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• Impact of Globalization on Nepal

Learn about the impact of globalization on Nepal and how it has affected its economy, society, and culture. Understand the opportunities and challenges of globalization and how Nepal is responding to them.

The word "globalization" refers to the increase in interconnectedness and interdependence of the world's economies, societies, and cultures. It is a process accelerated by technological, transportation, and communication improvements. It is the process by which one organization develops international influence or starts operating on an internal scale. 

The concept of globalization can be traced back centuries, but the term itself was popularized in the 1990s. Nepal has pursued a globalization policy since joining the World Trade Organization in 2004. 

Some of the positive impacts of globalization in the context of Nepal are listed below;

• Good relations with other countries: Globalization is very important to maintain good relationships with other countries around the world. When the countries enter into mutual trading, there will be an interaction between the people, which helps to maintain a good relationship with each other and exchange their ideas, cultures, knowledge, etc. with one another.
• Expansion of market: Globalization helps expand the markets of small countries like Nepal. It integrates the country with the rest of the world. Goods efficiently produced can be sold worldwide in an extensive international market. This will result in large-scale production.
• Technology transfer: Globalization has made it easier for Nepal to access new technologies and ideas from around the world. By adopting new technologies, Nepal can improve productivity, reduce costs, and increase competitiveness.
• Voice against global issues: Globalization has helped to raise voices against global issues by increasing connectivity, raising global awareness, enabling the formation of transnational advocacy networks, and facilitating the work of international organizations.
• Job opportunities: Globalization has increased job opportunities in capital-scarce, labor-rich, least-developed countries like Nepal and has contributed to the growth of the global economy.
• Access to various goods and services: Globalization has increased access to various goods and services available at a lower price in the country. People don't have to rely on one product or service, as they find various alternatives.
• Social-cultural transformation: Globalization has resulted in social and cultural transformation, as many countries have peacefully celebrated each other's cultures, religions, and traditions as a result of globalization. 
• People's participation: Globalization has increased people's willingness to demonstrate and speak out against injustice, inequality, and corruption. It directly or indirectly impacts Nepal as well, as people here raise their voices against such activities to show participation.
• Quality product: Globalization can help to create quality products by providing access to technology, increasing competition, developing global standards and regulations, facilitating collaboration and partnerships, and enabling manufacturers to receive feedback from customers around the world.
• Collaboration and partnership: Globalization can facilitate collaboration and partnerships between manufacturers, suppliers, and customers from around the world. This can lead to the sharing of knowledge and expertise.

  Some of the negative impacts of globalization are listed below:

• Erosion of national sovereignty and cultural homogenization: Globalization can lead to the erosion of national sovereignty and cultural homogenization by increasing economic interdependence, negotiating free trade agreements, creating powerful global corporations, spreading Western cultural values, and promoting standardization.
• Income inequality: Globalization can create income inequality in Nepal by creating a skewed distribution of benefits, increasing competition, concentrating wealth, undermining labor standards, and creating unequal access to education and training.
• Increased the gap between poor and rich countries: Globalization has increased the gap between poor and rich countries. As a result of multinational corporations' dominance, domestic businesses in least-developed countries such as Nepal have struggled to thrive.
•    Brain drain Nepal has experienced a significant brain drain as skilled workers such as doctors and engineers relocate to other countries for better opportunities, resulting in a skilled labor shortage in the country.
• Political Influence: It is one of the negative impacts of globalization in Nepal. The major world power tends to intervene in internal affairs and influence the leaders of the respective nations to work for them and for their self-interest, which is not always in the favor of the citizen of these countries.
• Empowering multinational companies: It has another negative impact. For example, when multinational companies open up their businesses in the host country, they make sure to earn lots of profit, and after work is finished, profits usually go back to their home nations, leaving the host nations with nothing in their hands.
• Job displacement: globalization can create job displacement in Nepal by increasing competition from imports, leading to the relocation of production, adopting automation and technology, shifting demand from traditional industries, and expanding the informal sector.

There will always be positive and negative aspects to everything, depending on what part of the world you are in. People who support globalization will emphasize its benefits, whereas those who oppose it will emphasize its drawbacks. Therefore, it is important for countries to carefully manage the process of globalization to ensure that its benefits are maximized and its negative impacts are minimized. This can be achieved through effective policies and regulations that promote sustainable and inclusive economic growth and cultural exchange.

• Globalization
• Positive impact of globalization
• Negative impact of globalization
• drawbacks of globalization
• Merits of globalization
• Impacts of globalization in context of Nepal

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Nepal’s Crisis: Mobilising International Influence

Pro-democracy demonstrations and a general strike across Nepal in recent weeks mark a decisive shift in the country’s political equations and probably signal the approaching end of King Gyanendra’s direct rule.

• "> Download PDF

I. Overview

Pro-democracy demonstrations and a general strike across Nepal in recent weeks mark a decisive shift in the country’s political equations and probably signal the approaching end of King Gyanendra’s direct rule. A successful popular movement could advance the search for peace but will depend on strong political party leadership in dealing with the Maoists; a messy transition would bring its own risks. Although domestic events will determine the speed and direction of political change, international players should use their influence to establish practical plans to help stabilise the situation and build a more lasting foundation for peace. This briefing argues for the early formation of a Contact Group (consisting of India, the U.S. and UK, working with the UN) and a complementary Peace Support Group (other key donors and international financial institutions) to form a common front on strategy and tactics to maximise international influence in assisting Nepal’s escape from its worsening conflict.

The conflict remains soluble and a genuine democratic mass movement increases the chances of a sustainable and principled settlement. However, the urgent need to defuse the current political confrontation could lead to a hasty and unsustainable deal. Political leaders lack the necessary public confidence to conclude a backroom agreement with the king, while a simple return to a pre-royal coup arrangement of a palace-appointed prime minister would be inherently unstable. In particular, even an interim settlement must take account of the Maoists and be designed to continue the process of drawing them into mainstream politics. The alternative would be to drive them into increased militancy and tempt them to exploit to the full their capacity for violence.

While the international community has taken some welcome steps, these need to be better coordinated, and far more remains to be done. No single player is capable of a decisive intervention, apart from India, which does not want to take heavy-handed unilateral action. However, as in other conflicts, a group of friends or Contact Group could make a critical difference.

Nepal meets most of the criteria for a successful initiative of this kind. The conflict is increasingly ripe for resolution. There is international willingness to commit time and resources to support a viable peace plan if one can be constructed. All major international players share a fundamental interest in seeing a more stable and prosperous Nepal. All sides of the conflict, albeit at different points and to different degrees, have suggested that international assistance would be useful in a peace process.

The priorities include deciding on shared principles, which would force the major external players to confront the differences in their approaches; agreeing on a level of coordination, including an initial assessment of areas where there could be a united policy and where further discussion would be needed; initiating talks on parallel approaches to assist the political effort – for example, using human rights and development assistance to build confidence and ensure donors’ democracy and governance initiatives are in line with the overall goals; and developing far more detailed plans to help move a peace agreement and post-conflict settlement forward.

A Contact Group should focus on:

• immediate practical planning, including on the contingency of a sudden change in government; preparations for a small international ceasefire monitoring mission; and establishment of a channel of communication with the Maoists;  
• maintaining pressure for a peace process, including by introducing targeted sanctions on the royal government (a visa ban, investigation of overseas assets in preparation for freezing them and restriction of army participation in UN peacekeeping operations);  
• supporting the democratic mainstream politically and practically, in particular by assisting parties to prepare for negotiations and interim arrangements; and  
• keeping pressure on the Maoists to move towards peace and give tangible proof of their willingness to abandon violence by warning them that if they obstruct progress towards a peace process or fail to respect the understandings they have entered into with OHCHR, donors and the mainstream political parties, Contact Group members will coordinate efforts to apprehend senior leaders and interdict any cross-border movements.

A broader Peace Support Group, bringing together major bilateral and multilateral donors, should work in parallel to:

• review development assistance;  
• prepare to support transitional processes such as constitutional reform and viable elections; and  
• start planning for how to deal with a possible “peace dividend”.

A follow-up to the 2002 London conference, which first brought donors together to discuss the implications of Nepal’s conflict, might facilitate consideration of these matters. In any event, work on transitional arrangements should start immediately. Recent events suggest a precipitous collapse of the inherently unstable royal government is a distinct possibility. The international community has offered considerable moral support to Nepal in its search for peace and democracy. It must now get ready to translate that support into practical, coordinated and complementary efforts to deliver a viable peace process.

Kathmandu/Brussels, 19 April 2006

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Nepal-India Relations: Post the Rise of Modi

30 March, 2022

• Home / Research-Article / Nepal-India Relations: Post the Rise of Modi

Nepal and India’s bilateral relations have been traditionally based on age-old connection of common culture, history and religion. Both the countries have been actively engaged with each other in every aspect whether politically, economically or culturally. The two countries established diplomatic relations back in 1947, agreeing to the principles of peaceful coexistence and sovereignty.  Both the countries have a common approach to many regional and international institutions like the United Nations, SAARC, BIMSTEC and BBIN. These mutually beneficial engagements have obviously contributed to a firm foundation for the Nepal-India Relations in the past. Both the countries share an open border, making the transfer of goods and people an easy task. However, in recent years there have been some new trends in the relations. This has been due to the geopolitical conditions that both countries face in a changing world order. India has been varying of China’s growing interest towards its neighbors especially Nepal which has always been a friendly and trustable alliance for India. Nepal has also been doubtful of India’s intention keeping in mind that India is a dominant regional power in South Asia.  Moreover, there have been significant changes in the bilateral relations after the rise of Mr. Narendra Modi as the Prime Minister of India. Many in Nepal, sees the appointment of Mr. Modi as an opportunity for Nepal to revive Hinduism after the abolition of a Hindu Monarchy in 2008. The Prime Minister also retaliated with a similar response by referring to Nepal as “an old and valued friend” on Twitter.

HISTORICAL CONNECTION

Historically, the foreign relations of Nepal’s with India, during the British rule were governed by the Treaty of Sugauli. Later after Indian independence the Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship established formal relations.

The India-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship is the most important pillar of the bilateral relations between India and Nepal. The Treaty consisting of 10 articles was signed by the last Rana Prime Minister of Nepal and the Indian Ambassador to Nepal in 1950. The treaty stands on the premises that both the countries will maintain everlasting peace and friendship and recognize each other’s sovereignty, territoriality and independence. According to Article 6 and 7 of the Treaty, it was agreed that the nationals of the countries would be treated with the same privilege that they offer their citizens. This enabled the Indian and Nepalese to move freely across the open borders without any passport or visa. They can live, work and own property in either country.

During the 1950s India’s influence on Nepal continued to grow. However, the royal family of Nepal was varying of India’s growing influence and after the 1962, Sino-Indian war the relations between India and Nepal got severely affected [i] . During the 1960s, the situation became more stressful with Nepal questioning the security arrangement and asking India to withdraw the security check posts. India did withdraw its military check posts and liaison group in 1970s [ii] . The tensions were much visible in the mid-1970s when Nepal condemned the annexation of Sikkim by India [iii] . After this, Nepal under the leadership of King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev proposed that Nepal should be recognized as “Zone of Peace” where the military competition would be forbidden. This proposal was immediately supported by Pakistan and China. However, India remained silent on this as this was a sign of distrust for the treaty which was signed in 1950. Despite of such views, the proposal got support of 112 countries in 1990s. Some of the source of dissatisfaction among the Royal family of Nepal was that India was sponsoring the opposing parties of Nepal and allowing them to launch campaigns on their soil.

There was a major dispute between Nepal and India regarding the trade and transit treaty. Nepal refused to accommodate with a single treaty for trade and transit resulting in hardline positions taken by both the countries. With time, India put forth economic sanctions on Nepal [iv] . During the late 1980s, Nepal decoupled its rupee with the Indian Rupee as well as India denied the port facilities in Calcutta. According to some sources the GDP growth of Nepal was reduced to 1.5% which was 9.5% earlier [v] . Another reason for this political squeeze on the part of India was its dissatisfaction with Nepal imposing a permit rule for Indian citizens entering to work in Nepal. During 1988, it also attempted to get close with China by acquiring weaponry from it [vi] .

This prompted India to reconsider its economic relations with Nepal which were at its worst phase. This could even have security implications for it. Nepal also realized the huge economic loss that it was bearing due to strenuous relation with India. This was also the time when a change in the Nepal’s political system was witnessed. The King was forced to transition to a parliamentary democracy. This phase saw a revival of friendly relations with India as the parties were pro-India. During the 1990s, Nepalese Prime Minister Girija Prasad Koirala visited India and treaties of separate trade and transit was signed along with other economic agreements which benefitted Nepal. During the 2000s, the relations soured a bit during the rule of King Gyanendra, however relations were normalized with the visit of Prachanda in 2008.

During the 2010s the relations became amicable. India and Nepal pushed for a three-tier- mechanism i.e. ministerial, secretary and technical levels, with regards to water resources. There have been perceptions in India regarding the increased Maoism and the influence of China which it alleges has separated Nepal from India.

POST 2014: CHANGES AND CHALLENGES

After the overwhelming votes gathered by the Bhartiya Janata Party in 2014, Mr. Narendra Modi was appointed as the Prime Minister of India. Modi visited Nepal in August 2014 as a part of its “Neighborhood First Policy”. The visit was highly successful and Modi became the first foreign leader to address the constituent assembly of Nepal. Under Narendra Modi, India demanded some amendments in the constitution of Nepal. However, with election of K P Oli there was evidence of growing rift in Nepal-India relations. So, in 2015 India and Nepal relations saw another downfall. India talked about its concerns over the new constitution and carried out an unofficial blockade preventing crucial supplies from entering the country. Oli clearly criticized the move and in response to the blockade signed a trade and transit agreement with China. Thus, playing the “China card”, Oli swiftly tried to end India’s monopoly on essential goods [vii] .

