in universities.

• Reveal a gap in existing research or oppose an existing assumption
• Formulate the research question

Example: There have been plausible efforts to integrate educational activities in higher education electronics engineering programs. However, very few studies have considered using educational research methods for performance evaluation of competency-based higher engineering education, with a focus on technical and or transversal skills. To remedy the current need for evaluating competencies in STEM fields and providing sustainable development goals in engineering education, in this study, a comparison was drawn between study groups without and with industry partners.

• State the purpose of your study
• Highlight the key characteristics of your study
• Describe important results
• Highlight the novelty of the study.
• Offer a brief overview of the structure of the paper.

Example: The study evaluates the main competency needed in the applied electronics course, which is a fundamental core subject for many electronics engineering undergraduate programs. We compared two groups, without and with an industrial partner, that offered real-world projects to solve during the semester. This comparison can help determine significant differences in both groups in terms of developing subject competency and achieving sustainable development goals.

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Step 1: Sign up on Paperpal and click on the Copilot feature, under this choose Outlines > Research Article > Introduction

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Step 3: Fill in the specifics, such as your field of study, brief description or details you want to include, which will help the AI generate the outline for your Introduction.

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You can use the same process to develop each section of your article, and finally your research paper in half the time and without any of the stress.

The purpose of the research paper introduction is to introduce the reader to the problem definition, justify the need for the study, and describe the main theme of the study. The aim is to gain the reader’s attention by providing them with necessary background information and establishing the main purpose and direction of the research.

The length of the research paper introduction can vary across journals and disciplines. While there are no strict word limits for writing the research paper introduction, an ideal length would be one page, with a maximum of 400 words over 1-4 paragraphs. Generally, it is one of the shorter sections of the paper as the reader is assumed to have at least a reasonable knowledge about the topic. 2 For example, for a study evaluating the role of building design in ensuring fire safety, there is no need to discuss definitions and nature of fire in the introduction; you could start by commenting upon the existing practices for fire safety and how your study will add to the existing knowledge and practice.

When deciding what to include in the research paper introduction, the rest of the paper should also be considered. The aim is to introduce the reader smoothly to the topic and facilitate an easy read without much dependency on external sources. 3 Below is a list of elements you can include to prepare a research paper introduction outline and follow it when you are writing the research paper introduction. Topic introduction: This can include key definitions and a brief history of the topic. Research context and background: Offer the readers some general information and then narrow it down to specific aspects. Details of the research you conducted: A brief literature review can be included to support your arguments or line of thought. Rationale for the study: This establishes the relevance of your study and establishes its importance. Importance of your research: The main contributions are highlighted to help establish the novelty of your study Research hypothesis: Introduce your research question and propose an expected outcome. Organization of the paper: Include a short paragraph of 3-4 sentences that highlights your plan for the entire paper

Cite only works that are most relevant to your topic; as a general rule, you can include one to three. Note that readers want to see evidence of original thinking. So it is better to avoid using too many references as it does not leave much room for your personal standpoint to shine through. Citations in your research paper introduction support the key points, and the number of citations depend on the subject matter and the point discussed. If the research paper introduction is too long or overflowing with citations, it is better to cite a few review articles rather than the individual articles summarized in the review. A good point to remember when citing research papers in the introduction section is to include at least one-third of the references in the introduction.

The literature review plays a significant role in the research paper introduction section. A good literature review accomplishes the following: Introduces the topic – Establishes the study’s significance – Provides an overview of the relevant literature – Provides context for the study using literature – Identifies knowledge gaps However, remember to avoid making the following mistakes when writing a research paper introduction: Do not use studies from the literature review to aggressively support your research Avoid direct quoting Do not allow literature review to be the focus of this section. Instead, the literature review should only aid in setting a foundation for the manuscript.

Remember the following key points for writing a good research paper introduction: 4

• Avoid stuffing too much general information: Avoid including what an average reader would know and include only that information related to the problem being addressed in the research paper introduction. For example, when describing a comparative study of non-traditional methods for mechanical design optimization, information related to the traditional methods and differences between traditional and non-traditional methods would not be relevant. In this case, the introduction for the research paper should begin with the state-of-the-art non-traditional methods and methods to evaluate the efficiency of newly developed algorithms.
• Avoid packing too many references: Cite only the required works in your research paper introduction. The other works can be included in the discussion section to strengthen your findings.
• Avoid extensive criticism of previous studies: Avoid being overly critical of earlier studies while setting the rationale for your study. A better place for this would be the Discussion section, where you can highlight the advantages of your method.
• Avoid describing conclusions of the study: When writing a research paper introduction remember not to include the findings of your study. The aim is to let the readers know what question is being answered. The actual answer should only be given in the Results and Discussion section.

To summarize, the research paper introduction section should be brief yet informative. It should convince the reader the need to conduct the study and motivate him to read further. If you’re feeling stuck or unsure, choose trusted AI academic writing assistants like Paperpal to effortlessly craft your research paper introduction and other sections of your research article.

1. Jawaid, S. A., & Jawaid, M. (2019). How to write introduction and discussion. Saudi Journal of Anaesthesia, 13(Suppl 1), S18.

2. Dewan, P., & Gupta, P. (2016). Writing the title, abstract and introduction: Looks matter!. Indian pediatrics, 53, 235-241.

3. Cetin, S., & Hackam, D. J. (2005). An approach to the writing of a scientific Manuscript1. Journal of Surgical Research, 128(2), 165-167.

4. Bavdekar, S. B. (2015). Writing introduction: Laying the foundations of a research paper. Journal of the Association of Physicians of India, 63(7), 44-6.

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Home » Research Paper Introduction – Writing Guide and Examples

Research Paper Introduction – Writing Guide and Examples

Table of Contents

Research Paper Introduction

Research paper introduction is the first section of a research paper that provides an overview of the study, its purpose, and the research question (s) or hypothesis (es) being investigated. It typically includes background information about the topic, a review of previous research in the field, and a statement of the research objectives. The introduction is intended to provide the reader with a clear understanding of the research problem, why it is important, and how the study will contribute to existing knowledge in the field. It also sets the tone for the rest of the paper and helps to establish the author’s credibility and expertise on the subject.

How to Write Research Paper Introduction

Writing an introduction for a research paper can be challenging because it sets the tone for the entire paper. Here are some steps to follow to help you write an effective research paper introduction:

• Start with a hook : Begin your introduction with an attention-grabbing statement, a question, or a surprising fact that will make the reader interested in reading further.
• Provide background information: After the hook, provide background information on the topic. This information should give the reader a general idea of what the topic is about and why it is important.
• State the research problem: Clearly state the research problem or question that the paper addresses. This should be done in a concise and straightforward manner.
• State the research objectives: After stating the research problem, clearly state the research objectives. This will give the reader an idea of what the paper aims to achieve.
• Provide a brief overview of the paper: At the end of the introduction, provide a brief overview of the paper. This should include a summary of the main points that will be discussed in the paper.
• Revise and refine: Finally, revise and refine your introduction to ensure that it is clear, concise, and engaging.

Structure of Research Paper Introduction

The following is a typical structure for a research paper introduction:

• Background Information: This section provides an overview of the topic of the research paper, including relevant background information and any previous research that has been done on the topic. It helps to give the reader a sense of the context for the study.
• Problem Statement: This section identifies the specific problem or issue that the research paper is addressing. It should be clear and concise, and it should articulate the gap in knowledge that the study aims to fill.
• Research Question/Hypothesis : This section states the research question or hypothesis that the study aims to answer. It should be specific and focused, and it should clearly connect to the problem statement.
• Significance of the Study: This section explains why the research is important and what the potential implications of the study are. It should highlight the contribution that the research makes to the field.
• Methodology: This section describes the research methods that were used to conduct the study. It should be detailed enough to allow the reader to understand how the study was conducted and to evaluate the validity of the results.
• Organization of the Paper : This section provides a brief overview of the structure of the research paper. It should give the reader a sense of what to expect in each section of the paper.

Research Paper Introduction Examples

Research Paper Introduction Examples could be:

Example 1: In recent years, the use of artificial intelligence (AI) has become increasingly prevalent in various industries, including healthcare. AI algorithms are being developed to assist with medical diagnoses, treatment recommendations, and patient monitoring. However, as the use of AI in healthcare grows, ethical concerns regarding privacy, bias, and accountability have emerged. This paper aims to explore the ethical implications of AI in healthcare and propose recommendations for addressing these concerns.

Example 2: Climate change is one of the most pressing issues facing our planet today. The increasing concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has resulted in rising temperatures, changing weather patterns, and other environmental impacts. In this paper, we will review the scientific evidence on climate change, discuss the potential consequences of inaction, and propose solutions for mitigating its effects.

Example 3: The rise of social media has transformed the way we communicate and interact with each other. While social media platforms offer many benefits, including increased connectivity and access to information, they also present numerous challenges. In this paper, we will examine the impact of social media on mental health, privacy, and democracy, and propose solutions for addressing these issues.

Example 4: The use of renewable energy sources has become increasingly important in the face of climate change and environmental degradation. While renewable energy technologies offer many benefits, including reduced greenhouse gas emissions and energy independence, they also present numerous challenges. In this paper, we will assess the current state of renewable energy technology, discuss the economic and political barriers to its adoption, and propose solutions for promoting the widespread use of renewable energy.

Purpose of Research Paper Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper serves several important purposes, including:

• Providing context: The introduction should give readers a general understanding of the topic, including its background, significance, and relevance to the field.
• Presenting the research question or problem: The introduction should clearly state the research question or problem that the paper aims to address. This helps readers understand the purpose of the study and what the author hopes to accomplish.
• Reviewing the literature: The introduction should summarize the current state of knowledge on the topic, highlighting the gaps and limitations in existing research. This shows readers why the study is important and necessary.
• Outlining the scope and objectives of the study: The introduction should describe the scope and objectives of the study, including what aspects of the topic will be covered, what data will be collected, and what methods will be used.
• Previewing the main findings and conclusions : The introduction should provide a brief overview of the main findings and conclusions that the study will present. This helps readers anticipate what they can expect to learn from the paper.

When to Write Research Paper Introduction

The introduction of a research paper is typically written after the research has been conducted and the data has been analyzed. This is because the introduction should provide an overview of the research problem, the purpose of the study, and the research questions or hypotheses that will be investigated.

Once you have a clear understanding of the research problem and the questions that you want to explore, you can begin to write the introduction. It’s important to keep in mind that the introduction should be written in a way that engages the reader and provides a clear rationale for the study. It should also provide context for the research by reviewing relevant literature and explaining how the study fits into the larger field of research.

Advantages of Research Paper Introduction

The introduction of a research paper has several advantages, including:

• Establishing the purpose of the research: The introduction provides an overview of the research problem, question, or hypothesis, and the objectives of the study. This helps to clarify the purpose of the research and provide a roadmap for the reader to follow.
• Providing background information: The introduction also provides background information on the topic, including a review of relevant literature and research. This helps the reader understand the context of the study and how it fits into the broader field of research.
• Demonstrating the significance of the research: The introduction also explains why the research is important and relevant. This helps the reader understand the value of the study and why it is worth reading.
• Setting expectations: The introduction sets the tone for the rest of the paper and prepares the reader for what is to come. This helps the reader understand what to expect and how to approach the paper.
• Grabbing the reader’s attention: A well-written introduction can grab the reader’s attention and make them interested in reading further. This is important because it can help to keep the reader engaged and motivated to read the rest of the paper.
• Creating a strong first impression: The introduction is the first part of the research paper that the reader will see, and it can create a strong first impression. A well-written introduction can make the reader more likely to take the research seriously and view it as credible.
• Establishing the author’s credibility: The introduction can also establish the author’s credibility as a researcher. By providing a clear and thorough overview of the research problem and relevant literature, the author can demonstrate their expertise and knowledge in the field.
• Providing a structure for the paper: The introduction can also provide a structure for the rest of the paper. By outlining the main sections and sub-sections of the paper, the introduction can help the reader navigate the paper and find the information they are looking for.

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How to write a research paper introduction (with examples).

I hope you enjoy reading this blog post.

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Welcome to our comprehensive guide on crafting the perfect introduction for your research paper. In this blog, we’ll explore the crucial elements of a strong introduction, highlight common pitfalls to avoid, and provide practical tips to effectively set the stage for your study’s objectives and significance. 

Table of Contents

Lack of a clear thesis statement, lack of clear objectives and scope, failure to establish the research significance, insufficient background information, inadequate literature review, ignoring the research gap, overly technical language, poor organization and flow, neglecting the audience, the importance of a good introduction.

A strong introduction sets the tone for the entire paper, guiding the reader through the research journey. It provides context, establishes relevance, and ensures the reader understands the importance of the study.

Starting a research project is exciting, but getting the introduction right is key. It’s like opening the door to your study and inviting readers in. However, there are some common missteps that can trip you up along the way.

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Common mistakes to avoid.

A thesis statement is the central argument or claim that guides the entire research paper. It is a concise summary of the main point or claim of the paper and is typically found at the end of the introduction. A clear thesis statement helps to focus the research, provide direction, and inform the reader of the paper’s purpose. Expert reviewers may even skip the rest of the introduction (as they are well versed in the topic) and focus only on your thesis statement, so it’s vital to make sure it is perfect!

When a research introduction lacks a clear thesis statement, several issues can arise:

• Ambiguity : Without a clear thesis, the reader may be confused about the paper’s purpose and the main argument. Do not talk in vague terms. Whenever possible, use terminology established in recent literature. Narrow down the key aspects of the association that you are investigating (the study sample, the outcome and predictor measures) as much as possible.
• Lack of Focus : The paper can become unfocused and meander through unrelated topics, making it difficult for the reader to follow the argument. Do not try to have more than 1-2 main aims in a paper. Even if you have done supplementary analysis, it is better to say so in the discussion. As a rule of thumb, try to answer one major question only!
• Weak Argumentation : A well-defined thesis provides a strong foundation for building arguments. Without it, the arguments may appear weak and unsupported.

Let's be more practical:

1- In this paper, I will discuss climate change.

• Problem: This statement is too broad and vague. It does not provide a clear direction or specific argument.

2- This paper argues that climate change, measured by global average temperature change, is primarily driven by human activities, such as deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels, and proposes policy measures to mitigate its impact.(1)

• Strengths: – Specificity : It clearly states that the paper will focus on human activities as the main drivers of climate change. – Argument : It presents a specific claim that the paper will argue. – Direction : It hints at the structure of the paper by mentioning policy measures.

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Powerful Tips:

• Be Specific : Clearly define the main argument or claim. Avoid vague or broad statements.
• Be Concise : Keep the thesis statement concise, ideally one to two sentences.
• Provide Direction : Indicate the structure of the paper by hinting at the main points that will be discussed.
• Revise as Needed : Be prepared to revise the thesis statement as your research progresses and your understanding deepens.

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A clear statement of objectives and scope is crucial in a research paper introduction because it outlines what the study aims to achieve and defines the boundaries within which the research will be conducted.

Example of Lacking Clear Objectives and Scope: This paper examines the impacts of climate change on agriculture.

• Problem : This statement is too broad and vague. It does not specify what aspects of climate change or agriculture will be studied, nor does it define the geographical or temporal scope.

Example with Clear Objectives and Scope: This study aims to investigate the effects of rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns on crop yields in the Midwest United States from 2000 to 2010. The objectives are to (1) assess the impact of temperature changes on corn and soybean yields, (2) analyze how variations in precipitation affect crop growth, and (3) identify adaptive strategies employed by farmers in the region.(2)

Powerful tips:

• Be Specific : Clearly state what the study aims to achieve and avoid vague or broad statements.
• Identify Key Areas : Outline the main areas or aspects that the research will focus on.
• Set Boundaries : Define the geographical, temporal, and conceptual boundaries of the research.
• List Objectives : Clearly articulate specific research objectives or questions that the study will address.
• Stay Realistic : Ensure that the objectives and scope are achievable within the constraints of the research project.
• Make it flow : Make sure you are not repeating the same concepts as the thesis statement, as these two sections are often presented back-to-back in the final paragraph of the introduction! Remember: the thesis statement is your hypothesis or question, and your objectives are ‘how’ you are going to test your thesis.

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This mistake can result in the research appearing trivial or irrelevant, diminishing its potential impact. When the significance of the research is not well-established, readers may struggle to understand the value of the study and why they should care about it.

Example of Failure to Establish Research Significance: This study investigates the effects of social media usage on sleep patterns among teenagers.

• Problem : The significance of studying social media’s impact on sleep patterns is not explained. The reader may wonder why this research is important or what implications it has.

Example with Established Research Significance: This study investigates the effects of social media usage on sleep patterns among teenagers. Understanding this relationship is crucial because insufficient sleep is linked to numerous health issues, including decreased academic performance, heightened stress levels, and increased risk of mental health problems. With the pervasive use of social media among adolescents, identifying how it impacts sleep can inform strategies for promoting healthier habits and improving overall well-being in this vulnerable age group.(3)

• Link to Broader Issues : Connect the research topic to broader issues or trends that highlight its relevance and importance.
• Explain Practical Implications : Discuss the potential practical applications or benefits of the research findings.
• Address Gaps in Knowledge : Identify gaps in the existing literature that the research aims to fill.
• Highlight Potential Impact : Emphasize the potential impact of the research on the field, society, or specific populations.
• Use Concrete Examples : Provide concrete examples or scenarios to illustrate the significance of the research.

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Insufficient background information in the introduction of a research paper refers to failing to provide enough context for the reader to understand the research problem and its significance. Background information sets the stage for the research by offering necessary details about the topic, relevant theories, previous studies, and key terms.

This may lead to:

• Reader Confusion : Without adequate context, readers may struggle to understand the research question, its importance, and how it fits into the broader field of study.
• Weak Justification : Insufficient background can undermine the rationale for the research, making it difficult to justify why the study is necessary or valuable.
• Misinterpretation : Lack of context can lead to misinterpretation of the research objectives, methods, and findings.

Example of Insufficient Background Information: In recent years, many researchers have studied the effects of social media on teenagers. This paper explores the relationship between social media use and anxiety among teenagers.

• Problem : This introduction lacks specific details about the previous research, the theoretical framework, and key terms. It does not provide enough context for the reader to understand why the study is important.

Example of Adequate Background Information: Social media platforms have become an integral part of teenagers’ daily lives, with studies showing that 95% of teens have access to a smartphone and 45% are online almost constantly. Previous research has linked excessive social media use to various mental health issues, including anxiety and depression. However, the mechanisms underlying this relationship remain unclear. This paper explores the impact of social media use on anxiety levels among teenagers, focusing on the roles of social comparison and cyberbullying.(4)

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• Review Relevant Literature : Summarize key studies and theories related to your topic.
• Provide Context : Explain the broader context of your research problem.
• Define Key Terms : Ensure that any specialized terms or concepts are clearly defined.
• Identify the Research Gap : Highlight what is not yet known or understood about your topic.
• Be Concise : Provide enough information to set the stage without overwhelming the reader with details.

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This mistake can occur when the literature review is too brief, lacks depth, omits key studies, or fails to critically analyze previous work. An inadequate literature review can undermine the foundation of the research by failing to provide the necessary context and justification for the study.

Inadequate Literature Review: There has been some research on the relationship between exercise and mental health. This paper will investigate this relationship further.

• Problem : This review is too general and does not provide sufficient detail about the existing research or how it informs the current study.

Example with Adequate Literature Review: Research has consistently shown that regular physical activity has positive effects on mental health. For example, a study by Gujral et al. (2019) demonstrated that aerobic exercise can significantly reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety. Similarly, Smith and Lee (2020) found that strength training also contributes to improved mood and reduced stress levels. However, much of the existing research has focused on adult populations, with relatively few studies examining these effects in adolescents. Additionally, the specific types of exercise that are most beneficial for different mental health outcomes have not been thoroughly investigated. This study aims to explore the effects of various types of exercise on the mental health of high school students, thereby addressing these gaps in the literature.(5-6)

• Be Comprehensive : Review a broad range of studies related to the research topic to provide a thorough context.
• Be Specific : Cite specific studies, including their methodologies, findings, and relevance to the current research.
• Be Critical : Analyze and evaluate the existing research, identifying strengths, weaknesses, and gaps.
• Be Structured : Organize the literature review logically, grouping studies by themes or findings to create a coherent narrative.
• Be Relevant : Focus on the most relevant studies that directly relate to the research question and objectives.

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Ignoring the research gap in a research paper introduction means failing to identify and articulate what specific aspect of the topic has not been explored or adequately addressed in existing literature. The research gap is a critical component because it justifies the necessity and originality of the study. Without highlighting this gap, the research may appear redundant or lacking in significance.

How huge is this mistake?

• Lack of Justification : The study may not appear necessary or relevant, diminishing its perceived value.
• Redundancy : The research may seem to duplicate existing studies, offering no new insights or contributions to the field. Even if you are using methodology similar to previous studies, it is important to note why you are doing so e.g., few studies have used that specific methodology, and you would like to validate it in your sample population!
• Reader Disinterest : Readers may lose interest if they do not see the unique contribution or purpose of the research.

Example of Ignoring the Research Gap: Many studies have examined the effects of exercise on mental health. This paper looks at the relationship between physical activity and depression.

• Problem : This introduction does not specify what aspect of the relationship between physical activity and depression has not been studied, failing to highlight the unique contribution of the research.

Example of Identifying the Research Gap: Numerous studies have demonstrated the general benefits of physical activity on mental health, particularly its role in alleviating symptoms of depression. However, there is limited research on how different types of exercise (e.g., aerobic vs. anaerobic) specifically impact depression levels among various age groups. This study investigates the differential effects of aerobic and anaerobic exercise on depression in young adults, aiming to fill this gap in the literature.(6)

• Conduct a Thorough Literature Review : Understand the current state of research in your field to identify what has been studied and where gaps exist.
• Be Specific : Clearly articulate what specific aspect has not been covered in existing studies.
• Link to Your Study : Explain how your research will address this gap and contribute to the field.
• Use Evidence : Support your identification of the gap with references to previous studies.
• Emphasize Significance : Highlight why filling this gap is important for advancing knowledge or practical applications.

