quantitative research paper template

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A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

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Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques . Quantitative research focuses on gathering numerical data and generalizing it across groups of people or to explain a particular phenomenon.

Babbie, Earl R. The Practice of Social Research . 12th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage, 2010; Muijs, Daniel. Doing Quantitative Research in Education with SPSS . 2nd edition. London: SAGE Publications, 2010.

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Characteristics of Quantitative Research

Your goal in conducting quantitative research study is to determine the relationship between one thing [an independent variable] and another [a dependent or outcome variable] within a population. Quantitative research designs are either descriptive [subjects usually measured once] or experimental [subjects measured before and after a treatment]. A descriptive study establishes only associations between variables; an experimental study establishes causality.

Quantitative research deals in numbers, logic, and an objective stance. Quantitative research focuses on numeric and unchanging data and detailed, convergent reasoning rather than divergent reasoning [i.e., the generation of a variety of ideas about a research problem in a spontaneous, free-flowing manner].

Its main characteristics are :

• The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments.
• The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population.
• The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.
• Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought.
• All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
• Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other non-textual forms.
• Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate causal relationships.
• Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect numerical data.

The overarching aim of a quantitative research study is to classify features, count them, and construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.

  Things to keep in mind when reporting the results of a study using quantitative methods :

• Explain the data collected and their statistical treatment as well as all relevant results in relation to the research problem you are investigating. Interpretation of results is not appropriate in this section.
• Report unanticipated events that occurred during your data collection. Explain how the actual analysis differs from the planned analysis. Explain your handling of missing data and why any missing data does not undermine the validity of your analysis.
• Explain the techniques you used to "clean" your data set.
• Choose a minimally sufficient statistical procedure ; provide a rationale for its use and a reference for it. Specify any computer programs used.
• Describe the assumptions for each procedure and the steps you took to ensure that they were not violated.
• When using inferential statistics , provide the descriptive statistics, confidence intervals, and sample sizes for each variable as well as the value of the test statistic, its direction, the degrees of freedom, and the significance level [report the actual p value].
• Avoid inferring causality , particularly in nonrandomized designs or without further experimentation.
• Use tables to provide exact values ; use figures to convey global effects. Keep figures small in size; include graphic representations of confidence intervals whenever possible.
• Always tell the reader what to look for in tables and figures .

NOTE:   When using pre-existing statistical data gathered and made available by anyone other than yourself [e.g., government agency], you still must report on the methods that were used to gather the data and describe any missing data that exists and, if there is any, provide a clear explanation why the missing data does not undermine the validity of your final analysis.

Babbie, Earl R. The Practice of Social Research . 12th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage, 2010; Brians, Craig Leonard et al. Empirical Political Analysis: Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods . 8th ed. Boston, MA: Longman, 2011; McNabb, David E. Research Methods in Public Administration and Nonprofit Management: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches . 2nd ed. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2008; Quantitative Research Methods. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Singh, Kultar. Quantitative Social Research Methods . Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2007.

Basic Research Design for Quantitative Studies

Before designing a quantitative research study, you must decide whether it will be descriptive or experimental because this will dictate how you gather, analyze, and interpret the results. A descriptive study is governed by the following rules: subjects are generally measured once; the intention is to only establish associations between variables; and, the study may include a sample population of hundreds or thousands of subjects to ensure that a valid estimate of a generalized relationship between variables has been obtained. An experimental design includes subjects measured before and after a particular treatment, the sample population may be very small and purposefully chosen, and it is intended to establish causality between variables. Introduction The introduction to a quantitative study is usually written in the present tense and from the third person point of view. It covers the following information:

• Identifies the research problem -- as with any academic study, you must state clearly and concisely the research problem being investigated.
• Reviews the literature -- review scholarship on the topic, synthesizing key themes and, if necessary, noting studies that have used similar methods of inquiry and analysis. Note where key gaps exist and how your study helps to fill these gaps or clarifies existing knowledge.
• Describes the theoretical framework -- provide an outline of the theory or hypothesis underpinning your study. If necessary, define unfamiliar or complex terms, concepts, or ideas and provide the appropriate background information to place the research problem in proper context [e.g., historical, cultural, economic, etc.].

Methodology The methods section of a quantitative study should describe how each objective of your study will be achieved. Be sure to provide enough detail to enable the reader can make an informed assessment of the methods being used to obtain results associated with the research problem. The methods section should be presented in the past tense.

• Study population and sampling -- where did the data come from; how robust is it; note where gaps exist or what was excluded. Note the procedures used for their selection;
• Data collection – describe the tools and methods used to collect information and identify the variables being measured; describe the methods used to obtain the data; and, note if the data was pre-existing [i.e., government data] or you gathered it yourself. If you gathered it yourself, describe what type of instrument you used and why. Note that no data set is perfect--describe any limitations in methods of gathering data.
• Data analysis -- describe the procedures for processing and analyzing the data. If appropriate, describe the specific instruments of analysis used to study each research objective, including mathematical techniques and the type of computer software used to manipulate the data.

Results The finding of your study should be written objectively and in a succinct and precise format. In quantitative studies, it is common to use graphs, tables, charts, and other non-textual elements to help the reader understand the data. Make sure that non-textual elements do not stand in isolation from the text but are being used to supplement the overall description of the results and to help clarify key points being made. Further information about how to effectively present data using charts and graphs can be found here .

• Statistical analysis -- how did you analyze the data? What were the key findings from the data? The findings should be present in a logical, sequential order. Describe but do not interpret these trends or negative results; save that for the discussion section. The results should be presented in the past tense.

Discussion Discussions should be analytic, logical, and comprehensive. The discussion should meld together your findings in relation to those identified in the literature review, and placed within the context of the theoretical framework underpinning the study. The discussion should be presented in the present tense.

• Interpretation of results -- reiterate the research problem being investigated and compare and contrast the findings with the research questions underlying the study. Did they affirm predicted outcomes or did the data refute it?
• Description of trends, comparison of groups, or relationships among variables -- describe any trends that emerged from your analysis and explain all unanticipated and statistical insignificant findings.
• Discussion of implications – what is the meaning of your results? Highlight key findings based on the overall results and note findings that you believe are important. How have the results helped fill gaps in understanding the research problem?
• Limitations -- describe any limitations or unavoidable bias in your study and, if necessary, note why these limitations did not inhibit effective interpretation of the results.

Conclusion End your study by to summarizing the topic and provide a final comment and assessment of the study.

• Summary of findings – synthesize the answers to your research questions. Do not report any statistical data here; just provide a narrative summary of the key findings and describe what was learned that you did not know before conducting the study.
• Recommendations – if appropriate to the aim of the assignment, tie key findings with policy recommendations or actions to be taken in practice.
• Future research – note the need for future research linked to your study’s limitations or to any remaining gaps in the literature that were not addressed in your study.

Black, Thomas R. Doing Quantitative Research in the Social Sciences: An Integrated Approach to Research Design, Measurement and Statistics . London: Sage, 1999; Gay,L. R. and Peter Airasain. Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Applications . 7th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merril Prentice Hall, 2003; Hector, Anestine. An Overview of Quantitative Research in Composition and TESOL . Department of English, Indiana University of Pennsylvania; Hopkins, Will G. “Quantitative Research Design.” Sportscience 4, 1 (2000); "A Strategy for Writing Up Research Results. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper." Department of Biology. Bates College; Nenty, H. Johnson. "Writing a Quantitative Research Thesis." International Journal of Educational Science 1 (2009): 19-32; Ouyang, Ronghua (John). Basic Inquiry of Quantitative Research . Kennesaw State University.

Strengths of Using Quantitative Methods

Quantitative researchers try to recognize and isolate specific variables contained within the study framework, seek correlation, relationships and causality, and attempt to control the environment in which the data is collected to avoid the risk of variables, other than the one being studied, accounting for the relationships identified.

Among the specific strengths of using quantitative methods to study social science research problems:

• Allows for a broader study, involving a greater number of subjects, and enhancing the generalization of the results;
• Allows for greater objectivity and accuracy of results. Generally, quantitative methods are designed to provide summaries of data that support generalizations about the phenomenon under study. In order to accomplish this, quantitative research usually involves few variables and many cases, and employs prescribed procedures to ensure validity and reliability;
• Applying well established standards means that the research can be replicated, and then analyzed and compared with similar studies;
• You can summarize vast sources of information and make comparisons across categories and over time; and,
• Personal bias can be avoided by keeping a 'distance' from participating subjects and using accepted computational techniques .

Babbie, Earl R. The Practice of Social Research . 12th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage, 2010; Brians, Craig Leonard et al. Empirical Political Analysis: Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods . 8th ed. Boston, MA: Longman, 2011; McNabb, David E. Research Methods in Public Administration and Nonprofit Management: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches . 2nd ed. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2008; Singh, Kultar. Quantitative Social Research Methods . Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2007.