Nevertheless, we also witnessed India’s quick response during the destructive earthquake that strucked Nepal. It provided Nepal with relief assistance worth US$ 67 million [viii] . In reality, India and Nepal relations are much higher than the treaties and agreements. Both the countries have frequently organized visits and interactions which has reflected the importance that both accord to each other. However, there have been changes in the relations between India and Nepal after the rise of Modi. In fact, the relations have witnessed a crisis as Modi raised concerns on Nepal’s constitution and the economic blockade came into the picture creating widespread anger among the Nepalese. This act was seen as interference in its sovereignty and resulted in a failed policy of keeping the neighborhood first. In order to facilitate connectivity and strategic influence, India has to revise its relations with its neighbors.

In 2018, India and Nepal signed three new agreements on agriculture, connectivity and railways. Both the countries termed these three agreements as “path breaking”. Inauguration of a petroleum pipeline between Nepal and India was also carried out. However, both the sides kept away from some key bilateral issues. After the second visit of Oli, a joint 12-point statement was issued. Before the visit, there were speculations that Oli would consider a revision of the 1950 Treaty of Peace and Friendship as this agenda formed a big part of what Oli promised during the election campaigns. He demanded for the “resetting and redesigning” of relations with India. There were some clear messages that this visit sent to India-

It upheld the sovereignty of Nepal and indicates that mutual respect is the key to friendly relations. Interfering in the internal politics of each other can have drastic impact of the bilateral relations.

Oli represented the need for a greater economic diplomacy in order to enhance the growth and prosperity of Nepal. Both the countries should focus on the economic and cultural issues rather than more hardline political issues [ix] .

Since Deuba came to power there have been no top-level visits between India and Nepal. The ruling party also invited Bhartiya Janata Party’s Foreign Affairs Department chief Vijay Chauthaiwale where he met other top leaders of Nepal [x] .

The current ruling part of India has clearly indicated that it is willing to support Nepalese parties who are pro-Hindu. Some Nepali congress leaders also visited India and met External Affairs minister S. Jaishankar as well as Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister Mr. Yogi Aditya Nath. This visit was important as it helped the ruling party of Nepal to build party-to-party relations and also learn from BJP’s organization building. This meeting also provided Nepal an opportunity to raise certain key concerns. Deuba also met Modi on the sidelines of COP26 in Glasgow, where he invited Modi to Nepal.

In January 2021, the sixth meeting of Nepal-India Joint Commission (JC) was organized to discuss various bilateral issues. Issues such as COVID-19 vaccines, boundary and border management, connectivity, trade, culture and education were discussed. After the meeting, India provided one million doses of Covishield vaccine to Nepal.

COLLABORATIVE CONCERNS

India and Nepal relations are based on certain key concerns. These issues have determined and continue to determine the blueprint of bilateral relations between the two ancient friends. There are three major concerns which are elaborated below:

Foreign Direct Investment has been important for the economic development of Nepal. Investors have made investments in sectors like tourism, hydropower, construction, industries etc. Nepal’s location and ecology have always been a point of attraction for countries like India and China. This has been due to the availability of young and very affordable supply of labour and the diverse climatic conditions which are favourable for investments in different sectors. It is also a great tourist attraction for both the Indian and Chinese travellers.

Recently, there has been a large Chinese investment in Nepal. It has even surpassed the Indian Investment by three times. There was no FDI from India during the period of 1996-2006. So, India’s investments in Nepal haven’t been very significant. Indian investments are also behind the race accounting to 30% of the total FDI in Nepal. Some of the major Indian investments in Nepal include Surya Nepal, Dabur, Hindustan Unilever, State Bank of India, LIC etc. It has also made investments in the hydropower sector. Many Hydropower projects are under work.

FDI in Nepal have been lower as compared to other countries having access to the sea due to the low investment cost. Since Nepal has been sandwiched between India and China, which are among the fastest growing economy in the world, it is beneficial for Nepal to attract investors who are capable to export goods to these two Asian giants.

According to World Bank’s Report, Nepal’s net FDI inflow stands at 0.5% as of 2019 [xi] . Efforts should be concentrated towards removal of administrative hassle for the foreign investors as well reducing corruption. Unless there is political stability and less policy uncertainty, investors will not be willing to invest.

For some time, there have been certain lows in India-Nepal relations. For example- Indian notes of higher denominations such as INR 500 and INR 2000. This has certainly caused difficulties to Indians in Nepal.  

Border Dispute

In a speech at election rally at Uttarakhand last year, Modi stated that India has built a road and is planning to expand it via Lipulekh to Manas Khand which is a gateway to reach Man Sarovar, a Hindu pilgrimage in Tibet. Although the sole aim of Modi to claim the disputed region as a part of his initiative was to attract Hindu vote, it created widespread anger in Nepal [xii] . It had also laid down claims of the territory of Lipulekh previously. After the up rise and concerns rose in Nepal, India released a press statement that they would only communicate via the established channels and “most appropriate” avenue for dialogue. In response to this, Nepal’s foreign ministry also released its statement and reaffirmed its claim of three territories- Limpiyadhura, Lipulekh and Kalapani. It demanded that India should stop its construction activities in these territories.

This border dispute dates back to 2015, during the trade and transit agreement made between China and India [xiii] . Nepal protested to this by stating that it was a clear violation of its territorial integrity. The dispute revived again when India released a new political map in 2019 [xiv] . In 2020, Nepal too issued a new map including the territories. The government lead by Oli termed it as a “historic moment” for Nepal and even circulated the new map to be published in school books [xv] .

The territorial dispute is a major issue of concern between India-Nepal relations. Although the current Prime Minister of Nepal Sher Bahadur Deuba has remained silent on this dispute and is often pressured by the opposition parties led by Oli to speak up and make this as a priority issue.

Both the countries should make efforts to solve the border dispute diplomatically. This is a political issue and cannot be solved merely by secretary level discussions. Mr. Modi clearly refused to accept the final report of the Eminent Person’s group (EPG) which consists of experts from both the countries. In long term, such irritants in the India-Nepal relations can cause anti-Indian nationalism in Nepal which can harm the age-old friendship to a significant extent.

While both India and China have their interests in Nepal, its important for Nepal to continue balancing its policies in such a manner that it serves twin interests of stability and development for his own country. For Nepal, mutual trust is the key to good bilateral relations with both India and Nepal. It seeks to bring investment in the country from both its neighbors for a rapid economic development.

Apart from investment and economic cooperation from both the countries, one of the greatest concerns is the COVID-19 which has certainly resulted in Nepal seeking vaccines from India. China who is rapidly increasing its footprint in South Asia also agreed on delivering the Sino pharm vaccine to Nepal [xvi] .

Thus, interdependence between India and Nepal is the key to improved bilateral relations. More than India, Nepal is dependent on it. There is an urgent need to revitalize the cultural relations with India. This would not only attract Indian investments in Nepal but also increase the economic activities between them. This is a great way to engage India and create a conducive environment for interdependence. This aspect provides a great leeway to India as compared to China when it comes to develop cordial relations with Nepal.

India-Nepal Relations after the rise of Modi have witnessed several ups and downs. The onus of improving the relations between any countries lies on the leaders of political parties. The leaders have to act wisely and objectively in order to improve bilateral relations. Although every relation is bound and analyzed by the historical ties, but when most of the baggage is negative the leaders need to free themselves of the old mindset. Nepal has always been an ally of India since the British times, but it has its own foreign policy which is based on sovereignty, contrasting with the Bhutanese model which India though would fulfill the expectations of the Nepalese [xvii] . Nepal demands a more refined bilateral relation with India. The inability to fulfill the aspirations of Nepal has certainly pushed it to enhance its relations with China who certainly considers Nepal as an important ally for its own strategic objectives. This indicates that though India-Nepal relations have been mainly governed by people-to-people ties but there is also a need to boost the government-to-government ties.

In order to achieve a high level of cordiality, both the countries should sensitively understand each other’s concerns. Both the countries should adopt an approach where they should not resort to extreme means of manifesting dissatisfaction. For Example, the economic blockade on part of India and the disputed map revealed by Nepal which claimed some territories of India. There is a need for both the countries to understand the importance of each other’s support not only to maintain regional stability but also to promote each other’s interest globally.

[i] Savada, Andrea Matles, ed. (1991), “Foreign Policy: India”, Nepal: A country study, GPO for the Library Congress.

[ii] Singh, Raj Kumar (2009). Global Dimensions of Indo-Nepal Political Relations: Post Independence. ISBN 9788121210256

[iii] Ibid.

[iv] Savada, Andrea Matles, ed. (1991), “Foreign Policy: India”, Nepal: A country study, GPO for the Library Congress.

[v] Blanchard, Jean-Marc F, Norrin M. (18 July 2013). Economic Statecraft and Foreign Policy. ISBN 978-1136225819.

[vi] “Nepal’s Economy is Gasping as India, a Huge Neighbour, Squeezes it Hard”. The New York times. 11 April 1989

[vii] Ranjit Rae, (9 October 2021), Resetting Nepal-India ties, The Kathmandu Post.

[viii] Pramod Jaiswal, (16 August 2017). India-Nepal Relations: Mixed Fortunes, Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies.

[ix] Kamal Dev Bhattarai, 5 November 2021, Nepal’s New PM Deuba Seeks Better Ties with India, The Diplomat.

[xi] Hari Bansh Jha, (30 October 2020), Nepal’s FDI challenges, ORF.

[xii] Santosh Sharma Poudel, (9 February 2022), India-Nepal Territorial Dispute Flares up Again, The Diplomat.

[xiii] Ibid.

[xiv] Ibid.

[xv] Kallol Bhattacherjee, (20 May, 2020), Nepal’s new political map claims India’s territories, The Hindu

[xvi] “Nepal resumes vaccination campaign with China’s Sinopharm, (8 June 2021), WION.

[xvii] Ranjit Rae, (9 October 2021), Resetting Nepal-India ties, The Kathmandu Post.

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The globalisation of food

Sujeev Shakya

For the last fortnight, Santosh Shah, a UK based Nepali chef, has been in the news for featuring in a renowned UK reality cooking show for professionals. His progress through the show has not only made Nepalis around the world proud but has also made many introspect on the great food heritage we inherit. The growth of migration in the past three decades has also spread Nepali food to the places the diaspora resides in. One can find many Indian restaurants owned and operated by Nepalis in the US East Coast. And, even in cities like Seychelles, the number of Nepali owned and operated restaurants will surprise people. The ubiquitous momo has come to represent Nepal everywhere, even if its origin lies elsewhere. But through all strides the cuisines of Nepal have made, the rise of Nepali food can be traced to a few particular aspects.

When Nepal opened its doors to the world in the early 50s, the tourists brought with them a vibrant café culture. The members of the then royal family opened hotels and restaurants and provided other establishments with their patronage. This gave many Nepalis an opportunity to learn how to master global dishes. A Russian dish like the Chicken A La Kiev is still made to perfection in many small restaurants in Nepal, and this skill is what the people took to the world. Whenever I travel, it is amusing to meet my former colleagues at the Soaltee Hotel managing very high-end restaurants with the staff they would have taken from the workplace. In the opening of the floodgates of migration in the 1990s, the people in the food and beverage sector were the ones that got better jobs and started the first wave of migration. Many of them have now made it big like Chef Santosh Shah.

Further, when we talk about Nepali food and Nepali identity, it goes beyond the country of Nepal. In the many Indian restaurants operating in Thailand especially in Bangkok and Phuket, one will find the staff and managers chatting in Nepali, only to realise they are Burmese Nepali. Similarly, the thousands of Bhutanese refugees settled in the US are Nepalis as far as food is concerned, and they find comfort in that too. It is very difficult for third-generation Assamese Nepalis to explain their origin, the Indian citizenship that they gave up and their identity as Americans, but they are included in the larger Nepali identity whenever their kitchen or food comes into play. A Tibetan refugee from Bylakuppe or Dharamshala in India is more comfortable not to fight on the origins of the word momo in the US and do not mind calling the barbecued meat in their food menu as sekuwa . They get engulfed in the pan Himalayan Nepali identity. The spread of Buddhism in the west also pushed this Himalayan cuisine identified with Nepal more than any other country specifically.

Food has been the biggest tool of globalisation and since time immemorial the most peaceful way of overtaking cultures and communities without waging a war. When Thaksin Shinawatra took over as Prime Minister in Thailand, he called for all global cities to have Thai restaurants and every kitchen in the world to cook Thai food. This soft diplomacy strategy has been very successful; in any corner of the world, it is very difficult to find people who have not tasted Thai food.

Moreover, there has been a change in the food habits of people back home which has perhaps influenced the cuisines of Nepal in a way. Previously, there were many psychological restrictions when it came to the food habits of Nepalis. Some people, questioning the caste of the people cooking the food in highway eateries and restaurants, used to shun such establishments. Some people equated meat with wealth, which did disservice many superb vegetarian ingredients and dishes. Now, people are less bothered with caste questions when it comes to food, which translates to more Nepalis promoting Nepali food globally. Also, with the international influences of vegan food, health-conscious eating and calorie counting, a variety of Nepali legumes, vegetables and herbs have begun to be rediscovered.