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Overly technical language refers to the excessive use of jargon, complex terms, and highly specialized language that may be difficult for readers, especially those not familiar with the field, to understand. While technical language is sometimes necessary in academic writing, overusing it in the introduction can create several problems:

• Reader Alienation : Readers may find the text intimidating or inaccessible, leading to disengagement.
• Lack of Clarity : The main points and significance of the research can become obscured by complex terminology.
• Reduced Impact : The research may fail to communicate its importance effectively if readers struggle to understand the introduction.

Example of Overly Technical Language: The present study examines the metacognitive strategies employed by individuals in the domain of second language acquisition, specifically focusing on the interaction between declarative and procedural memory systems in the process of syntactic parsing.

• Problem : This sentence is loaded with jargon (“metacognitive strategies,” “second language acquisition,” “declarative and procedural memory systems,” “syntactic parsing”), which can be overwhelming and confusing for readers not familiar with these terms.

Example with Simplified Language: This study looks at the thinking strategies people use when learning a second language. It focuses on how different types of memory, such as the knowledge of facts and the skills for doing things, help in understanding sentence structures.(7)

• Know Your Audience : Tailor the language to the intended audience, ensuring it is accessible to both specialists and non-specialists.
• Define Term s: When technical terms are necessary, provide clear definitions or explanations.
• Use Analogies : Simplify complex concepts using analogies or examples that are easy to understand.
• Avoid Jargon : Limit the use of jargon and specialized terms, especially in the introduction.
• Seek Feedback : Ask peers or non-experts to read the introduction and provide feedback on clarity and accessibility.

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Poor organization and flow in a research paper introduction refer to a lack of logical structure and coherence that makes the introduction difficult to follow. This can occur when ideas are presented in a haphazard manner, transitions between sections are weak or non-existent, and the overall narrative is disjointed. A well-organized introduction should smoothly guide the reader from the general context to the specific objectives of the study.

Example of Poor Organization and Flow: “Climate change affects agriculture in various ways. Many studies have looked at the impact on crop yields. This paper will discuss the economic implications of these changes. Climate models predict increased variability in weather patterns, which will affect water availability. Researchers have found that higher temperatures reduce the growing season for many crops.”

• Problem : The ideas are presented in a scattered manner without clear connections. The mention of economic implications seems out of place, and there are abrupt shifts between topics.

Example with Good Organization and Flow: Climate change poses significant challenges to agriculture by altering weather patterns, impacting crop yields, and affecting water availability. Numerous studies have shown that increased temperatures can shorten the growing season for many crops, leading to reduced yields. Additionally, climate models predict increased variability in weather patterns, which complicates water management for farmers. These changes not only affect food production but also have substantial economic implications for agricultural communities. This paper will examine the economic impacts of climate-induced changes in agriculture, focusing on crop yield variability and water resource management.(1)

• Create an Outline : Before writing, outline the main points you want to cover in the introduction.
• Think in terms of an inverted triangle : Begin broadly to introduce basic concepts related to your topic. As you progress through the introduction, you can introduce more and more specific topics until you have enough information to justify your thesis statement
• Use Transitional Phrases : Employ transitional phrases and sentences to connect ideas and sections smoothly.
• Follow a Logical Sequence : Present information in a logical order, moving from general context to specific objectives.
• Maintain Focus : Stay focused on the main topic and avoid introducing unrelated ideas.
• Revise for Coherence : Review and revise the introduction to ensure that it flows well and that each part contributes to the overall narrative.

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Neglecting the audience refers to failing to consider the background, knowledge level, and interests of the intended readers when writing the introduction of a research paper. This mistake can manifest in several ways, such as using overly technical language for a general audience, providing insufficient background information for readers unfamiliar with the topic, or failing to engage the readers’ interest.

Example of Neglecting the Audience: For experts in genomic sequencing, this study explores the epigenetic modifications resulting from CRISPR-Cas9 interventions, focusing on the methylation patterns and histone modifications observed in gene-edited cells.

• Problem : This introduction assumes a high level of expertise in genomic sequencing and epigenetics, which may alienate readers without this background.

Example with Audience Consideration: CRISPR-Cas9 is a groundbreaking tool in genetic research that allows scientists to edit DNA with precision. However, altering genes can lead to unexpected changes in how genes are expressed, known as epigenetic modifications. This study investigates these changes by looking at specific markers on DNA, such as methylation patterns, and how they affect gene activity in cells that have been edited using CRISPR-Cas9. Our goal is to understand the broader implications of gene editing on cellular functions, which is crucial for advancing medical research and treatments.(8)

• Identify the Audience : Determine who the intended readers are (e.g., experts, students, general public) and tailor the language and content accordingly. Read papers from the journals you are considering for submission. Professional editors curate the language used in these papers and are a great starting point to identify the level of expertise of your audience!
• Simplify Language : Use clear and straightforward language, avoiding jargon and technical terms unless they are necessary and well-explained.
• Provide Background Information : Include sufficient background information to help readers understand the context and significance of the research.
• Engage the Reader : Start with an engaging introduction that highlights the relevance and importance of the research topic.
• Anticipate Questions : Consider what questions or concerns the audience might have and address them in the introduction

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By following these guidelines and avoiding common pitfalls, you can create an introduction that not only grabs the attention of your readers but also sets the stage for a compelling and impactful research paper.

Final Tips:

• Revise and refine your introduction multiple times to ensure clarity and coherence.
• Seek feedback from peers, mentors, or advisors to identify areas for improvement.
• Keep your audience in mind and tailor your language and content to their needs and interests.
• Stay focused on your research objectives and ensure that every part of your introduction contributes to achieving them.
• Be confident in the significance of your research and its potential impact on your field or community.

Let your introduction be more than just words on a page. It’s a doorway to understanding. To help you along, we’ve created a practical course on writing and publishing research projects. It’s 100% risk-free, with a money-back guarantee if you’re not satisfied. Try it out now by clicking here .

Wishing you success on your research journey!

Marina Ramzy Mourid, Hamza Ibad, MBBS

Dr. Ibad graduated from the Aga Khan University Medical College and completed a post-doctoral research fellowship at Johns Hopkins in the Department of Radiology (Musculoskeletal Division). Dr. Ibad’s research and clinical interests include deep-learning applications for automated image interpretation, osteoarthritis, and sarcopenia-related health outcomes.

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About thematchguy, become a researcher in the united states, interested in learning more about literature search with examples from published literature, the comprehensive research course, the systematic review course, the medical statistics course, how to find research positions in the us.

1. Abbass K, Qasim MZ, Song H, Murshed M, Mahmood H, Younis I. A review of the global climate change impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2022;29(28):42539-42559. doi:10.1007/s11356-022-19718-6

2. Cai X, Wang D, Laurent R. Impact of climate change on crop yield: a case study of rainfed corn in central illinois. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology. 2009;48(9):1868-1881. doi:10.1175/2009JAMC1880.1

3. Van Den Eijnden RJJM, Geurts SM, Ter Bogt TFM, Van Der Rijst VG, Koning IM. Social media use and adolescents’ sleep: a longitudinal study on the protective role of parental rules regarding internet use before sleep. IJERPH. 2021;18(3):1346. doi:10.3390/ijerph18031346

4. Schmitt, M. (2021). Effects of social media and technology on adolescents: What the evidence is showing and what we can do about it. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences Education, 38(1), 51-59.

5. Gujral S, Aizenstein H, Reynolds CF, Butters MA, Erickson KI. Exercise effects on depression: Possible neural mechanisms. General Hospital Psychiatry. 2017;49:2-10. doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2017.04.012

6. Smith PJ, Merwin RM. The role of exercise in management of mental health disorders: an integrative review. Annu Rev Med. 2021;72(1):45-62. doi:10.1146/annurev-med-060619-022943

7. Sun Q, Zhang LJ. Understanding learners’ metacognitive experiences in learning to write in English as a foreign language: A structural equation modeling approach. Front Psychol. 2022;13:986301. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.986301

8. Kolanu ND. Crispr–cas9 gene editing: curing genetic diseases by inherited epigenetic modifications. Glob Med Genet. 2024;11(01):113-122. doi:10.1055/s-0044-1785234

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Research Paper Template

The fastest (and smartest) way to craft a research paper that showcases your project and earns you marks. 

Available in Google Doc, Word & PDF format 4.9 star rating, 5000 + downloads

Step-by-step instructions

Tried & tested academic format

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What It Covers

This template’s structure is based on the tried and trusted best-practice format for academic research papers. Its structure reflects the overall research process, ensuring your paper has a smooth, logical flow from chapter to chapter. Here’s what’s included:

• The title page/cover page
• Abstract (or executive summary)
• Section 1: Introduction 
• Section 2: Literature review 
• Section 3: Methodology
• Section 4: Findings /results
• Section 5: Discussion
• Section 6: Conclusion
• Reference list

Each section is explained in plain, straightforward language , followed by an overview of the key elements that you need to cover within each section. 

You can download a fully editable MS Word File (DOCX format), copy it to your Google Drive or paste the content to any other word processor.

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FAQs: Research Paper Template

What format is the template (doc, pdf, ppt, etc.).

The research paper template is provided as a Google Doc. You can download it in MS Word format or make a copy to your Google Drive. You’re also welcome to convert it to whatever format works best for you, such as LaTeX or PDF.

What types of research papers can this template be used for?

The template follows the standard best-practice structure for formal academic research papers, so it is suitable for the vast majority of degrees, particularly those within the sciences.

Some universities may have some additional requirements, but these are typically minor, with the core structure remaining the same. Therefore, it’s always a good idea to double-check your university’s requirements before you finalise your structure.

Is this template for an undergrad, Masters or PhD-level research paper?

This template can be used for a research paper at any level of study. It may be slight overkill for an undergraduate-level study, but it certainly won’t be missing anything.

How long should my research paper be?

This depends entirely on your university’s specific requirements, so it’s best to check with them. We include generic word count ranges for each section within the template, but these are purely indicative. 

What about the research proposal?

If you’re still working on your research proposal, we’ve got a template for that here .

We’ve also got loads of proposal-related guides and videos over on the Grad Coach blog .

How do I write a literature review?

We have a wealth of free resources on the Grad Coach Blog that unpack how to write a literature review from scratch. You can check out the literature review section of the blog here.

How do I create a research methodology?

We have a wealth of free resources on the Grad Coach Blog that unpack research methodology, both qualitative and quantitative. You can check out the methodology section of the blog here.

Can I share this research paper template with my friends/colleagues?

Yes, you’re welcome to share this template. If you want to post about it on your blog or social media, all we ask is that you reference this page as your source.

Can Grad Coach help me with my research paper?

Within the template, you’ll find plain-language explanations of each section, which should give you a fair amount of guidance. However, you’re also welcome to consider our private coaching services .

Additional Resources

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How to write an effective introduction for your research paper

Last updated

20 January 2024

Reviewed by

However, the introduction is a vital element of your research paper . It helps the reader decide whether your paper is worth their time. As such, it's worth taking your time to get it right.

In this article, we'll tell you everything you need to know about writing an effective introduction for your research paper.

• The importance of an introduction in research papers

The primary purpose of an introduction is to provide an overview of your paper. This lets readers gauge whether they want to continue reading or not. The introduction should provide a meaningful roadmap of your research to help them make this decision. It should let readers know whether the information they're interested in is likely to be found in the pages that follow.

Aside from providing readers with information about the content of your paper, the introduction also sets the tone. It shows readers the style of language they can expect, which can further help them to decide how far to read.

When you take into account both of these roles that an introduction plays, it becomes clear that crafting an engaging introduction is the best way to get your paper read more widely. First impressions count, and the introduction provides that impression to readers.

• The optimum length for a research paper introduction

While there's no magic formula to determine exactly how long a research paper introduction should be, there are a few guidelines. Some variables that impact the ideal introduction length include:

Field of study

Complexity of the topic

Specific requirements of the course or publication

A commonly recommended length of a research paper introduction is around 10% of the total paper’s length. So, a ten-page paper has a one-page introduction. If the topic is complex, it may require more background to craft a compelling intro. Humanities papers tend to have longer introductions than those of the hard sciences.

The best way to craft an introduction of the right length is to focus on clarity and conciseness. Tell the reader only what is necessary to set up your research. An introduction edited down with this goal in mind should end up at an acceptable length.

• Evaluating successful research paper introductions

A good way to gauge how to create a great introduction is by looking at examples from across your field. The most influential and well-regarded papers should provide some insights into what makes a good introduction.

Dissecting examples: what works and why

We can make some general assumptions by looking at common elements of a good introduction, regardless of the field of research.

A common structure is to start with a broad context, and then narrow that down to specific research questions or hypotheses. This creates a funnel that establishes the scope and relevance.

The most effective introductions are careful about the assumptions they make regarding reader knowledge. By clearly defining key terms and concepts instead of assuming the reader is familiar with them, these introductions set a more solid foundation for understanding.

To pull in the reader and make that all-important good first impression, excellent research paper introductions will often incorporate a compelling narrative or some striking fact that grabs the reader's attention.

Finally, good introductions provide clear citations from past research to back up the claims they're making. In the case of argumentative papers or essays (those that take a stance on a topic or issue), a strong thesis statement compels the reader to continue reading.

Common pitfalls to avoid in research paper introductions

You can also learn what not to do by looking at other research papers. Many authors have made mistakes you can learn from.

We've talked about the need to be clear and concise. Many introductions fail at this; they're verbose, vague, or otherwise fail to convey the research problem or hypothesis efficiently. This often comes in the form of an overemphasis on background information, which obscures the main research focus.

Ensure your introduction provides the proper emphasis and excitement around your research and its significance. Otherwise, fewer people will want to read more about it.

• Crafting a compelling introduction for a research paper

Let’s take a look at the steps required to craft an introduction that pulls readers in and compels them to learn more about your research.

Step 1: Capturing interest and setting the scene

To capture the reader's interest immediately, begin your introduction with a compelling question, a surprising fact, a provocative quote, or some other mechanism that will hook readers and pull them further into the paper.

As they continue reading, the introduction should contextualize your research within the current field, showing readers its relevance and importance. Clarify any essential terms that will help them better understand what you're saying. This keeps the fundamentals of your research accessible to all readers from all backgrounds.

Step 2: Building a solid foundation with background information

Including background information in your introduction serves two major purposes:

It helps to clarify the topic for the reader

It establishes the depth of your research

The approach you take when conveying this information depends on the type of paper.

For argumentative papers, you'll want to develop engaging background narratives. These should provide context for the argument you'll be presenting.

For empirical papers, highlighting past research is the key. Often, there will be some questions that weren't answered in those past papers. If your paper is focused on those areas, those papers make ideal candidates for you to discuss and critique in your introduction.

Step 3: Pinpointing the research challenge

To capture the attention of the reader, you need to explain what research challenges you'll be discussing.

For argumentative papers, this involves articulating why the argument you'll be making is important. What is its relevance to current discussions or problems? What is the potential impact of people accepting or rejecting your argument?

For empirical papers, explain how your research is addressing a gap in existing knowledge. What new insights or contributions will your research bring to your field?

Step 4: Clarifying your research aims and objectives

We mentioned earlier that the introduction to a research paper can serve as a roadmap for what's within. We've also frequently discussed the need for clarity. This step addresses both of these.

When writing an argumentative paper, craft a thesis statement with impact. Clearly articulate what your position is and the main points you intend to present. This will map out for the reader exactly what they'll get from reading the rest.

For empirical papers, focus on formulating precise research questions and hypotheses. Directly link them to the gaps or issues you've identified in existing research to show the reader the precise direction your research paper will take.

Step 5: Sketching the blueprint of your study

Continue building a roadmap for your readers by designing a structured outline for the paper. Guide the reader through your research journey, explaining what the different sections will contain and their relationship to one another.

This outline should flow seamlessly as you move from section to section. Creating this outline early can also help guide the creation of the paper itself, resulting in a final product that's better organized. In doing so, you'll craft a paper where each section flows intuitively from the next.

Step 6: Integrating your research question

To avoid letting your research question get lost in background information or clarifications, craft your introduction in such a way that the research question resonates throughout. The research question should clearly address a gap in existing knowledge or offer a new perspective on an existing problem.

Tell users your research question explicitly but also remember to frequently come back to it. When providing context or clarification, point out how it relates to the research question. This keeps your focus where it needs to be and prevents the topic of the paper from becoming under-emphasized.

Step 7: Establishing the scope and limitations

So far, we've talked mostly about what's in the paper and how to convey that information to readers. The opposite is also important. Information that's outside the scope of your paper should be made clear to the reader in the introduction so their expectations for what is to follow are set appropriately.

Similarly, be honest and upfront about the limitations of the study. Any constraints in methodology, data, or how far your findings can be generalized should be fully communicated in the introduction.

Step 8: Concluding the introduction with a promise

The final few lines of the introduction are your last chance to convince people to continue reading the rest of the paper. Here is where you should make it very clear what benefit they'll get from doing so. What topics will be covered? What questions will be answered? Make it clear what they will get for continuing.

By providing a quick recap of the key points contained in the introduction in its final lines and properly setting the stage for what follows in the rest of the paper, you refocus the reader's attention on the topic of your research and guide them to read more.

• Research paper introduction best practices

Following the steps above will give you a compelling introduction that hits on all the key points an introduction should have. Some more tips and tricks can make an introduction even more polished.

As you follow the steps above, keep the following tips in mind.

Set the right tone and style

Like every piece of writing, a research paper should be written for the audience. That is to say, it should match the tone and style that your academic discipline and target audience expect. This is typically a formal and academic tone, though the degree of formality varies by field.

Kno w the audience

The perfect introduction balances clarity with conciseness. The amount of clarification required for a given topic depends greatly on the target audience. Knowing who will be reading your paper will guide you in determining how much background information is required.

Adopt the CARS (create a research space) model

The CARS model is a helpful tool for structuring introductions. This structure has three parts. The beginning of the introduction establishes the general research area. Next, relevant literature is reviewed and critiqued. The final section outlines the purpose of your study as it relates to the previous parts.

Master the art of funneling

The CARS method is one example of a well-funneled introduction. These start broadly and then slowly narrow down to your specific research problem. It provides a nice narrative flow that provides the right information at the right time. If you stray from the CARS model, try to retain this same type of funneling.

Incorporate narrative element

People read research papers largely to be informed. But to inform the reader, you have to hold their attention. A narrative style, particularly in the introduction, is a great way to do that. This can be a compelling story, an intriguing question, or a description of a real-world problem.

Write the introduction last

By writing the introduction after the rest of the paper, you'll have a better idea of what your research entails and how the paper is structured. This prevents the common problem of writing something in the introduction and then forgetting to include it in the paper. It also means anything particularly exciting in the paper isn’t neglected in the intro.

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Ertugrul Portakal

Apr 12, 2024

Writing a Research Paper Introduction (with 3 Examples)

Nail your research paper's introduction! Learn to captivate and inform readers from the start—our guide shows how!

TABLE OF CONTENTS

A catchy and informative introduction is essential in academic writing, especially if you want your readers to have background information about your paper. However, writing an interesting and informative introduction can sometimes be a time-consuming and tiring process. If you don't know where to start when crafting an introduction, no need to worry - we've got you covered!

In this article, we will explain step by step what an introduction is in academic writing and how to write it!

Ready? Let's start!

• An introduction is a paragraph that provides information about your entire paper and aims to attract and inform the reader.
• Before writing an introduction or even starting your paper, you need to research academic sources.
• The first one or two sentences of an introduction paragraph should be a hook to attract the reader's attention.
• Afterwards, you need to prepare the reader for your argument by giving background information about your topic.
• Finally, you should state your argument about your topic with a thesis statement.
• If you are writing a longer paper, you can inform your readers about the map of your paper.
• If you are looking for an AI assistant to support you throughout your writing process, TextCortex is designed for you with its advanced features.

What is an Introduction in a research paper?

In any academic writing, including essays and research papers, an introduction is the first paragraph that the reader will encounter. This paragraph should both attract the reader's attention and give them the necessary information about the paper. In any academic paper, the introduction paragraph constitutes 10% of the paper's total word count. For example, if you are preparing a 3,000-word paper, your introduction paragraph should consist of approximately 300 words. You should also write sentences within these 300 words that will attract the reader's attention and provide them with information about the paper.

Importance of an Introduction Paragraph

The biggest function of an introduction paragraph is to prepare the reader for the author's thesis statement. A traditional introduction paragraph begins with a few sentences or questions that will catch the reader's attention. After attracting the reader's attention, necessary background information on the subject is given. Finally, the author explains to the readers what the whole paper is about by stating the thesis. A thesis statement is the final sentence that summarizes the main points of your paper and conveys your claim.

First Things First: Preliminary Research

When working on any academic writing type, it is essential to start by researching your topic thoroughly before beginning to type. What sets academic writing apart from other writing types is the requirement for it to be written using accurate information from reliable sources.

Researching academic sources can be a time-consuming and unnecessary process. One has to read through hundreds of pages, review dozens of articles and verify the accuracy of each source. However, if you're looking to reduce your workload and maximize efficiency by automating repetitive tasks such as literature review, ZenoChat is the perfect solution for you. With its web search feature, ZenoChat can use the entire internet as a data source. Additionally, by activating the "scholar" option of the ZenoChat web search feature, you can ensure that it only uses academic sources when generating output.

How to Create an Introduction for Academic Writing?

Creating an introduction paragraph that is interesting, informative, and conveys your thesis is an easier process than it seems. As long as you have sufficient information about your topic and an outline , you can write engaging introductions by following a few simple steps. Let's take a closer look at how to write an introduction for academic writing.

1-) Start with a Catchy Hook

Your first sentence is one of the factors that most influence a reader's decision to read your paper. This sentence determines the tone of your paper and attracts the reader's attention. For this reason, we recommend that you start your introduction paragraph with a strong and catchy hook sentence.