Limitations of Using Quantitative Methods

Quantitative methods presume to have an objective approach to studying research problems, where data is controlled and measured, to address the accumulation of facts, and to determine the causes of behavior. As a consequence, the results of quantitative research may be statistically significant but are often humanly insignificant.

Some specific limitations associated with using quantitative methods to study research problems in the social sciences include:

• Quantitative data is more efficient and able to test hypotheses, but may miss contextual detail;
• Uses a static and rigid approach and so employs an inflexible process of discovery;
• The development of standard questions by researchers can lead to "structural bias" and false representation, where the data actually reflects the view of the researcher instead of the participating subject;
• Results provide less detail on behavior, attitudes, and motivation;
• Researcher may collect a much narrower and sometimes superficial dataset;
• Results are limited as they provide numerical descriptions rather than detailed narrative and generally provide less elaborate accounts of human perception;
• The research is often carried out in an unnatural, artificial environment so that a level of control can be applied to the exercise. This level of control might not normally be in place in the real world thus yielding "laboratory results" as opposed to "real world results"; and,
• Preset answers will not necessarily reflect how people really feel about a subject and, in some cases, might just be the closest match to the preconceived hypothesis.

Research Tip

Finding Examples of How to Apply Different Types of Research Methods

SAGE publications is a major publisher of studies about how to design and conduct research in the social and behavioral sciences. Their SAGE Research Methods Online and Cases database includes contents from books, articles, encyclopedias, handbooks, and videos covering social science research design and methods including the complete Little Green Book Series of Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences and the Little Blue Book Series of Qualitative Research techniques. The database also includes case studies outlining the research methods used in real research projects. This is an excellent source for finding definitions of key terms and descriptions of research design and practice, techniques of data gathering, analysis, and reporting, and information about theories of research [e.g., grounded theory]. The database covers both qualitative and quantitative research methods as well as mixed methods approaches to conducting research.

SAGE Research Methods Online and Cases

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Example of a Quantitative Research Paper for Students & Researchers

This example of a quantitative research paper is designed to help students and other r esearchers who are learning how to write about their work. The reported research obs erves the behaviour of restaurant customers, and example paragraphs are combined with instructions for logical argumentation. Authors are encouraged to observe a traditional structure for organising quantitative research papers, to formulate research que stions, working hypotheses and investigative tools, to report results accurately and thor oughly, and to present thoughtful interpretation and logical discussion of evidence.

Related Papers

Journal of Foodservice

Christina Fjellström

Rohit Taraporewala

Noor Mustafa

FAST FOOD OBESITY 16

Princess Moon Galindez

Journal of Hospitality & Leisure Marketing

Tajulurrus mohammad

Food industry, the world over, is witnessing unprecedented increase in the number of multinational enterprises. These multinational enterprises, when deciding to expand their operations to a new country, have to make a choice between following uniform business strategies as in their home country or modify their strategies to suit the host country socioeconomic and political environment. Given the economic cost of modification of business strategies, the choice has widespread implications for the sustainability of multinational enterprises. The present paper argues that this decision-making is particularly critical in the case of multinational food enterprises because of large scale variability in food habits across countries and even within a country. Drawing from case studies of three multinational food enterprises in India, the paper points out that, in order to operate successfully in their host countries, the multinational food enterprises must adopt Glocalized strategies in marketing, product development, advertisement etc.

Modern China Series，North American Business Press

Robert Tian

Food is an important aspect of social culture and has a close relationship with economic development. The Chinese food culture has the characteristics of inheritability and development, and throughout the history of Chinese food culture, it has maintained its momentum of development since its primitive society. Neither the change of dynasty nor the change of social system has had a profound influence on it, and the philosophy of supplying enough food to people and food being the top priority was very popular. Eating was a top priority for people in China. Long ago, Confucius said that the desire for food and sex is part of human nature. As such, in the Chinese culture food became the priority. Because of the attention to diet, Chinese people would, when they had leisure time or abundant raw materials, work out a variety of food. Chinese cooking is flexible, which is characterized by saying that there is no fixed taste and what is delicious is valued. The beauty of food is one of the important roots of Chinese aesthetics, which inspires people with the stimulation of eating. Triggering art inspiration is the inevitable result of Chinese food culture pursuing complete and beautiful color, fragrance, taste, shape, and utensils. It makes food culture a comprehensive art containing multiple cultural connotations of diet, diet mentality, beautiful utensils and etiquette, food enjoyment and eating. Chinese foods have not only exquisite craftsmanship and rich nutrition, but also elegant and graceful names, which are literary and romantic, poetic and fancy. Food functions to not only satiate people’s hunger; it has also become an integral aspect of life enjoyment, which represents an essential component of food anthropology. Food anthropologists stress that changes in people’s eating habits not only depend on the local food culture, which may be specific to a given region, but also varies with economic development in different regions. Food anthropology, as a sub branch of applied anthropology, adapts anthropological theories and methods to study food industry, food culture, food consumption and food commerce. Seminal work in this regard has been provided by scholars and consultants in the field of food anthropology. This book describes the anthropological studies on Chinese foodways, outlines the Chinese food anthropology basic theories and methods. Anthropology in China is still at its development stage in China, while food anthropology is just at its initial stages of development. Nevertheless, China’s economic and social development, especially in ethnic minority regions in Western China, needs the theoretical guidance of some disciplines, including food anthropology, economic anthropology and business anthropology. At the same time, it has provided opportunities to develop food anthropology with the Chinese characteristics. Therefore, when Chinese scholars are learning and adopting Western food anthropology theories and methodologies, they must innovate and develop the related theories and methodologies with Chinese characteristics, so that they can better serve the well-off of the entire society.

MUHAMMAD IMAD UD DIN

City & Community

Petra Kuppinger

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Research Templates

Free 9+ quantitative research templates in pdf | ms word | pages.

Quantitative research is characterized by collecting quantifiable metrics and conducting statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques as a systematic analysis of phenomena. Quantitative analysis uses quantitative techniques to gather information from current and prospective customers and carry out online surveys , online polls, questionnaires, etc., the findings of which can be represented in numerical form.

1. Quantitative Research Analyst Resume Template

2. Quantitative Research Template

3. Quantitative Research Report Sample

4. Quantitative Research Format

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9. Quantitative Educational Research Template

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Types of Quantitative Research Methods

Primary quantitative research methods, survey research:, cor-relational research:, causal-comparative research:, experimental research:, secondary quantitative research methods.

• Data available on the internet: With the high penetration of internet and mobile apps, quantitative analysis using the internet has become increasingly straightforward. Data on most research subjects can be found online and this helps to increase the quality of primary quantitative data and to show the importance of data previously collected.
• Government and non-government sources: Secondary quantitative research may also be carried out with the help of government and non-governmental organizations concerned with market research studies. These are the most reliable and stable data.
• Public libraries: This form is now a sparsely used quantitative research tool. However, it is still a credible source of information. Public libraries have backups and collections of significant earlier research. These are a storehouse of valuable information and records which can be used to extract information.
• Educational institutions: Educational establishments perform in-depth research on different topics and are therefore an excellent source of evidence of quantitative research in the reports they write.
• Commercial information sources: One of the most easily accessible information is perhaps commercial information. Local papers, newspapers, magazines, radio stations, and television stations are a fantastic source of data for secondary quantitative research. Such sources of commercial knowledge have in-depth, first-hand information on economic trends, policy agenda, research and analysis, demographic segmentation, and so on.

FAQ’s

What are the different types of quantitative research, are quantitative research and qualitative research the same, what is the importance of quantitative research, more in research templates.

Quantitative Research Correlation Template

Quantitative research literacy template, quantitative research data analysis template, simple quantitative research template, quantitative research guide template, company research report template, quantitative research question template, quantitative research paper template, quantitative research plan template, quantitative research descriptive template.

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Sample Papers

This page contains sample papers formatted in seventh edition APA Style. The sample papers show the format that authors should use to submit a manuscript for publication in a professional journal and that students should use to submit a paper to an instructor for a course assignment. You can download the Word files to use as templates and edit them as needed for the purposes of your own papers.

Most guidelines in the Publication Manual apply to both professional manuscripts and student papers. However, there are specific guidelines for professional papers versus student papers, including professional and student title page formats. All authors should check with the person or entity to whom they are submitting their paper (e.g., publisher or instructor) for guidelines that are different from or in addition to those specified by APA Style.

Sample papers from the Publication Manual

The following two sample papers were published in annotated form in the Publication Manual and are reproduced here as PDFs for your ease of use. The annotations draw attention to content and formatting and provide the relevant sections of the Publication Manual (7th ed.) to consult for more information.

• Student sample paper with annotations (PDF, 5MB)
• Professional sample paper with annotations (PDF, 2.7MB)

We also offer these sample papers in Microsoft Word (.docx) format with the annotations as comments to the text.

• Student sample paper with annotations as comments (DOCX, 42KB)
• Professional sample paper with annotations as comments (DOCX, 103KB)

Finally, we offer these sample papers in Microsoft Word (.docx) format without the annotations.