Nettle and buckwheat, which were associated with poverty, now are expensive superfoods. Vegetables like the lauka (bottle gourd) and karela (bitter gourd) have become sought-after health foods. Avocados are as popular and as expensive as meat in the Kathmandu Valley. I have continued to argue that the pictures of fruits and vegetables in an Instagram post looks much better than the pictures of a dead goat.

There will be more to write as globalisation moves from markets to kitchens. 

Sujeev Shakya Shakya is the founder and CEO of beed, an international management consulting and advisory firm. He is the author of Unleashing Nepal, Unleashing the Vajra and The Pandemic Years.

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Political Instability And Uncertainty Loom Large In Nepal

By  gaurab shumsher thapa.

• February 16, 2021

This article was originally published in South Asian Voices.

Nepal’s domestic politics have been undergoing a turbulent and significant shift. On December 20, 2020, at the recommendation of Prime Minister KP Sharma Oli, President Bidya Devi Bhandari  dissolved  the House of Representatives, calling for snap elections in April and May 2021. Oli’s move was a result of a serious internal rift within the ruling Nepal Communist Party (NCP) that threatened to depose him from power. Opposition parties and other civil society stakeholders have condemned the move as unconstitutional and several writs have been  filed  against the move at the Supreme Court (SC) with hearings underway. Massive  protests  have taken place condemning the prime minister’s move. If the SC reinstates the parliament, Oli is in course to lose the moral authority to govern and could be subject to a vote of no-confidence. If the SC validates his move, it is unclear if he would be able to return to power with a majority.

The formation of a strong government after decades of political instability was expected to lead to a socioeconomic transformation of Nepal. Regardless of the SC’s decision, the country is likely to see an escalation of political tensions in the days ahead. The internal rift that led to the December parliamentary dissolution and the political dimensions of the current predicament along with the domestic and geopolitical implications of internal political instability will lead to a serious and long-term weakening of Nepal’s democratic fabric.

Power Sharing and Legitimacy in the NCP

Differences between NCP chairs Oli and former Prime Minister Pushpa Kamal Dahal have largely premised on a power-sharing arrangement, leading to a vertical division in the party. In the December 2017 parliamentary elections, a coalition between the Oli-led Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist Leninist or UML) and the Dahal-led Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Center or MC)  won  nearly two-thirds of the seats. In May 2018, both parties merged to  form  the NCP. However, internal politics weakened this merger. While both the factions claim to represent the authentic party, the Election Commission has sought clarifications from both factions before deciding on the matter. According to the  Political Party Act , the faction that can substantiate its claim by providing signatures of at least 40 percent of its central committee members is eligible to get recognized as the official party. The faction that is officially recognized will get the privilege of retaining the party and election symbol, while the unrecognized faction will have to register as a new party which can hamper its future electoral prospects. A faction led by Dahal and former Prime Minister Madahav Kumar Nepal, was planning to initiate a vote of no-confidence motion against Oli but, sensing an imminent threat to his position, Oli decided to motion for the dissolution of the parliament.

Internal Party Dynamics

Several internal political dynamics have led to the current state of turmoil within the NCP. Dahal has accused Oli of disregarding the power-sharing arrangement agreed upon during the formation of NCP according to which Oli was  supposed  to hand over either the premiership or the executive chairmanship of the party to Dahal. In September 2020, both the leaders reached an  agreement  under which Oli would serve the remainder of his term as prime minister and Dahal would act as the executive chair of the party. Yet, Oli  failed  to demonstrate any intention to relinquish either post, increasing friction within the party. Additionally, Oli made unilateral appointments to several cabinet and government positions, further consolidating his individual authority over the newly formed NCP. He also  sidelined  the senior leader of the NCP and former Prime Minister Madhav Kumar Nepal, leading Nepal to side with Dahal over Oli. Consequently, Oli chose to dissolve the parliament and seek a fresh mandate rather than face a vote of no-confidence. Importantly, party unity between the Marxist-Leninist CPN (UML) and the Maoist CPN (MC) did not lead to expected ideological unification.

Domestic Politics and Geopolitics

Geopolitical factors and external actors have historically impacted Nepal’s domestic political landscape. Recently, in a bid to cement his authority over the NCP, Oli has attempted to improve ties with India—lately strained due to Nepal’s  inclusion  of disputed territories in its new political map—resulting in recent  high-level visits  from both countries. India has also  provided  Nepal with one million doses of COVID-19 vaccines as part of its vaccine diplomacy efforts in the region. However, while India has previously  interfered  in Nepal’s  domestic politics , it has described the current power struggle as an “ internal matter ” to prevent backlash from Nepali policymakers and to avoid a potential spillover of political unrest.

However, India’s traditionally dominant influence in Nepal has been challenged by China’s ascendancy in recent years. Due to  fears  of Tibetans potentially using Nepal’s soil to conduct anti-China activities, China considers Nepal important to its national security strategy. Beijing has traditionally maintained a non-interventionist approach to foreign policy; however, this approach is gradually changing as is evident from the Chinese ambassador to Nepal’s  proactive efforts  to  address  current crises within the NCP. Nepal’s media  speculates  that China is in favor of keeping the NCP intact as the ideological affinity between the NCP and the Communist Party of China could help China exert its political and economic influence over Nepal.

Although China is aware of India’s traditionally influential role in Nepal, it is also  skeptical  of growing U.S. interest in the Himalayan state; especially considering Oli’s push for parliamentary approval of the USD $500 million Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) grant assistance from the United States to finance the construction of electrical transmission lines in Nepal. In contrast, Dahal has opposed the MCC and has described it as part of the U.S.-led Indo-Pacific Strategy to contain China. Given Nepal is a signatory to China’s Belt and Road Initiative, Beijing might prefer development projects under the BRI framework and could lobby the Nepali government to delay or reject U.S.-led projects.

Implications for Future Governance

After the political  changes  of 2006 which ended Nepal’s decade-long armed conflict, it was expected that political stability would usher in economic development to the country. Moreover, a strong majority government under Oli raised hopes of achieving modernization. Sadly, ruling party leaders have instead engaged in a bitter power struggle, and government  corruption scandals  have undermined trust in the administration.

Amidst the current turmoil within the NCP, the main opposition party, Nepali Congress (NC), is hoping that an NCP division will raise its prospects of coming to power in the future. Although the NC has  denounced  Oli’s move for snap elections as unconstitutional, it has also stated that it will not shy away from elections if the SC decides to dissolve the lower house. Sensing increasing instability, several royalist parties and groups have accused the government of  corruption  and protested on the streets for the reinstatement of the Hindu state and constitutional monarchy to reinvent and stabilize Nepal’s image and identity.

The last parliamentary elections had provided a  mandate  of five years for the NCP to govern the country. However, Oli  decided  to seek a fresh mandate, claiming that the Dahal-Nepal faction obstructed the smooth functioning of the government. Unfortunately, domestic political instability has resurfaced as the result of an internal personality rift within the party. This worsening democratic situation will not benefit either India or China—both want to circumvent potential spillover effects. Even if the SC validates Oli’s move, elections in April are not confirmed. If elections were not held within six months from the date of dissolution, a constitutional crisis could occur. If the Supreme Court overturns Oli’s decision, he could lose his position as both the prime minister and the NCP chair. Regardless of the outcome, Nepali politics is bound to face deepening uncertainty in the days ahead.

This article was originally published in  South Asian Voices.

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The Foreign Policy Implications of Nepal’s Election

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Continued political instability could allow external powers to increase their influence in the country’s political landscape.

Nepal’s general elections have concluded. The results merit close analysis, given their wide-ranging implications for Nepal’s political stability over the long term and the country’s relations with neighbors including India and China.

With no single party garnering enough seats in the House of Representatives to form a government, President Bidhya Devi Bhandari has asked prime ministerial aspirants who can garner a majority with support from two or more parties to submit their claims by December 25.

The ruling coalition has secured 136 seats – two short of the 138 seats required to prove a majority in the 275-member House of Representatives. The coalition is presently comprised of the Nepali Congress (NC) with 89 seats, the Communist Party of Nepal-Maoist Center (CPN-MC) with 32 seats, the Communist Party of Nepal-Unified Socialist (CPN-US) with 10 seats, the Loktantrik Samajbadi Party with four seats, and the Rastriya Janamorcha Party with one seat.

Opposition Communist Party of Nepal-Unified-Marxist-Leninist (CPN-UML) and its allies, which include the Hindu nationalist and royalist Rastriya Prajatantra Party (RPP) and the Janata Samajwadi Party, have secured 92 seats. This is 46 short of the 138 seats required for a majority.

The NC-led ruling coalition is expected to form the next government, but experts have highlighted uncertainty posed by ongoing disagreements over premiership and shifting alliances.

NC Chairman and five-time Prime Minister Sher Bahadur Deuba as well as CPN-MC Chairman and two-time Prime Minister Pushpa Kamal Dahal (also known by his nom de guerre, Prachanda) are both vying for the premiership. As leader of the ruling party, Deuba is in a better position to muster support for a majority . Dahal, despite being previously deemed a “kingmaker,” has lost some of his bargaining power due to the CPN-MC’s poor electoral performance, posing less of a challenge to Deuba’s bid for premiership.

Prior to the elections, Deuba and Dahal reportedly agreed to a power-sharing deal to split the premiership during their five-year tenure. However, Deuba has remained silent regarding this issue since the voting, with Dahal allegedly seeking support from fringe parties such as the CPN-US and the Janata Samajwadi Party, even considering possible mergers with them. Notably, a communist alliance between the CPN-MC and the CPN-UML remains in the cards, although their previous merger ended in acrimony just two years ago.

With Dahal publicly proclaiming that the “government will be led on a rotational basis,” the failure to create a power-sharing deal that includes him creates potential for political upheaval. Notably, a power-sharing deal among leaders bound together only by opportunism, such as one between Deuba and Dahal, would be precarious and leave room for volatility. This was clearly demonstrated in 2020 by the disintegration of CPN-UML chair K.P. Sharma Oli and Dahal’s power-sharing deal and its aftermath.

In short, Nepal looks headed toward political instability .

Political infighting and the failure to form a lasting government – trends that have plagued the country since the end of the Maoist insurgency – would exacerbate long-standing political instability in Nepal, creating significant ramifications for its nascent democracy, which has seen 13 different governments over the last 16 years.

Additionally, it could allow external powers to increase their influence in Nepal’s political landscape – an accusation often directed at neighbors India and China. A visit from Chinese Vice Minister for Culture and Tourism Li Qun days before the general elections as well as meetings that reportedly took place between the Indian ambassador to Nepal and top Nepali political leaders have fueled these accusations, raising concerns over foreign interference in government formation.

As aptly put by former Prime Minister Baburam Bhattarai, “Nepal can only thrive through ebbs of India-China contestations and flows of India-China synergies if it is prepared to play a facilitative role of a bridge between the two neighbors.”

Indeed, balancing relations with India and China is a key concern in Nepali politics, with parties and leaders often using it for political posturing.

In the aftermath of India’s unofficial blockade on Nepal – enacted in response to the Nepali Constitution being perceived as discriminatory toward Nepalis living in the lowlands near India – K.P. Sharma Oli capitalized on the brewing anti-India rhetoric to be elected as prime minister in 2015. Throughout his three stints as premier, Oli fueled this rhetoric, publishing maps that included disputed areas as Nepal’s territory, alleging that the “Indian (COVID-19) virus” is more lethal than the Chinese and Italian ones, and claiming that Ayodhya – the birthplace of Lord Ram – lies in Nepal and that the Hindu god is thus Nepali.

Deuba, on the other hand, belongs to the NC, considered a pro-India party. His most recent premiership, following Oli’s, was welcomed by New Delhi owing to his cordial relations with India during previous premiership stints. A month into Deuba’s premiership, Minister of State for Finance and NC-member Udaya Shumsher Rana notably said , “Nepal, under this government, will be interested in maintaining good relations with all its neighbors. Nepal needs Beijing, and China has been a good neighbor to us, but India will remain special, China cannot replace India.”

Political orientations change with evolving political conditions, but a Deuba government is anticipated to be more inclined toward Delhi . This assumes significance for Nepal’s economic landscape, especially regarding global infrastructure projects.

While the CPN-UML’s manifesto includes the construction of the Nepal-China railroad as a major electoral pledge, attaching priority to the implementation of agreements with China on trade and transit, roads, and petroleum trade, the NC manifesto appears to favor the $500 million Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) grant extended by the United States over China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).

Nepali governments notoriously move around contracts contingent on parties in power, with projects often falling into politicking. This is exemplified by the Budhi Gandaki Hydropower Project – a 1,200-megawatt, $2.6 billion undertaking and Nepal’s largest hydropower endeavor to date. The Budhi Gandaki Hydropower Project was awarded to the China Gezhouba Group Corporation (CGGC) in 2017 by the Dahal administration – a decision reverted by the Deuba government in 2017 over allegations of procedural flaws in awarding the contract. In 2018, the Oli administration, once again, roped in the CGGC, only for the Deuba administration to revoke their license in 2022.

Given its leanings, the Deuba government is likely to focus on expanding collaborations with India and the United States. In fact, this August, Deuba awarded the much-touted contracts for the West Seti Hydropower Project and the Seti River Project to the National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC) – a hydropower board under the ownership of India’s Ministry of Power.

In Nepal, global infrastructure endeavors – often perceived as a threat to Nepali sovereignty and used as a political tool – have typically garnered strong reactions from the public. The BRI stoked fears that Nepal is “ following Sri Lanka’s fate ,” and was met with protesters asking to revoke the “anti-national” agreement and calling for an end to “Chinese expansionism.” The MCC, suspected to be a means of establishing U.S. military bases in Nepal, was also met with widespread criticism and protest.