• Avoid long and complex sentences
• Use clear and concise sentences
• Write a sentence that will spark the reader's curiosity
• You can ask questions that will encourage the reader to read the remaining paragraph
• Avoid fact or overly broad sentences
• Avoid using dictionary definitions as your hook

2-) Give Background Information

After writing a strong hook sentence, you need to provide basic information about your topic so that the reader can understand what they will learn about when they read your paper. In this section, you can benefit from opinions that support or oppose your argument. Additionally, this section should refer to the body paragraphs of your writing.

• You can write a background information sentence for each body paragraph.
• The information here should be concise and compact
• Avoid talking about your evidence and results unless necessary.

3-) State Your Thesis 

After attracting the reader's attention and providing background information, it is time to present your approach and argument towards the topic with a thesis statement. A thesis statement usually comprises one or two sentences and communicates the paper's argument to the reader. A well-written thesis statement should express your stance on the topic.

• Avoid merely stating a fact
• Claim your argument

4-) Tell Reader About Your Paper

Although you need to move on to body paragraphs after the thesis statement in short papers, it will be useful to add a few sentences that will guide the reader in your longer papers. This way, your readers can better understand which arguments they will encounter on which pages and the course of your paper. That leads the reader to clearly understand and follow your content.

Let’s Wrap it Up

Writing an interesting and informative introduction is usually a long process that requires a lot of rewriting. You may need to rewrite a sentence dozens of times so that your words and sentences clearly describe your paper and argument. Fortunately, you can generate state-of-the-art introductions using AI tools and use them with a little editing.

When it comes to text generation, paraphrasing, and grammar & spelling checking, TextCortex is the way to go with its advanced LLMs and customization options. With TextCortex, you can generate all writing types, including introduction, from scratch, rewrite your existing texts, change their tone of voice, or fix their grammar. TextCortex is available as a web application and browser extension. The TextCortex browser extension is integrated with 30,000+ websites and apps. So, you can complete your AI-driven writing tasks anywhere and anytime.

Let's examine a few sample introductions generated by TextCortex.

Example Introduction #1

“Should social media platforms be banned from collecting their users' data?”

Example Introduction #2

“Do electric vehicles decrease overall emissions?”

Example Introduction #3

“Is graffiti an act of vandalism or the creation of art?”

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How to Write a Research Introduction

Last Updated: December 6, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Megan Morgan, PhD . Megan Morgan is a Graduate Program Academic Advisor in the School of Public & International Affairs at the University of Georgia. She earned her PhD in English from the University of Georgia in 2015. There are 7 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 2,656,769 times.

The introduction to a research paper can be the most challenging part of the paper to write. The length of the introduction will vary depending on the type of research paper you are writing. An introduction should announce your topic, provide context and a rationale for your work, before stating your research questions and hypothesis. Well-written introductions set the tone for the paper, catch the reader's interest, and communicate the hypothesis or thesis statement.

Introducing the Topic of the Paper

• In scientific papers this is sometimes known as an "inverted triangle", where you start with the broadest material at the start, before zooming in on the specifics. [2] X Research source
• The sentence "Throughout the 20th century, our views of life on other planets have drastically changed" introduces a topic, but does so in broad terms.
• It provides the reader with an indication of the content of the essay and encourages them to read on.

• For example, if you were writing a paper about the behaviour of mice when exposed to a particular substance, you would include the word "mice", and the scientific name of the relevant compound in the first sentences.
• If you were writing a history paper about the impact of the First World War on gender relations in Britain, you should mention those key words in your first few lines.

• This is especially important if you are attempting to develop a new conceptualization that uses language and terminology your readers may be unfamiliar with.

• If you use an anecdote ensure that is short and highly relevant for your research. It has to function in the same way as an alternative opening, namely to announce the topic of your research paper to your reader.
• For example, if you were writing a sociology paper about re-offending rates among young offenders, you could include a brief story of one person whose story reflects and introduces your topic.
• This kind of approach is generally not appropriate for the introduction to a natural or physical sciences research paper where the writing conventions are different.

Establishing the Context for Your Paper

• It is important to be concise in the introduction, so provide an overview on recent developments in the primary research rather than a lengthy discussion.
• You can follow the "inverted triangle" principle to focus in from the broader themes to those to which you are making a direct contribution with your paper.
• A strong literature review presents important background information to your own research and indicates the importance of the field.

• By making clear reference to existing work you can demonstrate explicitly the specific contribution you are making to move the field forward.
• You can identify a gap in the existing scholarship and explain how you are addressing it and moving understanding forward.

• For example, if you are writing a scientific paper you could stress the merits of the experimental approach or models you have used.
• Stress what is novel in your research and the significance of your new approach, but don't give too much detail in the introduction.
• A stated rationale could be something like: "the study evaluates the previously unknown anti-inflammatory effects of a topical compound in order to evaluate its potential clinical uses".

Specifying Your Research Questions and Hypothesis

• The research question or questions generally come towards the end of the introduction, and should be concise and closely focused.
• The research question might recall some of the key words established in the first few sentences and the title of your paper.
• An example of a research question could be "what were the consequences of the North American Free Trade Agreement on the Mexican export economy?"
• This could be honed further to be specific by referring to a particular element of the Free Trade Agreement and the impact on a particular industry in Mexico, such as clothing manufacture.
• A good research question should shape a problem into a testable hypothesis.

• If possible try to avoid using the word "hypothesis" and rather make this implicit in your writing. This can make your writing appear less formulaic.
• In a scientific paper, giving a clear one-sentence overview of your results and their relation to your hypothesis makes the information clear and accessible. [10] X Trustworthy Source PubMed Central Journal archive from the U.S. National Institutes of Health Go to source
• An example of a hypothesis could be "mice deprived of food for the duration of the study were expected to become more lethargic than those fed normally".

• This is not always necessary and you should pay attention to the writing conventions in your discipline.
• In a natural sciences paper, for example, there is a fairly rigid structure which you will be following.
• A humanities or social science paper will most likely present more opportunities to deviate in how you structure your paper.

Research Introduction Help

Community Q&A

• Use your research papers' outline to help you decide what information to include when writing an introduction. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 1
• Consider drafting your introduction after you have already completed the rest of your research paper. Writing introductions last can help ensure that you don't leave out any major points. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

• Avoid emotional or sensational introductions; these can create distrust in the reader. Thanks Helpful 51 Not Helpful 12
• Generally avoid using personal pronouns in your introduction, such as "I," "me," "we," "us," "my," "mine," or "our." Thanks Helpful 32 Not Helpful 7
• Don't overwhelm the reader with an over-abundance of information. Keep the introduction as concise as possible by saving specific details for the body of your paper. Thanks Helpful 25 Not Helpful 14

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185916
• ↑ https://www.aresearchguide.com/inverted-pyramid-structure-in-writing.html
• ↑ https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/introduction
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/PlanResearchPaper.html
• ↑ https://dept.writing.wisc.edu/wac/writing-an-introduction-for-a-scientific-paper/
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/planresearchpaper/
• ↑ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3178846/

About This Article

To introduce your research paper, use the first 1-2 sentences to describe your general topic, such as “women in World War I.” Include and define keywords, such as “gender relations,” to show your reader where you’re going. Mention previous research into the topic with a phrase like, “Others have studied…”, then transition into what your contribution will be and why it’s necessary. Finally, state the questions that your paper will address and propose your “answer” to them as your thesis statement. For more information from our English Ph.D. co-author about how to craft a strong hypothesis and thesis, keep reading! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Microsoft 365 Life Hacks > Writing > How to write an introduction for a research paper

How to write an introduction for a research paper

Beginnings are hard. Beginning a research paper is no exception. Many students—and pros—struggle with how to write an introduction for a research paper.

This short guide will describe the purpose of a research paper introduction and how to create a good one.

What is an introduction for a research paper?

Introductions to research papers do a lot of work.

It may seem obvious, but introductions are always placed at the beginning of a paper. They guide your reader from a general subject area to the narrow topic that your paper covers. They also explain your paper’s:

• Scope: The topic you’ll be covering
• Context: The background of your topic
• Importance: Why your research matters in the context of an industry or the world

Your introduction will cover a lot of ground. However, it will only be half of a page to a few pages long. The length depends on the size of your paper as a whole. In many cases, the introduction will be shorter than all of the other sections of your paper.

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Why is an introduction vital to a research paper?

The introduction to your research paper isn’t just important. It’s critical.

Your readers don’t know what your research paper is about from the title. That’s where your introduction comes in. A good introduction will:

• Help your reader understand your topic’s background
• Explain why your research paper is worth reading
• Offer a guide for navigating the rest of the piece
• Pique your reader’s interest

Without a clear introduction, your readers will struggle. They may feel confused when they start reading your paper. They might even give up entirely. Your introduction will ground them and prepare them for the in-depth research to come.

What should you include in an introduction for a research paper?

Research paper introductions are always unique. After all, research is original by definition. However, they often contain six essential items. These are:

• An overview of the topic. Start with a general overview of your topic. Narrow the overview until you address your paper’s specific subject. Then, mention questions or concerns you had about the case. Note that you will address them in the publication.
• Prior research. Your introduction is the place to review other conclusions on your topic. Include both older scholars and modern scholars. This background information shows that you are aware of prior research. It also introduces past findings to those who might not have that expertise.
• A rationale for your paper. Explain why your topic needs to be addressed right now. If applicable, connect it to current issues. Additionally, you can show a problem with former theories or reveal a gap in current research. No matter how you do it, a good rationale will interest your readers and demonstrate why they must read the rest of your paper.
• Describe the methodology you used. Recount your processes to make your paper more credible. Lay out your goal and the questions you will address. Reveal how you conducted research and describe how you measured results. Moreover, explain why you made key choices.
• A thesis statement. Your main introduction should end with a thesis statement. This statement summarizes the ideas that will run through your entire research article. It should be straightforward and clear.
• An outline. Introductions often conclude with an outline. Your layout should quickly review what you intend to cover in the following sections. Think of it as a roadmap, guiding your reader to the end of your paper.

These six items are emphasized more or less, depending on your field. For example, a physics research paper might emphasize methodology. An English journal article might highlight the overview.

Three tips for writing your introduction

We don’t just want you to learn how to write an introduction for a research paper. We want you to learn how to make it shine.

There are three things you can do that will make it easier to write a great introduction. You can:

• Write your introduction last. An introduction summarizes all of the things you’ve learned from your research. While it can feel good to get your preface done quickly, you should write the rest of your paper first. Then, you’ll find it easy to create a clear overview.
• Include a strong quotation or story upfront. You want your paper to be full of substance. But that doesn’t mean it should feel boring or flat. Add a relevant quotation or surprising anecdote to the beginning of your introduction. This technique will pique the interest of your reader and leave them wanting more.
• Be concise. Research papers cover complex topics. To help your readers, try to write as clearly as possible. Use concise sentences. Check for confusing grammar or syntax . Read your introduction out loud to catch awkward phrases. Before you finish your paper, be sure to proofread, too. Mistakes can seem unprofessional.

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Research Paper Introduction Examples

Looking for research paper introduction examples? Quotes, anecdotes, questions, examples, and broad statements—all of them can be used successfully to write an introduction for a research paper. It’s instructive to see them in action, in the hands of skilled academic writers.

Let’s begin with David M. Kennedy’s superb history, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 . Kennedy begins each chapter with a quote, followed by his text. The quote above chapter 1 shows President Hoover speaking in 1928 about America’s golden future. The text below it begins with the stock market collapse of 1929. It is a riveting account of just how wrong Hoover was. The text about the Depression is stronger because it contrasts so starkly with the optimistic quotation.

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“We in America today are nearer the final triumph over poverty than ever before in the history of any land.”—Herbert Hoover, August 11, 1928 Like an earthquake, the stock market crash of October 1929 cracked startlingly across the United States, the herald of a crisis that was to shake the American way of life to its foundations. The events of the ensuing decade opened a fissure across the landscape of American history no less gaping than that opened by the volley on Lexington Common in April 1775 or by the bombardment of Sumter on another April four score and six years later. (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); The ratcheting ticker machines in the autumn of 1929 did not merely record avalanching stock prices. In time they came also to symbolize the end of an era. (David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 . New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 10)

Kennedy has exciting, wrenching material to work with. John Mueller faces the exact opposite problem. In Retreat from Doomsday: The Obsolescence of Major War , he is trying to explain why Great Powers have suddenly stopped fighting each other. For centuries they made war on each other with devastating regularity, killing millions in the process. But now, Mueller thinks, they have not just paused; they have stopped permanently. He is literally trying to explain why “nothing is happening now.” That may be an exciting topic intellectually, it may have great practical significance, but “nothing happened” is not a very promising subject for an exciting opening paragraph. Mueller manages to make it exciting and, at the same time, shows why it matters so much. Here’s his opening, aptly entitled “History’s Greatest Nonevent”:

On May 15, 1984, the major countries of the developed world had managed to remain at peace with each other for the longest continuous stretch of time since the days of the Roman Empire. If a significant battle in a war had been fought on that day, the press would have bristled with it. As usual, however, a landmark crossing in the history of peace caused no stir: the most prominent story in the New York Times that day concerned the saga of a manicurist, a machinist, and a cleaning woman who had just won a big Lotto contest. This book seeks to develop an explanation for what is probably the greatest nonevent in human history. (John Mueller, Retreat from Doomsday: The Obsolescence of Major War . New York: Basic Books, 1989, p. 3)

In the space of a few sentences, Mueller sets up his puzzle and reveals its profound human significance. At the same time, he shows just how easy it is to miss this milestone in the buzz of daily events. Notice how concretely he does that. He doesn’t just say that the New York Times ignored this record setting peace. He offers telling details about what they covered instead: “a manicurist, a machinist, and a cleaning woman who had just won a big Lotto contest.” Likewise, David Kennedy immediately entangles us in concrete events: the stunning stock market crash of 1929. These are powerful openings that capture readers’ interests, establish puzzles, and launch narratives.

Sociologist James Coleman begins in a completely different way, by posing the basic questions he will study. His ambitious book, Foundations of Social Theory , develops a comprehensive theory of social life, so it is entirely appropriate for him to begin with some major questions. But he could just as easily have begun with a compelling story or anecdote. He includes many of them elsewhere in his book. His choice for the opening, though, is to state his major themes plainly and frame them as a paradox. Sociologists, he says, are interested in aggregate behavior—how people act in groups, organizations, or large numbers—yet they mostly examine individuals:

A central problem in social science is that of accounting for the function of some kind of social system. Yet in most social research, observations are not made on the system as a whole, but on some part of it. In fact, the natural unit of observation is the individual person…  This has led to a widening gap between theory and research… (James S. Coleman, Foundations of Social Theory . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990, pp. 1–2)

After expanding on this point, Coleman explains that he will not try to remedy the problem by looking solely at groups or aggregate-level data. That’s a false solution, he says, because aggregates don’t act; individuals do. So the real problem is to show the links between individual actions and aggregate outcomes, between the micro and the macro.

The major problem for explanations of system behavior based on actions and orientations at a level below that of the system [in this case, on individual-level actions] is that of moving from the lower level to the system level. This has been called the micro-to-macro problem, and it is pervasive throughout the social sciences. (Coleman, Foundations of Social Theory , p. 6)

Explaining how to deal with this “micro-to-macro problem” is the central issue of Coleman’s book, and he announces it at the beginning.

Coleman’s theory-driven opening stands at the opposite end of the spectrum from engaging stories or anecdotes, which are designed to lure the reader into the narrative and ease the path to a more analytic treatment later in the text. Take, for example, the opening sentences of Robert L. Herbert’s sweeping study Impressionism: Art, Leisure, and Parisian Society : “When Henry Tuckerman came to Paris in 1867, one of the thousands of Americans attracted there by the huge international exposition, he was bowled over by the extraordinary changes since his previous visit twenty years before.” (Robert L. Herbert, Impressionism: Art, Leisure, and Parisian Society . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988, p. 1.) Herbert fills in the evocative details to set the stage for his analysis of the emerging Impressionist art movement and its connection to Parisian society and leisure in this period.

David Bromwich writes about Wordsworth, a poet so familiar to students of English literature that it is hard to see him afresh, before his great achievements, when he was just a young outsider starting to write. To draw us into Wordsworth’s early work, Bromwich wants us to set aside our entrenched images of the famous mature poet and see him as he was in the 1790s, as a beginning writer on the margins of society. He accomplishes this ambitious task in the opening sentences of Disowned by Memory: Wordsworth’s Poetry of the 1790s :

Wordsworth turned to poetry after the revolution to remind himself that he was still a human being. It was a curious solution, to a difficulty many would not have felt. The whole interest of his predicament is that he did feel it. Yet Wordsworth is now so established an eminence—his name so firmly fixed with readers as a moralist of self-trust emanating from complete self-security—that it may seem perverse to imagine him as a criminal seeking expiation. Still, that is a picture we get from The Borderers and, at a longer distance, from “Tintern Abbey.” (David Bromwich, Disowned by Memory: Wordsworth’s Poetry of the 1790s . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998, p. 1)

That’s a wonderful opening! Look at how much Bromwich accomplishes in just a few words. He not only prepares the way for analyzing Wordsworth’s early poetry; he juxtaposes the anguished young man who wrote it to the self-confident, distinguished figure he became—the eminent man we can’t help remembering as we read his early poetry.

Let us highlight a couple of other points in this passage because they illustrate some intelligent writing choices. First, look at the odd comma in this sentence: “It was a curious solution, to a difficulty many would not have felt.” Any standard grammar book would say that comma is wrong and should be omitted. Why did Bromwich insert it? Because he’s a fine writer, thinking of his sentence rhythm and the point he wants to make. The comma does exactly what it should. It makes us pause, breaking the sentence into two parts, each with an interesting point. One is that Wordsworth felt a difficulty others would not have; the other is that he solved it in a distinctive way. It would be easy for readers to glide over this double message, so Bromwich has inserted a speed bump to slow us down. Most of the time, you should follow grammatical rules, like those about commas, but you should bend them when it serves a good purpose. That’s what the writer does here.

The second small point is the phrase “after the revolution” in the first sentence: “Wordsworth turned to poetry after the revolution to remind himself that he was still a human being.” Why doesn’t Bromwich say “after the French Revolution”? Because he has judged his book’s audience. He is writing for specialists who already know which revolution is reverberating through English life in the 1790s. It is the French Revolution, not the earlier loss of the American colonies. If Bromwich were writing for a much broader audience—say, the New York Times Book Review—he would probably insert the extra word to avoid confusion.

The message “Know your audience” applies to all writers. Don’t talk down to them by assuming they can’t get dressed in the morning. Don’t strut around showing off your book learnin’ by tossing in arcane facts and esoteric language for its own sake. Neither will win over readers.

Bromwich, Herbert, and Coleman open their works in different ways, but their choices work well for their different texts. Your task is to decide what kind of opening will work best for yours. Don’t let that happen by default, by grabbing the first idea you happen upon. Consider a couple of different ways of opening your thesis and then choose the one you prefer. Give yourself some options, think them over, then make an informed choice.

Using the Introduction to Map out Your Writing

Whether you begin with a story, puzzle, or broad statement, the next part of the research paper introduction should pose your main questions and establish your argument. This is your thesis statement—your viewpoint along with the supporting reasons and evidence. It should be articulated plainly so readers understand full well what your paper is about and what it will argue.

After that, give your readers a road map of what’s to come. That’s normally done at the end of the introductory section (or, in a book, at the end of the introductory chapter). Here’s John J. Mearsheimer presenting such a road map in The Tragedy of Great Power Politics . He not only tells us the order of upcoming chapters, he explains why he’s chosen that order and which chapters are most important:

The Plan of the Book The rest of the chapters in this book are concerned mainly with answering the six big questions about power which I identified earlier. Chapter 2, which is probably the most important chapter in the book, lays out my theory of why states compete for power and why they pursue hegemony. In Chapters 3 and 4, I define power and explain how to measure it. I do this in order to lay the groundwork for testing my theory… (John J. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics . New York: W. W. Norton, 2001, p. 27)

As this excerpt makes clear, Mearsheimer has already laid out his “six big questions” in the research paper introduction. Now he’s showing us the path ahead, the path to answering those questions.

At the end of the research paper introduction, give your readers a road map of what’s to come. Tell them what the upcoming sections will be and why they are arranged in this particular order.

Learn how to write an introduction for a research paper .

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Starting Your Research Paper: Writing an Introductory Paragraph

• Choosing Your Topic
• Define Keywords
• Planning Your Paper
• Writing an Introductory Paragraph

The Dreaded Introductory Paragraph

Writing the introductory paragraph can be a frustrating and slow process -- but it doesn't have to be.  If you planned your paper out, then most of the introductory paragraph is already written.  Now you just need a beginning and an end.

Here's an introductory paragraph for a paper I wrote.  I started the paper with a factoid, then presented each main point of my paper and then ended with my thesis statement.

  Breakdown:

• << Previous: Planning Your Paper
• Last Updated: Feb 12, 2024 12:16 PM
• URL: https://libguides.astate.edu/papers

How to Write an APA Research Paper

Psychology/neuroscience 201, v iew in pdf format.

An APA-style paper includes the following sections: title page, abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, and references. Your paper may also include one or more tables and/or figures. Different types of information about your study are addressed in each of the sections, as described below.

General formatting rules are as follows:

Do not put page breaks in between the introduction, method, results, and discussion sections.

The title page, abstract, references, table(s), and figure(s) should be on their own pages. The entire paper should be written in the past tense, in a 12-point font, double-spaced, and with one-inch margins all around.

(see sample on p. 41 of APA manual)

• Title should be between 10-12 words and should reflect content of paper (e.g., IV and DV).
• Title, your name, and Hamilton College are all double-spaced (no extra spaces)
• Create a page header using the “View header” function in MS Word. On the title page, the header should include the following: Flush left: Running head: THE RUNNING HEAD SHOULD BE IN ALL CAPITAL LETTERS. The running head is a short title that appears at the top of pages of published articles. It should not exceed 50 characters, including punctuation and spacing. (Note: on the title page, you actually write the words “Running head,” but these words do not appear on subsequent pages; just the actual running head does. If you make a section break between the title page and the rest of the paper you can make the header different for those two parts of the manuscript). Flush right, on same line: page number. Use the toolbox to insert a page number, so it will automatically number each page.