• Student sample paper without annotations (DOCX, 36KB)
• Professional sample paper without annotations (DOCX, 96KB)

Sample professional paper templates by paper type

These sample papers demonstrate APA Style formatting standards for different professional paper types. Professional papers can contain many different elements depending on the nature of the work. Authors seeking publication should refer to the journal’s instructions for authors or manuscript submission guidelines for specific requirements and/or sections to include.

• Literature review professional paper template (DOCX, 47KB)
• Mixed methods professional paper template (DOCX, 68KB)
• Qualitative professional paper template (DOCX, 72KB)
• Quantitative professional paper template (DOCX, 77KB)
• Review professional paper template (DOCX, 112KB)

Sample papers are covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Chapter 2 and the Concise Guide Chapter 1

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• Heading Levels Template: Student Paper (PDF, 257KB)
• Heading Levels Template: Professional Paper (PDF, 213KB)

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Sample student paper templates by paper type

These sample papers demonstrate APA Style formatting standards for different student paper types. Students may write the same types of papers as professional authors (e.g., quantitative studies, literature reviews) or other types of papers for course assignments (e.g., reaction or response papers, discussion posts), dissertations, and theses.

APA does not set formal requirements for the nature or contents of an APA Style student paper. Students should follow the guidelines and requirements of their instructor, department, and/or institution when writing papers. For instance, an abstract and keywords are not required for APA Style student papers, although an instructor may request them in student papers that are longer or more complex. Specific questions about a paper being written for a course assignment should be directed to the instructor or institution assigning the paper.

• Discussion post student paper template (DOCX, 31KB)
• Literature review student paper template (DOCX, 37KB)
• Quantitative study student paper template (DOCX, 53KB)

Sample papers in real life

Although published articles differ in format from manuscripts submitted for publication or student papers (e.g., different line spacing, font, margins, and column format), articles published in APA journals provide excellent demonstrations of APA Style in action.

APA journals began publishing papers in seventh edition APA Style in 2020. Professional authors should check the author submission guidelines for the journal to which they want to submit their paper for any journal-specific style requirements.

Credits for sample professional paper templates

Quantitative professional paper template: Adapted from “Fake News, Fast and Slow: Deliberation Reduces Belief in False (but Not True) News Headlines,” by B. Bago, D. G. Rand, and G. Pennycook, 2020, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 149 (8), pp. 1608–1613 ( https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000729 ). Copyright 2020 by the American Psychological Association.

Qualitative professional paper template: Adapted from “‘My Smartphone Is an Extension of Myself’: A Holistic Qualitative Exploration of the Impact of Using a Smartphone,” by L. J. Harkin and D. Kuss, 2020, Psychology of Popular Media , 10 (1), pp. 28–38 ( https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000278 ). Copyright 2020 by the American Psychological Association.

Mixed methods professional paper template: Adapted from “‘I Am a Change Agent’: A Mixed Methods Analysis of Students’ Social Justice Value Orientation in an Undergraduate Community Psychology Course,” by D. X. Henderson, A. T. Majors, and M. Wright, 2019,  Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology , 7 (1), 68–80. ( https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000171 ). Copyright 2019 by the American Psychological Association.

Literature review professional paper template: Adapted from “Rethinking Emotions in the Context of Infants’ Prosocial Behavior: The Role of Interest and Positive Emotions,” by S. I. Hammond and J. K. Drummond, 2019, Developmental Psychology , 55 (9), pp. 1882–1888 ( https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000685 ). Copyright 2019 by the American Psychological Association.

Review professional paper template: Adapted from “Joining the Conversation: Teaching Students to Think and Communicate Like Scholars,” by E. L. Parks, 2022, Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology , 8 (1), pp. 70–78 ( https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000193 ). Copyright 2020 by the American Psychological Association.

Credits for sample student paper templates

These papers came from real students who gave their permission to have them edited and posted by APA.

Research Methodologies

Quantitative research methodologies.

• Qualitative Research Methodologies
• Systematic Reviews
• Finding Articles by Methodology
• Design Your Research Project

Library Help

What is quantitative research.

Quantitative methodologies use statistics to analyze numerical data gathered by researchers to answer their research questions. Quantitative methods can be used to answer questions such as:

• What are the relationships between two or more variables? 
• What factors are at play in an environment that might affect the behavior or development of the organisms in that environment?

Quantitative methods can also be used to test hypotheses by conducting quasi-experimental studies or designing experiments.

Independent and Dependent Variables

In quantitative research, a variable is something (an intervention technique, a pharmaceutical, a temperature, etc.) that changes. There are two kinds of variables:  independent variables and dependent variables . In the simplest terms, the independent variable is whatever the researchers are using to attempt to make a change in their dependent variable.

* This is a real, repeatable experiment you can try on your plants.

Correlational

Researchers will compare two sets of numbers to try and identify a relationship (if any) between two things.

• Köse S., & Murat, M. (2021). Examination of the relationship between smartphone addiction and cyberchondria in adolescents. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 35(6): 563-570.
• Pilger et al. (2021). Spiritual well-being, religious/spiritual coping and quality of life among the elderly undergoing hemodialysis: a correlational study. Journal of Religion, Spirituality & Aging, 33(1): 2-15.

Descriptive

Researchers will attempt to quantify a variety of factors at play as they study a particular type of phenomenon or action. For example, researchers might use a descriptive methodology to understand the effects of climate change on the life cycle of a plant or animal. 

• Lakshmi, E. (2021). Food consumption pattern and body mass index of adolescents: A descriptive study. International Journal of Nutrition, Pharmacology, Neurological Diseases, 11(4), 293–297.
• Lin, J., Singh, S., Sha, L., Tan, W., Lang, D., Gašević, D., & Chen, G. (2022). Is it a good move? Mining effective tutoring strategies from human–human tutorial dialogues. Future Generation Computer Systems, 127, 194–207.

Experimental

To understand the effects of a variable, researchers will design an experiment where they can control as many factors as possible. This can involve creating control and experimental groups. The experimental group will be exposed to the variable to study its effects. The control group provides data about what happens when the variable is absent. For example, in a study about online teaching, the control group might receive traditional face-to-face instruction while the experimental group would receive their instruction virtually. 

• Jinzhang Jia, Yinuo Chen, Guangbo Che, Jinchao Zhu, Fengxiao Wang, & Peng Jia. (2021). Experimental study on the explosion characteristics of hydrogen-methane premixed gas in complex pipe networks. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 1–11.
• Sasaki, R. et al. (2021). Effects of cryotherapy applied at different temperatures on inflammatory pain during the acute phase of arthritis in rats. Physical Therapy, 101(2), 1–9.

Quasi-Experimental/Quasi-Comparative

Researchers will attempt to determine what (if any) effect a variable can have. These studies may have multiple independent variables (causes) and multiple dependent variables (effects), but this can complicate researchers' efforts to find out if A can cause B or if X, Y,  and  Z are also playing a role.

• Jafari, A., Alami, A., Charoghchian, E., Delshad Noghabi, A., & Nejatian, M. (2021). The impact of effective communication skills training on the status of marital burnout among married women. BMC Women’s Health, 21(1), 1-10.
• Phillips, S. W., Kim, D.-Y., Sobol, J. J., & Gayadeen, S. M. (2021). Total recall?: A quasi-experimental study of officer’s recollection in shoot - don’t shoot simulators. Police Practice and Research, 22(3), 1229–1240.

Surveys can be considered a quantitative methodology if the researchers require their respondents to choose from pre-determined responses. 

• Harries et al. (2021). Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on medical students: A multicenter quantitative study. BMC Medical Education, 21(14), 1-8.
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Quantitative Data Analysis

9 Presenting the Results of Quantitative Analysis

Mikaila Mariel Lemonik Arthur

This chapter provides an overview of how to present the results of quantitative analysis, in particular how to create effective tables for displaying quantitative results and how to write quantitative research papers that effectively communicate the methods used and findings of quantitative analysis.

Writing the Quantitative Paper

Standard quantitative social science papers follow a specific format. They begin with a title page that includes a descriptive title, the author(s)’ name(s), and a 100 to 200 word abstract that summarizes the paper. Next is an introduction that makes clear the paper’s research question, details why this question is important, and previews what the paper will do. After that comes a literature review, which ends with a summary of the research question(s) and/or hypotheses. A methods section, which explains the source of data, sample, and variables and quantitative techniques used, follows. Many analysts will include a short discussion of their descriptive statistics in the methods section. A findings section details the findings of the analysis, supported by a variety of tables, and in some cases graphs, all of which are explained in the text. Some quantitative papers, especially those using more complex techniques, will include equations. Many papers follow the findings section with a discussion section, which provides an interpretation of the results in light of both the prior literature and theory presented in the literature review and the research questions/hypotheses. A conclusion ends the body of the paper. This conclusion should summarize the findings, answering the research questions and stating whether any hypotheses were supported, partially supported, or not supported. Limitations of the research are detailed. Papers typically include suggestions for future research, and where relevant, some papers include policy implications. After the body of the paper comes the works cited; some papers also have an Appendix that includes additional tables and figures that did not fit into the body of the paper or additional methodological details. While this basic format is similar for papers regardless of the type of data they utilize, there are specific concerns relating to quantitative research in terms of the methods and findings that will be discussed here.

