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Descriptive Research: Definition, Characteristics, Methods + Examples

Suppose an apparel brand wants to understand the fashion purchasing trends among New York’s buyers, then it must conduct a demographic survey of the specific region, gather population data, and then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment.

The study will then uncover details on “what is the purchasing pattern of New York buyers,” but will not cover any investigative information about “ why ” the patterns exist. Because for the apparel brand trying to break into this market, understanding the nature of their market is the study’s main goal. Let’s talk about it.

What is descriptive research?

Descriptive research is a research method describing the characteristics of the population or phenomenon studied. This descriptive methodology focuses more on the “what” of the research subject than the “why” of the research subject.

The method primarily focuses on describing the nature of a demographic segment without focusing on “why” a particular phenomenon occurs. In other words, it “describes” the research subject without covering “why” it happens.

Characteristics of descriptive research

The term descriptive research then refers to research questions, the design of the study, and data analysis conducted on that topic. We call it an observational research method because none of the research study variables are influenced in any capacity.

Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:

• Quantitative research: It is a quantitative research method that attempts to collect quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is a popular market research tool that allows us to collect and describe the demographic segment’s nature.
• Uncontrolled variables: In it, none of the variables are influenced in any way. This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.
• Cross-sectional studies: It is generally a cross-sectional study where different sections belonging to the same group are studied.
• The basis for further research: Researchers further research the data collected and analyzed from descriptive research using different research techniques. The data can also help point towards the types of research methods used for the subsequent research.

Applications of descriptive research with examples

A descriptive research method can be used in multiple ways and for various reasons. Before getting into any survey , though, the survey goals and survey design are crucial. Despite following these steps, there is no way to know if one will meet the research outcome. How to use descriptive research? To understand the end objective of research goals, below are some ways organizations currently use descriptive research today:

• Define respondent characteristics: The aim of using close-ended questions is to draw concrete conclusions about the respondents. This could be the need to derive patterns, traits, and behaviors of the respondents. It could also be to understand from a respondent their attitude, or opinion about the phenomenon. For example, understand millennials and the hours per week they spend browsing the internet. All this information helps the organization researching to make informed business decisions.
• Measure data trends: Researchers measure data trends over time with a descriptive research design’s statistical capabilities. Consider if an apparel company researches different demographics like age groups from 24-35 and 36-45 on a new range launch of autumn wear. If one of those groups doesn’t take too well to the new launch, it provides insight into what clothes are like and what is not. The brand drops the clothes and apparel that customers don’t like.
• Conduct comparisons: Organizations also use a descriptive research design to understand how different groups respond to a specific product or service. For example, an apparel brand creates a survey asking general questions that measure the brand’s image. The same study also asks demographic questions like age, income, gender, geographical location, geographic segmentation , etc. This consumer research helps the organization understand what aspects of the brand appeal to the population and what aspects do not. It also helps make product or marketing fixes or even create a new product line to cater to high-growth potential groups.
• Validate existing conditions: Researchers widely use descriptive research to help ascertain the research object’s prevailing conditions and underlying patterns. Due to the non-invasive research method and the use of quantitative observation and some aspects of qualitative observation , researchers observe each variable and conduct an in-depth analysis . Researchers also use it to validate any existing conditions that may be prevalent in a population.
• Conduct research at different times: The analysis can be conducted at different periods to ascertain any similarities or differences. This also allows any number of variables to be evaluated. For verification, studies on prevailing conditions can also be repeated to draw trends.

Advantages of descriptive research

Some of the significant advantages of descriptive research are:

• Data collection: A researcher can conduct descriptive research using specific methods like observational method, case study method, and survey method. Between these three, all primary data collection methods are covered, which provides a lot of information. This can be used for future research or even for developing a hypothesis for your research object.
• Varied: Since the data collected is qualitative and quantitative, it gives a holistic understanding of a research topic. The information is varied, diverse, and thorough.
• Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for the research to be conducted in the respondent’s natural environment, which ensures that high-quality and honest data is collected.
• Quick to perform and cheap: As the sample size is generally large in descriptive research, the data collection is quick to conduct and is inexpensive.

Descriptive research methods

There are three distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research. They are:

Observational method

The observational method is the most effective method to conduct this research, and researchers make use of both quantitative and qualitative observations.

A quantitative observation is the objective collection of data primarily focused on numbers and values. It suggests “associated with, of or depicted in terms of a quantity.” Results of quantitative observation are derived using statistical and numerical analysis methods. It implies observation of any entity associated with a numeric value such as age, shape, weight, volume, scale, etc. For example, the researcher can track if current customers will refer the brand using a simple Net Promoter Score question .

Qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead just monitoring characteristics. In this case, the researcher observes the respondents from a distance. Since the respondents are in a comfortable environment, the characteristics observed are natural and effective. In a descriptive research design, the researcher can choose to be either a complete observer, an observer as a participant, a participant as an observer, or a full participant. For example, in a supermarket, a researcher can from afar monitor and track the customers’ selection and purchasing trends. This offers a more in-depth insight into the purchasing experience of the customer.