Abstract (labeled, centered, not bold)

No more than 120 words, one paragraph, block format (i.e., don’t indent), double-spaced.

• State topic, preferably in one sentence. Provide overview of method, results, and discussion.

Introduction

(Do not label as “Introduction.” Title of paper goes at the top of the page—not bold)

The introduction of an APA-style paper is the most difficult to write. A good introduction will summarize, integrate, and critically evaluate the empirical knowledge in the relevant area(s) in a way that sets the stage for your study and why you conducted it. The introduction starts out broad (but not too broad!) and gets more focused toward the end. Here are some guidelines for constructing a good introduction:

• Don’t put your readers to sleep by beginning your paper with the time-worn sentence, “Past research has shown (blah blah blah)” They’ll be snoring within a paragraph!  Try to draw your reader in by saying something interesting or thought-provoking right off the bat.  Take a look at articles you’ve read. Which ones captured your attention right away? How did the authors accomplish this task? Which ones didn’t?  Why not?  See if you can use articles you liked as a model. One way to begin (but not the only way) is to provide an example or anecdote illustrative of your topic area.
• Although you won’t go into the details of your study and hypotheses until the end of the intro, you should foreshadow your study a bit at the end of the first paragraph by stating your purpose briefly, to give your reader a schema for all the information you will present next.
• Your intro should be a logical flow of ideas that leads up to your hypothesis. Try to organize it in terms of the ideas rather than who did what when. In other words, your intro shouldn’t read like a story of “Schmirdley did such-and-such in 1991. Then Gurglehoff did something-or-other in 1993.  Then....(etc.)” First, brainstorm all of the ideas you think are necessary to include in your paper. Next, decide which ideas make sense to present first, second, third, and so forth, and think about how you want to transition between ideas. When an idea is complex, don’t be afraid to use a real-life example to clarify it for your reader. The introduction will end with a brief overview of your study and, finally, your specific hypotheses. The hypotheses should flow logically out of everything that’s been presented, so that the reader has the sense of, “Of course. This hypothesis makes complete sense, given all the other research that was presented.”
• When incorporating references into your intro, you do not necessarily need to describe every single study in complete detail, particularly if different studies use similar methodologies. Certainly you want to summarize briefly key articles, though, and point out differences in methods or findings of relevant studies when necessary. Don’t make one mistake typical of a novice APA-paper writer by stating overtly why you’re including a particular article (e.g., “This article is relevant to my study because…”). It should be obvious to the reader why you’re including a reference without your explicitly saying so.  DO NOT quote from the articles, instead paraphrase by putting the information in your own words.
• Be careful about citing your sources (see APA manual). Make sure there is a one-to-one correspondence between the articles you’ve cited in your intro and the articles listed in your reference section.
• Remember that your audience is the broader scientific community, not the other students in your class or your professor.  Therefore, you should assume they have a basic understanding of psychology, but you need to provide them with the complete information necessary for them to understand the research you are presenting.

Method (labeled, centered, bold)

The Method section of an APA-style paper is the most straightforward to write, but requires precision. Your goal is to describe the details of your study in such a way that another researcher could duplicate your methods exactly.

The Method section typically includes Participants, Materials and/or Apparatus, and Procedure sections. If the design is particularly complicated (multiple IVs in a factorial experiment, for example), you might also include a separate Design subsection or have a “Design and Procedure” section.

Note that in some studies (e.g., questionnaire studies in which there are many measures to describe but the procedure is brief), it may be more useful to present the Procedure section prior to the Materials section rather than after it.

Participants (labeled, flush left, bold)

Total number of participants (# women, # men), age range, mean and SD for age, racial/ethnic composition (if applicable), population type (e.g., college students). Remember to write numbers out when they begin a sentence.

• How were the participants recruited? (Don’t say “randomly” if it wasn’t random!) Were they compensated for their time in any way? (e.g., money, extra credit points)
• Write for a broad audience. Thus, do not write, “Students in Psych. 280...” Rather, write (for instance), “Students in a psychological statistics and research methods course at a small liberal arts college….”
• Try to avoid short, choppy sentences. Combine information into a longer sentence when possible.

Materials (labeled, flush left, bold)

Carefully describe any stimuli, questionnaires, and so forth. It is unnecessary to mention things such as the paper and pencil used to record the responses, the data recording sheet, the computer that ran the data analysis, the color of the computer, and so forth.

• If you included a questionnaire, you should describe it in detail. For instance, note how many items were on the questionnaire, what the response format was (e.g., a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree)), how many items were reverse-scored, whether the measure had subscales, and so forth. Provide a sample item or two for your reader.
• If you have created a new instrument, you should attach it as an Appendix.
• If you presented participants with various word lists to remember or stimuli to judge, you should describe those in detail here. Use subheadings to separate different types of stimuli if needed.  If you are only describing questionnaires, you may call this section “Measures.”

Apparatus (labeled, flush left, bold)

Include an apparatus section if you used specialized equipment for your study (e.g., the eye tracking machine) and need to describe it in detail.

Procedure (labeled, flush left, bold)

What did participants do, and in what order? When you list a control variable (e.g., “Participants all sat two feet from the experimenter.”), explain WHY you did what you did.  In other words, what nuisance variable were you controlling for? Your procedure should be as brief and concise as possible. Read through it. Did you repeat yourself anywhere? If so, how can you rearrange things to avoid redundancy? You may either write the instructions to the participants verbatim or paraphrase, whichever you deem more appropriate. Don’t forget to include brief statements about informed consent and debriefing.

Results (labeled, centered, bold)

In this section, describe how you analyzed the data and what you found. If your data analyses were complex, feel free to break this section down into labeled subsections, perhaps one section for each hypothesis.

• Include a section for descriptive statistics
• List what type of analysis or test you conducted to test each hypothesis.
• Refer to your Statistics textbook for the proper way to report results in APA style. A t-test, for example, is reported in the following format: t (18) = 3.57, p < .001, where 18 is the number of degrees of freedom (N – 2 for an independent-groups t test). For a correlation: r (32) = -.52, p < .001, where 32 is the number of degrees of freedom (N – 2 for a correlation). For a one-way ANOVA: F (2, 18) = 7.00, p < .001, where 2 represents the between and 18 represents df within Remember that if a finding has a p value greater than .05, it is “nonsignificant,” not “insignificant.” For nonsignificant findings, still provide the exact p values. For correlations, be sure to report the r 2 value as an assessment of the strength of the finding, to show what proportion of variability is shared by the two variables you’re correlating. For t- tests and ANOVAs, report eta 2 .
• Report exact p values to two or three decimal places (e.g., p = .042; see p. 114 of APA manual).  However, for p-values less than .001, simply put p < .001.
• Following the presentation of all the statistics and numbers, be sure to state the nature of your finding(s) in words and whether or not they support your hypothesis (e.g., “As predicted …”). This information can typically be presented in a sentence or two following the numbers (within the same paragraph). Also, be sure to include the relevant means and SDs.
• It may be useful to include a table or figure to represent your results visually. Be sure to refer to these in your paper (e.g., “As illustrated in Figure 1…”). Remember that you may present a set of findings either as a table or as a figure, but not as both. Make sure that your text is not redundant with your tables/figures. For instance, if you present a table of means and standard deviations, you do not need to also report these in the text. However, if you use a figure to represent your results, you may wish to report means and standard deviations in the text, as these may not always be precisely ascertained by examining the figure. Do describe the trends shown in the figure.
• Do not spend any time interpreting or explaining the results; save that for the Discussion section.

Discussion (labeled, centered, bold)

The goal of the discussion section is to interpret your findings and place them in the broader context of the literature in the area. A discussion section is like the reverse of the introduction, in that you begin with the specifics and work toward the more general (funnel out). Some points to consider:

• Begin with a brief restatement of your main findings (using words, not numbers). Did they support the hypothesis or not? If not, why not, do you think? Were there any surprising or interesting findings? How do your findings tie into the existing literature on the topic, or extend previous research? What do the results say about the broader behavior under investigation? Bring back some of the literature you discussed in the Introduction, and show how your results fit in (or don’t fit in, as the case may be). If you have surprising findings, you might discuss other theories that can help to explain the findings. Begin with the assumption that your results are valid, and explain why they might differ from others in the literature.
• What are the limitations of the study? If your findings differ from those of other researchers, or if you did not get statistically significant results, don’t spend pages and pages detailing what might have gone wrong with your study, but do provide one or two suggestions. Perhaps these could be incorporated into the future research section, below.
• What additional questions were generated from this study? What further research should be conducted on the topic? What gaps are there in the current body of research? Whenever you present an idea for a future research study, be sure to explain why you think that particular study should be conducted. What new knowledge would be gained from it?  Don’t just say, “I think it would be interesting to re-run the study on a different college campus” or “It would be better to run the study again with more participants.” Really put some thought into what extensions of the research might be interesting/informative, and why.
• What are the theoretical and/or practical implications of your findings? How do these results relate to larger issues of human thoughts, feelings, and behavior? Give your readers “the big picture.” Try to answer the question, “So what?

Final paragraph: Be sure to sum up your paper with a final concluding statement. Don’t just trail off with an idea for a future study. End on a positive note by reminding your reader why your study was important and what it added to the literature.

References (labeled, centered, not bold)

Provide an alphabetical listing of the references (alphabetize by last name of first author). Double-space all, with no extra spaces between references. The second line of each reference should be indented (this is called a hanging indent and is easily accomplished using the ruler in Microsoft Word). See the APA manual for how to format references correctly.

Examples of references to journal articles start on p. 198 of the manual, and examples of references to books and book chapters start on pp. 202. Digital object identifiers (DOIs) are now included for electronic sources (see pp. 187-192 of APA manual to learn more).

Journal article example: [Note that only the first letter of the first word of the article title is capitalized; the journal name and volume are italicized. If the journal name had multiple words, each of the major words would be capitalized.] 

Ebner-Priemer, U. W., & Trull, T. J. (2009). Ecological momentary assessment of mood disorders and mood dysregulation. Psychological Assessment, 21, 463-475. doi:10.1037/a0017075

Book chapter example: [Note that only the first letter of the first word of both the chapter title and book title are capitalized.]

Stephan, W. G. (1985). Intergroup relations. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (3 rd ed., Vol. 2, pp. 599-658). New York: Random House.

Book example: Gray, P. (2010). Psychology (6 th ed.). New York: Worth

Table There are various formats for tables, depending upon the information you wish to include. See the APA manual. Be sure to provide a table number and table title (the latter is italicized). Tables can be single or double-spaced.

Figure If you have more than one figure, each one gets its own page. Use a sans serif font, such as Helvetica, for any text within your figure. Be sure to label your x- and y-axes clearly, and make sure you’ve noted the units of measurement of the DV. Underneath the figure provide a label and brief caption (e.g., “Figure 1. Mean evaluation of job applicant qualifications as a function of applicant attractiveness level”). The figure caption typically includes the IVs/predictor variables and the DV. Include error bars in your bar graphs, and note what the bars represent in the figure caption: Error bars represent one standard error above and below the mean.

In-Text Citations: (see pp. 174-179 of APA manual) When citing sources in your paper, you need to include the authors’ names and publication date.

You should use the following formats:

• When including the citation as part of the sentence, use AND: “According to Jones and Smith (2003), the…”
• When the citation appears in parentheses, use “&”: “Studies have shown that priming can affect actual motor behavior (Jones & Smith, 2003; Klein, Bailey, & Hammer, 1999).” The studies appearing in parentheses should be ordered alphabetically by the first author’s last name, and should be separated by semicolons.
• If you are quoting directly (which you should avoid), you also need to include the page number.
• For sources with three or more authors, once you have listed all the authors’ names, you may write “et al.” on subsequent mentions. For example: “Klein et al. (1999) found that….” For sources with two authors, both authors must be included every time the source is cited. When a source has six or more authors, the first author’s last name and “et al.” are used every time the source is cited (including the first time). 

Secondary Sources

“Secondary source” is the term used to describe material that is cited in another source. If in his article entitled “Behavioral Study of Obedience” (1963), Stanley Milgram makes reference to the ideas of Snow (presented above), Snow (1961) is the primary source, and Milgram (1963) is the secondary source.

Try to avoid using secondary sources in your papers; in other words, try to find the primary source and read it before citing it in your own work. If you must use a secondary source, however, you should cite it in the following way:

Snow (as cited in Milgram, 1963) argued that, historically, the cause of most criminal acts... The reference for the Milgram article (but not the Snow reference) should then appear in the reference list at the end of your paper.

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Writing a scientific paper.

• Writing a lab report

What is a "good" introduction?

Citing sources in the introduction, "introduction checklist" from: how to write a good scientific paper. chris a. mack. spie. 2018..

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This is where you describe briefly and clearly why you are writing the paper. The introduction supplies sufficient background information for the reader to understand and evaluate the experiment you did. It also supplies a rationale for the study.

• Present the problem and the proposed solution
• Presents nature and scope of the problem investigated
• Reviews the pertinent literature to orient the reader
• States the method of the experiment
• State the principle results of the experiment

It is important to cite sources in the introduction section of your paper as evidence of the claims you are making. There are ways of citing sources in the text so that the reader can find the full reference in the literature cited section at the end of the paper, yet the flow of the reading is not badly interrupted. Below are some example of how this can be done:     "Smith (1983) found that N-fixing plants could be infected by several different species of Rhizobium."     "Walnut trees are known to be allelopathic (Smith 1949,  Bond et al. 1955, Jones and Green 1963)."     "Although the presence of Rhizobium normally increases the growth of legumes (Nguyen 1987), the opposite effect has been observed (Washington 1999)." Note that articles by one or two authors are always cited in the text using their last names. However, if there are more than two authors, the last name of the 1st author is given followed by the abbreviation et al. which is Latin for "and others". 

From:  https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/guides/imrad-reports-introductions

• Indicate the field of the work, why this field is important, and what has already been done (with proper citations).
• Indicate a gap, raise a research question, or challenge prior work in this territory.
• Outline the purpose and announce the present research, clearly indicating what is novel and why it is significant.
• Avoid: repeating the abstract; providing unnecessary background information; exaggerating the importance of the work; claiming novelty without a proper literature search. 
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How to Start a Research Paper: A Comprehensive Guide

Starting a research paper can feel overwhelming, especially if you're new to the process. This guide will walk you through each step, from picking a topic to polishing your final draft. By breaking down the process into manageable parts, you'll find it easier to stay organized and focused. Let's dive in and make your research paper a success!

Key Takeaways

• Choose a topic that interests you and has enough resources available.
• Formulate a clear research question to guide your study.
• Conduct a thorough literature review to understand existing research.
• Develop a detailed research plan, including methodology and timeline.
• Ensure proper citation to maintain academic integrity.

Choosing a Research Topic

Choosing a research topic is a crucial first step in writing a research paper. It sets the foundation for your entire project . Here are some key steps to help you choose the right topic.

Formulating a Research Question

Understanding the Importance of a Research Question

A well-defined research question is the cornerstone of any successful research paper. It acts as a compass, guiding your study and ensuring that you stay on track. Without a clear research question, your paper may lack focus and coherence. This question helps you narrow down your topic and provides a clear direction for your research.

Techniques for Crafting a Strong Research Question

To craft a strong research question, start by identifying a specific issue or problem within your topic. Use the following steps:

• Identify a gap in the existing literature or a problem that needs solving.
• Make sure your question is clear and concise, avoiding vague terms.
• Ensure that your question is researchable within the scope of your resources and time.
• Align your question with your research objectives to maintain focus.

Aligning the Research Question with Objectives

Your research question should align closely with your research objectives. This alignment ensures that every part of your study is interconnected and supports your overall goals. A well-aligned research question not only clarifies your study's purpose but also helps in structuring your paper effectively.

Conducting a Literature Review

Gathering relevant sources.

Start by collecting sources that are related to your research topic. Use libraries, online databases, and academic journals to find books, articles, and papers. Skimming sources instead of reading each one fully can save you time. If a source seems useful, set it aside for a more in-depth read later.

Analyzing Existing Research

Once you have gathered your sources, read through them and take notes on key points. Pay attention to different viewpoints and how they relate to your research question. This will help you understand the current state of research in your field. To elevate your essay , start with a comprehensive literature review to ground your work in relevant scholarship.

Identifying Research Gaps

Look for areas that haven't been explored or questions that haven't been answered in the existing research. These gaps can provide a direction for your own research and make your thesis more valuable. Defining your research question and following a methodical process to synthesize findings is crucial. This step is essential in the steps in the literature review process .

Developing a Research Plan

Creating a solid research plan is crucial for the success of your thesis. It helps you stay organized and ensures that you cover all necessary aspects of your research.

Writing the Thesis Introduction

Starting your thesis introduction can be daunting, but it's crucial for setting the stage for your research. Establishing the context for your study helps readers understand the background and significance of your work. This section should provide a clear overview of what your thesis will cover, making it easier for readers to follow your arguments.

Establishing Context

Begin by providing some background information on your topic. This helps to set the stage and gives your readers a sense of what to expect. Make sure to include relevant literature and previous studies to show how your research fits into the existing body of work. This is essential for demonstrating the importance of your research .

Crafting a Thesis Statement

Your thesis statement is the heart of your introduction. Typically, it is placed at the end of the introductory paragraph. This statement should succinctly present the main argument or focus of your thesis, guiding the reader on what to expect. A clear and concise thesis statement is crucial for a strong introduction.

Providing an Overview of the Study

Finally, outline the structure of your thesis. This roadmap will help readers navigate through your work, knowing what each section will address. By clearly presenting the layout, you reduce thesis anxiety and make your research more accessible.

Choosing a Research Methodology

Choosing the right research methodology is crucial for the success of your study. It determines how you will collect and analyze data, and ultimately, how you will answer your research question. Here are some key points to consider when selecting a methodology.

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Methods

First, decide whether your research will be qualitative, quantitative, or a mix of both. Qualitative research focuses on understanding concepts, thoughts, or experiences. It often involves interviews, focus groups, or content analysis. On the other hand, quantitative research aims to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or data that can be transformed into usable statistics. This often involves surveys, experiments, or secondary data analysis.

Selecting Data Collection Tools

Once you've chosen between qualitative and quantitative methods, the next step is to select the appropriate data collection tools. For qualitative research, you might use interviews, focus groups, or observational methods. For quantitative research, consider surveys, experiments, or existing datasets. The choice of tools should align with your research objectives and the type of data you need to collect.

Justifying Methodological Choices

Finally, it's essential to justify your methodological choices. Explain why the selected methods are suitable for your research and how they will help you achieve your objectives. This step is crucial for gaining approval from stakeholders and ensuring the success of your project. Make sure to address any potential limitations and how you plan to mitigate them.

Organizing Research Materials

Creating a categorization system.

To start, you need a system to categorize your research materials. This can be as simple as using folders on your computer or as advanced as specialized software. Organizing your notes into categories helps you find information quickly. You can use sticky notes or a mind map to group related ideas. This step is crucial for keeping your research structured and accessible.

Using Reference Management Software

Using reference management software like Zotero or Mendeley can save you a lot of time. These tools help you keep track of your sources and format citations correctly. They also allow you to create a library of references that you can easily search through. This is especially useful when you need to cite sources in your paper.

Synthesizing Information

Synthesizing information means combining ideas from different sources to create a comprehensive understanding of your topic. Look for common themes, debates, and gaps in the literature. This will help you formulate a strong research question and provide a solid foundation for your thesis. Summarizing and integrating findings from various sources will make your research more robust and credible.

Drafting the Research Paper

Writing the First Draft

Once your outline is ready, it's time to start writing your first draft. This is the longest step, but if you've prepared well, it should go smoothly. Begin with your thesis statement and then fill out the introduction with secondary information. The body of your paper will contain the bulk of your research, divided into sections with headers for easy navigation. Don't worry about perfection at this stage ; focus on getting your ideas down .

Incorporating Feedback

After completing your first draft, seek feedback from your supervisor and peers . Their insights can help you see your work from different perspectives and identify areas for improvement. Revising is a continuous process of re-seeing your writing, considering larger issues like focus, organization, and audience.

Polishing the Final Draft

Finally, polish your final draft. Pay attention to grammar, punctuation, and formatting. Ensure that your thesis is clear, concise, and free of errors. This step is crucial for making a strong impression and effectively communicating your research findings.

Maintaining Academic Integrity

Proper citation practices.

Proper citation is essential to uphold academic integrity. Always give credit to the original authors of the sources you use. This not only helps you avoid plagiarism but also strengthens your arguments by backing them up with credible sources. Citing your sources correctly is a fundamental aspect of academic writing.

Avoiding Plagiarism

Plagiarism is a serious offense in the academic world. It involves using someone else's work without giving them credit. To avoid plagiarism, make sure to paraphrase correctly and use quotation marks when directly quoting someone. Utilize plagiarism detection tools to ensure your work is original.

Ensuring Credibility of Sources

Using credible sources is crucial for the integrity of your research. Evaluate the reliability of your sources by checking the author's credentials and the publication's reputation. Credible sources add weight to your arguments and help you build a strong foundation for your research.

Effective Data Collection and Analysis

Choosing data collection methods.

Selecting the right data collection methods is crucial for the success of your research. Consider methods such as surveys, interviews, or experiments based on your research needs. Aligning data collection techniques with research needs ensures relevant and robust findings.

Analyzing Collected Data

Once you have gathered your data, the next step is to analyze it accurately . Use statistical tools and software to help you interpret the data. Create tables and graphs to illustrate your findings clearly. This will help you present your results in a structured and understandable way.

Interpreting Results

Interpreting your results is an essential part of your thesis. Discuss how your findings relate to your research questions and the existing literature. Highlight the significance of your analyses and the reliability of your findings. This will help you draw meaningful conclusions and provide valuable insights into your research topic.