The Deuba government will have to tread lightly as it navigates these endeavors. The MCC, which analysts argued could have broken the former governing alliance , may prove particularly contentious. The implementation of existing projects such as the Kathmandu-Terai-Madhesh Expressway – awarded to China First Highway Engineering over India’s Afcons Infrastructure Ltd. days before the elections – may also cause conflict.

Looking forward, signs point to Deuba serving his sixth stint as prime minister. While reviving the Nepali economy and maneuvering the China-India contest for influence should be at the top of his administration’s agenda, Deuba’s ultimate challenge will be forming a government that serves a full term.

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Culture and mental health in Nepal: an interdisciplinary scoping review

L. e. chase.

1 McGill University - Global Mental Health Program, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

R. P. Sapkota

2 Division of Social and Transcultural Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, Canada

3 Integrated Program in Neuroscience, McGill University, Montreal, Canada

L. J. Kirmayer

Efforts to address global mental health disparities have given new urgency to longstanding debates on the relevance of cultural variations in the experience and expression of distress for the design and delivery of effective services. This scoping review examines available information on culture and mental health in Nepal, a low-income country with a four-decade history of humanitarian mental health intervention. Structured searches were performed using PsycINFO, Web of Science, Medline, and Proquest Dissertation for relevant book chapters, doctoral theses, and journal articles published up to May 2017. A total of 38 publications met inclusion criteria (nine published since 2015). Publications represented a range of disciplines, including anthropology, sociology, cultural psychiatry, and psychology and explored culture in relation to mental health in four broad areas: (1) cultural determinants of mental illness; (2) beliefs and values that shape illness experience, including symptom experience and expression and help-seeking; (3) cultural knowledge of mental health and healing practices; and (4) culturally informed mental health research and service design. The review identified divergent approaches to understanding and addressing mental health problems. Results can inform the development of mental health systems and services in Nepal as well as international efforts to integrate attention to culture in global mental health.

Introduction

While mental health problems are increasingly recognized as a global health priority, debate continues over the relevance of cultural variation for the application of psychiatric diagnoses and treatments (Chisholm et al . 2007 ; Collins et al . 2011 ; Patel et al . 2011 ; Whitley, 2015 ). This debate has taken on renewed importance with recent calls by global mental health advocates for rapid scale-up of mental health services in low- and middle-income countries (Patel et al . 2011 , 2016 ; Bhugra et al . 2017 ). Cultural and contextual factors are now understood to influence every aspect of mental health and illness (Alarcón et al . 2009 ; Kirmayer, 2013 ; Napier et al . 2014 ). Diagnostic and treatment guidelines and frameworks for mental health systems recognize cultural variation in the manifestation of distress and disorders and call for culturally appropriate interventions (Psychosocial Working Group, 2003 ; Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), 2007 ; American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ; World Health Organization, 2013 b ; Khenti et al . 2016 ).

Yet critics have pointed to a gap between the rhetoric of global mental health, which recognizes the importance of social and cultural context, and practice, in which local knowledge is often overlooked in favor of a generic biomedical psychiatric or psychosocial approach (Watters, 2010 ; Campbell & Burgess, 2012 ; Summerfield, 2012 ; Clark, 2014 ; Fernando, 2014 ; Mills, 2014 ; Bracken et al . 2016 ). There is continued concern over whether methods of research, diagnosis, and treatment that have been developed primarily in urban, high-income, and industrialized settings will meet the needs of populations in which the greatest mental health disparities are found. Failure to adequately address social and cultural contexts may limit the effectiveness of interventions and have other negative impacts, including promoting the medicalization of social suffering and undermining indigenous knowledge and support systems (Desjarlais et al . 1995 ; Argenti-Pillen, 2003 ; Clark, 2014 ; Whitley, 2015 ). The literatures of medical anthropology and sociology contain rich descriptions of many settings where global mental health is active; however, the generalizability of these accounts and their relevance to current mental health issues are not always clear to practitioners (Greene et al . 2017 ).

Nepal offers a useful case study in this discussion because it has seen many decades of social science research and there is a current need for information to guide ongoing efforts to scale up mental health services. A small landlocked country of about 29 million people with the third lowest human development rating in South Asia (United Nations Development Programme, 2016 ), Nepal has about 110 psychiatrists, 15 clinical psychologists, and 400–500 paraprofessional psychosocial workers (Luitel et al . 2015 ; Sherchan et al . 2017 ). Government investment in mental health in Nepal has historically been very limited (around 0.7% of the health budget), with more than half of available services provided by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) [World Health Organization (WHO), 2011 ; Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) Reference Group for Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Emergency Settings, 2015 ].

The development of formal mental health services in Nepal has been led by an array of local and international humanitarian actors over the past four decades. The WHO began mental health work in Nepal in 1980 and the United Mission to Nepal launched the first community mental health services in 1984 (Acland, 2002 ). The first mental health NGOs were established in the 1990s to treat those affected by the ongoing Maoist insurgency and the mass influx of refugees from Bhutan (Jordans & Sharma, 2004 ; Tol et al. 2005 ; Jordans et al . 2007 ; Center for Victims of Torture Nepal, 2011 ). With the end of the civil conflict in 2006, mental health NGOs and advocates shifted their focus to strengthening the mental health system (Upadhaya et al . 2014 ). Nepal became an implementation site for several high-profile global mental health projects (Hanlon et al . 2014 ; Mendenhall et al . 2014 ; Kohrt et al . 2015 ; Jordans et al . 2016 ). In 2015, Nepal was struck by a major earthquake, inspiring a proliferation of mental health and psychosocial projects (Seale-Feldman & Upadhaya, 2015 ). The financial resources and political will elicited by the disaster contributed to advancing national global mental health agendas (Chase et al . 2018 ).

While Nepal has been a popular site for research on social, cultural, and ritual aspects of healing, few attempts have been made to consolidate this body of work or explore its relevance to ongoing health development initiatives. A desk review published shortly after the 2015 earthquake drew attention to existing literature on cultural aspects of mental health in Nepal (IASC Reference Group for Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Emergency Settings, 2015 ). However, this review was not conducted with the methodological rigor of a scholarly report and did not capture publications produced during the period of heightened interest and investment in mental health following the disaster. The present scoping review, completed 2 years after the earthquake, takes stock of the current state of scholarship on culture and mental health in Nepal, including relevant literature from across the health and social sciences.

We employed a scoping review methodology (Arksey & O'Malley, 2005 ) with the guiding research question: ‘What knowledge exists on the relationship between culture and mental health in Nepal?’ For the purposes of this review, mental health was interpreted as encompassing mental health/wellbeing and mental illness/disorder, where ‘psychiatric’, ‘psychological’, and ‘psychosocial’ were acceptable replacements for ‘mental’. Culture was interpreted as ‘values, beliefs, knowledge, norms, and practices and the notion that these are shared among a specific set of people’ (Hruschka & Hadley, 2008 , p. 947). Publications addressing social and structural issues that exist in many societies (e.g. gender inequality and mental health stigma) that were not explicitly linked to Nepali culture in some way were excluded. Publications addressing culture among ethnic minority groups in Nepal and ethnically Nepali Bhutanese refugees were included, while those focused exclusively on populations living outside Nepal were excluded.

Searches were carried out in collaboration with a medical librarian in PsycINFO, Web of Science, Medline, and Proquest Dissertation. Terms used to study mental health and illness in both social science (e.g. ‘healing’) and clinical (e.g. ‘treatment’) fields were included, as were transliterated Nepali words commonly referenced in the mental health literature [e.g. sato , meaning ‘spirit or soul’ as used in the Nepali idiom ‘soul loss’ (see Kohrt & Hruschka, 2010 ); chhopne , literally ‘to catch, to get hold of, and to cover by someone or something’, used to describe experiences of dissociation or possession (Sapkota et al . 2014 , p. 645); NB: definitions may vary according to the context and ethnic/linguistic group]. The following search terms were used in all databases: (Mental* OR Madness OR Psycholog* OR Distress* OR Idioms* OR Caus* OR Cultur* OR Belief* OR help seeking OR Healing OR Somatic* OR Possession OR Soul* OR Spirit* OR Sato* OR Rog* OR Dokh OR Psychosocial* OR Counsel* OR Witch* OR Ritual OR Chhopne OR Ethno* OR Festival OR Treatment) AND Nepal*. Texts published up to 22 May 2017, when the searches were completed, were included in this review.

Results from the searches were screened according to the following inclusion criteria: (1) English or Nepali; (2) peer-reviewed journal article, book/book chapter, or doctoral thesis; and (3) substantial original discussion of culture in relation to mental health in Nepal. Initial screening of titles and abstracts was carried out by bilingual (English/Nepali) team members with graduate training in transcultural psychiatry. All full texts of publications appearing to meet criteria were then screened by two team members. When there was disagreement among reviewers on whether a publication met inclusion criteria, additional coauthors reviewed the full text and consensus was reached through discussion. Additional items were identified by screening the reference lists of all included texts, the aforementioned desk review (IASC Reference Group for Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Emergency Settings, 2015 ), and a bibliography of psychological research in Nepal (Maharjan, 2012 ).

Texts meeting inclusion criteria were divided among team members for ‘charting’ (Arksey & O'Malley, 2005 ): key information was extracted using a form covering methods, focus, and key findings; reviewers also indicated whether the text reflected an applied orientation, defined as including discussion of how findings could inform or improve mental health services for culturally Nepali populations. Finally, texts were collated and summarized (Arksey & O'Malley, 2005 ) by the first author with input from other team members.

The search yielded 6488 results, of which 38 met inclusion criteria (see Fig. 1 and Table 1 for an overview of the search process and included texts). To facilitate practical use of this review, we have collated publications into four thematic categories.

Search strategy.

Overview of texts included in the review

(1) Cultural determinants of mental health problems

Six publications addressed how culture influences the etiology of mental distress and disorder, in particular by shaping patterns of social organization and inequality. Kohrt et al . ( 2009 ) examined the correlation between low caste and rates of depression and anxiety, identifying poverty, lack of social support, and stressful life events as mediators. In a related article, Kohrt ( 2009 ) interpreted associations between low caste and psychological morbidity though a policy analysis, highlighting the role of restrictions in social life and access to resources that affect low caste groups in the Nepali context. A book chapter by Jack et al . ( 2010 ) described how traditional Hindu Brahmanical models of the ‘good woman’ may lead to self-silencing and consequently contribute to depression among women in Nepal. Similarly, Kohrt & Bourey ( 2016 ) explored how cultural norms related to gender (e.g. perceived lack of autonomy, lack of social support for women leaving a marriage) contribute to the risk for comorbid maternal mental illness by influencing exposure to intimate partner violence.

Two articles considered how cultural values contribute to the development of mental health problems. Furr's ( 2005 ) sociological study found that ‘Western orientation’, as measured through a self-developed questionnaire assessing attitudes toward gender and caste norms and language/media preferences, was associated with lower depression scores. In a comparative study, Boehnke et al . ( 1998 ) found that Asian samples (Nepali and Fijian) valued tradition, conformity, and power more highly than Europeans (German) and had more microsocial (personal) than macrosocial (e.g. national or environmental) worries. In Nepal, microsocial worries were negatively related to mental wellbeing, but there was no direct relationship between cultural values and wellbeing.

(2) Culture and mental illness experience

A second set of 14 publications framed culture as a set of beliefs and values that shape mental illness experience. Several focused specifically on the ways that mental health problems manifest or are expressed in Nepali cultural contexts. Sharma & van Ommeren ( 1998 ) identified salient ‘idioms of distress’ (Nichter, 1981 ) among Bhutanese refugee torture survivors, including emotion-related idioms (e.g. dukha lāgyo or sadness) and somatic idioms (e.g. headache, dizziness); many attributed their suffering to bad deeds committed in previous lives ( karmako phal ). Hoge et al . ( 2006 ) found that Nepalis with generalized anxiety disorder showed more somatic symptoms and fewer psychological symptoms compared with Americans and offered possible explanations related to cultural differences in stigma, mind–body distinctions, introspection, and acceptable means of expressing distress. By contrast, Kohrt et al .’s ( 2005 ) work on jhum-jhum (a common somatic complaint in Nepal involving numbness or tingling) among depressed patients found that once the local burden of physical illness had been accounted for, rates of somatization in Nepal were comparable to those in Western settings.

Five studies explored how culture mediates the interpretation of particular symptoms and behaviors as deviant or pathological. Furr ( 2004 ) found that teachers with a more ‘Western’ orientation according to the aforementioned measure (Furr, 2005 ) were more likely to pathologize deviant child behavior. Adhikari et al . ( 2015 ) identified behaviors commonly reported as problematic among children in Nepal (e.g. addiction, negligence of studies, anger); these were mainly attributed to the social environment and intervention strategies ranged from talking to physical punishment. Burkey et al . ( 2016 b ) identified local social goals and gender norms that influenced when specific child behaviors were deemed pathological. Heys et al .’s ( 2017 ) study of Nepali understandings of autism identified beliefs that could interfere with help-seeking, especially attributions to poor parenting. Finally, Kim et al . ( 2017 ) examined which manifestations of grief among Nepali widows were locally considered pathological, finding some overlap with criteria for persistent complex bereavement disorder (e.g. prolonged duration, role/identity confusion, impaired daily functioning, mistrust).