Case study method

Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or groups. Case studies lead to a hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a phenomenon. However, case studies should not be used to determine cause and effect as they can’t make accurate predictions because there could be a bias on the researcher’s part. The other reason why case studies are not a reliable way of conducting descriptive research is that there could be an atypical respondent in the survey. Describing them leads to weak generalizations and moving away from external validity.

Survey research

In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or questionnaires or polls . They are a popular market research tool to collect feedback from respondents. A study to gather useful data should have the right survey questions. It should be a balanced mix of open-ended questions and close ended-questions . The survey method can be conducted online or offline, making it the go-to option for descriptive research where the sample size is enormous.

Examples of descriptive research

Some examples of descriptive research are:

• A specialty food group launching a new range of barbecue rubs would like to understand what flavors of rubs are favored by different people. To understand the preferred flavor palette, they conduct this type of research study using various methods like observational methods in supermarkets. By also surveying while collecting in-depth demographic information, offers insights about the preference of different markets. This can also help tailor make the rubs and spreads to various preferred meats in that demographic. Conducting this type of research helps the organization tweak their business model and amplify marketing in core markets.
• Another example of where this research can be used is if a school district wishes to evaluate teachers’ attitudes about using technology in the classroom. By conducting surveys and observing their comfortableness using technology through observational methods, the researcher can gauge what they can help understand if a full-fledged implementation can face an issue. This also helps in understanding if the students are impacted in any way with this change.

Some other research problems and research questions that can lead to descriptive research are:

• Market researchers want to observe the habits of consumers.
• A company wants to evaluate the morale of its staff.
• A school district wants to understand if students will access online lessons rather than textbooks.
• To understand if its wellness questionnaire programs enhance the overall health of the employees.

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Blog General

Descriptive Research 101: Definition, Methods and Examples

Parvathi vijayamohan.

Last Updated:  

16 July 2024

Table Of Contents

• Descriptive Research 101: The Definitive Guide

What is Descriptive Research?

• Key Characteristics
• Observation
• Case Studies
• Types of Descriptive Research
• Question Examples
• Real-World Examples

Tips to Excel at Descriptive Research

• More Interesting Reads

Imagine you are a detective called to a crime scene. Your job is to study the scene and report whatever you find: whether that’s the half-smoked cigarette on the table or the large “RACHE” written in blood on the wall. That, in a nutshell, is  descriptive research .

Researchers often need to do descriptive research on a problem before they attempt to solve it. So in this guide, we’ll take you through:

• What is descriptive research + its characteristics
• Descriptive research methods
• Types of descriptive research
• Descriptive research examples
• Tips to excel at the descriptive method

Click to jump to the section that interests you.

Let’s begin by going through what descriptive studies can and cannot do.

Definition: As its name says, descriptive research  describes  the characteristics of the problem, phenomenon, situation, or group under study.

So the goal of all descriptive studies is to  explore  the background, details, and existing patterns in the problem to fully understand it. In other words, preliminary research.

However, descriptive research can be both  preliminary and conclusive . You can use the data from a descriptive study to make reports and get insights for further planning.

What descriptive research isn’t: Descriptive research finds the  what/when/where  of a problem, not the  why/how .

Because of this, we can’t use the descriptive method to explore cause-and-effect relationships where one variable (like a person’s job role) affects another variable (like their monthly income).

Key Characteristics of Descriptive Research

• Answers the “what,” “when,” and “where”  of a research problem. For this reason, it is popularly used in  market research ,  awareness surveys , and  opinion polls .
• Sets the stage  for a research problem. As an early part of the research process, descriptive studies help you dive deeper into the topic.
• Opens the door  for further research. You can use descriptive data as the basis for more profound research, analysis and studies.
• Qualitative and quantitative research . It is possible to get a balanced mix of numerical responses and open-ended answers from the descriptive method.
• No control or interference with the variables . The researcher simply observes and reports on them. However, specific research software has filters that allow her to zoom in on one variable.
• Done in natural settings . You can get the best results from descriptive research by talking to people, surveying them, or observing them in a suitable environment. For example, suppose you are a website beta testing an app feature. In that case, descriptive research invites users to try the feature, tracking their behavior and then asking their opinions .
• Can be applied to many research methods and areas. Examples include healthcare, SaaS, psychology, political studies, education, and pop culture.

Descriptive Research Methods: The Top Three You Need to Know!

In short, survey research is a brief interview or conversation with a set of prepared questions about a topic. So you create a questionnaire, share it, and analyze the data you collect for further action.

Read more : The difference between surveys vs questionnaires

• Surveys can be hyper-local, regional, or global, depending on your objectives.
• Share surveys in-person, offline, via SMS, email, or QR codes – so many options!
• Easy to automate if you want to conduct many surveys over a period.