Revising and Editing the Research Paper

Reviewing for clarity and coherence.

When revising your research paper, focus on ensuring that your ideas are clear and logically organized. Each section should flow smoothly into the next, and your arguments should be well-structured. Reading your paper out loud can help you catch issues that you might miss when reading silently. Additionally, consider having someone else review your paper to provide a fresh perspective.

Addressing Feedback

Incorporating feedback is a crucial part of the revision process. Share your draft with peers, mentors, or advisors and be open to their suggestions. Addressing feedback can help you identify areas for improvement and strengthen your arguments. Remember, revising is a continuous process of refining your work.

Final Proofreading

The final step in the editing process is proofreading. This involves checking for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors. Use tools like spellcheckers or digital writing assistants to help with this task. Ensure that your paper follows the required formatting guidelines and that all citations are correctly formatted. A well-proofread paper enhances the credibility of your research.

Revising and editing your research paper can be a daunting task, but it doesn't have to be. Our step-by-step guides make the process simple and stress-free. Whether you're stuck on where to start or need help polishing your final draft, we've got you covered. Visit our website to discover how our resources can help you achieve academic success.

Starting a research paper might seem overwhelming, but breaking it down into manageable steps can make the process much easier. From selecting a topic that interests you to organizing your research and drafting your paper, each step is crucial for success. Remember to stay focused on your research question, use reliable sources, and keep your writing clear and concise. By following these guidelines, you'll be well on your way to crafting a compelling and informative research paper. Good luck, and don't hesitate to seek help if you need it!

Frequently Asked Questions

How do i choose a research topic.

Start by thinking about what interests you. Pick a topic that you find fun and fulfilling. This will keep you motivated throughout your research. Make a list of subjects you enjoy and see how they can relate to your field of study.

Why is a research question important?

A research question guides your study and keeps you focused. It helps you set specific goals and determine the direction of your research.

What is a literature review?

A literature review involves gathering and analyzing existing research on your topic. It helps you understand what has already been studied and identify gaps that your research can fill.

How do I create a research plan?

Start by outlining your methodology, creating a timeline, and allocating resources effectively. A solid plan helps you stay organized and ensures you cover all necessary aspects of your research.

What should be included in a thesis introduction?

Your introduction should establish the context for your study, present your thesis statement, and provide an overview of what your thesis will cover.

How do I choose the right research methodology?

Decide whether to use qualitative or quantitative methods, select appropriate data collection tools, and justify your choices based on your research goals.

What are proper citation practices?

Always give credit to the original authors of the sources you use. Use a consistent citation style and ensure all sources are properly cited to avoid plagiarism.

How do I revise and edit my research paper?

Review for clarity and coherence, address feedback from peers or advisors, and do a final proofreading to catch any errors.

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Spotlight: Primary Sources and Special Collections at BU

Basket made by the Mississippi Band of the Choctaw and presented as a gift to Wheelock from chief Phillip Martin, 1998, on display at Pickering Educational Resource Library.

Contact the Howard Gotlieb Archival Research Center, [email protected] , 617-353-3696, for assistance with BU Special Collections, many of which are not indexed online. Examples include materials on the public health on reservations from 1925–1935 and rare books such as Thomas L. McKenney and James Hall's 1838 book   History of the Indian Tribes of North America, with Biographical Sketches and Anecdotes of the Principal Chiefs. Embellished with One Hundred and Twenty Portraits, from the Indian Gallery in the Department of War, at Washington .

Examples of relevant collections:

• Berger, Thomas (1924-2014) Manuscripts, journals, correspondence, audio, and other material from the recognized American author, known for his surreal, satirical novels; including his research material regarding American Indians for his book Little Big Man (1964).

Spotlight: Arts & Culture

• North American Indian Drama This link opens in a new window Includes plays by American Indian and First Nation playwrights of the 20th century, information about the plays and their production, and biographical data. Also includes issues of the Native Playwrights' Newsletter .

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• Published: 27 August 2024

Investigating viewer engagement in esports through motivation and attitudes toward metaverse and NFTs

• Hyeon Jo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7442-4736 1 &
• Seung-A. Shin 2  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  19934 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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As the esports industry continues its rapid growth, new opportunities such as the metaverse and non-fungible tokens (NFTs) are emerging, driven by the inherently digital nature of esports. To better understand viewer engagement in this evolving landscape, this study investigates viewer behavior in the context of watching esports. A survey was conducted on a sample of 312 esports viewers in South Korea, and the data was subsequently analyzed using structural equation modeling. The study's findings indicate that hedonic motivation is significantly correlated with attitudes toward esports and the utilization of esports in the metaverse. Furthermore, perceived enjoyment was found to significantly positively influence attitudes toward esports, the metaverse expansion of esports, and the use of esports via NFTs. Notably, attitudes toward esports showed a significant relationship with continuance intention. Both subjective norms and perceived behavioral control were also found to significantly influence continuance intention.

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Exploring e-sports fans’ motivation for watching live streams based on self-determination theory

Introduction.

Over the past few years, esports, known as competitive video gaming, has experienced enormous growth, attracting a global audience of more than 500 million people and generating a projected revenue of $1.5 billion by 2023 1 . Esports has also become a lucrative industry, with professional teams, players, and tournaments attracting significant sponsorships and investments 2 . As esports has grown, significant interest has been sparked in the potential for its expansion into cyberspace, with various stakeholders seeking to monetize this burgeoning industry 3 . The expansion of esports bears significant implications for the industry, leading to increased revenue streams, growth opportunities, and an expanded esports ecosystem 4 , 5 .

Two emerging technologies that are reshaping the esports landscape are the metaverse and non-fungible tokens (NFTs) 6 . The metaverse, a fully immersive and interactive virtual space, has already been utilized for live esports events, offering a novel experience to fans 7 , 8 . For instance, Riot Games hosted the League of Legends World Championship in a virtual venue within the metaverse, allowing fans to interact and engage with the event in a dynamic, digital environment 9 . Similarly, the Fortnite World Cup used the metaverse to create a virtual stadium experience, where fans could watch the tournament live, interact with one another, and even participate in parallel in-game events 10 . While virtual reality (VR) creates isolated, immersive experiences through headsets, the metaverse encompasses a broader, interconnected virtual universe where users can engage in social interactions, economic activities, and content creation 11 . Virtual stadiums in esports exemplify this metaverse concept by allowing users to interact with each other, participate in events, and engage in communal activities, thus going beyond the solitary experience of VR to offer a socially immersive environment. This connectivity and shared experience highlight how virtual stadiums qualify as part of the metaverse.

In the case of NFTs, the esports industry is witnessing a revolutionary change in how digital assets are perceived and monetized 12 . NFTs, stored on blockchain technology, offer unique ownership of digital items. Specifically, the incorporation of NFTs in esports extends to in-game assets 13 , 14 , 15 . A notable example includes Dapper Labs’ NBA Top Shot, where fans can buy, sell, and trade officially licensed NBA collectible highlights as NFTs 16 . Another instance is the collaboration between F1 Delta Time and Animoca Brands, where players purchase, collect, and use NFTs of cars, drivers, and components in the game 17 . Additionally, in the popular game Axie Infinity, players can buy, breed, and trade digital creatures called Axies as NFTs. Each Axie is unique, and some rare breeds have been sold for significant amounts, highlighting the potential for NFTs to create economic value within esports games 18 , 19 . By creating scarcity and exclusivity through NFTs, esports organizations and players may be able to generate new revenue streams and enhance fan engagement. This development presents a range of specific opportunities and challenges across legal, regulatory, and ethical domains. Legally, NFTs provide a clear framework for digital ownership of in-game assets, potentially enhancing intellectual property rights and creating new licensing opportunities 20 . However, they also pose questions regarding the management of these digital rights 21 . From a regulatory standpoint, classifying NFTs as securities or commodities offers a chance for clearer governance and taxation guidelines, yet also introduces ambiguity that necessitates careful consideration 22 . Ethically, while the high energy consumption of blockchain technology, the basis for NFTs, is a notable concern 23 , it also paves the way for the development of more sustainable blockchain solutions. Additionally, integrating NFTs into online games raises ethical considerations around game addiction and microtransactions 21 . The market volatility and potential for speculative bubbles in NFT markets underline the importance of effective risk management strategies 24 . Despite these challenges, the foray of esports into domains such as the metaverse and NFTs calls for an empirical exploration of viewers' attitudes and intentions, providing valuable insights for managers and marketers in the industry.

We employ the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) in our study to predict and explain the continuance intention of esports viewers, particularly as it relates to emerging technologies like the metaverse and NFTs. TPB is ideal for this context as it encompasses three critical factors: attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. These components are particularly relevant for understanding esports viewership, where decisions to continue watching are significantly influenced not only by individual attitudes towards esports, particularly in new formats like the metaverse and NFTs, but also by social influences and the perceived ease or difficulty of accessing these platforms. The adoption of TPB allows us to comprehensively assess how these factors collectively shape viewers' intentions in the rapidly evolving landscape of esports entertainment.

Esports, fundamentally seen as entertainment mediums, are driven by the enjoyment and pleasure viewers derive from watching competitive gaming. Thus, it is conceptually logical to consider hedonic motivation and perceived enjoyment as antecedents of attitude toward esports, as well as toward its expansion into the metaverse and utilization via NFTs. Hedonic motivation, defined as the pursuit of pleasure, fun, and enjoyment, inherently influences an individual’s attitude toward esports, shaping their perception of the game’s entertainment value and overall attractiveness 25 . Similarly, perceived enjoyment, which gauges the degree of pleasure or delight experienced while watching esports, significantly shapes their attitude towards its extension into the metaverse or via NFTs. The greater the pleasure derived from esports, the more likely viewers are to possess a positive attitude towards its utilization in new digital domains.

Understanding viewer behavior, particularly their motivations, attitudes, and intentions, is crucial for sports managers to design strategies that drive engagement and foster brand loyalty 26 . The primary variables investigated in this study—including hedonic motivation, perceived enjoyment, attitudes toward esports, the metaverse, and NFTs, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and continuance intention—offer a comprehensive view of viewer behavior. They encompass both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations that guide viewers' decisions and actions, shaping their overall engagement with esports and its associated virtual spaces. Insights into these variables can enable marketers to develop targeted campaigns that appeal to viewers' pursuit of pleasure, fostering positive attitudes toward esports and its sustained use. A nuanced understanding of attitudes toward esports, the metaverse, and NFTs can aid in leveraging these innovative platforms for enhancing viewer engagement and participation. Additionally, insights into viewers' continuance intention provide valuable information about their likelihood of participating in extended activities related to esports in a virtual environment.

This study aims to bridge a gap by examining esports fans' attitudes and intentions towards emerging technologies like the metaverse and NFTs. It delves into esports viewers' perceptions and intentions regarding the expansion of esports into virtual spaces, providing insights crucial for the industry's growth in these domains. While previous research has often focused on the intention to engage with esports 25 , 27 or the potential of virtual spaces 28 , 29 , this study takes a unique approach by empirically analyzing viewers' intentions to use technologies such as the metaverse and NFTs. Additionally, unlike existing studies that predominantly utilize technology acceptance and usage models 25 , 30 , this research applies a general behavioral theory model to explain esports viewers' behavior. This shift in theoretical approach allows for a broader understanding of the motivational factors in esports viewing. A key aspect of this study is the emphasis on the role of pleasure in viewing motivation. It explores the relationship between hedonic motivation and perceived enjoyment, concepts linked to the pleasure and satisfaction derived from engaging in activities like esports viewing 30 , 31 , 32 , thus providing deeper insights into why viewers engage in esports and how they interact with these new technologies.

The research questions/objectives of this study are as follows: First, how do hedonic motivation and perceived enjoyment influence attitudes towards esports, its expansion into the metaverse, and utilization via NFTs? Second, how do these attitudes impact the continuance intention to view esports? Third, to what extent do subjective norms and perceived behavioral control contribute to the continuance intention of esports viewers? These objectives aim to unravel the complex interplay between viewer motivations, attitudes, and behavioral intentions in the context of emerging digital trends in the esports industry. This study seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding of how these factors interact, ultimately offering insights that can inform strategies for enhancing viewer engagement and sustaining the growth of esports in the evolving digital landscape.

Literature review

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the study of esports, and various researchers have attempted to investigate the factors influencing esports consumption behavior. Jang and Byon 30 studied the relationship between media consumption of esports events and esports gameplay, revealing that intention to play esports is influenced by effort expectancy, hedonic motivation, and price value. Additionally, Jang et al. 33 conducted research on the relationship between recreational gameplay and event broadcast, exploring the mediating impact of esports content live streaming. Their study found that the intention of esports content live streaming consumption played a full mediation role in this relationship. In another study, Jang and Byon 32 investigated the moderating effects of genre on the relationship between elements in the UTAUT model and gameplay intention. They identified imagination, physical enactment, and sports simulation as three types of genres and found that the imagination group was statistically different when compared to the physical enactment and sport simulation groups. Additionally, Jang et al. 25 conducted a study on the determinants of intention to play esports by applying the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) model. They found that the interaction between gender and genre moderates the relationship between drivers and esports gameplay intention.

Some studies have suggested motivations for esports spectators or compared them with traditional sports. Zhou et al. 34 conducted a study on the motivation of online spectators in esports and proposed various scales to measure it. They identified skill improvement and vicarious sensation as unique motives in the context of esports, while also noting that entertainment, competition excitement, friends bonding, competitive nature, and dramatic nature align with the motives of traditional sports fans. Using the theory of reasoned action, Xiao 35 investigated the antecedents of esports viewership and found that aesthetics, drama, and escapism influence attitudes, while subjective norms affect behavioral intentions via attitudes. Comparing consumption motives between esports and traditional sports, Lee and Schoenstedt 36 discovered that competition, peer pressure, and skill are significantly related to gameplay. Pizzo et al. 37 compared the spectator motives between esports and traditional sports, suggesting excitement, entertainment, and enjoyment of aggression as motives.

To summarize the above studies, although there have been many studies on the behavior of visitors to esports, few studies have explained the expansion of esports into a virtual space. In addition, several studies have commonly verified hedonic motivation and pleasure as determinants involved in esports. Therefore, this study explains the intention of using esports in a virtual space based on representative preceding factors of esports users.

Esports on metaverse and NFTs

The metaverse refers to a virtual space that is a fully immersive and interactive environment 38 . One potential application of the metaverse in the esports industry is as a platform for live events 39 . Esports tournaments are currently held in physical venues such as stadiums and convention centers, but the metaverse could provide a virtual space for fans to attend events from anywhere in the world. A virtual arena could be created in the metaverse, where fans could watch matches and interact with each other. Another potential application of the metaverse in esports is as a platform for advertising and sponsorships 40 . In-game advertising is already a common feature in many esports titles, but the metaverse could provide an even more immersive advertising experience. Brands could create virtual storefronts or sponsor virtual events, creating a more personalized experience for fans. The metaverse could also provide opportunities for esports teams and organizations to monetize their content 41 . As platforms like Twitch and YouTube have expanded, esports teams and organizations have been able to generate revenue from advertising and sponsorships. The metaverse could provide additional opportunities for teams and organizations to monetize their content, such as selling virtual merchandise or creating virtual events.

The concept of NFTs has recently garnered significant attention in the esports industry, offering revolutionary prospects for content monetization 42 . As distinctive digital assets stored on a blockchain, NFTs have the potential to represent a diverse array of items, from artistic creations to virtual game elements 43 . Their use in esports paves the way for the creation and exchange of unique, rare, and valuable items, free from concerns of duplication, forgery, or fraud 44 . A key application of NFTs in esports is the monetization of in-game assets 45 . Esports games often feature items such as skins, weapons, or characters that players can earn or purchase 46 . NFTs offer a means for players to genuinely own these items and facilitate the creation of rare and unique items that could command high prices. Moreover, esports matches produce extensive data, including highlights, player statistics, and outcomes 47 . NFTs can capture and commodify unique moments in these matches, such as a pivotal play or a championship triumph, selling them as collectibles whose value may appreciate over time. Additionally, NFTs in esports create fan engagement and community-building opportunities. Fans can engage in creating and trading NFTs, fostering a sense of ownership and community around their favorite teams or titles. NFTs can also serve as incentives for fan participation in activities like social media campaigns or event attendance 13 .

The TPB is a widely-used psychological model that aims to explain and predict human behavior 48 . It was first introduced by Ajzen in 1985 as an extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA). The constructs of TPB include three determinants of behavior: attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Attitudes refer to an individual's evaluation of a particular behavior, whether positive or negative. Subjective norms are the social norms and expectations that an individual perceives from their social environment regarding their behavior. Perceived behavioral control relates to an individual's confidence in their capability to execute a behavior effectively. These three determinants, along with behavioral intention, are assumed to predict the actual behavior of an individual.

TPB has been applied to esports in explaining participation behaviors 49 , 50 , 51 . Given that TPB is a robust theory that explains human behavior and has been verified by numerous researchers in the context of esports, this study presents a research model centered on TPB.

Research model

Hedonic motivation.

Hedonic motivation is defined as the enjoyment experienced while participating in esports 30 . It has proven to be the prevailing predictor of esports intention 25 , 30 . Hedonic motivation leads to a positive attitude in online shopping 52 and social media 53 contexts. Consumers of esports are typically fans who choose to play esports games depending on their preferences. People who watch esports for pleasure will want to enjoy the game through more diverse media. They may also expect to encounter esports in metaverse and NFTs, which have something in common with virtual spaces. Accordingly, when viewers experience a higher level of hedonic motivation, they would form a more favorable attitude toward esports, expansion on metaverse, and utilization via NFT. These discussions led to the following hypothesis:

H1a: Hedonic motivation has a positive impact on attitude toward esports.

H1b: Hedonic motivation has a positive impact on attitude toward the expansion on the metaverse.

H1c: Hedonic motivation has a positive impact on attitude toward the utilization via the NFTs.

Perceived enjoyment

Perceived enjoyment can be justified as the degree to which watching esports is deemed to be entertaining, outside of any performance implications 54 . It is the proximal antecedent of attitude 55 , 56 , 57 . This paper distinguishes perceived pleasure from hedonic motivation, drawing upon existing theoretical frameworks. Hedonic motivation refers to the anticipatory pleasure derived from the expectation of engaging in esports viewing 30 , a concept rooted in the desire for enjoyment and entertainment 58 . In contrast, enjoyment pertains to the actual experiential pleasure obtained during or after the viewing 59 , reflecting the real-time emotional response to the activity 60 . These distinctions are critical as they can influence attitude formation towards esports differently. While hedonic motivation influences the initial decision to engage with esports 61 , perceived enjoyment impacts the continued engagement and satisfaction post-experience 62 . Thus, the paper treats these constructs separately, recognizing their unique contributions to the esports viewing experience. Users who have gained greater enjoyment through esports may want more diverse media. They would develop a more positive attitude toward esports, the expansion of esports in the metaverse, and the utilization of esports through NFTs. Therefore, perceived enjoyment is hypothesized to have an impact on attitudes toward esports, the expansion of esports in the metaverse, and the utilization of esports through NFTs.

H2a: Perceived enjoyment has a positive impact on attitude toward esports.

H2b: Perceived enjoyment has a positive impact on attitude toward the expansion on the metaverse.

H2c: Perceived enjoyment has a positive impact on attitude toward utilization of esports through the NFT.

Attitude refers to the positive or negative evaluation or feelings an individual holds toward performing a particular activity 48 . This study seeks to capture viewers' responses accurately by assessing attitudes toward esports, the expansion of esports in the metaverse, and the utilization of esports through NFTs. The objective is to obtain a comprehensive understanding of viewers' perceptions and evaluations in these three domains. Continuance is described as an individual's sustained motivation to put forth effort in line with a deliberate plan 63 . This paper defines continuance intention as the extent to which viewers plan to continue using esports in the future or recommend it to others. In various fields, attitude has been extensively proven to be a critical precursor to behavioral intention 64 , 65 , 66 . Viewers who hold a positive attitude toward esports are more inclined to continue their usage and participate in its expanded presence on the metaverse. Similarly, viewers who exhibit a favorable attitude toward the utilization of esports through NFTs are likely to persist in using esports. Based on these observations, this study proposes the following hypotheses:

H3: Attitude to esports has a positive impact on continuance intention.

H4: Attitude to the expansion on the metaverse has a positive impact on continuance intention.

H5: Attitude to the utilization of esports through the NFT has a positive impact on continuance intention.

Subjective norms

According to Ajzen 67 , subjective norms refer to an individual's perception of social pressure to either engage or not engage in a behavior. The relationship between subjective norms and behavioral intention has been extensively examined in research 64 , 68 , 69 . When viewers' neighbors support and agree to watch the sport more, they may want to continue it more. Thus, this study proposes that subjective norms drive continuance intention.

H6: Subjective norms have a positive impact on continuance intention.

Perceived behavioral control

Perceived behavioral control is the degree to which an individual believes that they have the ability to perform a particular behavior with ease or difficulty 48 . Its influence on the intention to continue performing a behavior has been widely studied and found to be positively significant 70 . When viewers have more time and resources to use the sport, they try to watch it more consistently. Hence, this study suggests the following hypothesis.

H7: Perceived behavioral control has a positive impact on continuance intention.

Figure  1 illustrates the research model employed in this paper. The study proposes that hedonic motivation and perceived enjoyment have a significant impact on attitudes toward esports, attitudes toward expansion on the metaverse, and attitudes toward utilization through NFTs. These three types of attitudes, in turn, influence continuance intention. Moreover, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control are posited to exert an influence on continuance intention. To maintain brevity, this study uses the abbreviations "attitude to esports" for "attitude toward esports," "attitude to metaverse" for "attitude toward the expansion of esports in the metaverse", and "attitude to NFT" for "attitude toward the utilization of esports through NFTs".

Research framework.