In the methods section, researchers clearly describe the methods they used to obtain and analyze the data for their research. When relying on data collected specifically for a given paper, researchers will need to discuss the sample and data collection; in most cases, though, quantitative research relies on pre-existing datasets. In these cases, researchers need to provide information about the dataset, including the source of the data, the time it was collected, the population, and the sample size. Regardless of the source of the data, researchers need to be clear about which variables they are using in their research and any transformations or manipulations of those variables. They also need to explain the specific quantitative techniques that they are using in their analysis; if different techniques are used to test different hypotheses, this should be made clear. In some cases, publications will require that papers be submitted along with any code that was used to produce the analysis (in SPSS terms, the syntax files), which more advanced researchers will usually have on hand. In many cases, basic descriptive statistics are presented in tabular form and explained within the methods section.

The findings sections of quantitative papers are organized around explaining the results as shown in tables and figures. Not all results are depicted in tables and figures—some minor or null findings will simply be referenced—but tables and figures should be produced for all findings to be discussed at any length. If there are too many tables and figures, some can be moved to an appendix after the body of the text and referred to in the text (e.g. “See Table 12 in Appendix A”).

Discussions of the findings should not simply restate the contents of the table. Rather, they should explain and interpret it for readers, and they should do so in light of the hypothesis or hypotheses that are being tested. Conclusions—discussions of whether the hypothesis or hypotheses are supported or not supported—should wait for the conclusion of the paper.

Creating Effective Tables

When creating tables to display the results of quantitative analysis, the most important goals are to create tables that are clear and concise but that also meet standard conventions in the field. This means, first of all, paring down the volume of information produced in the statistical output to just include the information most necessary for interpreting the results, but doing so in keeping with standard table conventions. It also means making tables that are well-formatted and designed, so that readers can understand what the tables are saying without struggling to find information. For example, tables (as well as figures such as graphs) need clear captions; they are typically numbered and referred to by number in the text. Columns and rows should have clear headings. Depending on the content of the table, formatting tools may need to be used to set off header rows/columns and/or total rows/columns; cell-merging tools may be necessary; and shading may be important in tables with many rows or columns.

Here, you will find some instructions for creating tables of results from descriptive, crosstabulation, correlation, and regression analysis that are clear, concise, and meet normal standards for data display in social science. In addition, after the instructions for creating tables, you will find an example of how a paper incorporating each table might describe that table in the text.

Descriptive Statistics

When presenting the results of descriptive statistics, we create one table with columns for each type of descriptive statistic and rows for each variable. Note, of course, that depending on level of measurement only certain descriptive statistics are appropriate for a given variable, so there may be many cells in the table marked with an — to show that this statistic is not calculated for this variable. So, consider the set of descriptive statistics below, for occupational prestige, age, highest degree earned, and whether the respondent was born in this country.