FYI: If you’re looking for the perfect tool to conduct descriptive research, SurveySparrow’s got you covered. Our AI-powered text and sentiment analysis help you instantly capture detailed insights for your studies.

With 1,000+ customizable (and free) survey templates , 20+ question types, and 1500+ integrations ,   SurveySparrow makes research super-easy.

Want to try out our platform? Click on the template below to start using it.👇

Product Market Research Survey Template

2. Observation

The observational method is a type of descriptive research in which you, the researcher, observe ongoing behavior.

Now, there are several (non-creepy) ways you can observe someone. In fact, observational research has three main approaches:

• Covert observation: In true spy fashion, the researcher mixes in with the group undetected or observes from a distance.
• Overt observation : The researcher identifies himself as a researcher – “The name’s Bond. J. Bond.” – and explains the purpose of the study.
• Participatory observation : The researcher participates in what he is observing to understand his topic better.
• Observation is one of the most accurate ways to get data on a subject’s behavior in a natural setting.
• You don’t need to rely on people’s willingness to share information.
• Observation is a universal method that can be applied to any area of research.

3. Case Studies

In the case study method, you do a detailed study of a specific group, person, or event over a period.

This brings us to a frequently asked question: “What’s the difference between case studies and longitudinal studies?”

A case study will go  very in-depth into the subject with one-on-one interviews, observations, and archival research. They are also qualitative, though sometimes they will use numbers and stats.

An example of longitudinal research would be a study of the health of night shift employees vs. general shift employees over a decade. An example of a case study would involve in-depth interviews with Casey, an assistant director of nursing who’s handled the night shift at the hospital for ten years now.

• Due to the focus on a few people, case studies can give you a tremendous amount of information.
• Because of the time and effort involved, a case study engages both researchers and participants.
• Case studies are helpful for ethically investigating unusual, complex, or challenging subjects. An example would be a study of the habits of long-term cocaine users.

7 Types of Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research Question Examples

• How have teen social media habits changed in 10 years?
• What causes high employee turnover in tech?
• How do urban and rural diets differ in India?
• What are consumer preferences for electric vs. gasoline cars in Germany?
• How common is smartphone addiction among UK college students?
• What drives customer satisfaction in banking?
• How have adolescent mental health issues changed in 15 years?
• What leisure activities are popular among retirees in Japan?
• How do commute times vary in US metro areas?
• What makes e-commerce websites successful?

Descriptive Research: Real-World Examples To Build Your Next Study

1. case study: airbnb’s growth strategy.

In an excellent case study, Tam Al Saad, Principal Consultant, Strategy + Growth at Webprofits, deep dives into how Airbnb attracted and retained 150 million users .

“What Airbnb offers isn’t a cheap place to sleep when you’re on holiday; it’s the opportunity to experience your destination as a local would. It’s the chance to meet the locals, experience the markets, and find non-touristy places.

Sure, you can visit the Louvre, see Buckingham Palace, and climb the Empire State Building, but you can do it as if it were your hometown while staying in a place that has character and feels like a home.” – Tam al Saad, Principal Consultant, Strategy + Growth at Webprofits

2. Observation – Better Tech Experiences for the Elderly

We often think that our elders are so hopeless with technology. But we’re not getting any younger either, and tech is changing at a hair trigger! This article by Annemieke Hendricks shares a wonderful example where researchers compare the levels of technological familiarity between age groups and how that influences usage.

“It is generally assumed that older adults have difficulty using modern electronic devices, such as mobile telephones or computers. Because this age group is growing in most countries, changing products and processes to adapt to their needs is increasingly more important. “ – Annemieke Hendricks, Marketing Communication Specialist, Noldus

3. Surveys – Decoding Sleep with SurveySparrow

SRI International (formerly Stanford Research Institute) – an independent, non-profit research center – wanted to investigate the impact of stress on an adolescent’s sleep. To get those insights, two actions were essential: tracking sleep patterns through wearable devices and sending surveys at a pre-set time –  the pre-sleep period.

“With SurveySparrow’s recurring surveys feature, SRI was able to share engaging surveys with their participants exactly at the time they wanted and at the frequency they preferred.”

Read more about this project : How SRI International decoded sleep patterns with SurveySparrow

1: Answer the six Ws –

• Who should we consider?
• What information do we need?
• When should we collect the information?
• Where should we collect the information?
• Why are we obtaining the information?
• Way to collect the information

#2: Introduce and explain your methodological approach

#3: Describe your methods of data collection and/or selection.

#4: Describe your methods of analysis.

#5: Explain the reasoning behind your choices.

#6: Collect data.

#7: Analyze the data. Use software to speed up the process and reduce overthinking and human error.

#8: Report your conclusions and how you drew the results.

Wrapping Up

Whether it’s social media habits, consumer preferences, or mental health trends, descriptive research provides a clear snapshot into what people actually think.

If you want to know more about feedback methodology, or research, check out some of our other articles below.