Empirical methodology

This research was performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Instrument development

To ensure the research model's factors' validity, this paper sourced survey questions from existing literature, specifically media and human behavior, and modified them to fit the esports case. The author created the questionnaire, which was then translated from English to Korean by a Korean expert fluent in English. The response results were translated back into English, and the two English versions were adjusted for minor differences by the author. Academic and industry professionals in the social sciences refined the questionnaire for content validity. A pilot survey was conducted to check the measures' validity and reliability and ensure a logical arrangement of questions. Feedback from the preliminary review and pilot study was essential in clarifying the final questionnaire. All items were measured on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree." Table 1 presents all the constructs' measurement items.

Data collection

The study used an online survey to collect empirical data and test the theoretical framework. The survey was conducted through a market research institute in Korea with professional expertise in data collection. Before disseminating the main survey in June 2022, the institute implemented a set of screening questions to ensure the participants had relevant experience or awareness related to the study's focus. These screening questions included: "Have you ever experienced e-sports?", "What sports have you watched or attended?", "Do you have knowledge about metaverse", and "Do you have knowledge about NFTs?" Only those respondents who provided affirmative and relevant answers to these screening questions were directed to the main survey. This process ensured that the participants were adequately qualified and representative of the target population interested in esports, the metaverse, and NFTs, thereby enhancing the validity and reliability of the study outcomes. Participants were informed about the study's purpose and academic publication before agreeing to participate. After removing incomplete responses, the study analyzed a total of 312 responses. Among the final sample, 275 (88.1%) were male and 37 (11.9%) were female. The age group with the highest frequency was those in their 40 s with 115 (36.9%), followed by those in their 30 s with 110 (35.3%). Most of the respondents had a bachelor's degree (242, 77.6%). Most of the respondents earned between 2.5 million won and 5.0 million won per year. Table 2 describes the sample's demographic characteristics.

Ethical approval

The research subject is unspecified, and the information collected through the research does not contain sensitive information in accordance with Article 23 of the Personal Information Protection Act of Korea and is exempted from IRB of HJ Institute of Technology and Management.

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Consent to participate

Consent to participate was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Research results

In this study, the theoretical framework was analyzed using the SmartPLS method, which is widely used in the social science field due to its robustness and less restriction on data distribution and sample size 75 , 76 . The analysis and interpretation were divided into two stages, assessing the reliability and validity of the measurement model and the structural model.

Common method bias (CMB)

CMB is a potential issue in data collection where the same method used can lead to an artificial inflation in the association among variables. To evaluate if this study was affected by common method bias, we adhered to the guidelines provided by Podsakoff et al. 77 . These guidelines suggest that we can control for the impact of an unmeasured latent method factor by introducing an unmeasured latent variable in our model that impacts all the items alongside their substantive construct. The quality of fit indices of the model was then compared both with and without this method factor. In our revised model, the substantive constructs were permitted to correlate with the method factor. If the model with the method factor showed a better fit and if a considerable amount of variance in the items could be explained by the method factor, it would signify the presence of common method bias. However, our analysis results suggested that our data was not impacted by CMB, thereby indicating the reliability and validity of the study's measures.

Measurement model

Confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity. Composite reliability and Cronbach's alpha were used to assess scale reliability, with results indicating good internal consistency 78 . Convergent validity was found to be acceptable, with factor loadings ranging from 0.669 to 0.934, and all statistically significant at the p = 0.05 level, supporting the presence of convergent validity 79 . Also, the average variance extracted (AVE) was well over 0.5, presenting a satisfactory level of convergent validity 80 . Table 3 describes the test results of reliability and validity.

Table 4 shows the test results of Fornell and Larcker 80 criterion. Overall, diagonal matrix values are greater than those of the same row and column, thus satisfying the adequate level of discriminant validity.

Testing of hypotheses

The study used partial least squares structural equation modeling to evaluate the proposed relationships among the constructs, and the bootstrap resampling method was employed with 5000 resamples to determine the significance of the path coefficients in the theoretical framework. The findings of the analysis are illustrated in Fig.  2 .

The path coefficients of the research model.

Table 5 presents the results of the hypothesis testing for this study. Overall, the theoretical model accounted for approximately 71.2 percent of the variation in continuance intention.

The finding that hedonic motivation significantly correlates with attitudes toward esports and the utilization of esports in the metaverse, but not with the utilization of esports via NFTs, offers several notable implications. Hedonic motivation, or the pursuit of pleasure, is known to drive individuals' engagement in leisure activities 81 . This finding suggests that the enjoyment derived from esports significantly influences how viewers perceive esports and its manifestation in the metaverse. For esports managers and marketers, this emphasizes the importance of heightening the entertainment value of esports content and its metaverse extensions to boost positive attitudes and engagement. However, the non-significant relationship with attitudes toward NFTs may indicate that viewers perceive NFTs as more of a financial endeavor than a source of pleasure 82 . Hence, when marketing NFT-related esports initiatives, the focus might need to shift toward presenting NFTs as valuable investments or exclusive perks rather than purely entertainment-based offerings. Future research might delve deeper into the nuanced perceptions of NFTs in esports to yield further insights.

The findings reveal that perceived enjoyment significantly positively influences attitudes toward esports, the metaverse expansion of esports, and the use of esports via NFTs. This is consistent with previous research that highlights enjoyment as a critical factor in fostering positive attitudes in online gaming contexts 55 , 56 , 57 . This could be due to viewers deriving greater pleasure from esports, which in turn cultivates a positive attitude towards esports and its commercialization in virtual space. Intriguingly, perceived enjoyment plays a different role from that of hedonic motivation. This study sought to discern and validate the distinction between motivation and experience. The results empirically highlight that the experience obtained plays a more crucial role than the motivation of viewers in shaping attitudes. For marketers, these results emphasize the need to create enjoyable esports experiences, whether in traditional formats, metaverse expansions, or NFT-based platforms. Strategies could include immersive storytelling, interactive features, or community-building initiatives.

The results reveal that attitudes toward esports significantly influence continuance intention, which aligns with previous research 64 , 65 , 83 , suggesting that positive attitudes towards a behavior enhance the intention to perform that behavior. This implies that viewers with a positive attitude towards esports are more likely to continue viewing. Therefore, marketers should aim to reinforce these positive attitudes through various strategies, such as improving the quality of broadcasts, creating engaging content, and building vibrant esports communities.

On the other hand, attitudes toward the expansion of esports into the metaverse and the utilization of esports through NFTs do not significantly impact continuance intention. The finding that attitude towards the metaverse has a negligible and non-significant impact on continuance intention in esports challenges some prevailing assumptions about the influence of new technologies on viewer behavior. This divergence from previous research, such as Hsu and Lin 84 ’s study, which found a positive relationship between attitudes towards innovative technologies and continuance intention, is notable. It suggests that viewers who primarily seek pure enjoyment from esports may harbor reservations about its commercialization in the metaverse. Although statistically insignificant, this slight negative correlation could indicate subtle discomfort or skepticism among these viewers towards the commercial integration of the metaverse in esports. It implies that for some fans, the essence of esports lies in its entertainment value, and the commercial aspects, especially on novel platforms like the metaverse, might not align with their reasons for continued engagement.

Similarly, the finding that attitude towards NFTs does not significantly affect continuance intention in esports viewing offers another interesting perspective. Contrasting with the anticipated impacts suggested in the literature 27 , where new technological phenomena were expected to significantly influence user engagement behaviors, the influence of NFTs on continuance intention can be interpreted similarly to that of the metaverse. This suggests that some viewers might have reservations about the commercialization aspect represented by NFTs, potentially neutralizing their intention to continue using or engaging with esports platforms. This ambivalence among a segment of the audience could be a contributing factor to the statistically insignificant result observed. Additionally, it may suggest that NFTs, being relatively less known than the metaverse, elicit a lesser degree of resistance or skepticism among viewers. Therefore, it appears that while both NFTs and the metaverse are emerging technologies in the esports context, their relative familiarity to viewers might influence their attitudes and, subsequently, their intentions to continue engaging with esports.

The study confirmed that subjective norms impact continuance intention, aligning with previous research 64 , 68 , 69 . The significant effect of subjective norms on continuance intention, observed in this study, suggests that these social influences play a crucial role in the viewer's decision to persist in engaging with esports content. The more supportive the individuals perceive these significant others to be towards their esports viewing behavior, the more likely they are to continue doing so. This finding could be due to the communal nature of esports, where social interactions, discussions, and shared experiences significantly enhance the overall enjoyment of the activity. These factors contribute to an environment that fosters continued engagement. Furthermore, this finding aligns with the TPB, which postulates that subjective norms, along with attitudes and perceived behavioral control, are key determinants of an individual's behavioral intentions. In the context of this study, it underlines the importance of considering social influences when designing strategies to retain esports viewers and promote sustained engagement.

Perceived behavioral control was found to significantly influence continuance intention, aligning with existing studies 70 . This finding is also in line with the TPB, which posits that perceived behavioral control is a key determinant of an individual's intention to perform a particular behavior. In the esports environment, this translates to the viewers' belief in their ability to access and navigate esports content, understand game mechanics, follow competitions, and participate in associated communities. When viewers perceive a high level of control over these factors, they are more likely to continue their engagement with esports. From a practical standpoint, these findings suggest that strategies aimed at enhancing viewers' perceived behavioral control could significantly improve continuance intention. For instance, providing comprehensive resources to help viewers understand games, facilitating easy access to esports content, and ensuring the user interface is intuitive and user-friendly, can enhance viewers' perceptions of control. Moreover, efforts to reduce potential barriers to esports engagement, such as high-cost equipment or limited internet access, may also increase perceived behavioral control. This would involve strategies such as providing options for low-bandwidth streaming or making esports content accessible across a variety of devices.

Finally, our study aligns closely with the findings of Yadav et al. 85 and Yadav et al. 86 , which both emphasize the significant role of blockchain technology in influencing spectator behavior in the esports and sports industries. Yadav et al. 85 utilized a TPB and machine learning approach to analyze netizens' behaviors towards a blockchain-based esports framework, finding a generally positive attitude among users. Similarly, their 2023 study further explored blockchain's potential in sports through social media analytics, underlining the positive sentiment of users towards blockchain adoption in sports. Our research complements these findings by examining how the underlying technology of blockchain, particularly through NFTs, affects spectator adoption behavior in esports. We observe a parallel trend where the technological advancement represented by NFTs in esports also generates significant interest and positive attitudes among spectators, resonating with the optimistic perspectives found in the previous works 85 , 86 . This demonstrates a broader pattern of blockchain technology's growing influence in digital sports consumption and fan engagement.

Theoretical contributions

This research contributes to sport management and marketing literature by integrating the TPB with the concept of hedonic motivation and perceived enjoyment in the context of esports viewership. While TPB has been widely used in various fields, its application in the esports sector is limited 87 . By focusing on esports viewership—a vital component of the esports industry—this study brings new insights to the table. The significant relationships found between hedonic motivation and attitudes towards esports and the utilization of esports in the metaverse highlight the importance of pleasure in driving esports consumption, complementing previous studies that emphasize instrumental factors in predicting esports viewership 27 . It reinforces the notion that esports, like traditional sports, provides not just competitive excitement but also hedonic enjoyment to its viewers.

The second contribution of this study lies in its exploration of new variables—attitudes toward the metaverse expansion and NFT utilization. Prior research in sport management has focused predominantly on conventional platforms and methods of engagement 88 , and our understanding of emerging phenomena like metaverses and NFTs is still in its infancy. The non-significant relationships found between attitudes towards metaverse and NFTs and continuance intention highlight the gap between viewers' interest in these new concepts and their intention to continue viewing esports. This novel finding calls for more research to understand how to bridge this gap and effectively utilize these emerging platforms in the esports industry.

Thirdly, the study demonstrates that subjective norms and perceived behavioral control are significant predictors of continuance intention in the esports context. It echoes previous findings in TPB-based research in sport management 88 , 89 , reinforcing the relevance and applicability of TPB in this emerging sector. This finding also suggests that interpersonal influences and perceived control over behavior are essential considerations for esports marketers. However, unlike previous studies that predominantly focused on participation in sports 90 , this study expands the application of these constructs to viewing behavior in the esports context.

Lastly, the current research asserts the importance of continuance intention in the esports context. Most studies on sport viewership focus on initial adoption, with little attention to continued engagement 8 . This research fills this gap by exploring factors that contribute to continuance intention, offering theoretical insights on how to maintain and increase engagement in the esports industry. Scholars are encouraged to delve deeper into this area, which is crucial for the sustainability and growth of the esports sector.

Practical implications

The first key practical implication drawn from this research centers on the significance of hedonic motivation in driving viewers' attitudes towards esports and the metaverse. It suggests that esports marketers should aim to enhance the pleasure and enjoyment viewers derive from their esports consumption experience. For example, they can create immersive and engaging content, offer interactive features, and build online communities that allow viewers to share their esports experiences 91 . In addition, the development of the metaverse as a new venue for esports presents exciting opportunities for enhancing viewers' hedonic experiences. By offering unique and immersive viewing experiences that traditional platforms cannot provide, metaverse service providers can attract and retain more viewers.

Secondly, the study's findings highlight the need for marketers and industry practitioners to better understand and address the gap between viewers' interest in emerging phenomena like the metaverse and NFTs and their intention to continue viewing esports. For instance, developers can conduct user research to identify potential barriers and enhance the user interface and user experience of these new platforms. Marketers, on the other hand, can invest in educational campaigns to demystify these concepts and help viewers understand the value they bring to their esports viewing experience 92 .

Thirdly, the significant influence of subjective norms and perceived behavioral control on continuance intention implies that marketers should consider these factors in their marketing strategies. They could leverage influencers or esports celebrities to create positive subjective norms around esports viewing, thereby influencing viewers' continuance intention. In addition, providing viewers with easy access to esports content and flexible viewing options can enhance their perceived behavioral control, thus fostering their continuance intention. For instance, marketers could craft an environment that allows users to conveniently access esports through straightforward app operations and encourage sharing recommendations with others 93 .

Lastly, the non-significant relationships between attitudes towards the metaverse and NFTs and continuance intention suggest that these new concepts alone may not be sufficient to drive continuance intention. Marketers and developers should therefore consider integrating these new platforms with other established elements that viewers value in their esports consumption experience. For example, they can leverage NFTs to offer exclusive content or rewards in existing popular esports titles, or use the metaverse to host esports events that also feature real-world celebrities or esports personalities. This way, they can drive continuance intention not just through the novelty of these new platforms, but also through the value they add to the overall esports viewing experience.

Limitations and future research directions

This study, while offering insights into the impact of attitudes towards the metaverse and NFTs on continuance intention in esports, is subject to certain limitations that present avenues for future research. The reliance on self-reported measures introduces potential biases, suggesting the need for future studies to adopt experimental designs for a more robust establishment of causality. Additionally, our research did not delve deeply into the nuanced contextual factors that could influence continuance intention, such as individual differences, situational contexts, and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, future research should consider these contextual elements to gain a more comprehensive understanding of esports viewers' behaviors. An exploration of other relevant factors like perceived enjoyment, satisfaction, and loyalty could also provide a more rounded perspective on what drives continuance intention in esports viewing. Moreover, the cross-sectional nature of our study design limits our ability to infer causal relationships over time. Future studies should consider longitudinal designs to better understand how attitudes towards emerging technologies like the metaverse and NFTs, and their perceived complexities and unfamiliarities, evolve and influence viewer behavior over time. Given the nascent state of research in this area, there is also an opportunity for future studies to investigate the significant impacts of metaverse and NFTs, comparing esports with other contexts to ascertain the uniqueness of its viewer base. Such research could help to clarify whether the results observed in our study are specific to the esports context or are indicative of broader trends in digital entertainment consumption.

This study delves into the complex world of esports viewership, shedding light on the pivotal roles of hedonic motivation, perceived enjoyment, and viewers' attitudes towards both esports and emerging technologies such as the metaverse and NFTs. This research marks a significant step in understanding how these factors collectively influence the continuance intention of viewers, a crucial aspect for sustaining interest in this dynamic field. By methodically examining these elements, the study makes a substantial contribution to our comprehension of the evolving nature of esports viewership in the context of rapid technological advancements.

The findings of this research not only enhance academic understanding in the field of esports but also offer valuable insights for practitioners within the industry. They undersline the importance of aligning esports offerings with viewer motivations and preferences, particularly in the context of new and evolving digital platforms. The study highlights the need for esports entities to innovate continually and adapt to emerging trends in technology to maintain viewer engagement and interest.

Furthermore, this study paves the way for future research, opening avenues to explore the ever-changing interplay between technology and viewer preferences in esports. It calls for a deeper investigation into how emerging technologies can be leveraged to enhance viewer experience and engagement, and how these technologies will shape the future of esports. As the industry continues to grow and evolve, the findings of this study will undoubtedly be a valuable resource for both academics and practitioners in the domain of esports.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Longitudinal studies of leadership development: a scoping review

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• Felipe Senna Cotrim   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0008-9820-3434 1 &
• Jorge Filipe Da Silva Gomes   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0694-2229 1 , 2  

Although various reviews about leadership development (LD) have been published in recent years, no one has attempted to systematically review longitudinal LD studies, which is arguably the most appropriate way to study LD (Day,  Leadership Quarterly, 22 (3), 561–571, 2011). In this way, the focus of the present scoping review is to understand how true longitudinal LD studies have been investigated and what inconsistencies exist, primarily from a methodological perspective. Only business contexts and leadership-associated outcomes are considered. To achieve this, ample searches were performed in five online databases from 1900 to 2021 that returned 1023 articles after the removal of duplicates. Additionally, subject experts were consulted, reference lists of key studies were cross-checked, and handsearch of leading leadership journals was performed. A subsequent and rigorous inclusion process narrowed the sample down to 19 articles. The combined sample contains 2,776 participants (67% male) and 88 waves of data (average of 4.2). Evidence is mapped according to participants, setting, procedures, outcomes, analytical approach, and key findings. Despite many strengths, a lack of context diversity and qualitative designs are noticed. A thematic analysis indicates that LD authors are focused on measuring status, behavioral, and cognitive aspects. Implications for knowledge and future research paths are discussed.

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Introduction

Even though many literature reviews about leadership development (LD) have been published in recent years (e.g., Vogel, Reichard, Batistic, & Cerne, 2020; Lacerenza et al., 2017 ; Day et al., 2014 ), no one has attempted to systematically review longitudinal LD studies, let alone true longitudinal studies, which is arguably the most appropriate way to study LD (Day, 2011 ). True longitudinal is operationalized in the present study as research involving three or more phases of data collection (Ployhart & Vandenberg, 2010 ), since pretest-posttest designs can be limited when it comes to measuring change (Rogosa et al., 1982 ). In addition to the focus on studies using multiple waves of data, the particular interest here is in the underlying methodological choices of those studies. The goal is not only to map elements such as concepts, strategy, participants, settings, analytical approaches and tools, but also to make gaps and inconsistencies more evident in the hope of advancing the science of LD.

The current study relies on the assumption that longitudinal methods are the most appropriate way to study LD as the field was categorized as “inherently longitudinal” (Day, 2011 ). These arguments are partly motivated by the idea that the leader development process is an ongoing and lifelong journey (Day et al., 2009 ), which, in turn, indicates why cross-sectional methods would be less suited. By inspecting the term “leadership development”, it is noted that it refers not only to the science of leadership, but also the science of development, which is concerned with measuring change over time. The development side is underexplored, but the focus should be on both parts of the equation (Day et al., 2014 ). As Day ( 2024 ) recently puts it: “We need a separate field of leader and leadership development apart from the voluminous leadership literature because of the development component” (p. 213). Despite referring to leadership and development as a science above, it seems worth acknowledging that they can be seen as an art too (Ladkin & Taylor, 2010 ). The art of leadership is described by Springborg ( 2010 ) as staying present with one’s senses instead of quickly jumping to conclusions. This line of thinking suggests that practicing the art of leadership means relying on intuition, awareness, and feeling. This is potentially relevant as the complexity of the world cannot be completely understood from scientific operationalizations alone, arts-based practices relate differently with complexity, allowing novel ways of responding to it (Ladkin & Taylor, 2010 ).

Considering the preceding paragraphs, the present research question can be expressed as: how are true longitudinal studies of LD being investigated and what inconsistencies exist, primarily from a methodological perspective? To help answer this question, a scoping review was chosen, a type of systematic review that is most suitable when the goal is to map evidence and identify gaps in knowledge (Tricco et al., 2018 ), and not to understand the effectiveness of specific interventions, which is the job of a traditional systematic review (Munn et al., 2018 ). Researchers suggest that scoping reviews should be as comprehensive as possible (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005 ), thus the process of including articles involved searching multiple online databases, identifying gray literature, cross-checking reference lists of key studies, and handsearching leading leadership journals. Only articles written in English language were admitted. Significant time was spent building a subsequent search strategy and a pre-determined inclusion criteria was followed to arrive at the final sample. The search and inclusion process follows the procedures of the PRISMA statement, the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis (Moher et al., 2009 ), and particularly the PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR) (Tricco et al., 2018 ).

Nineteen studies were further analyzed out of 1,236 identified. A large table (Table 1 ) is presented in the results section mapping the most important methodological information. As recommended (Tricco et al., 2018 ), a thematic analysis is conducted too, followed by a discussion about the emergent themes in longitudinal LD.

Literature review

Leader and leadership development.

Using 2,390 primary works and 78,178 secondary ones, a recent bibliometric review (Vogel et al., 2020 ) maps the LD field in two interesting ways: through a historiography and a co-citation analysis. Historiography indicates that LD originated in actual organizational challenges and needs around 1989 and then transitioned to theory building around 2004 pulled by authentic leadership development scholars. The co-citation analysis indicates that seminal theories in leadership, motivation and learning highly influenced the field, which, in turn, shifted its focus to developmental interventions and processes as well as theoretical frameworks and intra-person developmental efforts such as identity construction (Vogel et al., 2020 ). Still on a broader level, by reviewing 25 years of LD contributions, Day et al. ( 2014 ) explains why LD is young compared to the centenary field of leadership. The former is, by definition, interested in change (development), and the latter, for a significant time of history, has focused on traits, which are harder to change, though not impossible (Bleidorn et al., 2019 ).