Table 1. SPSS Ouput: Selected Descriptive Statistics

Statistics R’s occupational prestige score (2010) Age of respondent N Valid 3873 3699 Missing 159 333 Mean 46.54 52.16 Median 47.00 53.00 Std. Deviation 13.811 17.233 Variance 190.745 296.988 Skewness .141 .018 Std. Error of Skewness .039 .040 Kurtosis -.809 -1.018 Std. Error of Kurtosis .079 .080 Range 64 71 Minimum 16 18 Maximum 80 89 Percentiles 25 35.00 37.00 50 47.00 53.00 75 59.00 66.00 Statistics R’s highest degree N Valid 4009 Missing 23 Median 2.00 Mode 1 Range 4 Minimum 0 Maximum 4 R’s highest degree Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid less than high school 246 6.1 6.1 6.1 high school 1597 39.6 39.8 46.0 associate/junior college 370 9.2 9.2 55.2 bachelor’s 1036 25.7 25.8 81.0 graduate 760 18.8 19.0 100.0 Total 4009 99.4 100.0 Missing System 23 .6 Total 4032 100.0 Statistics Was r born in this country N Valid 3960 Missing 72 Mean 1.11 Mode 1 Was r born in this country Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid yes 3516 87.2 88.8 88.8 no 444 11.0 11.2 100.0 Total 3960 98.2 100.0 Missing System 72 1.8 Total 4032 100.0 To display these descriptive statistics in a paper, one might create a table like Table 2. Note that for discrete variables, we use the value label in the table, not the value. Table 2. Descriptive Statistics 46.54 52.16 — 1.11 47 53 1: Associates (9.2%) 1: Yes (88.8%) — — 2: High School (39.8%) — 13.811 17.233 — — 190.745 296.988 — — 0.141 0.018 — — -0.809 -1.018 — — 64 (16-80) 71 (18-89) Less than High School (0) –  Graduate (4) — 35-59 37-66 — — 3873 3699 4009 3960 If we were then to discuss our descriptive statistics in a quantitative paper, we might write something like this (note that we do not need to repeat every single detail from the table, as readers can peruse the table themselves): This analysis relies on four variables from the 2021 General Social Survey: occupational prestige score, age, highest degree earned, and whether the respondent was born in the United States. Descriptive statistics for all four variables are shown in Table 2. The median occupational prestige score is 47, with a range from 16 to 80. 50% of respondents had occupational prestige scores scores between 35 and 59. The median age of respondents is 53, with a range from 18 to 89. 50% of respondents are between ages 37 and 66. Both variables have little skew. Highest degree earned ranges from less than high school to a graduate degree; the median respondent has earned an associate’s degree, while the modal response (given by 39.8% of the respondents) is a high school degree. 88.8% of respondents were born in the United States. Crosstabulation When presenting the results of a crosstabulation, we simplify the table so that it highlights the most important information—the column percentages—and include the significance and association below the table. Consider the SPSS output below. Table 3. R’s highest degree * R’s subjective class identification Crosstabulation R’s subjective class identification Total lower class working class middle class upper class R’s highest degree less than high school Count 65 106 68 7 246 % within R’s subjective class identification 18.8% 7.1% 3.4% 4.2% 6.2% high school Count 217 800 551 23 1591 % within R’s subjective class identification 62.9% 53.7% 27.6% 13.9% 39.8% associate/junior college Count 30 191 144 3 368 % within R’s subjective class identification 8.7% 12.8% 7.2% 1.8% 9.2% bachelor’s Count 27 269 686 49 1031 % within R’s subjective class identification 7.8% 18.1% 34.4% 29.5% 25.8% graduate Count 6 123 546 84 759 % within R’s subjective class identification 1.7% 8.3% 27.4% 50.6% 19.0% Total Count 345 1489 1995 166 3995 % within R’s subjective class identification 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% Chi-Square Tests Value df Asymptotic Significance (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 819.579 12 <.001 Likelihood Ratio 839.200 12 <.001 Linear-by-Linear Association 700.351 1 <.001 N of Valid Cases 3995 a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 10.22. Symmetric Measures Value Asymptotic Standard Error Approximate T Approximate Significance Interval by Interval Pearson’s R .419 .013 29.139 <.001 Ordinal by Ordinal Spearman Correlation .419 .013 29.158 <.001 N of Valid Cases 3995 a. Not assuming the null hypothesis. b. Using the asymptotic standard error assuming the null hypothesis. c. Based on normal approximation. Table 4 shows how a table suitable for include in a paper might look if created from the SPSS output in Table 3. Note that we use asterisks to indicate the significance level of the results: * means p < 0.05; ** means p < 0.01; *** means p < 0.001; and no stars mean p > 0.05 (and thus that the result is not significant). Also note than N is the abbreviation for the number of respondents.   18.8% 7.1% 3.4% 4.2% 6.2% 62.9% 53.7% 27.6% 13.9% 39.8% 8.7% 12.8% 7.2% 1.8% 9.2% 7.8% 18.1% 34.4% 29.5% 25.8% 1.7% 8.3% 27.4% 50.6% 19.0% N: 3995 Spearman Correlation 0.419*** If we were going to discuss the results of this crosstabulation in a quantitative research paper, the discussion might look like this: A crosstabulation of respondent’s class identification and their highest degree earned, with class identification as the independent variable, is significant, with a Spearman correlation of 0.419, as shown in Table 4. Among lower class and working class respondents, more than 50% had earned a high school degree. Less than 20% of poor respondents and less than 40% of working-class respondents had earned more than a high school degree. In contrast, the majority of middle class and upper class respondents had earned at least a bachelor’s degree. In fact, 50% of upper class respondents had earned a graduate degree. Correlation When presenting a correlating matrix, one of the most important things to note is that we only present half the table so as not to include duplicated results. Think of the line through the table where empty cells exist to represent the correlation between a variable and itself, and include only the triangle of data either above or below that line of cells. Consider the output in Table 5. Table 5. SPSS Output: Correlations Age of respondent R’s occupational prestige score (2010) Highest year of school R completed R’s family income in 1986 dollars Age of respondent Pearson Correlation 1 .087 .014 .017 Sig. (2-tailed) <.001 .391 .314 N 3699 3571 3683 3336 R’s occupational prestige score (2010) Pearson Correlation .087 1 .504 .316 Sig. (2-tailed) <.001 <.001 <.001 N 3571 3873 3817 3399 Highest year of school R completed Pearson Correlation .014 .504 1 .360 Sig. (2-tailed) .391 <.001 <.001 N 3683 3817 3966 3497 R’s family income in 1986 dollars Pearson Correlation .017 .316 .360 1 Sig. (2-tailed) .314 <.001 <.001 N 3336 3399 3497 3509 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Table 6 shows what the contents of Table 5 might look like when a table is constructed in a fashion suitable for publication. Table 6. Correlation Matrix 1 0.087*** 1 0.014 0.504*** 1 0.017 0.316*** 0.360*** 1 If we were to discuss the results of this bivariate correlation analysis in a quantitative paper, the discussion might look like this: Bivariate correlations were run among variables measuring age, occupational prestige, the highest year of school respondents completed, and family income in constant 1986 dollars, as shown in Table 6. Correlations between age and highest year of school completed and between age and family income are not significant. All other correlations are positive and significant at the p<0.001 level. The correlation between age and occupational prestige is weak; the correlations between income and occupational prestige and between income and educational attainment are moderate, and the correlation between education and occupational prestige is strong. To present the results of a regression, we create one table that includes all of the key information from the multiple tables of SPSS output. This includes the R 2 and significance of the regression, either the B or the beta values (different analysts have different preferences here) for each variable, and the standard error and significance of each variable. Consider the SPSS output in Table 7. Table 7. SPSS Output: Regression Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate 1 .395 .156 .155 36729.04841 a. Predictors: (Constant), Highest year of school R completed, Age of respondent, R’s occupational prestige score (2010) ANOVA Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. 1 Regression 805156927306.583 3 268385642435.528 198.948 <.001 Residual 4351948187487.015 3226 1349022996.741 Total 5157105114793.598 3229 a. Dependent Variable: R’s family income in 1986 dollars b. Predictors: (Constant), Highest year of school R completed, Age of respondent, R’s occupational prestige score (2010) Coefficients Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. Collinearity Statistics B Std. Error Beta Tolerance VIF 1 (Constant) -44403.902 4166.576 -10.657 <.001 Age of respondent 9.547 38.733 .004 .246 .805 .993 1.007 R’s occupational prestige score (2010) 522.887 54.327 .181 9.625 <.001 .744 1.345 Highest year of school R completed 3988.545 274.039 .272 14.555 <.001 .747 1.339 a. Dependent Variable: R’s family income in 1986 dollars The regression output in shown in Table 7 contains a lot of information. We do not include all of this information when making tables suitable for publication. As can be seen in Table 8, we include the Beta (or the B), the standard error, and the significance asterisk for each variable; the R 2 and significance for the overall regression; the degrees of freedom (which tells readers the sample size or N); and the constant; along with the key to p/significance values. Table 8. Regression Results for Dependent Variable Family Income in 1986 Dollars Age 0.004 (38.733) Occupational Prestige Score 0.181*** (54.327) Highest Year of School Completed 0.272*** (274.039) Degrees of Freedom 3229 Constant -44,403.902 If we were to discuss the results of this regression in a quantitative paper, the results might look like this: Table 8 shows the results of a regression in which age, occupational prestige, and highest year of school completed are the independent variables and family income is the dependent variable. The regression results are significant, and all of the independent variables taken together explain 15.6% of the variance in family income. Age is not a significant predictor of income, while occupational prestige and educational attainment are. Educational attainment has a larger effect on family income than does occupational prestige. For every year of additional education attained, family income goes up on average by $3,988.545; for every one-unit increase in occupational prestige score, family income goes up on average by $522.887. [1] Choose two discrete variables and three continuous variables from a dataset of your choice. Produce appropriate descriptive statistics on all five of the variables and create a table of the results suitable for inclusion in a paper. Using the two discrete variables you have chosen, produce an appropriate crosstabulation, with significance and measure of association. Create a table of the results suitable for inclusion in a paper. Using the three continuous variables you have chosen, produce a correlation matrix. Create a table of the results suitable for inclusion in a paper. Using the three continuous variables you have chosen, produce a multivariate linear regression. Create a table of the results suitable for inclusion in a paper. Write a methods section describing the dataset, analytical methods, and variables you utilized in questions 1, 2, 3, and 4 and explaining the results of your descriptive analysis. Write a findings section explaining the results of the analyses you performed in questions 2, 3, and 4. Note that the actual numberical increase comes from the B values, which are shown in the SPSS output in Table 7 but not in the reformatted Table 8. ↵ Social Data Analysis Copyright © 2021 by Mikaila Mariel Lemonik Arthur is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted. Reference management. Clean and simple. Getting started with your research paper outline Levels of organization for a research paper outline First level of organization, second level of organization, third level of organization, fourth level of organization, tips for writing a research paper outline, research paper outline template, my research paper outline is complete: what are the next steps, frequently asked questions about a research paper outline, related articles. The outline is the skeleton of your research paper. Simply start by writing down your thesis and the main ideas you wish to present. This will likely change as your research progresses; therefore, do not worry about being too specific in the early stages of writing your outline. A research paper outline typically contains between two and four layers of organization. The first two layers are the most generalized. Each layer thereafter will contain the research you complete and presents more and more detailed information. The levels are typically represented by a combination of Roman numerals, Arabic numerals, uppercase letters, lowercase letters but may include other symbols. Refer to the guidelines provided by your institution, as formatting is not universal and differs between universities, fields, and subjects. If you are writing the outline for yourself, you may choose any combination you prefer. This is the most generalized level of information. Begin by numbering the introduction, each idea you will present, and the conclusion. The main ideas contain the bulk of your research paper 's information. Depending on your research, it may be chapters of a book for a literature review , a series of dates for a historical research paper, or the methods and results of a scientific paper. I. Introduction II. Main idea III. Main idea IV. Main idea V. Conclusion The second level consists of topics which support the introduction, main ideas, and the conclusion. Each main idea should have at least two supporting topics listed in the outline. If your main idea does not have enough support, you should consider presenting another main idea in its place. This is where you should stop outlining if this is your first draft. Continue your research before adding to the next levels of organization. A. Background information B. Hypothesis or thesis A. Supporting topic B. Supporting topic The third level of organization contains supporting information for the topics previously listed. By now, you should have completed enough research to add support for your ideas. The Introduction and Main Ideas may contain information you discovered about the author, timeframe, or contents of a book for a literature review; the historical events leading up to the research topic for a historical research paper, or an explanation of the problem a scientific research paper intends to address. 