👉 Desk Research 101: Definition, Methods, and Examples

👉 Exploratory Research: Your Guide to Unraveling Insights

👉 Design Research: Types, Methods, and Importance

Growth Marketer at SurveySparrow

Fledgling growth marketer. Cloud watcher. Aunty to a naughty beagle.

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What is Descriptive Research? Definition, Methods, Types and Examples

Descriptive research is a methodological approach that seeks to depict the characteristics of a phenomenon or subject under investigation. In scientific inquiry, it serves as a foundational tool for researchers aiming to observe, record, and analyze the intricate details of a particular topic. This method provides a rich and detailed account that aids in understanding, categorizing, and interpreting the subject matter.

Descriptive research design is widely employed across diverse fields, and its primary objective is to systematically observe and document all variables and conditions influencing the phenomenon.

After this descriptive research definition, let’s look at this example. Consider a researcher working on climate change adaptation, who wants to understand water management trends in an arid village in a specific study area. She must conduct a demographic survey of the region, gather population data, and then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment. The study will then uncover details on “what are the water management practices and trends in village X.” Note, however, that it will not cover any investigative information about “why” the patterns exist.

Table of Contents

What is descriptive research?

If you’ve been wondering “What is descriptive research,” we’ve got you covered in this post! In a nutshell, descriptive research is an exploratory research method that helps a researcher describe a population, circumstance, or phenomenon. It can help answer what , where , when and how questions, but not why questions. In other words, it does not involve changing the study variables and does not seek to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Importance of descriptive research

Now, let’s delve into the importance of descriptive research. This research method acts as the cornerstone for various academic and applied disciplines. Its primary significance lies in its ability to provide a comprehensive overview of a phenomenon, enabling researchers to gain a nuanced understanding of the variables at play. This method aids in forming hypotheses, generating insights, and laying the groundwork for further in-depth investigations. The following points further illustrate its importance:

Provides insights into a population or phenomenon: Descriptive research furnishes a comprehensive overview of the characteristics and behaviors of a specific population or phenomenon, thereby guiding and shaping the research project.

Offers baseline data: The data acquired through this type of research acts as a reference for subsequent investigations, laying the groundwork for further studies.

Allows validation of sampling methods: Descriptive research validates sampling methods, aiding in the selection of the most effective approach for the study.

Helps reduce time and costs: It is cost-effective and time-efficient, making this an economical means of gathering information about a specific population or phenomenon.

Ensures replicability: Descriptive research is easily replicable, ensuring a reliable way to collect and compare information from various sources.

When to use descriptive research design?

Determining when to use descriptive research depends on the nature of the research question. Before diving into the reasons behind an occurrence, understanding the how, when, and where aspects is essential. Descriptive research design is a suitable option when the research objective is to discern characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories without manipulating variables. It is therefore often employed in the initial stages of a study before progressing to more complex research designs. To put it in another way, descriptive research precedes the hypotheses of explanatory research. It is particularly valuable when there is limited existing knowledge about the subject.

Some examples are as follows, highlighting that these questions would arise before a clear outline of the research plan is established:

• In the last two decades, what changes have occurred in patterns of urban gardening in Mumbai?
• What are the differences in climate change perceptions of farmers in coastal versus inland villages in the Philippines?

Characteristics of descriptive research

Coming to the characteristics of descriptive research, this approach is characterized by its focus on observing and documenting the features of a subject. Specific characteristics are as below.

• Quantitative nature: Some descriptive research types involve quantitative research methods to gather quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the population sample.
• Qualitative nature: Some descriptive research examples include those using the qualitative research method to describe or explain the research problem.
• Observational nature: This approach is non-invasive and observational because the study variables remain untouched. Researchers merely observe and report, without introducing interventions that could impact the subject(s).
• Cross-sectional nature: In descriptive research, different sections belonging to the same group are studied, providing a “snapshot” of sorts.
• Springboard for further research: The data collected are further studied and analyzed using different research techniques. This approach helps guide the suitable research methods to be employed.

Types of descriptive research

There are various descriptive research types, each suited to different research objectives. Take a look at the different types below.

• Surveys: This involves collecting data through questionnaires or interviews to gather qualitative and quantitative data.
• Observational studies: This involves observing and collecting data on a particular population or phenomenon without influencing the study variables or manipulating the conditions. These may be further divided into cohort studies, case studies, and cross-sectional studies:
• Cohort studies: Also known as longitudinal studies, these studies involve the collection of data over an extended period, allowing researchers to track changes and trends.
• Case studies: These deal with a single individual, group, or event, which might be rare or unusual.
• Cross-sectional studies : A researcher collects data at a single point in time, in order to obtain a snapshot of a specific moment.
• Focus groups: In this approach, a small group of people are brought together to discuss a topic. The researcher moderates and records the group discussion. This can also be considered a “participatory” observational method.
• Descriptive classification: Relevant to the biological sciences, this type of approach may be used to classify living organisms.

Descriptive research methods

Several descriptive research methods can be employed, and these are more or less similar to the types of approaches mentioned above.