More generally, Böker ( 1992 ) explored concepts of mental illness among mental hospital patients (likely suffering from severe/psychotic disorders) and their relatives. Most attributed the illness to spirit possession, physical problems in the body, fever, and separation or conflicts within the family. Pach III's ( 1998 ) book chapter explored Nepali villagers’ perceptions of individuals described as being baulāhā (mad), finding that afflicted individuals experienced social marginality that constrained their access to care and was at times more distressing than the illness itself. Kaplan's ( 1999 ) doctoral thesis explored the meaning of psychiatric symptomatology in rural Nepal, including common supernatural attributions (e.g. witchcraft, the intervention of ghosts and spirits), as well as treatment modalities believed to address these causes. Clarke et al . ( 2014 ) studied Nepali mothers’ concepts of psychological distress; distress was often attributed to family- and gender-related factors and women's responses to it were shaped by a fatalistic worldview.

Finally, two publications addressed indigenous illness categories. Sapkota et al . ( 2014 ) examined mental health factors associated with unintentional spirit possession. They argue that rather than mapping onto a single diagnostic category, spirit possession may function as an idiom of distress facilitating expression of ‘suffering related to mental illness, socio-political violence, traumatic events, and the oppression of women’ (p. 643). Evers et al . ( 2016 ) used the case of ‘soul loss’ in the wake of Nepal's civil conflict to illustrate how socially and spiritually anchored conceptions of the self influence the experience of psychopathology and the course of healing.

(3) Cultural knowledge of mental health and healing

A third set of 11 publications explored cultural knowledge on mental health and healing in Nepal. Several of these document aspects of Nepali ‘ethnopsychology’, or ‘cultural concepts of self, mind-body divisions, emotions, human nature, motivation, and personality’ (Kohrt & Maharjan, 2009 , p. 115). Kohrt & Harper ( 2008 ) elaborated elements of self that are ‘central to understanding conceptions of mental health and psychological wellbeing and subsequent stigma’ (p. 468) in Nepal, including the soul, heart–mind, brain–mind, body, and social status. In a 2009 publication, Kohrt and Maharjan provided an overview of Nepali concepts of child development and the perceived effects of violence and psychological trauma. Kohrt & Hruschka ( 2010 ) explored Nepali concepts of psychological trauma and associated idioms of distress and emotion terms. They highlight how the attribution of traumatic experiences to one's actions in a past or present life ( karma ) can lead to blame and stigma, with implications for help-seeking.

Three studies explored cultural concepts of and pathways to wellbeing. Bragin et al . ( 2014 ) identified locally salient domains of wellbeing in three conflict-affected countries (including, specific to Nepal, having all basic needs met and freedom of movement) and describe the influence of spiritual traditions on understanding wellbeing, evident in the use of terms such as ānanda (transcendent bliss). Chase & Bhattarai ( 2013 ) explored resilience among Bhutanese refugees in the USA and Nepal; they present idioms of wellbeing and describe processes that promote resilience, such as daily worship ( pūjā ) and involvement in community groups. Finally, a book chapter by Kohrt ( 2015 ) describes how the practice of certain Nepali traditional rituals can promote psychosocial wellbeing, particularly during reintegration of child soldiers. For example, Swasthāni , a fasting ritual performed by women for the wellbeing of male relatives and atonement of sins, may lead to increased acceptance of girl soldiers.

Several publications addressed expert or esoteric cultural knowledge – that of practitioners of indigenous healing systems. Peters’ article (1978) and subsequent book (1981) on the Tamang ethnic group draws parallels between techniques used by shamans and those of Western psychotherapy, including mediation in social conflict, facilitation of catharsis, and providing a symbolic structure for understanding illness. Skultans ( 1988 ) compared the practice of a psychiatric outpatient clinic with that of a ‘tāntrik healer’ – a type of healer known for ‘sweeping away the negative forces believed to account for ill health or misfortune, and blowing on the positive and regenerative forces in their place’ ( jhar-phuk ; Dietrich, 1998 , p. ix). The healer had adopted elements of psychiatric practice (e.g. speed and standardization) but offered causal attributions that were more likely to reinforce family support. Soubrouillard's doctoral thesis (1995) explored how Nepali shamans understand, assess, attribute and treat madness; diagnostic methods including divination are described in detail. Finally, Jolly ( 1999 ) described how a Nepali soldier in the British army was cured of psychiatric symptoms by visiting a traditional healer, noting parallels with the practice of mental health professionals. The study by Böker ( 1992 ) described above also discusses treatment-seeking pathways, including preferences for traditional healers.

(4) Culturally informed mental health care

Finally, six publications explored how attention to culture can be integrated into the detection and treatment of mental health problems. With regard to detection, Kohrt et al . ( 2011 ) proposed six evaluation questions to guide cross-cultural validation of instruments for child mental health research. Using the examples of the Depression Self-Rating Scale (DSRS) and Child PTSD Symptom Scale (CPSS), they demonstrate how these questions can guide effective translation of instruments by trained mental health paraprofessionals and discuss adaptations made (e.g. incorporation of pictographic scales). Kohrt et al . ( 2016 ) adapted the PHQ-9 for use in Nepal, developed two additional questions based on local idioms of distress, and validated these among primary care patients. They determined that an algorithm involving initial screening for heart–mind problems and impaired functioning could improve the efficiency and accuracy of screening with PHQ-9. Burkey et al . ( 2016 a ) explored the overlap between local categories of problematic behavior and Western diagnostic criteria as reflected in the Disruptive Behavior international Scale-Nepal version (DBIS).

With regard to treatment, Harper's ( 2014 ) book chapter examined how United Mission to Nepal introduced psychiatric services and psychotropic drugs in Nepal, describing how diagnostic procedures were adapted to the local cultural context; for example, the label of ‘nerves disease’ ( nasā rog ) was used to make depression treatment more socially acceptable. Jordans et al . ( 2003 ) described cultural adaptations made by the Centre for Victims of Torture, Nepal (CVICT; see also Sharma & van Ommeren, 1998 ) in training psychosocial counsellors, including demonstrating respect for clients’ social status, applying indirect ways of questioning, and specialized training modules focused on stigmatization and supernatural attributions. Tol et al. ( 2005 ) outlined some ‘cultural challenges’ CVICT faced in establishing psychosocial counselling in Nepal, as well as adaptations made to address issues related to the therapeutic relationship, illness beliefs, locus of control, and views of the self and introspection. Finally, Kohrt et al . ( 2012 ) discuss possible adaptations to cognitive behavior therapy, interpersonal therapy, and dialectical behavior therapy to accommodate Nepali ethnopsychology, with the goal of improving care of Bhutanese refugees.

This scoping review identified a modest body of literature on culture and mental health in Nepal. Publications represented a range of disciplines and research methods. Culture was investigated variously as a contributor to mental illness, a set of beliefs and values that shape mental illness experience and help-seeking, a repository of indigenous knowledge about mental health, and a factor that could be effectively integrated in mental health research and service design. Much of the literature in this area published before 2015 was synthesized in the post-earthquake desk review (IASC Reference Group for Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Emergency Settings, 2015 ). However, it is striking that nearly 25% of identified texts were published since the beginning of 2015. This may reflect growing interest in the critical role of social context in mental health and illness (Tol et al. 2010 ) as well as the increased attention to mental health issues occasioned by disasters (World Health Organization, 2013 a ).

Nearly 75% of included publications reflected an applied orientation. Many of these were published within the past 15 years by researchers affiliated with Nepali mental health NGOs. Some applied work strived to directly integrate culture into mental health research and practice with the goal of improving quality of and access to services. Other studies conducted in affiliation with these NGOs adopted a broader focus, contributing to our understanding of Nepali concepts of distress, pathology, trauma, child development, and resilience.

At the same time, we noted that applied research (with a few important exceptions such as the work on ethnopsychology) tended to be structured around concepts emerging from globalized psychiatric knowledge, with accounts of culture often reduced to one or two dimensions that shaped or interfered with conventional methods of research and practice. Only three studies were framed around indigenous illness categories (Kohrt et al . 2005 ; Sapkota et al . 2014 ; Evers et al . 2016 ). All of the included research on traditional healing was conducted prior to the year 2000, despite the fact that these healers continue to be the primary source of treatment for mental health problems in Nepal (Luitel et al . 2015 ). In some cases, narrow and essentializing conceptualizations of ‘Nepali culture’ were evident. For example, Furr ( 2004 , 2005 ) considered willingness to support female political leaders to be an indication of ‘Western’ (as opposed to ‘Nepali’) cultural orientation – yet, Nepal has now elected a female president well in advance of many Western countries. Moreover, there is evidence that cultural beliefs and idioms take on new meanings when instrumentalized within mental health diagnosis and service provision, raising questions about the limits of culturally adapted interventions (Abramowitz, 2010 ). There remains a need for long-term ethnographic research that examines local understandings and experiences of mental health problems. In addition to improving our understanding of the contexts and consequences of global mental health interventions, studies of this nature may shed light on underlying processes of psychopathology and intervention strategies grounded in local ethnopsychologies and indigenous healing systems that can contribute to a truly global psychiatry (Chase & Sapkota, 2017 ).

The body of literature outlined here can and should inform mental health policy and practice in Nepal (Kirmayer & Pedersen, 2014 ). This review comes at a critical historical moment: Nepal's government has allocated a budget for mental health care at the district level for the first time, revised mental health policy is pending after 20 years, and the Ministry of Health has demonstrated a commitment to addressing mental health in the context of its action against non-communicable diseases (Chase et al . 2018 ; Government of Nepal, 2014 ). Findings may be relevant to a range of stakeholders involved in the anticipated scaling up of services. The national baseline psychiatric epidemiological study that is currently being planned may use instruments described here that have undergone a culturally informed validation process. The wealth of information identified in this review about idioms of distress, concepts of causality, and indigenous illness categories could enhance the assessment of mental health problems, and should thus inform future revisions of the Standard Treatment Protocol for mental health in primary care as well as efforts to improve and contextualize medical school curricula on mental health and mhGAP-based trainings for physicians. Clinicians working in Nepal should consider incorporating the cultural adaptations to psychological and psychosocial treatments documented above.

One possible barrier to the application of research findings is disciplinary variation in jargon and writing conventions; social scientists seeking to inform practitioners should consider publishing versions of their findings in clear accessible language (Greene et al . 2017 ). Working in collaboration with patients, clinicians, policy makers and other knowledge users may help researchers find the appropriate vocabulary to translate their findings into practical applications. The recent development of a ‘community informant detection tool’ in Nepal (Subba et al . 2017 ; published shortly after our review) offers an excellent model for collaborative, culturally informed mental health work of this nature.

Finally, it is noteworthy that only three included publications had a Nepali first author. The small number of Nepali scholars who have published in this area has implications for the peer review process, as relying mainly on non-Nepali reviewers could result in the dissemination of limited or misleading interpretations of local terms and perspectives. Findings of this review thus lend support to calls for greater representation of scholars from low-income countries in the global mental health literature (Kohrt et al . 2014 ).

Limitations

This scoping review has several limitations. Nepali language search terms could have been transliterated in multiple ways and we did not include search terms in Devanagari script. Following Arskey & O'Malley ( 2005 ), this study did not assess the quality of included texts; caution is therefore needed in applying findings. In addition to considering information summarized in Table 1 , readers should refer to the full texts of publications. Our stringent inclusion criteria may have led to the exclusion of some relevant literature. Some potentially relevant work on emotions, coping, and self-hood that did not make an explicit link to mental health and illness was excluded (e.g. Mchugh, 1989 ; Cole & Tamang, 1998 ; Cole et al . 2002 ; Chase et al . 2013 ). Some instrument validation studies that did not meet the criterion of ‘substantial original discussion’ of culture and mental health did make references to the culture and context and may be relevant for researchers planning to use these scales in Nepal (e.g. Kohrt et al . 2002 , 2003 ; Haroz et al . 2017 ; Sochos & Lokshum, 2017 ; see Chen et al . 2013 for more on psychiatric scales used in Nepal). We recommend that all future studies reporting successful cross-cultural validation of instruments describe the translation process and adaptations made in detail. Finally, we note the exclusion of a rich body of ethnographic literature that explores suffering and healing in local Nepali terms, without employing the language of mental health and illness (e.g. Hitchcock, 1967 ; Hitchcock & Jones, 1976 ; Stone, 1976 ; Desjarlais, 1989 , 1992 ; Maskarinec, 1992 ; Subba, 2007 ). More work is needed on ways to integrate this rich body of contextual knowledge in global mental health programs.

We identified 38 papers, book chapters and monographs that explicitly addressed cultural dimensions of mental health and illness in Nepal. As documentation of four decades of work focused on translating among divergent approaches to understanding and addressing mental suffering, this review speaks to ongoing debates about the significance of cultural variation in psychiatric distress and disorder. Although still modest, the available literature on Nepal does not support claims that service development initiatives have completely overlooked local cultures. On the contrary, applied work done by a new generation of clinician–researchers with interdisciplinary interests and training is refining our knowledge of how culture shapes the experience, expression, and interpretation of suffering and the translatability of biomedical diagnostic categories and treatments. While this review does not speak to how well available knowledge has been applied at the level of health systems or service delivery, it suggests there is a growing interest in culturally informed mental health research and practice in Nepal. At the same time, findings suggest that applied research geared toward mental health service development still needs to engage with long-term, ethnographic studies that attend holistically to local knowledge and experience. Gaps remain in our understanding of indigenous illness concepts and healing approaches. There is a continued need to build capacity in Nepal for research driven by the needs and concerns of local stakeholders, particularly people with mental health problems and traditional healers, and to engage with open-ended methods of inquiry that recognize diverse modes of understanding mental suffering and healing.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr Danielle Groleau who provided mentorship to the second author during early stages of planning and carrying out searches. We would like to thank Teodora Constantinescu, medical librarian at the Institute of Community & Family Psychiatry, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal Canada, for help in conducting searches. We are further thankful to four anonymous reviewers for Global Mental Health , whose input led to important improvements.