Individuals have predisposed levels of leadership ability (Arvey et al., 2007 ) and researchers have been especially interested in intelligence (Judge et al., 2004 ) and personality (Judge et al., 2002 ). Even though genetics will always play a part, leadership training works even more than previously thought regarding reactions, learning, transfer, and actual results, as shown by a meta-analysis (Lacerenza et al., 2017 ).

Instead of training, McCall ( 2004 ) argues that experiences are at the heart of LD. The challenges associated with experiences is that it is not simple to offer the right experiences to the right executives and that they vary in developmental potential due to contextual circumstances and individual differences. Six years later, McCall ( 2010 ) reinforces his argument, suggesting that companies should bet on what is potentially the most powerful developer of leaders: experience. Within the scope of experiences, some scholars are making the case for “consciousness-raising experiences” in leadership development (Mirvis, 2008 ). They are designed for the mind and heart and characterized by the focus on self, others, and society. Another relevant and more common type of experience in life is education. Evidence from almost half a million students from 600 institutions highlights that leadership knowledge as well as opportunities for application of learned principles are related with an increase in leadership capacity upon conclusion of higher education (Johnson & Routon, 2024 ).

Experiences and trainings are naturally more focused on developing skills and competencies, but some authors understand that these sometimes loosely connected leadership skills should be integrated to a leader identity (Lord & Hall, 2005 ). Indeed, identity has become a more popular aspect of LD (Epitropaki et al., 2017 ) and empirical investigations claim that leader identity is associated with leader effectiveness (Day & Sin, 2011 ).

Day ( 2000 ) makes the important distinction between leader development (developing individuals) and leadership development (developing the collective). In the present work, the use of “LD” incorporates both leader and leadership development. Drawing on this idea, The Center for Creative Leadership defines leader development as “the expansion of a person’s capacity to be effective in leadership roles and processes (Van Velsor et al., 2010 , p. 2)” and leadership development as “the expansion of a collective’s capacity to produce direction, alignment, and commitment (Van Velsor et al., 2010 , p. 20)”. Respecting these distinctions and contributions, Day and Dragoni ( 2015 ) review theoretical and practical arguments and suggest proximal and distal outcomes to indicate whether leadership is developing from an individual level and a team level. For instance, on the individual level, leadership self-efficacy and leader identity are proximal indicators while dynamic skills and meaning-making structures are distal. Regarding the team level, psychological safety and team learning are proximal indicators while collective leadership capacity are distal ones.

LD is also greatly associated with mentoring across publications, for instance, it increases leadership self-efficacy, which, in turn, predicts leader performance (Lester et al., 2011 ), and it also promotes the development of a leader identity (Muir, 2014 ). Interestingly, the effect of mentoring is not only beneficial to mentees in terms of developing (transformational) leadership, but also to mentors (Chun et al., 2012 ). Similarly, a recent study shows that mentors can develop their leader identity and self-efficacy as a result of a mentoring process (Ayoobzadeh & Boies, 2020 ). In the same vein, coaching has been established as an important LD topic (Day, 2000 ). A systematic review shows several methodological challenges associated with executive coaching, but list many evidence-based benefits of the practice in relation to the coachee (e.g. better leadership skills), the organization, and the coach (Athanasopoulou & Dopson, 2018 ).

Feedback seems to be another popular theme within the LD literature, especially 360-degree feedback (Atwater & Waldman, 1998 ), a practice associated with enhanced management competence in corporate environments (Bailey & Fletcher, 2002 ). Within an MBA context, peer feedback decreased self-ratings of leadership competence three and six months later, an effect that was stronger for women than men, suggesting that women align their self-ratings with peer ratings while men have a tendency to inflate their self-images (Mayo et al., 2012 ). Seifert and Yukl ( 2010 ) contribute to the literature by demonstrating that two feedback interventions enhance leader effectiveness compared to only one intervention. Even though a recent meta-analysis related the use of 360-degree feedback during leadership training to higher results compared to single-source feedback, it is also linked to lower levels of learning and transfer (Lacerenza et al., 2017 ). For example, receiving negative feedback from multiple sources could obstruct improvement because it may threaten one’s self-view. These results can be considered thought provoking given how 360 feedback is popular and sometimes taken for granted by organizations.

Longitudinal research

Despite some very early records of longitudinal research overviewing the history and the fundamentals of this methodology, Rajulton ( 2001 ) says that it was not until the 1920s that more significant longitudinal studies started to be found, allowing the science of development and growth to be advanced.

An early definition of longitudinal research is given by Baltes ( 1968 ), he contrasts longitudinal and cross-sectional research and defines the former as observing one sample at different measurement points (pp. 146–147). Ployhart and Vandenberg ( 2010 ) take a step back, they discern between the terms static and dynamic before attempting to define longitudinal research, they relate the former with cross-sectional methods and the latter with longitudinal ones. Similarly, Rajulton ( 2001 ) states that cross-sectional information is concerned with status, and longitudinal information deals with progress and change in status.

However, one interesting definition offered by Taris ( 2000 ) is that longitudinal research happens when “data are collected for the same set of research units for (but not necessarily at) two or more occasions, in principle allowing for intra-individual comparison across time” (pp. 1–2). Additionally, Ployhart and Vandenberg ( 2010 ) focus on the quantity of observations when they say that longitudinal research is “research emphasizing the study of change and containing at minimum three repeated observations (although more than three is better) on at least one of the substantive constructs of interest” (p. 97). Acknowledging the two previous definitions and its weaknesses, Wang et al. ( 2017 ) argue that longitudinal research is not necessarily focused on intra-individual analysis and cite examples where two waves of data collection is an appropriate procedure (e.g., prospective design), thus claiming an alternative definition: “longitudinal research is simply research where data are collected over a meaningful span of time” (p. 3).

Although definitions and tools seem to be improving in the past years, it was not always like this. Reflecting on the challenging past decades for the reliability of longitudinal research, particularly the 1960s and 1970s, Singer and Willett ( 2003 ) said that although scientists had always been fascinated with the study of change, it was only after the 1980s that the subject could be studied well due to new methodological tools and models developed.

Given the analytical problems at the time, Rogosa et al. ( 1982 ) clarifies misconceptions about measuring change, especially in terms of the pretest-posttest design, and encourage researchers to use multiple waves of data. They claim that “two waves of data are better than one, but not much better” (p. 744). Contrary to the thinking expressed in previous decades, Rogosa and Willett ( 1983 ) demonstrate the reliability of difference scores, which are typically used in two-wave designs, in the measurement of change for some cases (e.g., individual growth), though they do not claim the score to have high reliability in general.

Coming from an education and psychological perspective, Willett ( 1989 ) demonstrates that significant increases in the reliability of individual growth measures can be harnessed by incrementing data collection with a few additional waves of information beyond two. Aware of the methodological problems and the current conversation, Chan ( 1998 ) proposed an integrative approach to analyze change focused on the organizational context embodying longitudinal mean and covariance structures analysis (LMACS) and multiple indicator latent growth modeling (MLGM). He expressed his ideas in a less technical way, which facilitated the progress of the field.

Ployhart and Vandenberg ( 2010 ) raise key theoretical, methodological, and analytical questions when it comes to developing and evaluating longitudinal research in management. And using a panel discussion format, Wang et al. ( 2017 ) build on the same structure with the purpose of helping researchers make informed decisions in a non-technical way.

Longitudinal leadership development research

A pioneer initiative of longitudinal LD studies is the Management Progress Study (MPS) initiated by the Bell System (AT&T) in 1956 with the purpose of analyzing the growth, mostly in terms of status, of 422 men (Bray, 1964 ). Interesting follow ups were conducted after 8 and 20 years making this project one of the most popular field researches in management development (Day, 2011 ).

Attempting to longitudinally analyze a new generation of executives in 1977, A. Howard and D. Bray launched the Management Continuity Study (MCS). This ambitious project replicates many aspects of the MPS, but it also addresses weaknesses such as the lack of representation of women and different ethnicities (Howard & Bray, 1988 ). The MCS sample was used by many other longitudinal scholars to obtain stimulating insights, for instance, how successful male and female executives deal with power (Jacobs & McClelland, 1994 ), and the influence of college experiences on progress and performance (Howard, 1986 ).

In parallel with these two major longitudinal efforts, an Eastern perspective contributes significantly to the field of longitudinal LD. The Japanese Career Progress Study originated in 1972 is a sample of 85 male college graduates starting their careers at a leading Japanese department store chain who were followed up after 7 years (Wakabayashi & Graen, 1984 ) and 13 years (Wakabayashi et al., 1988 ) mostly in terms of promotion, salary, and performance. The multilevel and mixed-method approach with multiple waves of data revealed, in aggregation, that the organizational assessment of management potential of newcomers, the quality of exchange with superiors, and their early job performance predicted speed of promotion, total annual salary, and annual bonus on the seventh and thirteenth year of tenure. Wakabayashi et al. ( 1988 ), in a summarizing tone, state that the first three years of employment are critical when it comes to later career progress and leadership status up to 13 years.

After these pioneers, more LD longitudinal works started to emerge. Perhaps the biggest contribution to the area is the publication of a special issue in 2011 by the Leadership Quarterly . Authors of the referred issue promote important discussions and advance thought-provoking insights. In particular, the importance of true longitudinal studies, the ones involving three of more waves of data collection (Day, 2011 ), as well as the benefits of analyzing leadership through a long-lens approach (Murphy & Johnson, 2011 ). Specifically, the special issue explored childhood and adolescence factors. For instance, Gottfried et al. ( 2011 ) studied the motivational roots of leadership and found that children and teenagers with higher academic intrinsic motivation are more likely to want to lead as adults. Similarly, Guerin et al. ( 2011 ) found that adolescent extraversion predicts leadership potential over a decade later in adulthood with the relationship being fully mediated by adult social skills. Furthermore, the special issue explored family aspects in relation to LD. Oliver et al. ( 2011 ) are the first to connect family environment in childhood to adulthood leadership. Specifically, they found that a supportive and stimulating family atmosphere led to transformational leadership qualities in adulthood through positive self-concept. Li et al. ( 2011 ) detected that higher family socioeconomic status negatively influences leader advancement for females. The opposite was observed for males.

Apart from the larger longitudinal efforts mentioned above, many independent LD studies that rely on their own longitudinal samples contributed significantly to the field too. They vary greatly in settings and concepts, but some early important contributions seem to be Atwater et al.‘s ( 1999 ) demonstration that military leader emergence and leader effectiveness can be predicted by individual differences such as cognitive ability, physical fitness, and prior influence experience. Focused on the followers instead of the leaders, Dvir et al. ( 2002 ) suggest that transformational leadership training leads to followers’ development and performance. Also, executives’ competence, judged by self and others, significantly improves after multi-rater multi-source feedback (Bailey & Fletcher, 2002 ).

Other notable contributions involve the influence of self-regulation training on LD (Yeow & Martin, 2013 ), mentoring as a tool to develop not only the mentee (Lester et al., 2011 ), but also the mentor (Chun et al., 2012 ), and more unorthodox views such as dark personality traits and performance (Harms et al., 2011 ). However, some authors seem to be not only focused on behavioral, but also cognitive change (e.g., leader identity). Day and Sin ( 2011 ) claim that individuals with a strong leader identity are more effective across time. By using a university sample, Miscenko et al. ( 2017 ) propose that leader identity develops in a J-shaped pattern and that leader identity development is associated with leadership skills development. On the other hand, high-potential executives seem to develop leader identity in a linear and progressive way (Kragt & Day, 2020 ).

Methodology

Type of review and sources of evidence.

Despite being more widely seen, systematic reviews are best suited to approach specific questions addressing effectiveness, appropriateness, meaningfulness, and feasibility of particular interventions (Munn et al., 2018 ), and given this study’s broader research question, a scoping review was chosen. This method is usually defined as a mapping process (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005 ) or a system for synthesizing evidence (Levac et al., 2010 ). More recently, it was described as a “systematic way to map evidence on a topic and identify main concepts, theories, sources, and knowledge gaps” (Tricco et al., 2018 , p. 467). Despite the differences, both types of reviews are quite related, Moher et al. ( 2015 ) even see them as part of the same “family”.

The execution of each step of the current review was guided by the methodology initially laid out by Arksey and O’Malley ( 2005 ) and by the PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR) and its corresponding checklist (Tricco et al., 2018 ). Following recommendations that a scoping review should be as comprehensive as possible (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005 ), different sources were used: (1) Online databases were searched (e.g., Web of Science, Scopus); (2) gray literature was identified (e.g., subject experts were consulted); (3) reference lists of key studies were cross-checked; and (4) handsearch of leading leadership journals was performed.

Search strategy for online databases: building search strings and identifying databases

Significant time was spent building the search strings for the present work as this is seen as a wise choice to improve search efficiency (Denyer & Tranfield, 2009 ). According to Arksey and O’Malley ( 2005 ) the process starts by having the research question in mind and identifying the key concepts that are present, in this case, longitudinal , leadership , and development . Based on this initial process, synonyms for each concept were identified. For instance, since the term “leadership” can be often substituted in the literature by management, executive, supervisory, and potentially others, these variations were added to the search string. Similarly, the term “development” can be substituted by training, program, intervention, and potentially others, thus these variations were incorporated as well.

In addition to identifying synonyms, this search strategy took into consideration some other concepts that seem to be highly associated with LD such as coaching, mentoring, and 360-feedback (Day, 2000 ). Hence, these terms plus their variations were incorporated. Finally, the search strategies and the specific keywords of past LD systematic reviews were screened (e.g. Collins & Holton, 2004 ; Lacerenza et al., 2017 ; Vogel et al., 2020 ) to verify any potential blind spots concerning the terms to be used here. In practical terms, seven different search strings were necessary to capture the process described. The first search string is completely detailed as follows and the remaining search strings are available in Appendix A .

Search 1: longitudinal AND (“leader* development” OR “manage* development” OR “executive development” OR “supervisory development” OR “team development” OR “human resource$ development”) .

The search strategy and the definition of keywords were verified by a professional librarian at ISEG – University of Lisbon. Feedback and other suggestions were given over a one-hour videocall in March of 2021.

One additional decision when it comes to the search strategy is identifying the databases to be used. Systematic review guidelines seem confident that authors must search more than one database (Liberati et al., 2009 ), others generally suggest that two or more are enough (Petticrew & Roberts, 2008 ), but little guidance is available for precisely deciding when to stop the searches, especially in the context of scoping reviews in social sciences instead of systematic reviews in medical sciences (e.g., Chilcott et al., 2003 ).

Considering this situation, searches started in a highly ambitious way in terms of quantity of databases and search restrictions (e.g., filters), and were iteratively pondered according to the reality of executing the work given the colossal volume of data for two authors with limited resources to go through. The described strategy seems aligned with both earlier (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005 ) and more recent recommendations (Peters et al., 2020 ) for authors writing scoping reviews as it is thought that comprehensiveness should be framed within the constraints of time and resources available to the authors. In this way, five databases were used: Web of Science, PsycARTICLES, Ebsco’s Business Source Complete, JSTOR, and Elsevier’s Scopus. The databases were mostly hand curated based on relevancy for LD. In other words, WoS has been extensively used by authors published in high-caliber leadership journals such as the Leadership Quarterly , and on some cases it is the only source of information (Vogel et al., 2020 ). PsycARTICLES seems unavoidable in psychological research, and it is found in most reviews at top-ranked journals interested in LD such as the Journal of Applied Psychology , for instance. Business Source Complete, Scopus, and JSTOR went through a similar curation process in addition to being well-known and comprehensive sources of information across social sciences disciplines.

Inclusion criteria

Three essential criteria served as pre-requisites for document inclusion in light of the research question.

Method: Is it a true longitudinal study (three or more waves of data) as opposed to a cross-sectional or a pretest-posttest one?

Context: Is the work approaching a business context? This study is interested in understanding longitudinal contributions to LD within a “business context”, which is an umbrella term created to incorporate for-profit and nonprofit companies, public organizations, and graduate students associated with management (e.g., MBA, executive education) or closely related areas (e.g., economics, organizational psychology). In this way, numerous LD studies involving sports, healthcare, and military contexts were naturally excluded from the final sample.

Concepts and measures: Is the study actually measuring change in terms of LD? Only results incorporating LD as a primary variable were considered. In this way, the authors were interested in analyzing leadership-related outcomes (e.g., leadership efficacy, leader identity), and not more distant concepts (e.g., job performance).

Only documents from 1900 until 2021 in English language were considered. Even though LD was not a formal research area in the early or mid-1900s, when the field “all years” is selected before a search in most databases, the range set by default starts in 1900. For clarification purposes, the earliest study analyzed in the present work dates to 1986.

On a more technical note, different filters according to the database at hand were used to refine the results (e.g., subject area, document type). As an example, the present research is not interested in LD in the sports space or document types such as editorials or reviews, thus filters were used to aid this refinement process. This whole procedure is consistent with the idea proposed by Levac et al. ( 2010 ) that the inclusion and exclusion criteria should be iterative and adapted based on the challenges identified.

Additional sources of information

Almost all the way through the screening execution, the authors of this study learned that scoping review researchers are encouraged to explore other sources of information apart from databases (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005 ; Peters et al., 2020 ). As a result, three à posteriori procedures were used to add evidence: (1) identifying gray literature through contacting subject experts, (2) cross-checking reference lists of important studies, and (3) handsearching key bibliographies and journals. Although the standard procedure for systematic reviews is to include articles from additional sources before the start of the screening process (Liberati et al., 2009 ), it is believed that the inverted execution does not threat the soundness of this work since adding and subtracting results before or after cannot affect the final sum and considering the iterative nature of scoping reviews (Levac et al., 2010 ). The only unfortunate implication observed was an extra load of work given the necessity to do an additional round of screening instead of screening all in once.

When it comes to consulting subject-matter experts, a list of a dozen high-level names was put together (e.g., D. Day, J. Antonakis, C. Lacerenza, L. Dragoni, R. Reichard) and the individual email outreach was executed in June of 2022. The email text to the list of authors included a brief personal introduction, the reason for contact and descriptions of the request, and a gratitude note for the impact of their work on this author’s academic journey.

Despite some prompt and friendly replies from high-caliber authors, including D. Day, who is considered a seminal scholar in LD, and also J. Antonakis, who was the chief editor of the Leadership Quarterly journal at the time of contact, no gray documents could have been added for multiple reasons varying from email bounces, no replies, replies from authors with no suggestions in mind, or irrelevant suggestions for this particular research question.

In addition to the step above, reference lists of key studies were cross-checked. First, pivotal review studies in LD (e.g., Day et al., 2014 ; Lacerenza et al., 2017 ) had their reference lists analyzed. Then, selected articles were further evaluated and selected based on screening of title, keywords, abstracts, and, ultimately, full-text analysis.

Finally, handsearching, a legitimate process in systematic literature reviews (Liberati et al., 2009 ), including scoping reviews (Tricco et al., 2018 ), was performed. Eight journals labeled “dominant” based on a co-citation analysis of LD (Vogel et al., 2020 ) were handsearched as an additional attempt to locate relevant evidence. The Academy of Management Review was part of this list, but naturally excluded from this process as no empirical works would have been found there, so the seven journals analyzed were Leadership Quarterly , Journal of Applied Psychology , Academy of Management Learning & Education , Personnel Psychology , Leadership , Journal of Organizational Behavior , and Journal of Management.

In terms of execution, central terms for the present research question (e.g., leadership development, longitudinal) were typed into the general search boxes of these journals and the list of results were scanned. Documents indicating good fit were further analyzed via screening of abstract and keywords, and full text. When searching the Leadership Quarterly journal, particular attention was devoted to a special issue published in 2011 centered on longitudinal leadership development studies (volume 22, issue 3). The handsearch process generated results as two articles that would not have been found otherwise were included in the sample for respecting the determined criteria (Cherniss et al., 2010 ; Dragoni et al., 2014 ).

Data charting process

Referred to as “data extraction” in systematic reviews, data charting (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005 ) is the process of extracting information from the sample in a scoping review. Even though any information can be charted in practice, researchers ideally should obtain pieces of information that help answer the research question (Levac et al., 2010 ). Given this ponderation and the research question at hand, a data charting framework was created to keep a consistent extraction standard across studies.

Nature of variables (e.g., quantitative, qualitative).

Research strategy (e.g., experiment, survey).

Participants (e.g., sample size, gender distribution).

Setting (e.g., industry, company information).

Intervention (e.g., program characteristics).

Research procedures (e.g., comparator, waves of data).

Outcome measures (e.g., variables, instruments).

Analytical approach (e.g., strategy, techniques).

Despite the primary focus on methodological choices of longitudinal LD studies, it was judged important to also chart the key findings of each study given the underlying motivation of the present research to contribute to the longitudinal LD field. A separate table (Table 2 ) was created to map this information. The data charting process took place with the assistance of Microsoft Excel.

Search results

Taking into consideration the search strategy and the inclusion criteria described previously, the WoS database returned 673 results. PsycARTICLES, in turn, retrieved 84 results. Next, Ebsco’s Business Source Complete returned 332 documents. JSTOR found 49 articles. Lastly, Elsevier’s Scopus retrieved 98 results. In total, 1236 documents were found. After removal of duplicates, a total of 1023 articles were screened given the determined criteria. The screening of titles, abstracts, and keywords removed 810 works, and screening the full text removed another 196 works, resulting in 17 included studies. À posteriori inclusion based on conversations with LD experts and handsearch of bibliographies and journals added another two documents, confirming a final sample of 19 articles. This whole process is illustrated by the flow chart below (Fig. 1 ).