• Surveys: This method involves the collection of data through questionnaires or interviews. Surveys may be done online or offline, and the target subjects might be hyper-local, regional, or global.
• Observational studies: These entail the direct observation of subjects in their natural environment. These include case studies, dealing with a single case or individual, as well as cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, for a glimpse into a population or changes in trends over time, respectively. Participatory observational studies such as focus group discussions may also fall under this method.

Researchers must carefully consider descriptive research methods, types, and examples to harness their full potential in contributing to scientific knowledge.

Examples of descriptive research

Now, let’s consider some descriptive research examples.

• In social sciences, an example could be a study analyzing the demographics of a specific community to understand its socio-economic characteristics.
• In business, a market research survey aiming to describe consumer preferences would be a descriptive study.
• In ecology, a researcher might undertake a survey of all the types of monocots naturally occurring in a region and classify them up to species level.

These examples showcase the versatility of descriptive research across diverse fields.

Advantages of descriptive research

There are several advantages to this approach, which every researcher must be aware of. These are as follows:

• Owing to the numerous descriptive research methods and types, primary data can be obtained in diverse ways and be used for developing a research hypothesis .
• It is a versatile research method and allows flexibility.
• Detailed and comprehensive information can be obtained because the data collected can be qualitative or quantitative.
• It is carried out in the natural environment, which greatly minimizes certain types of bias and ethical concerns.
• It is an inexpensive and efficient approach, even with large sample sizes

Disadvantages of descriptive research

On the other hand, this design has some drawbacks as well:

• It is limited in its scope as it does not determine cause-and-effect relationships.
• The approach does not generate new information and simply depends on existing data.
• Study variables are not manipulated or controlled, and this limits the conclusions to be drawn.
• Descriptive research findings may not be generalizable to other populations.
• Finally, it offers a preliminary understanding rather than an in-depth understanding.

To reiterate, the advantages of descriptive research lie in its ability to provide a comprehensive overview, aid hypothesis generation, and serve as a preliminary step in the research process. However, its limitations include a potential lack of depth, inability to establish cause-and-effect relationships, and susceptibility to bias.

Frequently asked questions

When should researchers conduct descriptive research.

Descriptive research is most appropriate when researchers aim to portray and understand the characteristics of a phenomenon without manipulating variables. It is particularly valuable in the early stages of a study.

What is the difference between descriptive and exploratory research?

Descriptive research focuses on providing a detailed depiction of a phenomenon, while exploratory research aims to explore and generate insights into an issue where little is known.

What is the difference between descriptive and experimental research?

Descriptive research observes and documents without manipulating variables, whereas experimental research involves intentional interventions to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Is descriptive research only for social sciences?

No, various descriptive research types may be applicable to all fields of study, including social science, humanities, physical science, and biological science.

How important is descriptive research?

The importance of descriptive research lies in its ability to provide a glimpse of the current state of a phenomenon, offering valuable insights and establishing a basic understanding. Further, the advantages of descriptive research include its capacity to offer a straightforward depiction of a situation or phenomenon, facilitate the identification of patterns or trends, and serve as a useful starting point for more in-depth investigations. Additionally, descriptive research can contribute to the development of hypotheses and guide the formulation of research questions for subsequent studies.

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What is Descriptive Research and How is it Used?

Introduction

What does descriptive research mean, why would you use a descriptive research design, what are the characteristics of descriptive research, examples of descriptive research, what are the data collection methods in descriptive research, how do you analyze descriptive research data, ensuring validity and reliability in the findings.

Conducting descriptive research offers researchers a way to present phenomena as they naturally occur. Rooted in an open-ended and non-experimental nature, this type of research focuses on portraying the details of specific phenomena or contexts, helping readers gain a clearer understanding of topics of interest.

From businesses gauging customer satisfaction to educators assessing classroom dynamics, the data collected from descriptive research provides invaluable insights across various fields.

This article aims to illuminate the essence, utility, characteristics, and methods associated with descriptive research, guiding those who wish to harness its potential in their respective domains.

At its core, descriptive research refers to a systematic approach used by researchers to collect, analyze, and present data about real-life phenomena to describe it in its natural context. It primarily aims to describe what exists, based on empirical observations .

Unlike experimental research, where variables are manipulated to observe outcomes, descriptive research deals with the "as-is" scenario to facilitate further research by providing a framework or new insights on which continuing studies can build.

Definition of descriptive research

Descriptive research is defined as a research method that observes and describes the characteristics of a particular group, situation, or phenomenon.

The goal is not to establish cause and effect relationships but rather to provide a detailed account of the situation.

The difference between descriptive and exploratory research

While both descriptive and exploratory research seek to provide insights into a topic or phenomenon, they differ in their focus. Exploratory research is more about investigating a topic to develop preliminary insights or to identify potential areas of interest.

In contrast, descriptive research offers detailed accounts and descriptions of the observed phenomenon, seeking to paint a full picture of what's happening.