Financial support

This project was supported by the McGill Global Mental Health Program ( www.mcgill.ca/gmh ).

Conflict of interest

Ethical standards.

Not applicable.

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• The Culture Of Nepal

• Nepal is situated in the Himalayas and is a country that houses multiple cultures and ethnicities.
• 123 languages are spoken in Nepal.
• Though volleyball is the national sport, football (soccer) is the most popular.
• The population of Nepal is mostly Hindu, with the next most-practiced religion being Buddhism
• A lot of performance and art in Nepal is inspired from Hindu religious mythology.

Nepal is a sovereign state in South Asia , situated in the Himalayas. This landlocked country has a population of approximately 29 million people in 2020 and borders China and India. The country’s capital and largest city is Kathmandu. The country has a rich, multi-ethnic and multi-dimensional culture based on ancient traditions and social customs. The Nepalese culture is closely related to the culture of the more massive Indian Sub-continent and is influenced by the cultures of India and Tibet.

Ethnicity, Language, And Religion

Nepal is a multiethnic and multicultural country that came into existence through the progressive, political merging of smaller kingdoms and principalities such as Videha, Mustang, Limbuwan, and Madhesh. The northern part of the country is inhabited by Limbu, Rai, and Mongolian people while the Sherpa, Magar, Gurung and Lama people inhabit the western and central regions. 

There are approximately 123 languages spoken in Nepal. The major language is Nepali, spoken by 44.6% of the population as mother tongue. Other main languages include Maithili, Tamang, Tharu, and Bhojpuri. There are two main religions in Nepal; Buddhism and Hinduism. However, some Nepalese practice a unique combination of the two religions. The majority of the population, 80%, are Hindu while 11% practice Buddhism. Islam is practiced by about 3.2% of the population. Christians are \bout 1% of the population.

Nepalese cuisine is comprised of a variety of cuisines from the different ethnicities of the country and has been influenced by Asian culture. In most instances, a meal is never complete without a sizeable amount of rice. Rice is mainly served with daal, a spiced lentil soup, and vegetable curry called tarkari. 

Meals are eaten twice a day; late morning and early evening. Mostly, the meals also include “achar” which pickled vegetables or fruit. Rice may also be supplemented with flatbread known as “roti.” Traditionally, people eat from their individual plates using their hands and while seated on the floor.

Nepalese Traditional Clothing

Each of the ethnic groups in Nepal has its own traditional clothing. However, most of these follow the same pattern. Men’s traditional clothes are referred to as “Daura Suruwal.” Daura is a double-breasted shirt while Suruwal are simple baggy trousers that fit tightly at the ankle. Other items of clothing include jackets and a vest. The combination of a jacket and Daura Suruwal is considered informal traditional wear. A Daura does not have buttons or clasps and is often held in its place by four ties, two close to the waist and two near the shoulders. The national hat is called “Dhaka topi” and is often worn by the men.

The traditional outfit for the women is called “Kurta Suruwal.” It consists of a long blouse, sleeveless or short-sleeved and usually extending below the hips, light baggy pants, and a large scarf. The clothing is loose and usually brightly coloured and with patterns. The scarf is also long and matches with the rest of the outfit. It is draped over the body.

Literature, Art, And Craft

Nepalese literature dates back to the 19th century with the adaptation of the Hindu “Ramayan” by the Bhanubhakta Acharya for the Nepali readership. The development of literature in the country has been hampered by the heavy government censorship and control, forcing most authors and poets to seek publication outside the country. Several Nepali authors have been actively writing innovative Nepali literature since the Democratic revolution of 1991. Some of these authors include Khagendra Sangraula, Yuyutsu Sharma, Narayan Wagle, and Toya Gurung.

Much of Nepalese art is considered religious. The Newar people are responsible for most of the examples of the traditional art and architecture of Nepal. They are known for craftsmanship, Paubha painting, and sculpture. The Newari create a caste-bronze statue of Hindu and Buddhist deities.

Performance Arts

Performance art also focuses on religious themes drawn from Hindu epics. Political satire is also very common as well as comedic forms. Nepal has a rich musical heritage with several distinctive vocal styles and instruments. Music is popular across all age groups and has become a marker of identity, especially among the younger generation. The older generation prefers folk songs and religious music while the younger generation is attracted to western and experimental film music. Performance art such as music and dancing is a very important part of festivals and celebrations. The end of the plowing season is often marked by songs, shouts, and dances.

Several sports are played in Nepal, both at the national and international levels. The most popular sport in the country is football (known in the US and Canada as soccer), followed by cricket. The Nepalese national cricket team has even participated in the World Cup and other international competitions. However, the national sport of Nepal is volleyball. 

The sport with the most tournaments in Nepal is football, and they are held across the country. The Nepal football national team won gold in the 2016 South Asia Games. According to the 2018 FIFA ranking, Nepal holds position 165.

Life In Society

Nepal is a multi-ethnic society with a rich culture and religious practices. Visitors are required to embrace native customs while visiting certain places such as temples. Like the locals, they must put on a respectable dress with no leather, remove their shoes, and ask for permission before entering the Hindu temple. Nepalis are generally friendly. However, public display of affection is not appreciated. 

Superstition still rules the country. Interestingly, praising a baby’s appearance or walking on spilled rice brings bad luck. Red chillies are almost everywhere and are believed to drive away the evil spirit. The family is very important in Nepalese culture. Like much of the world, for a very long time, women were honored as mothers and had little access to education and political power. Men were the heads of their respective families and were required to provide for them. While there has been progress for the rights of women in recent decades, this progress has been slow to reach the regions outside of the urban centres.

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Culture and Traditions of Nepal: A Journey Through the Heart of Nepalese Heritage

Article 12 Feb 2023 4858 0

Nepal is a country steeped in rich cultural heritage and traditions. With a unique blend of Hindu and Buddhist influences, Nepalese culture is a vibrant and colorful tapestry of festivals, customs, music, and art. In this article, we'll explore the diverse cultural landscape of Nepal, from its religious roots to the unique traditions of its ethnic groups.

A Brief History of Nepal and its Cultural Influences

Nepal has a long and storied history, with influences from Hindu and Buddhist cultures and the presence of various ethnic groups. The country was ruled by a Hindu monarchy until the late 18th century, when it became a Hindu state. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Buddhism gained popularity, and today both religions coexist in Nepal. This fusion of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs and practices has shaped the country's culture and traditions.

Nepal is a landlocked country located in South Asia and is bordered by India and Tibet (China). Its history is rich and diverse, with cultural influences from the Hindu and Buddhist religions. The country has been ruled by various dynasties and kingdoms throughout its history, and its culture has been shaped by these influences as well as by its geographic location and contact with neighboring countries.

The earliest inhabitants of Nepal were likely animist tribes who worshipped nature and natural elements. Over time, Hinduism and Buddhism were introduced to the country, and these religions have played a major role in shaping its culture and traditions. Nepal was officially declared a Hindu kingdom in the 19th century, but the influence of Buddhism has remained strong, particularly in the northern regions of the country.

Today, Nepal is a diverse country with many different ethnic and cultural groups, each with its own unique customs and traditions. Despite this diversity, there is a strong sense of national identity in Nepal, and its people take great pride in their cultural heritage.

Overview of the Major Religions in Nepal and Their Impact on the Country's Culture and Traditions

The majority of Nepalese people practice Hinduism, and it is the dominant religion in the country. Hinduism has had a profound impact on Nepalese culture and traditions, with many customs, festivals, and rituals being rooted in this religion. The festivals of Dashain and Tihar, for example, are celebrated by Hindus in Nepal and are closely tied to Hindu mythology.

Buddhism is also widely practiced in Nepal, particularly in the northern regions of the country. The Kathmandu Valley is home to many Buddhist monasteries, and the Stupa of Swayambhunath is one of the most important Buddhist pilgrimage sites in the world. Buddhism has influenced Nepalese culture in many ways, including the traditional art and architecture of the country.

Traditional Festivals and Celebrations

Nepal is a country with many colorful and vibrant traditional festivals and celebrations. Some of the most important and widely celebrated festivals include:

• Dashain: Dashain is the biggest and most important festival in Nepal and is celebrated by Hindus across the country. The festival celebrates the victory of good over evil and is marked by feasting, dancing, and the exchange of gifts. The festival lasts for 15 days, and families come together to participate in the celebrations.
• Tihar: Tihar is another major festival in Nepal, and it is also celebrated by Hindus. The festival is also known as the Festival of Lights, and it is marked by the lighting of oil lamps and the decoration of homes with flowers and other decorations. During the festival, families come together to offer prayers, sing songs, and exchange gifts.
• Holi: Holi is a spring festival that is celebrated by Hindus and is known as the Festival of Colors. The festival is marked by the throwing of colored powders and the singing of traditional songs. Holi is a time of joy and celebration and is a time when people put aside their differences and come together to celebrate.
• Gai Jatra: Gai Jatra is a traditional festival that is celebrated by the Newar community in Kathmandu. The festival is a time of celebration and remembrance, and it involves the procession of people dressed in cow costumes. The festival is believed to bring comfort to the families of those who have died in the previous year.

These are just a few of the many traditional festivals and celebrations that take place in Nepal. Each festival has its own unique customs and traditions, and they serve as an important part of the country's cultural heritage.

Unique Customs and Traditions of the Ethnic Groups in Nepal

Nepal is home to a rich tapestry of ethnic groups, each with their own unique customs and traditions. These ethnic groups are an important part of Nepalese culture and contribute to the country's diverse heritage.

• Gurungs: The Gurungs are an ethnic group native to the western region of Nepal and are known for their hospitality and bravery. They have a rich tradition of music and dance and are famous for the Ghantu dance, which is performed during festivals and celebrations. The Gurungs are also known for their traditional woven textiles and handicrafts, which are popular among tourists visiting Nepal.
• Tamangs: The Tamangs are an ethnic group native to the central region of Nepal and are known for their rich cultural heritage. They have a tradition of storytelling, passed down from generation to generation, and are famous for their unique instruments like the Madal drum. The Tamangs also have a rich tradition of metalwork, including the creation of traditional knives and other tools.
• Newars: The Newars are an ethnic group native to the Kathmandu Valley and are known for their elaborate wood carvings, metalwork, and traditional festivals. The Newars have a rich history, dating back to the time of the ancient kingdoms in the Kathmandu Valley, and are known for their distinctive architecture and art. The Newars are also famous for their traditional food, which is a fusion of Nepalese, Tibetan, and Indian cuisine.

The customs and traditions of each of these ethnic groups add to the rich cultural heritage of Nepal and provide a unique insight into the country's diverse history. From the traditional music and dance of the Gurungs to the intricate wood carvings of the Newars, each ethnic group offers a unique glimpse into the customs and traditions of Nepal.

An examination of how modern Nepalese society is impacting traditional cultural practices

With the advancement of technology and globalization, modern Nepalese society has brought about changes to traditional cultural practices. The younger generation is becoming more westernized, and traditional customs and beliefs are slowly being replaced by modern ideas. For instance, the younger generation is more likely to celebrate Western holidays like Christmas, rather than traditional festivals like Dashain and Tihar.

Additionally, with the rise of urbanization, many rural Nepalese are moving to cities, and as a result, traditional practices are being lost. Many of the younger generation do not have access to or the opportunity to learn traditional practices from their elders. The influence of modern society has also led to a decline in traditional crafts like wood carving and metalwork.

However, the Nepalese government and cultural organizations are taking steps to preserve and promote traditional cultural practices. The preservation of cultural heritage is seen as an important aspect of Nepalese identity and is necessary for the continuation of traditional practices.

"Nepal has a rich cultural heritage that has been passed down from generation to generation. It is our responsibility to preserve and promote these traditions so that they can continue to be a part of our identity," says a cultural expert from Nepal.

Preservation and promotion of Nepalese culture and traditions

The preservation and promotion of Nepalese culture and traditions are crucial for ensuring the longevity and relevance of this rich cultural heritage. There are several organizations and initiatives aimed at promoting Nepalese culture and traditions, both domestically and internationally.

For instance, the National Museum of Nepal, located in Kathmandu, serves as a hub for showcasing the country's cultural heritage through its exhibits and cultural programs. The museum works to preserve traditional Nepalese artifacts and promote the country's cultural heritage to both domestic and international audiences.

Similarly, the Nepalese government, along with local communities, have been working to preserve traditional festivals and celebrations. For example, the Gai Jatra festival in Kathmandu has been officially recognized as an important cultural event and is protected by the government, ensuring its continuation for future generations.

In addition to these efforts, cultural exchange programs have been established between Nepal and other countries, promoting the country's unique traditions and customs globally. The Gurkha Museum in Winchester, England, for example, showcases the cultural heritage of the Gurkha soldiers and their contributions to the British Army.

Moreover, there are numerous non-government organizations that are working to preserve and promote the cultural heritage of Nepal. These organizations aim to raise awareness about Nepalese culture and traditions, particularly among the younger generation, to ensure that these customs and traditions continue to be passed down from one generation to the next.

In conclusion, Nepal is a country with a rich and diverse cultural heritage that is shaped by its history, religion, and traditions. From the elaborate wood carvings of the Newars to the traditional festivals and celebrations of Dashain, Tihar, and Holi, Nepalese culture is a tapestry of fascinating customs, practices, and art forms. With a focus on preservation and promotion, Nepalese culture will continue to thrive and provide a unique and rich experience for future generations.

"Nepalese culture is like a treasure trove, with something new to discover at every turn. It is our duty to preserve and promote it, so that future generations can experience and appreciate its richness and diversity," says cultural historian, Dr. Bhagat Singh.