1. Relevant history 2. Relevant history 1. The hypothesis or thesis clearly stated 1. A brief description of supporting information 2. A brief description of supporting information The fourth level of organization contains the most detailed information such as quotes, references, observations, or specific data needed to support the main idea. It is not typical to have further levels of organization because the information contained here is the most specific. a) Quotes or references to another piece of literature b) Quotes or references to another piece of literature Tip: The key to creating a useful outline is to be consistent in your headings, organization, and levels of specificity. Be Consistent : ensure every heading has a similar tone. State the topic or write short sentences for each heading but avoid doing both. Organize Information : Higher levels of organization are more generally stated and each supporting level becomes more specific. The introduction and conclusion will never be lower than the first level of organization. Build Support : Each main idea should have two or more supporting topics. If your research does not have enough information to support the main idea you are presenting, you should, in general, complete additional research or revise the outline. By now, you should know the basic requirements to create an outline for your paper. With a content framework in place, you can now start writing your paper . To help you start right away, you can use one of our templates and adjust it to suit your needs. After completing your outline, you should: Title your research paper . This is an iterative process and may change when you delve deeper into the topic. Begin writing your research paper draft . Continue researching to further build your outline and provide more information to support your hypothesis or thesis. Format your draft appropriately . MLA 8 and APA 7 formats have differences between their bibliography page, in-text citations, line spacing, and title. Finalize your citations and bibliography . Use a reference manager like Paperpile to organize and cite your research. Write the abstract, if required . An abstract will briefly state the information contained within the paper, results of the research, and the conclusion. An outline is used to organize written ideas about a topic into a logical order. Outlines help us organize major topics, subtopics, and supporting details. Researchers benefit greatly from outlines while writing by addressing which topic to cover in what order. The most basic outline format consists of: an introduction, a minimum of three topic paragraphs, and a conclusion. You should make an outline before starting to write your research paper. This will help you organize the main ideas and arguments you want to present in your topic. Consistency: ensure every heading has a similar tone. State the topic or write short sentences for each heading but avoid doing both. Organization : Higher levels of organization are more generally stated and each supporting level becomes more specific. The introduction and conclusion will never be lower than the first level of organization. Support : Each main idea should have two or more supporting topics. If your research does not have enough information to support the main idea you are presenting, you should, in general, complete additional research or revise the outline. How to Write a Research Proposal: (with Examples & Templates) Table of Contents Before conducting a study, a research proposal should be created that outlines researchers’ plans and methodology and is submitted to the concerned evaluating organization or person. Creating a research proposal is an important step to ensure that researchers are on track and are moving forward as intended. A research proposal can be defined as a detailed plan or blueprint for the proposed research that you intend to undertake. It provides readers with a snapshot of your project by describing what you will investigate, why it is needed, and how you will conduct the research.   Your research proposal should aim to explain to the readers why your research is relevant and original, that you understand the context and current scenario in the field, have the appropriate resources to conduct the research, and that the research is feasible given the usual constraints.   This article will describe in detail the purpose and typical structure of a research proposal , along with examples and templates to help you ace this step in your research journey.   What is a Research Proposal ?   A research proposal¹ ,²  can be defined as a formal report that describes your proposed research, its objectives, methodology, implications, and other important details. Research proposals are the framework of your research and are used to obtain approvals or grants to conduct the study from various committees or organizations. Consequently, research proposals should convince readers of your study’s credibility, accuracy, achievability, practicality, and reproducibility.    With research proposals , researchers usually aim to persuade the readers, funding agencies, educational institutions, and supervisors to approve the proposal. To achieve this, the report should be well structured with the objectives written in clear, understandable language devoid of jargon. A well-organized research proposal conveys to the readers or evaluators that the writer has thought out the research plan meticulously and has the resources to ensure timely completion.   Purpose of Research Proposals   A research proposal is a sales pitch and therefore should be detailed enough to convince your readers, who could be supervisors, ethics committees, universities, etc., that what you’re proposing has merit and is feasible . Research proposals can help students discuss their dissertation with their faculty or fulfill course requirements and also help researchers obtain funding. A well-structured proposal instills confidence among readers about your ability to conduct and complete the study as proposed.   Research proposals can be written for several reasons:³   To describe the importance of research in the specific topic   Address any potential challenges you may encounter   Showcase knowledge in the field and your ability to conduct a study   Apply for a role at a research institute   Convince a research supervisor or university that your research can satisfy the requirements of a degree program   Highlight the importance of your research to organizations that may sponsor your project   Identify implications of your project and how it can benefit the audience   What Goes in a Research Proposal?     Research proposals should aim to answer the three basic questions—what, why, and how.   The What question should be answered by describing the specific subject being researched. It should typically include the objectives, the cohort details, and the location or setting.   The Why question should be answered by describing the existing scenario of the subject, listing unanswered questions, identifying gaps in the existing research, and describing how your study can address these gaps, along with the implications and significance.   The How question should be answered by describing the proposed research methodology, data analysis tools expected to be used, and other details to describe your proposed methodology.    Research Proposal Example   Here is a research proposal sample template (with examples) from the University of Rochester Medical Center. 4 The sections in all research proposals are essentially the same although different terminology and other specific sections may be used depending on the subject.   Structure of a Research Proposal   If you want to know how to make a research proposal impactful, include the following components:¹   1. Introduction   This section provides a background of the study, including the research topic, what is already known about it and the gaps, and the significance of the proposed research.   2. Literature review   This section contains descriptions of all the previous relevant studies pertaining to the research topic. Every study cited should be described in a few sentences, starting with the general studies to the more specific ones. This section builds on the understanding gained by readers in the Introduction section and supports it by citing relevant prior literature, indicating to readers that you have thoroughly researched your subject.   3. Objectives   Once the background and gaps in the research topic have been established, authors must now state the aims of the research clearly. Hypotheses should be mentioned here. This section further helps readers understand what your study’s specific goals are.   4. Research design and methodology   Here, authors should clearly describe the methods they intend to use to achieve their proposed objectives. Important components of this section include the population and sample size, data collection and analysis methods and duration, statistical analysis software, measures to avoid bias (randomization, blinding), etc.   5. Ethical considerations   This refers to the protection of participants’ rights, such as the right to privacy, right to confidentiality, etc. Researchers need to obtain informed consent and institutional review approval by the required authorities and mention this clearly for transparency.   6. Budget/funding   Researchers should prepare their budget and include all expected expenditures. An additional allowance for contingencies such as delays should also be factored in.   7. Appendices   This section typically includes information that supports the research proposal and may include informed consent forms, questionnaires, participant information, measurement tools, etc.   8. Citations   Important Tips for Writing a Research Proposal   Writing a research proposal begins much before the actual task of writing. Planning the research proposal structure and content is an important stage, which if done efficiently, can help you seamlessly transition into the writing stage. 3,5   The Planning Stage   Manage your time efficiently. Plan to have the draft version ready at least two weeks before your deadline and the final version at least two to three days before the deadline. What is the primary objective of your research?   Will your research address any existing gap?   What is the impact of your proposed research?   Do people outside your field find your research applicable in other areas?   If your research is unsuccessful, would there still be other useful research outcomes?     The Writing Stage   Create an outline with main section headings that are typically used.   Focus only on writing and getting your points across without worrying about the format of the research proposal , grammar, punctuation, etc. These can be fixed during the subsequent passes. Add details to each section heading you created in the beginning.    Ensure your sentences are concise and use plain language. A research proposal usually contains about 2,000 to 4,000 words or four to seven pages.   Don’t use too many technical terms and abbreviations assuming that the readers would know them. Define the abbreviations and technical terms.   Ensure that the entire content is readable. Avoid using long paragraphs because they affect the continuity in reading. Break them into shorter paragraphs and introduce some white space for readability.   Focus on only the major research issues and cite sources accordingly. Don’t include generic information or their sources in the literature review.   Proofread your final document to ensure there are no grammatical errors so readers can enjoy a seamless, uninterrupted read.   Use academic, scholarly language because it brings formality into a document.   Ensure that your title is created using the keywords in the document and is neither too long and specific nor too short and general.   Cite all sources appropriately to avoid plagiarism.   Make sure that you follow guidelines, if provided. This includes rules as simple as using a specific font or a hyphen or en dash between numerical ranges.   Ensure that you’ve answered all questions requested by the evaluating authority.   Key Takeaways    Here’s a summary of the main points about research proposals discussed in the previous sections:   A research proposal is a document that outlines the details of a proposed study and is created by researchers to submit to evaluators who could be research institutions, universities, faculty, etc.   Research proposals are usually about 2,000-4,000 words long, but this depends on the evaluating authority’s guidelines.   A good research proposal ensures that you’ve done your background research and assessed the feasibility of the research.   Research proposals have the following main sections—introduction, literature review, objectives, methodology, ethical considerations, and budget.   