PRISMA flowchart: Search and inclusion process

General characteristics

The table listing the 19 documents and some of their basic characteristics can be found in Appendix B . The works comprise different years, journals, countries, and authors. The first true longitudinal study of LD in a business context was published in 1986 by the Journal of Applied Psychology . One noticeable feature of the table found in Appendix B is the substantial 22-year gap in publications from 1988 to 2010. After 2010, on the other hand, researchers seem to have found more efficient ways to collect longitudinal data, and until 2021, on average 1.42 studies were published every year. Despite the progress, compared to past decades, the number is still quite modest given the importance of true longitudinal studies to the science of LD (Day, 2011 ).

In terms of outlets, eleven different journals represent the sample. The pioneer on the subject and methodology is clearly the Journal of Applied Psychology . The most dominant journal is the Leadership Quarterly with five publications. In terms of countries, the United States lead the list with twelve publications. The United Kingdom has five, Germany and Switzerland have one publication each. Professor D. Day contributes to four articles (2020, 2018, 2017, 2011), which is a considerable achievement given this highly selective sample. Moreover, G. Larson, C. Sandahl, and T. Soderhjelm contributed twice (2017, 2019). All other authors contributed once.

How true longitudinal LD studies have been conducted methodologically and what inconsistencies exist?

The research question is addressed following two recommended stages, a description of the characteristics and a thematic analysis (Levac et al., 2010 ). These two steps are assessed below.

Characteristics

Table 1 helps to address the research question of this study which is to evaluate how true longitudinal studies of LD are being investigated and what inconsistencies exist, primarily from a methodological perspective.

First, in terms of the nature of variables and strategy, the vast majority were quantitative (16), two studies utilized mixed methods, and only one used qualitative data (Andersson, 2010 ). This study’s criteria yielded a majority of experimental and survey strategies. However, archival data, narrative inquiry, observation, and action learning are represented as well.

Collectively, the studies form a sample of 2,776 participants. This number represents respondents that answered all longitudinal measures, thus drop-out participants, who have perhaps answered only the first measure and not the following ones, were not counted. In terms of sex, this combined sample is composed by 67% of males. The more recent studies seem to be more balanced in terms of gender though. In total, 88 waves of data were collected across all studies, resulting in an average of 4.2 waves per study. The maximum value observed is 13 waves of data (Middleton et al., 2019 ). The longest study lasted 20 years between first and last data collection (Howard, 1986 ) and the shortest study lasted 4 weeks (Quigley, 2013 ).

When it comes to the contextual settings, 6 publications researched one single company, 7 authors gathered participants from two or more companies, and 6 studies analyzed business students, mostly MBA students with work experience. The targeted companies, to cite only a few examples, were quite diverse, ranging from a large Australian corporation with more than 200,000 employees (Kragt & Day, 2020 ); to a museum leader development program with global participants (Middleton et al., 2019 ); to a multinational Indian-based IT company (Steele & Day, 2018 ); to middle managers of the headquarters of a regional grocery store chain in the United States. As for business students, the sample includes, among others, a top-ranked MBA program at a Spanish business school (Mayo et al., 2012 ); full-time MBA students at a large American university; and a graduate degree at a Dutch business school (Miscenko et al., 2017 ).

No form of intervention was found in 6 studies. The remaining 13 studies applied different LD trainings that varied in (1) length, ranging from 90 minutes to 145 hours; (2) content focus such as self-regulation, influence, feedback, team effectiveness; and (3) methods like lecture, role-play, discussion, readings, coaching.

By taking a look at the LD outcome measures, it is noticed that the two early studies of the sample, the ones that belong to the 1980s, were preoccupied with measuring some form of status, for instance career progress in terms of speed of promotion, and level of management achieved. After 2010, the focus of analysis changes from status to either cognitive outcomes (leader identity, self-perceived role knowledge) or behavioral outcomes (skills, competencies, efficacy). Established instruments and developed measures are both present.

Changing the conversation to the analytical approach of these works, it seems that it was not until 2011 that more appropriate procedures for longitudinal modelers started to emerge. This raises the question if more true longitudinal studies emerged because of more suitable tools available, or if these new tools were created given the importance to research human development in a longitudinal way.

Before 2011, the sample indicates the use of multiple regression equations, correlation analyses, ANOVAs, and ANCOVAs. After that year, an emergence and consolidation of more sophisticated methods is observed, like random coefficient modeling (RCM), latent growth model (LGM), multilevel modeling (MLM), hierarchical multivariate linear modeling (HMLM). In terms of the software tools used to execute these analyses, SPSS, R, HLM, NLME are highlighted.

Despite the present focus on methodologies, it was judged relevant to additionally chart the key findings of the studies included in this review. Table 2 maps this information chronologically by author.

Themes were driven by the concepts, or the objects of analysis being used by scholars and derived by examining the “LD outcome measure” column of Table 1 as well as the full study. Specifically, a summarized thematic analysis was performed (Braun & Clarke, 2006 ). Variables were grouped together based on similarity. For instance, self-confidence and leadership efficacy are measuring behavioral change, hence a category called “behavioral” was created. Following this line of thinking, variables such as leader identity and self-perceived role knowledge are measuring cognitive change, thus the category “cognitive”. The same process was applied for the status category. After this procedure, the quantity of studies in each category was simply counted. Some studies are measuring more than one dimension, as shown below in Fig. 2 .

Venn diagram of main themes identified by quantity of studies

As observed, most scholars are, not surprisingly, interested in researching behaviors, maybe because it is an inherent aspect of the organizational behavior field. The behavioral dimension is also the only one to intersect with the other two that emerged. Status outcomes were the primary variable for only two studies. And although no studies analyzed cognitive outcomes alone, researchers seem interested in understanding these factors as it greatly intersects with the behavior sphere. Lastly, only one true longitudinal study of LD measured all three categories (Kragt & Day, 2020 ). Table 3 provides more information based on these themes.

The themes reveal some interesting aspects. First, measuring status as a primary outcome is linked to older publications while the cognitive and behavioral dimensions are more recent concepts of interest. The status dimension is also associated with less waves of data but longer length of study in general. The opposite happens for studies focused on behavioral and cognitive aspects, they are characterized by collecting more waves of data in less time.

Even though the goal of this research is to analyze only business contexts, some diversity is observed in terms of specific setting (e.g., business schools, large companies, partnerships with consultancy firms), and location (e.g., USA, Europe, Australia, Japan, India). Except for India, no developing countries are observed, suggesting a potential research need.

In terms of strategies and interventions, conducting experiments is associated with the more recent studies. A lack is qualitative methods is also noticed. Additionally, the survey strategy is always present across the three themes. No standard regarding the type of intervention is detected, they are mostly trainings with slightly different areas of concentration.

The two studies focusing on status used more general analytic tools such as multiple regression and ANOVA analysis. More sophisticated tools are observed across the other two spheres and their intersections (e.g., LGM, RCM, HLM).

The evidence indicates that the longitudinal LD area is young with the vast majority of studies being published after 2010. The combined sample sums 2,776 participants (67% male) and 88 waves of data. Most of these studies are quantitative, and mostly surveys or experiments. The context, as expected, is very much managerial and composed mostly by large companies and business schools in developed countries. Regarding LD outcomes, three major themes were found, status (e.g., level of leadership attained), behavioral (e.g., leadership effectiveness), and cognitive (e.g., leader identity).

Scoping reviews have the power to map a field of knowledge making gaps more evident (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005 ). In this way, it is not difficult to notice that no developing countries are represented except from India, smaller companies are also not represented, and women are underrepresented as they compose one third of this review’s combined sample. Considering that leadership is highly contextual (Johns, 2006 ), it is understood that, if supported by insights originated from diverse contexts, the field could make significant progress in terms of bridging LD science and practice (Day et al., 2018 ).

Moreover, it is concerning to see almost no qualitative studies in this review. Despite the challenges associated with conducting longitudinal qualitative research in the social sciences (Thomson & Holland, 2003 ), this methodology has the potential to enrich the LD field with deeper insights. One promising path seems to be multiple perspective qualitative longitudinal interviews (MPQLI) (Vogl et al., 2018 ), a framework created to analyze related individuals (e.g., one’s peers, superiors, subordinates) and to deal with complex and voluminous data. Another hopeful avenue of research for LD is through the underdeveloped area of mixed methods longitudinal research (MMLR) (Vogl, 2023 ). The current study has been relying on the assumption that longitudinal designs are the most appropriate way to study LD (Day, 2011 ). Building on this and being more specific, MMLR may be even more appropriate to understand and explain LD given the complementary insights generated (Vogl, 2023 ). However, applying this type of methodology comes with a series of issues as well as high execution effort that need to be taken into consideration by future scholars (Plano Clark et al., 2015 ).

One additional issue associated with longitudinal research is deciding how many waves of data to collect and what is the ideal length of interval between measurement points (Ployhart & Vandenberg, 2010 ). In the present study, it is difficult to recognize any corresponding standard among the experimental studies. Some authors seem to be following the intervention’s length, for instance, Miscenko et al.‘s ( 2017 ) 7-week leadership program collected data at seven weekly time points, but the vast majority of studies do not offer explanations for the choices made. Even though most of these decisions are atheoretical and the ideal time interval is rarely known because it greatly depends on the phenomenon of interest, Wang et al. ( 2017 ) say this is a critical matter because it directly affects the change trajectory. Therefore, the science of longitudinal leadership research could benefit from more information about the decision rationale given the variables at hand. For example, for which kinds of leadership phenomena longer lengths are more valuable and vice versa? How many waves of data would be more suitable according to concept, levels of analysis, or research goals?

Regarding concepts, data shows that scholars are less interested in measuring status-related concepts (e.g., hierarchical level achieved), while behavioral variables are the most popular ones and cognitive variables can be considered emerging. Although each study naturally uses variables that are coherent with their research questions, the three dimensions presented earlier (Fig. 2 ) offer different and valuable perspectives to the development of leaders and leadership, so it is judged beneficial to cross dimensions whenever possible. For example, Kragt and Day ( 2020 ) is the only study that sheds light on status (e.g., promotion), behavior (e.g., managing stress), and cognitive aspects (e.g., leader identity).

As a summary, this paper contributes to theory in several ways. First, through mapping the methods being used to date; second, by identifying inconsistencies and gaps; third, by elaborating on ways in which the leadership field can advance; fourth, by understanding themes in terms of outcome variables; and lastly, through insights for management scholars and practitioners given the exclusive focus on business contexts.

Limitations

The present work is not immune to limitations, as no scientific work is. This study includes documents up to the year 2021, resulting in a three-year gap considering the submission date to this journal. Significant personal circumstances prevented the authors from pursuing publication earlier, so to mitigate this potential limitation, a modest cursory review is presented as described. Searching the Web of Science database from 2022 to 2024 using the seven search strings outlined in Appendix A , a list of 116 documents were gathered. Following the PRISMA-ScR framework (Tricco et al., 2018 ), records were screened (abstract and/or full text) based on the same pre-determined criteria described in the methodology section. Even though 12 records were closely assessed, only 2 peer-reviewed articles respected the parameters. They are identified below followed by a summarized discussion.

“How coaching interactions transform leader identity of young professionals over time” published in the International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring by Hughes and Vaccaro ( 2024 ) was the first record identified. This qualitative exploration utilizing semi-structured interviews before, during and after the coaching experience highlights through narrative inquiry analysis how coaching that is grounded in identity transformation practices are an important mechanism for emerging leaders as they navigate high degrees of professional and personal change in their lives. Despite the small sample size (six coaches), the three-phase data collection can be considered rare in qualitative studies of leadership development, representing a strength.

“Perceived changes in leadership behavior during formal leadership education” published in Public Personnel Management by Sørensen et al. ( 2023 ) was the second record identified. This multilevel three-year study with 62 leaders and 860 respondents found that leadership education has a considerable effect on leadership behaviors when it comes to tasks, relations, and change. Among the highlighted insights is the interesting fact that subordinates rated change in leadership behavior significantly lower compared to superiors and peers.

In addition to the limitations presented so far, scoping reviewers are encouraged to initially conduct the data charting process with at least two scholars working independently (Levac et al., 2010 ) and this was not possible to accomplish in the present study. Although agreeing with the above-mentioned recommendation, it is believed that the findings are not threatened by not executing this step, as the main motivation for it seems to be saving time when it comes to including studies. Thus, the only drawback for the current research was making the data charting process longer than it could have been.

The attempts to include gray literature were restricted to contacting LD subject-experts, which is a valid and effective strategy (Petticrew & Roberts, 2008 ), but there are additional tactics that could potentially lead to a larger sample. One example would be searching online databases for theses and dissertations around the theme. Future studies are encouraged to address that.

The experience of conducting a scoping review was perceived as “too manual”. Despite the confidence in the present results, it is difficult to ensure the inexistence of minor oversights as the process involved multiple Excel documents with dozens of tabs and thousands of lines each. Using a software was unfortunately not an option for the present study, but researchers interested in scoping reviews should consider using one.

The focus of the current review was purposefully restricted to business contexts. Although this is beneficial to the present goal and to obtain more specific insights, it leads to low generalizability power. Including studies from other LD contexts such as healthcare, military, and sports, can offer a good opportunity to learn across disciplines and potentially identify synergies for the benefit of leadership research as a whole.

Future research

Regarding the limitations highlighted above, it is encouraged that LD scholars conducting scoping reviews to focus on working within larger teams of colleagues as some scoping review procedures can be quite lengthy depending on the protocol chosen (e.g., a truly extensive search, data charting). Most of the limitations identified above could have been solved by that. And referring again to how data could not be obtained past 2021 for this study, it is encouraged that researchers engaged with scoping reviews include the most up to date records whenever possible.

Despite the search comprehensiveness demonstrated here, the present sample is relatively small. So, even though it is unknown if a larger sample is possible to achieve given this study’s scope, scholars are still encouraged to try to include more articles. Specifically, through searching more than five online databases, trying to expand the search for gray literature, and, if possible, performing searches in languages in addition to English.

Changing the conversation from the methodology of scoping reviews to the actual methodological contents of the sample, one gap that is easily noticed is the lack of qualitative or mixed-method studies, therefore these designs are encouraged for an enhanced perspective of LD in business contexts. Qualitative research has been growing strong in management science due to the value of their rich insights (Bluhm et al., 2011 ) and it seems that the LD field has plenty of space to leverage this opportunity. This is not to say that more quantitative designs are not needed, but right now it seems that the field can significantly grow from qualitative and mixed-methods contributions.

For sponsored authors or authors with a higher budget and a more numerous team, it would be interesting to conduct a scoping review similar to this one but not restricted to the business context as insights from other fields like health sciences, sports, education, military can help advance the science of LD. It would finally be interesting for a future scoping review of LD to organize the research through levels of analysis, namely intraindividual change, group change, and organizational change.

Even though the most recent studies analyzed by this scoping review worked with more gender balanced samples, male participants are predominant overall, hence future research is encouraged to continue working with a balanced proportion of males and females. Alternatively, all-female samples could leverage new insights as no studies under the current criteria have explored this angle yet. Relatedly, the LD field could unlock novel contributions by going beyond sex in terms of demographic characteristics. For example, age, race, social class, and gender identity are potentially good opportunities to extend knowledge.

The present scoping review intended to understand how true longitudinal studies of LD are being researched and what inconsistencies exist, primarily from a methodological perspective. After a rigorous search process ranging from 1900 to 2021, evidence was extracted from 19 peer-reviewed articles set in business contexts and measuring LD change with at least three waves of data. The current study elucidates gaps, patterns, and inconsistencies in terms of many aspects including nature of data, research strategy, participants, waves of data, concepts, analytical techniques, and key findings. Some observed highlights include the pattern to measure behavioral concepts and the emergent interest in measuring cognitive concepts. The procedures of the most recent works are shorter in length and more numerous in waves of data, the opposite was true a few decades ago. More sophisticated analytical techniques have been used in recent years as the field understands LD as a developmental science and art. However, there is an overreliance on quantitative methods leading to a bright future for qualitative and mixed-methods longitudinal researchers. Given the historical gender imbalance in participants studied (combined sample is 67% male), balanced or all-female samples can lead to original insights.

Search strings used in the five online databases .

List of selected studies and basic details .

Data availability

The authors declare that the data is available upon request.

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Cotrim, F.S., Da Silva Gomes, J.F. Longitudinal studies of leadership development: a scoping review. Curr Psychol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06567-4

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Insights from 20 years (2004–2023) of supply chain disruption research: trends and future directions based on a bibliometric analysis.

1. Introduction

2. literature review, 3. materials and methods, 3.1. sample creation.

• Only papers published in international journals were retrieved, while other types of publications were not considered;
• Similarly, only papers written in English were considered.
• The paper’s metadata: authors, journal, bibliographic data, publication year, document title, and document type (article vs. review);
• The authors’ keywords;
• The publication option (traditional vs. open access);
• Funding information.

3.2. Descriptive Analyses

3.3. keyword analysis and trend.

• Authors often use slightly different terms to express the same concept. This is the case for singular or plural forms, British or American spelling of words, usage of capital letters/lower case letters, usage of hyphenation, or abbreviations (e.g., COVID vs. Coronavirus);
• Acronyms can sometimes be used as keywords instead of the full text.
• Well-established (‘core’), with high frequency and high persistence. They are expected to denote themes that have long been studied by many authors in the field;
• Intermittent, with low frequency and high persistence. Terms in this category denote themes that have been known for many years, but have been studied with low continuity;
• Phantom/emerging, with low frequency and low persistence. These topics could be relatively new to the research field or could describe themes that have progressively disappeared;
• Trendy, with high frequency and low persistence. These topics are relatively new but have already attracted the attention of many researchers.
• The subset of keywords that were observed in all periods of analysis, as these terms are expected to reflect relevant themes to the selected field of research. For those terms, their classification across the four periods was mapped, so as to delineate a trend in the interest toward the specific theme;
• The subset of keywords with a minimum frequency of 30, thus indicating a high recurrence of the related topics in the targeted field of research. These keywords were first grouped by macro-areas; then, their trend in time was evaluated jointly with that of some core topics of the targeted field of research to identify possible correlations.

4.1. Descriptive Analyses

4.2. keyword analysis and trend.

• Query-related terms: as the query settings expressively included terms such as “supply chain” and “disruption”, these terms (and their combination “supply chain disruption”) were grouped in a single query-related category;
• COVID-relates terms: this category includes the terms “COVID-19” and “COVID-19 pandemic”;
• Disruption-related terms: these terms are semantically related to the topic of “disruption”, which, however, is not necessarily used as a keyword. Those terms are supply disruption; pandemic; disruption risk; disruption management; uncertainty; ripple effect; demand disruption; and disaster;
• Risk- or resilience-related terms: this category includes terms that were not used in the query settings but that appear to be related to the more general theme of risk management or resilience, whose relationship with supply chain disruptions is obvious. These terms include (supply chain) resilience, (supply chain) risk management, (supply chain) risk, robustness; resilient supply chain, supply risk, reliability, risk assessment; or vulnerability;
• Supply chain-related terms: as per the classification made previously, these terms do not strictly refer to disruptions, but to more general problems in the area of supply chain or supply chain management. These terms include supply chain management, supplier selection, logistics, supply chain design, supply chain network, global supply chain, supply chain network design, collaboration, supply chain coordination, or inventory management;
• Sustainability-related terms: the sustainability perspective includes four terms, namely sustainability, closed-loop supply chain, climate change, and circular economy;
• Technology-related terms: this category includes terms such as Industry 4.0, artificial intelligence, machine learning, additive manufacturing, or blockchain;
• Tools and methodologies: this group of terms includes typical engineering tools and techniques, such as simulation, game theory, (robust) optimization, stochastic programming, system dynamics, case study, or multi-criteria decision making;
• Interrelated topics: terms in this category do not strictly refer to the area of supply chain disruptions, nor the more general area of risk or supply chain management. Rather, they introduce complementary topics, such as food security, food supply chain, small and medium enterprises, innovation, agility, or systematic review.

5. Discussion

6. conclusions, supplementary materials, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Solari, F.; Lysova, N.; Romagnoli, G.; Montanari, R.; Bottani, E. Insights from 20 Years (2004–2023) of Supply Chain Disruption Research: Trends and Future Directions Based on a Bibliometric Analysis. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 7530. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177530

Solari F, Lysova N, Romagnoli G, Montanari R, Bottani E. Insights from 20 Years (2004–2023) of Supply Chain Disruption Research: Trends and Future Directions Based on a Bibliometric Analysis. Sustainability . 2024; 16(17):7530. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177530

Solari, Federico, Natalya Lysova, Giovanni Romagnoli, Roberto Montanari, and Eleonora Bottani. 2024. "Insights from 20 Years (2004–2023) of Supply Chain Disruption Research: Trends and Future Directions Based on a Bibliometric Analysis" Sustainability 16, no. 17: 7530. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177530

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Methodology

• How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

Published on January 2, 2023 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 11, 2023.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic .

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates, and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes , and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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Table of contents

What is the purpose of a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1 – search for relevant literature, step 2 – evaluate and select sources, step 3 – identify themes, debates, and gaps, step 4 – outline your literature review’s structure, step 5 – write your literature review, free lecture slides, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions, introduction.

• Quick Run-through
• Step 1 & 2

When you write a thesis , dissertation , or research paper , you will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
• Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic.

Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate school or pursue a career in research. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

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Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

• Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
• Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
• Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
• Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions .

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:

• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can also use boolean operators to help narrow down your search.

Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

You likely won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question.

For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• What are the key theories, models, and methods?
• Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible , and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can use our template to summarize and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using. Click on either button below to download.

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography , where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

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See an example

To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, be sure you understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

• Most research has focused on young women.
• There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
• But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat—this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.

Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text , your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, you can follow these tips:

• Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers — add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts

In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance.

When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting. Not a language expert? Check out Scribbr’s professional proofreading services !

This article has been adapted into lecture slides that you can use to teach your students about writing a literature review.

Scribbr slides are free to use, customize, and distribute for educational purposes.

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If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other  academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion .

An  annotated bibliography is a list of  source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a  paper .  

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McCombes, S. (2023, September 11). How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates. Scribbr. Retrieved August 29, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/literature-review/

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