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The Impact of Art & Culture on the Development of Nepal: An analysis by Advocacy Unified Network

• August 2022
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• Advocacy Unified Network, Netherlands, Hague

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Cultural Fusion: Nepal’s Influence on Global Cuisine

Celebrating nepal’s gender diversity: navigating the bright and dark sides.

• Nepali Footballer Bimal Gharti Magar Leaves Nepal

Nepal, a nation nestled in the Himalayas, is renowned for its breathtaking landscapes and rich cultural heritage. Beyond its stunning natural beauty and diverse traditions, Nepal has been quietly but steadily making its mark on the global culinary stage. Nepali cuisine, with its unique flavors, aromatic spices, and wholesome ingredients, is experiencing a well-deserved resurgence in popularity, influencing international menus and satisfying the palates of food enthusiasts worldwide.

A Melting Pot of Flavors:

Nepali cuisine is a flavorful tapestry of diverse influences, ranging from Tibet to India and beyond. The result is a tantalizing fusion of sweet, savory, and spicy flavors that reflect the country’s multicultural heritage. Elements like momo (dumplings), dal bhat (lentils and rice), and various chutneys have gained international recognition, sparking a global fascination with Nepali food.

**Momo Mania:**

Momo, Nepal’s beloved dumpling, is perhaps the most iconic Nepali dish to have found its way onto international menus. These delectable parcels of joy have transcended borders, making their mark in restaurants across the globe. Whether they are stuffed with meat, vegetables, or cheese, momo’s charm lies in their exquisite balance of flavors and their ubiquity in Nepali culture.

The Rise of Healthy Himalayan Cuisine:

The health-conscious world is increasingly turning to Nepali cuisine for its nutritious offerings. The extensive use of fresh, locally sourced ingredients, spices, and herbs, combined with minimal processing, resonates with the global demand for clean eating. Dal bhat, a traditional Nepali meal of lentils and rice, is a prime example of a balanced and wholesome diet.

**Nepal’s Spice Appeal:**

Nepal’s unique blend of spices and herbs has been an essential factor in its culinary global conquest. Turmeric, cumin, coriander, and timur (Sichuan pepper) are just a few of the spices that infuse Nepali dishes with their distinctive flavors. These ingredients have found their way into international kitchens, adding complexity and depth to various cuisines.

The Role of Nepali Restaurants Abroad:

The growing number of Nepali restaurants outside of Nepal has played a pivotal role in introducing the world to this delectable cuisine. These eateries not only serve Nepali expatriates but also captivate the taste buds of curious food lovers who seek new and exciting flavors. In cities around the world, from New York to London, Kathmandu-style eateries are flourishing.

Future of Nepali Cuisine:

As international palates continue to evolve, the influence of Nepali cuisine is expected to grow. The appreciation for diverse and bold flavors aligns with the essence of Nepali dishes, offering an appealing option for those seeking culinary adventure. In the coming years, we can anticipate more Nepali-inspired fusion dishes and a broader acceptance of this vibrant cuisine on the global stage.

Conclusion :

Nepal’s culinary influence is no longer a well-kept secret. The world has begun to savor the delights of Nepali cuisine, from the comforting embrace of momo to the healthful goodness of dal bhat. As Nepali restaurants spring up globally, and as more people discover the exotic and satisfying flavors of this Himalayan nation, we can expect Nepal’s influence on global cuisine to continue its ascent. This delightful culinary fusion, rooted in tradition and innovation, has the potential to captivate even the most discerning food enthusiasts, ultimately solidifying Nepal’s position on the international gastronomic map.

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Essay on Culture Of Nepal

Students are often asked to write an essay on Culture Of Nepal in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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100 Words Essay on Culture Of Nepal

Introduction.

Nepal, a small country in South Asia, is known for its rich cultural diversity. It is a blend of various ethnic groups, each with unique customs, traditions and languages. This makes the culture of Nepal colorful and fascinating.

Religions in Nepal

Nepal is a religious country with Hinduism and Buddhism being the main faiths. There are also followers of Islam, Christianity, and other religions. These religions influence the daily lives, festivals, and rituals of the Nepalese people.

Languages of Nepal

Nepal is a multilingual country. The official language is Nepali, but more than 123 languages are spoken. Each ethnic group has its own language, adding to the cultural richness.

Traditional Clothing

Nepalese people wear traditional clothing. Men wear ‘Daura Suruwal’ and women wear ‘Sari’ or ‘Kurta Suruwal’. The clothing reflects their ethnic identity and is worn during festivals and special occasions.

Festivals of Nepal

Art and architecture.

Nepalese art and architecture is influenced by Hinduism and Buddhism. Temples, palaces, and sculptures display intricate designs and craftsmanship. This showcases the artistic skills of the Nepalese people.

Cuisine of Nepal

Nepalese cuisine is a mix of flavors. Dal Bhat, a lentil soup with rice, is the staple food. Momos, Gundruk, and Dhido are other popular dishes. Each region has its own special dish, reflecting the diversity.

The culture of Nepal is a beautiful mix of various elements. It is a symbol of unity in diversity. Despite the differences, the people of Nepal live in harmony, respecting each other’s cultures.

250 Words Essay on Culture Of Nepal

Introduction to nepal’s culture.

Nepal, a small country in South Asia, is famous for its rich and diverse culture. It is home to various ethnic groups, each with its unique traditions, languages, and customs. This makes Nepal a place where different cultures blend together, creating a beautiful mix.

Religion and Beliefs

Religion is a big part of life in Nepal. Most people follow Hinduism or Buddhism. These religions influence many aspects of daily life, like food, clothing, and festivals. People visit temples and shrines regularly, showing their deep faith.

Language and Communication

Festivals and celebrations.

Festivals are a major part of Nepal’s culture. They bring joy and unity among people. Dashain, Tihar, and Holi are some of the main festivals. During these times, people gather with family, exchange gifts, and enjoy special meals.

Nepal’s art and architecture are unique and beautiful. You can see this in the temples and old buildings. They are often decorated with detailed carvings and colourful paintings. This highlights the artistic skills of the Nepalese people.

Food and Cuisine

In conclusion, Nepal’s culture is a colourful mix of traditions, beliefs, and customs. It is a symbol of unity in diversity, making Nepal a truly special place.

500 Words Essay on Culture Of Nepal

Introduction to nepalese culture.

Nepal, a small country nestled in the heart of the Himalayas, is known for its rich and vibrant culture. The culture of Nepal is a unique mix of tradition and novelty. It is a fusion of ancient history and modern influences. The culture is deeply rooted in the people, their rituals, their beliefs, and their daily lives.

Religions and Festivals

Language and literature.

Language is an essential part of any culture, and Nepal is no exception. The official language is Nepali, but more than 123 languages are spoken here. This shows the cultural richness and diversity of the country. Nepalese literature is also diverse, with works ranging from ancient scriptures and epics to modern novels and poetry.

Nepal is famous for its distinctive art and architecture. The country is full of ancient temples, palaces, and monuments that reflect the skills of the Newar artisans. Kathmandu Valley, in particular, is a treasure trove of such architectural wonders. The intricate woodwork, stone carvings, and metal crafts are a testament to the artistic prowess of the Nepalese people.

Nepalese cuisine is as diverse as its culture. The food varies from region to region. Dal Bhat (lentil soup with rice), Gundruk (fermented leafy greens), and Momo (dumplings) are some popular dishes. The food is not just about taste but also carries cultural and religious significance.

Music and Dance

Music and dance form an integral part of Nepalese culture. Folk music and dances are popular, with each ethnic group having its unique music and dance forms. Instruments like Madal and Sarangi are commonly used. The dances are usually performed during festivals and special occasions, adding color and rhythm to the celebrations.

Clothing and Attire

Traditional Nepalese clothing is unique and varied. Men typically wear Daura Suruwal while women wear Gunyu Cholo. These outfits are often worn during festivals and special occasions. The clothing reflects the country’s cultural heritage and identity.

In conclusion, the culture of Nepal is a beautiful blend of various elements. It is a culture that respects diversity and celebrates unity. It is a culture that values tradition while embracing change. The culture of Nepal is a mirror of its people – warm, welcoming, and vibrant.

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Nepalese Food and Its Sociocultural Climate: Changing Dāl - bhāt Inside and Beyond Nepal

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• Izumi Morimoto 17  

Part of the book series: International Perspectives in Geography ((IPG,volume 10))

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Nepal is located on the southern face of the Himalayas; as a result, geographical and cultural diversities have nurtured its unique gastronomic culture. It is difficult for people living in remote areas to obtain fresh vegetables and meat because of a lack of transportation and electricity, and these restrictions have sparked several local gastronomic cultures. For example, to preserve vegetables and meat, people living in rural areas tend to dry and smoke them. In Nepalese Hindu society, there are taboos on the consumption of certain food and drink, such as meat and alcohol. Recent data suggest that Nepalese people began to eat meat because of economic development and globalization. These sociocultural changes and the development of transportation networks have together promoted homogenization of food throughout Nepal. However, people also seek locality and “authenticity” in their food. For example, dāl - bhāt , an “authentic” Nepalese food, has been particularly prevalent in Nepal since the development of transportation services. Furthermore, as Nepalese people have begun traveling abroad, dāl - bhāt has spread even beyond Nepalese national borders.

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Nepal was the Hindu monarchical state that had built a hierarchical society based on caste, ethnicity, race, and gender. The nation’s remoteness had also brought about other diversities in Nepalese society. Since 2006 there have been increasing demands for restructuring the modalities of establishing a multi-cultural, multi-social, multi-linguistic, multi-religious, and multi-ethnic federal state. This chapter will examine the transformation of food and its sociocultural climate in this context.

Indeed, some Buddhists of Nepal also have religious taboos against eating meat.

Other than dāl - bhāt , there are interesting studies referring to changing gastronomic cultures especially among young people in Kathmandu (see Liechty 2010 ; Thapa 2016 ).

This is an example from a local restaurant in a tourist area in Kathmandu. Guests who came here to eat dāl - bhāt were usually Nepalese people; therefore, this set of dishes can be understood as a local type of dāl - bhāt for native Nepalese, not a “Nepalese ethnic cuisine” for international tourists.

Formally, there are no more untouchable castes; however, discrimination based on the Hindu caste system still exists in Nepal.

In 1996, the Maoists had launched a “People’s War,” which lasted for ten years, to overthrow the political establishment, including the monarchy of the Kingdom of Nepal.

Other than the Nepalese, Nepal has imported frozen beef from Calcutta since the 1970s for foreign tourists to consume.

One US dollar was worth approximately 96 Nepalese rupees in 2014.

e-Kantipur ( 2014 ). http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/news/2014-05-16/per-capita-meat-consumption-up-11-kg.html .

Excluding fish, meat products include buffalo, goat, sheep, pork, and poultry. The world’s average annual meat consumption is approximately 42.5 kg per person, while in developing countries it is approximately 32.4 kg per person. Nepal is still far behind other developing countries (e-Kantipur 2015 ).

The Thakali, whose dāl - bhāt has a reputation for being delicious, are an ethnic group from Northwest Nepal.

According to Kharel ( 2017 ), Tokyo has the largest concentration of Nepali-owned restaurants, with over 500 distributed throughout the metropolitan area.

The Newar are an ethnic group from Kathmandu.

e-Kantipur (2014) Per capita meat consumption up to 11 kg. http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/news/2014-05-16/per-capita-meat-consumption-up-11-kg.html . Accessed 20 Sept 2017

e-Kantipur (2015) Meat production projected to inch up to 301 k tonnes. http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/printedition/news/2015-06-10/meat-production-projected-to-inch-up-to-301k-tonnes.html . Accessed 20 Sept 2017

Kharel D (2017) A multi-sited visual ethnographic study on the Nepali migration from Malma to Japan: network migration, transnational ties, and social transformation. PhD Dissertation, University of Tokyo

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Acknowledgements

This research was partially supported by the JSPS KAKENHI, Grant Number 19720220 from 2007 to 2009.

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Izumi Morimoto

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Department of Geography, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan

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Jun Matsumoto

College of Gastronomy Management, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Shiga, Japan

Hitoshi Araki

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Morimoto, I. (2020). Nepalese Food and Its Sociocultural Climate: Changing Dāl - bhāt Inside and Beyond Nepal. In: Yokoyama, S., Matsumoto, J., Araki, H. (eds) Nature, Culture, and Food in Monsoon Asia. International Perspectives in Geography, vol 10. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2113-3_8

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An Essay on The Cultural Heritage of Nepal

Table of contents, introduction.

Nepal’s cultural heritage is a treasure trove of history, traditions, and customs that have been passed down through generations. The country’s unique geography, with its towering mountains and rolling hills, has contributed to the development of a distinct culture that is shaped by various factors. In this essay, we will explore the rich and diverse cultural heritage of Nepal.

Definition of Cultural Heritage

Cultural heritage refers to the inherited values, beliefs, traditions, and artifacts that define a community’s way of life. It includes everything from language and literature to music, dance, art, architecture, and cuisine. Cultural heritage is crucial to maintaining a community’s identity and sense of belonging and provides a window into the past.

Overview of Nepal’s Cultural Heritage

Nepal’s cultural heritage is diverse and has evolved over thousands of years. The country is home to over 125 ethnic groups, each with its distinct traditions and customs. Nepal’s cultural heritage includes art, architecture, music, dance, literature, festivals, religion, spirituality, cuisine, sports, and traditional medicine.