The evolution of descriptive research in academia

Historically, descriptive research has played a foundational role in numerous academic disciplines. Anthropologists, for instance, used this approach to document cultures and societies. Psychologists have employed it to capture behaviors, emotions, and reactions.

Over time, the method has evolved, incorporating technological advancements and adapting to contemporary needs, yet its essence remains rooted in describing a phenomenon or setting as it is.

Descriptive research serves as a cornerstone in the research landscape for its ability to provide a detailed snapshot of life. Its unique qualities and methods make it an invaluable method for various research purposes. Here's why:

Benefits of obtaining a clear picture

Descriptive research captures the present state of phenomena, offering researchers a detailed reflection of situations. This unaltered representation is crucial for sectors like marketing, where understanding current consumer behavior can shape future strategies.

Facilitating data interpretation

Given its straightforward nature, descriptive research can provide data that's easier to interpret, both for researchers and their audiences. Rather than analyzing complex statistical relationships among variables, researchers present detailed descriptions of their qualitative observations . Researchers can engage in in depth analysis relating to their research question , but audiences can also draw insights from their own interpretations or reflections on potential underlying patterns.

Enhancing the clarity of the research problem

By presenting things as they are, descriptive research can help elucidate ambiguous research questions. A well-executed descriptive study can shine light on overlooked aspects of a problem, paving the way for further investigative research.

Addressing practical problems

In real-world scenarios, it's not always feasible to manipulate variables or set up controlled experiments. For instance, in social sciences, understanding cultural norms without interference is paramount. Descriptive research allows for such non-intrusive insights, ensuring genuine understanding.

Building a foundation for future research

Often, descriptive studies act as stepping stones for more complex research endeavors. By establishing baseline data and highlighting patterns, they create a platform upon which more intricate hypotheses can be built and tested in subsequent studies.

Descriptive research is distinguished by a set of hallmark characteristics that set it apart from other research methodologies . Recognizing these features can help researchers effectively design, implement , and interpret descriptive studies.

Specificity in the research question

As with all research, descriptive research starts with a well-defined research question aiming to detail a particular phenomenon. The specificity ensures that the study remains focused on gathering relevant data without unnecessary deviations.

Focus on the present situation

While some research methods aim to predict future trends or uncover historical truths, descriptive research is predominantly concerned with the present. It seeks to capture the current state of affairs, such as understanding today's consumer habits or documenting a newly observed phenomenon.

Standardized and structured methodology

To ensure credibility and consistency in results, descriptive research often employs standardized methods. Whether it's using a fixed set of survey questions or adhering to specific observation protocols, this structured approach ensures that data is collected uniformly, making it easier to compare and analyze.

Non-manipulative approach in observation

One of the standout features of descriptive research is its non-invasive nature. Researchers observe and document without influencing the research subject or the environment. This passive stance ensures that the data gathered is a genuine reflection of the phenomenon under study.

Replicability and consistency in results

Due to its structured methodology, findings from descriptive research can often be replicated in different settings or with different samples. This consistency adds to the credibility of the results, reinforcing the validity of the insights drawn from the study.

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Numerous fields and sectors conduct descriptive research for its versatile and detailed nature. Through its focus on presenting things as they naturally occur, it provides insights into a myriad of scenarios. Here are some tangible examples from diverse domains:

Conducting market research

Businesses often turn to data analysis through descriptive research to understand the demographics of their target market. For instance, a company launching a new product might survey potential customers to understand their age, gender, income level, and purchasing habits, offering valuable data for targeted marketing strategies.

Evaluating employee behaviors

Organizations rely on descriptive research designs to assess the behavior and attitudes of their employees. By conducting observations or surveys , companies can gather data on workplace satisfaction, collaboration patterns, or the impact of a new office layout on productivity.

Understanding consumer preferences

Brands aiming to understand their consumers' likes and dislikes often use descriptive research. By observing shopping behaviors or conducting product feedback surveys , they can gauge preferences and adjust their offerings accordingly.

Documenting historical patterns

Historians and anthropologists employ descriptive research to identify patterns through analysis of events or cultural practices. For instance, a historian might detail the daily life in a particular era, while an anthropologist might document rituals and ceremonies of a specific tribe.

Assessing student performance

Educational researchers can utilize descriptive studies to understand the effectiveness of teaching methodologies. By observing classrooms or surveying students, they can measure data trends and gauge the impact of a new teaching technique or curriculum on student engagement and performance.

Descriptive research methods aim to authentically represent situations and phenomena. These techniques ensure the collection of comprehensive and reliable data about the subject of interest.

The most appropriate descriptive research method depends on the research question and resources available for your research study.

Surveys and questionnaires

One of the most familiar tools in the researcher's arsenal, surveys and questionnaires offer a structured means of collecting data from a vast audience. Through carefully designed questions, researchers can obtain standardized responses that lend themselves to straightforward comparison and analysis in quantitative and qualitative research .