Frequently Asked Questions   Q1. How is a research proposal evaluated?   A1. In general, most evaluators, including universities, broadly use the following criteria to evaluate research proposals . 6   Significance —Does the research address any important subject or issue, which may or may not be specific to the evaluator or university?   Content and design —Is the proposed methodology appropriate to answer the research question? Are the objectives clear and well aligned with the proposed methodology?   Sample size and selection —Is the target population or cohort size clearly mentioned? Is the sampling process used to select participants randomized, appropriate, and free of bias?   Timing —Are the proposed data collection dates mentioned clearly? Is the project feasible given the specified resources and timeline?   Data management and dissemination —Who will have access to the data? What is the plan for data analysis?   Q2. What is the difference between the Introduction and Literature Review sections in a research proposal ?   A2. The Introduction or Background section in a research proposal sets the context of the study by describing the current scenario of the subject and identifying the gaps and need for the research. A Literature Review, on the other hand, provides references to all prior relevant literature to help corroborate the gaps identified and the research need.   Q3. How long should a research proposal be?   A3. Research proposal lengths vary with the evaluating authority like universities or committees and also the subject. Here’s a table that lists the typical research proposal lengths for a few universities.           Arts programs  1,000-1,500  University of Birmingham  Law School programs  2,500    PhD  2,500      2,000    Research degrees  2,000-3,500  Q4. What are the common mistakes to avoid in a research proposal ?   A4. Here are a few common mistakes that you must avoid while writing a research proposal . 7   No clear objectives: Objectives should be clear, specific, and measurable for the easy understanding among readers.   Incomplete or unconvincing background research: Background research usually includes a review of the current scenario of the particular industry and also a review of the previous literature on the subject. This helps readers understand your reasons for undertaking this research because you identified gaps in the existing research.   Overlooking project feasibility: The project scope and estimates should be realistic considering the resources and time available.    Neglecting the impact and significance of the study: In a research proposal , readers and evaluators look for the implications or significance of your research and how it contributes to the existing research. This information should always be included.   Unstructured format of a research proposal : A well-structured document gives confidence to evaluators that you have read the guidelines carefully and are well organized in your approach, consequently affirming that you will be able to undertake the research as mentioned in your proposal.   Ineffective writing style: The language used should be formal and grammatically correct. If required, editors could be consulted, including AI-based tools such as Paperpal , to refine the research proposal structure and language.   Thus, a research proposal is an essential document that can help you promote your research and secure funds and grants for conducting your research. Consequently, it should be well written in clear language and include all essential details to convince the evaluators of your ability to conduct the research as proposed.   This article has described all the important components of a research proposal and has also provided tips to improve your writing style. We hope all these tips will help you write a well-structured research proposal to ensure receipt of grants or any other purpose.   References   Sudheesh K, Duggappa DR, Nethra SS. How to write a research proposal? Indian J Anaesth. 2016;60(9):631-634. Accessed July 15, 2024. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5037942/   Writing research proposals. Harvard College Office of Undergraduate Research and Fellowships. Harvard University. Accessed July 14, 2024. https://uraf.harvard.edu/apply-opportunities/app-components/essays/research-proposals   What is a research proposal? Plus how to write one. Indeed website. Accessed July 17, 2024. https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/research-proposal   Research proposal template. University of Rochester Medical Center. Accessed July 16, 2024. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/MediaLibraries/URMCMedia/pediatrics/research/documents/Research-proposal-Template.pdf   Tips for successful proposal writing. Johns Hopkins University. Accessed July 17, 2024. https://research.jhu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Tips-for-Successful-Proposal-Writing.pdf   Formal review of research proposals. Cornell University. Accessed July 18, 2024. https://irp.dpb.cornell.edu/surveys/survey-assessment-review-group/research-proposals   7 Mistakes you must avoid in your research proposal. Aveksana (via LinkedIn). Accessed July 17, 2024. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/7-mistakes-you-must-avoid-your-research-proposal-aveksana-cmtwf/   Paperpal is a comprehensive AI writing toolkit that helps students and researchers achieve 2x the writing in half the time. It leverages 21+ years of STM experience and insights from millions of research articles to provide in-depth academic writing, language editing, and submission readiness support to help you write better, faster.   Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.   Experience the future of academic writing – Sign up to Paperpal and start writing for free!   Related Reads: How to Paraphrase Research Papers Effectively How to Cite Social Media Sources in Academic Writing?  What is the Importance of a Concept Paper and How to Write It  APA format: Basic Guide for Researchers You may also like, how to choose a dissertation topic, how to write a phd research proposal, how to write an academic paragraph (step-by-step guide), five things authors need to know when using..., 7 best referencing tools and citation management software..., maintaining academic integrity with paperpal’s generative ai writing..., research funding basics: what should a grant proposal..., how to write an abstract in research papers..., how to write dissertation acknowledgements. Generate accurate APA citations for free Knowledge Base APA Style 7th edition How to write an APA results section Reporting Research Results in APA Style | Tips & Examples Published on December 21, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on January 17, 2024. The results section of a quantitative research paper is where you summarize your data and report the findings of any relevant statistical analyses. The APA manual provides rigorous guidelines for what to report in quantitative research papers in the fields of psychology, education, and other social sciences. Use these standards to answer your research questions and report your data analyses in a complete and transparent way. Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes Table of contents What goes in your results section, introduce your data, summarize your data, report statistical results, presenting numbers effectively, what doesn’t belong in your results section, frequently asked questions about results in apa. In APA style, the results section includes preliminary information about the participants and data, descriptive and inferential statistics, and the results of any exploratory analyses. Include these in your results section: Participant flow and recruitment period. Report the number of participants at every stage of the study, as well as the dates when recruitment took place. Missing data . Identify the proportion of data that wasn’t included in your final analysis and state the reasons. Any adverse events. Make sure to report any unexpected events or side effects (for clinical studies). Descriptive statistics . Summarize the primary and secondary outcomes of the study. Inferential statistics , including confidence intervals and effect sizes. Address the primary and secondary research questions by reporting the detailed results of your main analyses. Results of subgroup or exploratory analyses, if applicable. Place detailed results in supplementary materials. Write up the results in the past tense because you’re describing the outcomes of a completed research study. Scribbr Citation Checker New The AI-powered Citation Checker helps you avoid common mistakes such as: Missing commas and periods Incorrect usage of “et al.” Ampersands (&) in narrative citations Missing reference entries Before diving into your research findings, first describe the flow of participants at every stage of your study and whether any data were excluded from the final analysis. Participant flow and recruitment period It’s necessary to report any attrition, which is the decline in participants at every sequential stage of a study. That’s because an uneven number of participants across groups sometimes threatens internal validity and makes it difficult to compare groups. Be sure to also state all reasons for attrition. If your study has multiple stages (e.g., pre-test, intervention, and post-test) and groups (e.g., experimental and control groups), a flow chart is the best way to report the number of participants in each group per stage and reasons for attrition. Also report the dates for when you recruited participants or performed follow-up sessions. Missing data Another key issue is the completeness of your dataset. It’s necessary to report both the amount and reasons for data that was missing or excluded. Data can become unusable due to equipment malfunctions, improper storage, unexpected events, participant ineligibility, and so on. For each case, state the reason why the data were unusable. Some data points may be removed from the final analysis because they are outliers—but you must be able to justify how you decided what to exclude. If you applied any techniques for overcoming or compensating for lost data, report those as well. Adverse events For clinical studies, report all events with serious consequences or any side effects that occured. Descriptive statistics summarize your data for the reader. Present descriptive statistics for each primary, secondary, and subgroup analysis. Don’t provide formulas or citations for commonly used statistics (e.g., standard deviation) – but do provide them for new or rare equations. Descriptive statistics The exact descriptive statistics that you report depends on the types of data in your study. Categorical variables can be reported using proportions, while quantitative data can be reported using means and standard deviations . For a large set of numbers, a table is the most effective presentation format. Include sample sizes (overall and for each group) as well as appropriate measures of central tendency and variability for the outcomes in your results section. For every point estimate , add a clearly labelled measure of variability as well. Be sure to note how you combined data to come up with variables of interest. For every variable of interest, explain how you operationalized it. According to APA journal standards, it’s necessary to report all relevant hypothesis tests performed, estimates of effect sizes, and confidence intervals. When reporting statistical results, you should first address primary research questions before moving onto secondary research questions and any exploratory or subgroup analyses. Present the results of tests in the order that you performed them—report the outcomes of main tests before post-hoc tests, for example. Don’t leave out any relevant results, even if they don’t support your hypothesis. Inferential statistics For each statistical test performed, first restate the hypothesis , then state whether your hypothesis was supported and provide the outcomes that led you to that conclusion. Report the following for each hypothesis test: the test statistic value, the degrees of freedom , the exact p- value (unless it is less than 0.001), the magnitude and direction of the effect. When reporting complex data analyses, such as factor analysis or multivariate analysis, present the models estimated in detail, and state the statistical software used. Make sure to report any violations of statistical assumptions or problems with estimation. Effect sizes and confidence intervals For each hypothesis test performed, you should present confidence intervals and estimates of effect sizes . Confidence intervals are useful for showing the variability around point estimates. They should be included whenever you report population parameter estimates. Effect sizes indicate how impactful the outcomes of a study are. But since they are estimates, it’s recommended that you also provide confidence intervals of effect sizes. Subgroup or exploratory analyses Briefly report the results of any other planned or exploratory analyses you performed. These may include subgroup analyses as well. Subgroup analyses come with a high chance of false positive results, because performing a large number of comparison or correlation tests increases the chances of finding significant results. If you find significant results in these analyses, make sure to appropriately report them as exploratory (rather than confirmatory) results to avoid overstating their importance. While these analyses can be reported in less detail in the main text, you can provide the full analyses in supplementary materials. Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check. To effectively present numbers, use a mix of text, tables , and figures where appropriate: To present three or fewer numbers, try a sentence , To present between 4 and 20 numbers, try a table , To present more than 20 numbers, try a figure . Since these are general guidelines, use your own judgment and feedback from others for effective presentation of numbers. Tables and figures should be numbered and have titles, along with relevant notes. Make sure to present data only once throughout the paper and refer to any tables and figures in the text. Formatting statistics and numbers It’s important to follow capitalization , italicization, and abbreviation rules when referring to statistics in your paper. There are specific format guidelines for reporting statistics in APA , as well as general rules about writing numbers . If you are unsure of how to present specific symbols, look up the detailed APA guidelines or other papers in your field. It’s important to provide a complete picture of your data analyses and outcomes in a concise way. For that reason, raw data and any interpretations of your results are not included in the results section. It’s rarely appropriate to include raw data in your results section. Instead, you should always save the raw data securely and make them available and accessible to any other researchers who request them. Making scientific research available to others is a key part of academic integrity and open science. Interpretation or discussion of results This belongs in your discussion section. Your results section is where you objectively report all relevant findings and leave them open for interpretation by readers. While you should state whether the findings of statistical tests lend support to your hypotheses, refrain from forming conclusions to your research questions in the results section. Explanation of how statistics tests work For the sake of concise writing, you can safely assume that readers of your paper have professional knowledge of how statistical inferences work. In an APA results section , you should generally report the following: Participant flow and recruitment period. Missing data and any adverse events. Descriptive statistics about your samples. Inferential statistics , including confidence intervals and effect sizes. Results of any subgroup or exploratory analyses, if applicable. According to the APA guidelines, you should report enough detail on inferential statistics so that your readers understand your analyses. the test statistic value the degrees of freedom the exact p value (unless it is less than 0.001) the magnitude and direction of the effect You should also present confidence intervals and estimates of effect sizes where relevant. In APA style, statistics can be presented in the main text or as tables or figures . To decide how to present numbers, you can follow APA guidelines: To present three or fewer numbers, try a sentence, To present between 4 and 20 numbers, try a table, To present more than 20 numbers, try a figure. Results are usually written in the past tense , because they are describing the outcome of completed actions. The results chapter or section simply and objectively reports what you found, without speculating on why you found these results. The discussion interprets the meaning of the results, puts them in context, and explains why they matter. In qualitative research , results and discussion are sometimes combined. But in quantitative research , it’s considered important to separate the objective results from your interpretation of them. Cite this Scribbr article If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator. Bhandari, P. (2024, January 17). Reporting Research Results in APA Style | Tips & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved July 30, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/apa-style/results-section/ Is this article helpful? Pritha Bhandari Other students also liked, how to write an apa methods section, how to format tables and figures in apa style, reporting statistics in apa style | guidelines & examples, get unlimited documents corrected. ✔ Free APA citation check included ✔ Unlimited document corrections ✔ Specialized in correcting academic texts Overview of computational advances in quantitative phase imaging using digital holographic microscopy Bogue-Jimenez, B. Obando-Vasquez, S. Castañeda, R. Trujillo, C. Owing to its high resolution, sensitivity, imaged field of view, and frame rate acquisition, Digital Holographic Microscopy (DHM) stands out among the Quantitative phase imaging (QPI) techniques to reconstruct high-resolution phase images from micrometer-sized samples, providing information about the sample's topography and refractive index. Despite the successful performance of DHM systems, their applicability to in-situ clinical research has been partially hampered by the need for a standard phase reconstruction algorithm that provides quantitative phase distributions without any phase distortion. This invited talk overviews the current advances in computational DHM reconstruction approaches from semi-heuristic to learning-based approaches. 266 IMAGES Quantitative Research Question Template Quantitative Research Proposal Template Quantitative Research Report Template in MS Word, Pages, GDocsLink FREE 46+ Research Paper Examples & Templates in PDF, MS Word (PDF) Example of a Quantitative Research Paper for Students Free Quantitative Research Checklist Template VIDEO SAMPLE QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH TITLES Quantitative Techniques qualitative and quantitative research critique Sat, 22 June 2024 Qualitative and Quantitative , types of research , BBA/ B.com / MBA / M.com/ ugc net / other exams quantitative techniques for business question paper 2023#bba #bcom #importantquestions COMMENTS (PDF) An Outline for Quantitative Research Papers An Outline for Quantitative Research Pa pers. Rui Pedro Paiva. CISUC - Centre for Informatics and Systems of the University of Coimbra, Portugal. [email protected]. August 2013. Abstract. About ... A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question.1 An excellent ... In quantitative research, ... following the template, 'If a specific action is taken, then a ... An Outline for Quantitative Research Papers Keywords: scientific research papers, quantitative research, scientific writing, general paper outline. 1 Introduction Introduce the topic under study and the roadmap of the paper. You should provide answers to what, why, how (and maybe who, when, where), state the contributions of the paper to extend the state of the art and its impact. How to Write an APA Methods Section Research papers in the social and natural sciences often follow APA style. This article focuses on reporting quantitative research methods. In your APA methods section, you should report enough information to understand and replicate your study, including detailed information on the sample, measures, and procedures used. PDF Quantitative Research Proposal Sample A Sample Quantitative Research Proposal Written in the APA 6th Style. [Note: This sample proposal is based on a composite of past proposals, simulated information and references, and material I've included for illustration purposes - it is based roughly on a fairly standard research proposal; I say roughly because there is no one set way of ... Free Research Paper Template (Word Doc & PDF) What's Included: Research Paper Template. If you're preparing to write an academic research paper, our free research paper template is the perfect starting point. In the template, we cover every section step by step, with clear, straightforward explanations and examples.. 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How to Write a Results Section The most logical way to structure quantitative results is to frame them around your research questions or hypotheses. For each question or hypothesis, share: A reminder of the type of analysis you used (e.g., a two-sample t test or simple linear regression). A more detailed description of your analysis should go in your methodology section. (PDF) Example of a Quantitative Research Paper for Students This example of a quantitative research paper is designed to help students and other r esearchers who are learning how to write about their work. The reported research obs erves the behaviour of restaurant customers, and example paragraphs are ... The list represents a sample only; a pa per the length of the one posited in this example would ... FREE 9+ Quantitative Research Templates in PDF Local papers, newspapers, magazines, radio stations, and television stations are a fantastic source of data for secondary quantitative research. Such sources of commercial knowledge have in-depth, first-hand information on economic trends, policy agenda, research and analysis, demographic segmentation, and so on. Sample papers These sample papers demonstrate APA Style formatting standards for different student paper types. Students may write the same types of papers as professional authors (e.g., quantitative studies, literature reviews) or other types of papers for course assignments (e.g., reaction or response papers, discussion posts), dissertations, and theses. (PDF) Quantitative Analysis: the guide for beginners quantitative (numbers) and qualitative (words or images) data. The combination of. quantitative and qualitative research methods is called mixed methods. For example, first, numerical data are ... Quantitative Research Methodologies In quantitative research, a variable is something (an intervention technique, a pharmaceutical, a temperature, etc.) that changes. There are two kinds of variables: independent variables and dependent variables.In the simplest terms, the independent variable is whatever the researchers are using to attempt to make a change in their dependent variable. Research Template Quantitative Research FORMAT. Chapter 1 - INTRODUCTION Background of the Study Research Objectives Hypothesis (Optional - as the need arises) Theoretical Framework Conceptual Framework Scope and Limitation of the Study Significance of the Study Definition of Terms Review of Related Literature (by Variable, Indicators and synthesis) 9 Presenting the Results of Quantitative Analysis Standard quantitative social science papers follow a specific format. They begin with a title page that includes a descriptive title, the author(s)' name(s), and a 100 to 200 word abstract that summarizes the paper. Next is an introduction that makes clear the paper's research question, details why this question is important, and previews ... The Quantitative Research Paper example COVID-19 is an infectious disease caused by a new strain of coronavirus that attacks the respiratory system (World Health Organization, 2020). As of January 2021, COVID-19 has infected 94 million people and has caused 2 million deaths in 191 countries and territories (John Hopkins University, 2021). What Is Quantitative Research? Revised on June 22, 2023. Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It can be used to find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and generalize results to wider populations. Quantitative research is the opposite of qualitative research, which involves collecting and analyzing ... How to write a research paper outline The outline is the skeleton of your research paper. Simply start by writing down your thesis and the main ideas you wish to present. This will likely change as your research progresses; therefore, do not worry about being too specific in the early stages of writing your outline. Organize your papers in one place. Try Paperpile. Research Paper Format Formatting an APA paper. The main guidelines for formatting a paper in APA Style are as follows: Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman or 11 pt Arial. Set 1 inch page margins. Apply double line spacing. If submitting for publication, insert a APA running head on every page. Indent every new paragraph ½ inch. PDF Writing Chapter 3 Chapter 3: Methodology Instruments. This section should include the instruments you plan on using to measure the variables in the research questions. (a) the source or developers of the instrument. (b) validity and reliability information. •. (c) information on how it was normed. •. (d) other salient information (e.g., number of. items in each scale, subscales ... How to Write a Research Proposal: (with Examples & Templates) Before conducting a study, a research proposal should be created that outlines researchers' plans and methodology and is submitted to the concerned evaluating organization or person. Creating a research proposal is an important step to ensure that researchers are on track and are moving forward as intended. A research proposal can be defined as a detailed plan or blueprint for the proposed ... Practical Guide to Qualitative Research Paper Formats For example, qualitative research often uses themes and patterns to structure results, while quantitative research typically follows a more rigid, statistical format. Knowing which structural format to use in either situation helps keep your research paper organized and easier to grasp. Reporting Research Results in APA Style Reporting Research Results in APA Style | Tips & Examples. Published on December 21, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari.Revised on January 17, 2024. The results section of a quantitative research paper is where you summarize your data and report the findings of any relevant statistical analyses.. The APA manual provides rigorous guidelines for what to report in quantitative research papers in the fields ... Overview of computational advances in quantitative phase ... Owing to its high resolution, sensitivity, imaged field of view, and frame rate acquisition, Digital Holographic Microscopy (DHM) stands out among the Quantitative phase imaging (QPI) techniques to reconstruct high-resolution phase images from micrometer-sized samples, providing information about the sample's topography and refractive index. Despite the successful performance of DHM systems ... assignment essay homework paper phd report resume review speech thesis