The Importance of Preserving Cultural Heritage

Cultural heritage is an essential part of a community’s identity and sense of belonging. It provides a window into the past and helps us understand our shared history and traditions. Preserving cultural heritage helps promote cultural diversity, which fosters respect and understanding between different communities. It also supports local economies and can help attract tourism, which can be an essential source of revenue for communities.

Historical Background of Nepal

Ancient Civilizations of Nepal

Nepal’s history dates back over 2,000 years, and the country has been home to various civilizations. The major ancient civilizations of Nepal include the Licchavi and the Malla dynasties. These dynasties left a significant impact on Nepal’s cultural heritage, including art, architecture, language, and literature.

The Unification of Nepal under King Prithvi Narayan Shah

Nepal was once a group of small, independent kingdoms and territories until King Prithvi Narayan Shah united them into a single country in the mid-18th century. This unification played a significant role in shaping Nepal’s cultural heritage.

The Impact of British Colonialism on Nepalese Culture

British colonialism also had an impact on Nepalese culture. The influence of British culture was felt in areas such as education, language, and literature. Nepalese culture also shaped British colonialism, with Nepalese soldiers playing a crucial role in the British Indian Army.

The Art and Architecture of Nepal

The Traditional Arts of Nepal

Nepal has a rich tradition of art, which includes painting, sculpture, and wood carving. The Thangka paintings and wood carvings are particularly famous in Nepal and have been influenced by Tibetan art styles.

Famous Nepalese Art Styles and Movements

Newar art is a distinct style of art that is prevalent in Nepal and has been shaped by the traditions of the Newar community. Other popular art movements in Nepal include the Madhubani art style, which originated in India, and the Bhaktapur pottery style, which is specific to the Bhaktapur region.

Symbols and Motifs Used in Nepalese Architecture

Nepalese architecture is famous for its intricate designs and motifs. The use of animals, deities, and other symbols is common in Nepalese architecture. The most famous example of Nepalese architecture is the Kathmandu Durbar Square, which has several ancient temples and palaces.

Festivals and Celebrations in Nepal

Overview of Nepalese Festivals

Nepal is known for its vibrant festivals and celebrations. The country has over 50 official festivals, including religious and national festivals. The festivals are usually associated with specific dates, events, and seasons.

The Role of Festivals in Nepalese Culture

Festivals play a crucial role in Nepalese culture and help to promote social harmony, cultural diversity, and community cohesion. The festivals are a celebration of Nepal’s rich cultural heritage and include traditional music, dance, and crafts.

Popular Festivals and Celebrations and How They Are Celebrated

Some of the most popular festivals in Nepal include the Dashain festival, which celebrates the victory of good over evil, and the Tihar festival, which is a festival of lights. During these festivals, families come together to celebrate, exchange gifts and food, and participate in various social and cultural activities.

Music and Dance in Nepal

Traditional Nepalese Music Genres

Nepal has a rich tradition of music, including classical, folk, and devotional music. The classical music of Nepal is known as Gandharva music, and it has been influenced by Indian music. Folk music is popular in rural areas, and many Nepalese songs are related to agriculture, nature, and love.

Famous Nepalese Musicians

Several famous Nepalese musicians have received international recognition, including Narayan Gopal, Aruna Lama, and the 1974 AD band. These musicians have played a significant role in promoting Nepalese music and culture globally.

Popular Nepalese Dance Forms

Nepal has many traditional dance forms, including the Dhime dance, the Chakra dance, and the Lakhe dance. These dances are usually performed during festivals and religious ceremonies and are a celebration of Nepalese culture and traditions.

Religion and Spirituality in Nepal

Nepal’s Religious and Philosophical Traditions

Nepal is a multi-religious country, with Hinduism and Buddhism as the predominant religions. Other religions practiced in Nepal include Islam, Christianity, and Bon. The country also has a rich tradition of philosophy, including the philosophy of Vedanta and Buddhism.

The Role of Religion in Nepalese Culture

Religion plays an essential role in Nepalese culture and daily life. Religious ceremonies and festivals are an integral part of the Nepalese calendar and are celebrated with great fervor and enthusiasm. The temples and other religious sites in Nepal attract thousands of visitors each year.

Important Religious Sites and Practices in Nepal

Nepal is home to several important religious sites, including the Pashupatinath temple, the Boudhanath stupa, and the Swayambhunath stupa. These sites are revered by devotees all over the world and attract a considerable number of tourists each year.

Cuisine of Nepal

Overview of Nepalese Cuisine

Nepalese cuisine is known for its unique taste and cooking techniques. The cuisine is influenced by India, Tibet, and China and uses a variety of herbs, spices, and vegetables. Some of the most common dishes include dal bhaat, momos, and thukpa.

Unique Ingredients and Cooking Techniques

Nepali cuisine uses unique ingredients such as Timur, a hot pepper that is native to Nepal. Cooking techniques such as smoking, roasting, and grilling are common in Nepalese cuisine. A variety of herbs and spices are also used in the food, including curry leaves, cumin, and coriander.

Popular Nepali Dishes

Some of the most popular Nepali dishes include momos, a type of dumpling filled with meat or vegetables, and dal bhaat, which is a lentil soup served with rice and vegetables. Another famous Nepalese cuisine is Newari cuisine, which consists of rice, meat, and vegetables cooked in traditional spices.

Language and Literature in Nepal

Nepali language and dialects

Nepal is home to over 100 languages and dialects, with Nepali being the most widely spoken language. Other languages spoken in Nepal include Maithili, Bhojpuri, and Tamang. Each language has its own distinct literature and traditions.

Famous Nepali writers and poets

Nepal has produced many famous writers and poets, including Lakshmi Prasad Devkota, known as the “Shakespeare of Nepal”, and Bhupi Sherchan, a prominent Nepali poet who wrote about love and social issues. Are included.

Literary traditions and themes in Nepali literature

Nepali literature is rich and diverse and has its own distinctive themes and traditions. The themes of love, nature, and social issues are prominent in Nepali literature. Folktales and myths are also an important part of Nepali literary traditions.

Sports and Recreation in Nepal

Popular sports in Nepal

Football is the most popular sport in Nepal, and the country has a national football team. Other popular sports include cricket, volleyball, and basketball. Trekking and mountaineering are also popular recreational activities in Nepal.

Traditional sports and entertainment

Nepal has several traditional games, including Gulli Danda, a game played with a stick and small wooden ball, and Bagh Chal, a board game similar to chess. These sports are an important part of Nepali culture and tradition.

Role of sports in Nepali culture

Sports play an essential role in Nepali culture and promote social unity and community spirit. Sporting events are an opportunity to socialize and celebrate as well as an essential source of entertainment and recreation.

Traditional Medicines in Nepal

Overview of Traditional Nepalese Medicines

Nepal has a rich tradition of traditional medicine, involving the use of natural remedies such as herbs, roots, and bark. Traditional medicines have evolved over thousands of years and have been influenced by Indian and Tibetan medicine.

Role of traditional medicines in Nepali health care

Traditional medicines play an essential role in Nepali healthcare and are used to treat a variety of diseases. Traditional medicines are often combined with modern medicine to provide a holistic approach to health care.

Popular practices and treatments

Some of the most popular Nepali remedies include the use of turmeric for anti-inflammatory properties and the use of goat milk for relaxation. Other treatments include the use of the herb jatamasi, used to promote good sleep, and tulsi, used for respiratory problems.

Ethnic Diversity of Nepal

Overview of Nepal’s ethnic groups

Nepal is home to more than 125 ethnic groups, each with its own distinct customs and traditions. Major ethnic groups include the Newar, Magar, Gurung, Tharu, and Tamang. Each ethnic group has its own language, dress, and customs.

Cultural practices and traditions of different ethnic groups

Each ethnic group in Nepal has its own distinct cultural practices and traditions. Some common customs include music and dance performances, traditional attire, and cooking. These customs are an important part of the identity and cultural heritage of each ethnic group.

Importance of recognizing and preserving ethnic diversity

Preserving ethnic diversity is important to promote cultural harmony and understanding. Recognizing and preserving ethnic diversity helps prevent cultural erosion and promotes respect and tolerance among different communities.

Modern Influences on Nepalese Culture

Impact of globalization on Nepali culture

Globalization has had a significant impact on Nepali culture and traditions. The influence of Western culture can be seen in areas like music, language, and fashion. The growing tourism industry has also brought changes in the way people live and interact.

Changing attitudes towards traditional cultural practices

Changing attitudes towards traditional cultural practices have also had an impact on Nepali culture. Many young people are moving away from traditional lifestyles and adopting more modern lifestyles and attitudes.

Balancing modern influences with cultural preservation efforts

It is important to balance modern influences with cultural conservation efforts to preserve Nepal’s rich cultural heritage. This requires a delicate balance between preserving traditional customs and adopting modern attitudes and practices.

Conservation and Preservation of Nepal’s Cultural Heritage

Challenges facing conservation and preservation efforts

Conservation and conservation efforts face many challenges in Nepal, including lack of funding, lack of awareness, and lack of political will. The growing tourism industry has also put significant pressure on Nepal’s cultural heritage sites.

Successful conservation and protection projects

Despite the challenges, there are many successful conservation and protection projects underway in Nepal. These projects focus on protecting Nepal’s cultural heritage sites and promoting sustainable tourism.

Role of local and international organizations in cultural preservation

Local and international organizations play an important role in cultural preservation efforts in Nepal. They provide funding, raise awareness, and work with local communities to protect and preserve Nepal’s cultural heritage.

Nepal’s rich and diverse cultural heritage is a testament to the country’s history, traditions, and customs. The cultural heritage includes everything from art, architecture, and music to cuisine, literature, and traditional medicine. Preserving Nepal’s cultural heritage is crucial to maintaining the country’s identity and sense of belonging. It promotes respect and understanding between different communities and attracts tourism, which is an essential source of revenue for local economies. Therefore, it is vital that we recognize and preserve Nepal’s rich cultural heritage.

What is Nepal’s most famous festival? One of Nepal’s most famous festivals is Dashain. What is the traditional attire of Nepal? The traditional attire of Nepal varies across different ethnic groups and regions. However, one of the most widely recognized traditional attires in Nepal is the “Daura Suruwal” for men and “Gunyo Cholo” for women. How has modernization affected Nepalese culture? Modernization has had both positive and negative impacts on Nepalese culture: Positive impacts of modernization on Nepalese culture: 1. Increased access to education and technology has led to the spread of new ideas and knowledge. 2. Modern infrastructure and transportation have improved connectivity and accessibility. 3. Economic development and globalization have provided new opportunities for employment and income generation. 4. Modern amenities and services have improved the quality of life for many people. Negative impacts of modernization on Nepalese culture: 1. Traditional values and customs have been diluted or lost in some communities. 2. Western influences and consumerism have led to changes in lifestyle and consumption patterns. 3. Rapid urbanization has resulted in the loss of traditional architectural heritage. 4. Environmental degradation and cultural commodification have occurred in some tourist-centric areas. 5. Generation gaps and conflicts arise due to differing views between traditional and modern practices. It’s important to note that the impact of modernization on Nepalese culture is complex and varied, with different regions and communities experiencing it differently. How can individuals support cultural preservation efforts in Nepal? Individuals can support cultural preservation efforts in Nepal by: 1. Educating themselves about Nepal’s cultural heritage. 2. Respect local customs and traditions when visiting cultural sites. 3. Supporting local artisans by purchasing their products. 4. Volunteering or interning with organizations focused on cultural preservation. 5. Donating to cultural organizations working on heritage conservation. 6. Choosing responsible tourism practices that prioritize cultural preservation. 7. Spreading awareness about Nepal’s cultural heritage through social media and other platforms. 8. Participating in cultural events and festivals. 9. Advocating for policies that protect cultural sites and heritage. 10. Engaging with local communities and fostering cultural exchanges. What are some of Nepal’s must-visit cultural sites? Here are some of Nepal’s must-visit cultural sites: 1. Kathmandu Durbar Square: This UNESCO World Heritage Site in Kathmandu is home to ancient palaces, temples, and intricately carved wooden architecture. 2. Bhaktapur Durbar Square: Located in the city of Bhaktapur, this UNESCO World Heritage Site showcases well-preserved medieval architecture, temples, and royal palaces. 3. Patan Durbar Square: Situated in Lalitpur, Patan Durbar Square is renowned for its exquisite Newar architecture, temples, and the famous Krishna Mandir. 4. Boudhanath Stupa: One of the largest Buddhist stupas in the world, located on the outskirts of Kathmandu. It is an important pilgrimage site and a center of Tibetan Buddhism. 5. Swayambhunath Stupa: Also known as the Monkey Temple, this hilltop stupa in Kathmandu offers panoramic views of the city and is adorned with prayer flags and shrines. 6. Pashupatinath Temple: Situated on the banks of the Bagmati River in Kathmandu, this Hindu temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and is a major pilgrimage site. 7. Lumbini: The birthplace of Lord Buddha, located in the Terai region of Nepal. Lumbini is a significant pilgrimage site for Buddhists and houses the Maya Devi Temple and other monasteries. 8. Changu Narayan Temple: Situated on a hilltop near Bhaktapur, this ancient Hindu temple is known for its intricate stone carvings and statues. 9. Muktinath Temple: Located in the Mustang district, this sacred site is revered by both Hindus and Buddhists, featuring a Vishnu temple and a Buddhist monastery. 10. Janakpur: A holy city associated with the Hindu epic Ramayana, Janakpur is home to the Janaki Temple, dedicated to Goddess Sita, and hosts vibrant festivals. These cultural sites offer a glimpse into Nepal’s rich history, art, and religious traditions, making them must-visit destinations for travelers seeking to explore the country’s cultural heritage.

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