Survey research can manifest in various formats, from face-to-face interactions and telephone conversations to digital platforms. While surveys can reach a broad audience and generate quantitative data ripe for statistical analysis, they also come with the challenge of potential biases in design and rely heavily on respondent honesty.

Observations and case studies

Direct or participant observation is a method wherein researchers actively watch and document behaviors or events. A researcher might, for instance, observe the dynamics within a classroom or the behaviors of shoppers in a market setting.

Case studies provide an even deeper dive, focusing on a thorough analysis of a specific individual, group, or event. These methods present the advantage of capturing real-time, detailed data, but they might also be time-intensive and can sometimes introduce observer bias .

Interviews and focus groups

Interviews , whether they follow a structured script or flow more organically, are a powerful means to extract detailed insights directly from participants. On the other hand, focus groups gather multiple participants for discussions, aiming to gather diverse and collective opinions on a particular topic or product.

These methods offer the benefit of deep insights and adaptability in data collection . However, they necessitate skilled interviewers, and focus group settings might see individual opinions being influenced by group dynamics.

Document and content analysis

Here, instead of generating new data, researchers examine existing documents or content . This can range from studying historical records and newspapers to analyzing media content or literature.

Analyzing existing content offers the advantage of accessibility and can provide insights over longer time frames. However, the reliability and relevance of the content are paramount, and researchers must approach this method with a discerning eye.

Descriptive research data, rich in details and insights, necessitates meticulous analysis to derive meaningful conclusions. The analysis process transforms raw data into structured findings that can be communicated and acted upon.

Qualitative content analysis

For data collected through interviews , focus groups , observations , or open-ended survey questions , qualitative content analysis is a popular choice. This involves examining non-numerical data to identify patterns, themes, or categories.

By coding responses or observations , researchers can identify recurring elements, making it easier to comprehend larger data sets and draw insights.

Using descriptive statistics

When dealing with quantitative data from surveys or experiments, descriptive statistics are invaluable. Measures such as mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and frequency distributions help summarize data sets, providing a snapshot of the overall patterns.

Graphical representations like histograms, pie charts, or bar graphs can further help in visualizing these statistics.

Coding and categorizing the data

Both qualitative and quantitative data often require coding. Coding involves assigning labels to specific responses or behaviors to group similar segments of data. This categorization aids in identifying patterns, especially in vast data sets.

For instance, responses to open-ended questions in a survey can be coded based on keywords or sentiments, allowing for a more structured analysis.

Visual representation through graphs and charts

Visual aids like graphs, charts, and plots can simplify complex data, making it more accessible and understandable. Whether it's showcasing frequency distributions through histograms or mapping out relationships with networks, visual representations can elucidate trends and patterns effectively.

In the realm of research , the credibility of findings is paramount. Without trustworthiness in the results, even the most meticulously gathered data can lose its value. Two cornerstones that bolster the credibility of research outcomes are validity and reliability .

Validity: Measuring the right thing

Validity addresses the accuracy of the research. It seeks to answer the question: Is the research genuinely measuring what it aims to measure? In descriptive research, where the objective is to paint an authentic picture of the current state of affairs, ensuring validity is crucial.

For instance, if a study aims to understand consumer preferences for a product category, the questions posed should genuinely reflect those preferences and not veer into unrelated territories. Multiple forms of validity, including content, criterion, and construct validity, can be examined to ensure that the research instruments and processes are aligned with the research goals.

Reliability: Consistency in findings

Reliability, on the other hand, pertains to the consistency of the research findings. When a study demonstrates reliability, this suggests that others could repeat the study and the outcomes would remain consistent across repetitions.

In descriptive research, factors like the clarity of survey questions , the training of observers , and the standardization of interview protocols play a role in enhancing reliability. Techniques such as test-retest and internal consistency measurements can be employed to assess and improve reliability.

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• Descriptive Research Design | Definition, Methods & Examples

Descriptive Research Design | Definition, Methods & Examples

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 10 October 2022.

Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer what , where , when , and how   questions , but not why questions.

A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods  to investigate one or more variables . Unlike in experimental research , the researcher does not control or manipulate any of the variables, but only observes and measures them.

Table of contents

When to use a descriptive research design, descriptive research methods.

Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories.

It is useful when not much is known yet about the topic or problem. Before you can research why something happens, you need to understand how, when, and where it happens.

• How has the London housing market changed over the past 20 years?
• Do customers of company X prefer product Y or product Z?
• What are the main genetic, behavioural, and morphological differences between European wildcats and domestic cats?
• What are the most popular online news sources among under-18s?
• How prevalent is disease A in population B?

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Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research , though qualitative research can also be used for descriptive purposes. The research design should be carefully developed to ensure that the results are valid and reliable .

Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analysed for frequencies, averages, and patterns. Common uses of surveys include:

• Describing the demographics of a country or region
• Gauging public opinion on political and social topics
• Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or an organisation’s services

Observations

Observations allow you to gather data on behaviours and phenomena without having to rely on the honesty and accuracy of respondents. This method is often used by psychological, social, and market researchers to understand how people act in real-life situations.

Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of research in the natural sciences. Before you can develop testable hypotheses , models, or theories, it’s necessary to observe and systematically describe the subject under investigation.

Case studies

A case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject (such as a person, group, event, or organisation). Instead of gathering a large volume of data to identify patterns across time or location, case studies gather detailed data to identify the characteristics of a narrowly defined subject.

Rather than aiming to describe generalisable facts, case studies often focus on unusual or interesting cases that challenge assumptions, add complexity, or reveal something new about a research problem .

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Research Design 101

Everything You Need To Get Started (With Examples)

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Reviewers: Eunice Rautenbach (DTech) & Kerryn Warren (PhD) | April 2023

Navigating the world of research can be daunting, especially if you’re a first-time researcher. One concept you’re bound to run into fairly early in your research journey is that of “ research design ”. Here, we’ll guide you through the basics using practical examples , so that you can approach your research with confidence.

Overview: Research Design 101

What is research design.

• Research design types for quantitative studies
• Video explainer : quantitative research design
• Research design types for qualitative studies
• Video explainer : qualitative research design
• How to choose a research design
• Key takeaways

Research design refers to the overall plan, structure or strategy that guides a research project , from its conception to the final data analysis. A good research design serves as the blueprint for how you, as the researcher, will collect and analyse data while ensuring consistency, reliability and validity throughout your study.

Understanding different types of research designs is essential as helps ensure that your approach is suitable  given your research aims, objectives and questions , as well as the resources you have available to you. Without a clear big-picture view of how you’ll design your research, you run the risk of potentially making misaligned choices in terms of your methodology – especially your sampling , data collection and data analysis decisions.

The problem with defining research design…

One of the reasons students struggle with a clear definition of research design is because the term is used very loosely across the internet, and even within academia.

Some sources claim that the three research design types are qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods , which isn’t quite accurate (these just refer to the type of data that you’ll collect and analyse). Other sources state that research design refers to the sum of all your design choices, suggesting it’s more like a research methodology . Others run off on other less common tangents. No wonder there’s confusion!

In this article, we’ll clear up the confusion. We’ll explain the most common research design types for both qualitative and quantitative research projects, whether that is for a full dissertation or thesis, or a smaller research paper or article.

Research Design: Quantitative Studies

Quantitative research involves collecting and analysing data in a numerical form. Broadly speaking, there are four types of quantitative research designs: descriptive , correlational , experimental , and quasi-experimental . 

Descriptive Research Design

As the name suggests, descriptive research design focuses on describing existing conditions, behaviours, or characteristics by systematically gathering information without manipulating any variables. In other words, there is no intervention on the researcher’s part – only data collection.

For example, if you’re studying smartphone addiction among adolescents in your community, you could deploy a survey to a sample of teens asking them to rate their agreement with certain statements that relate to smartphone addiction. The collected data would then provide insight regarding how widespread the issue may be – in other words, it would describe the situation.

The key defining attribute of this type of research design is that it purely describes the situation . In other words, descriptive research design does not explore potential relationships between different variables or the causes that may underlie those relationships. Therefore, descriptive research is useful for generating insight into a research problem by describing its characteristics . By doing so, it can provide valuable insights and is often used as a precursor to other research design types.

Correlational Research Design

Correlational design is a popular choice for researchers aiming to identify and measure the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them . In other words, this type of research design is useful when you want to know whether a change in one thing tends to be accompanied by a change in another thing.

For example, if you wanted to explore the relationship between exercise frequency and overall health, you could use a correlational design to help you achieve this. In this case, you might gather data on participants’ exercise habits, as well as records of their health indicators like blood pressure, heart rate, or body mass index. Thereafter, you’d use a statistical test to assess whether there’s a relationship between the two variables (exercise frequency and health).

As you can see, correlational research design is useful when you want to explore potential relationships between variables that cannot be manipulated or controlled for ethical, practical, or logistical reasons. It is particularly helpful in terms of developing predictions , and given that it doesn’t involve the manipulation of variables, it can be implemented at a large scale more easily than experimental designs (which will look at next).

That said, it’s important to keep in mind that correlational research design has limitations – most notably that it cannot be used to establish causality . In other words, correlation does not equal causation . To establish causality, you’ll need to move into the realm of experimental design, coming up next…

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Experimental Research Design

Experimental research design is used to determine if there is a causal relationship between two or more variables . With this type of research design, you, as the researcher, manipulate one variable (the independent variable) while controlling others (dependent variables). Doing so allows you to observe the effect of the former on the latter and draw conclusions about potential causality.

For example, if you wanted to measure if/how different types of fertiliser affect plant growth, you could set up several groups of plants, with each group receiving a different type of fertiliser, as well as one with no fertiliser at all. You could then measure how much each plant group grew (on average) over time and compare the results from the different groups to see which fertiliser was most effective.

Overall, experimental research design provides researchers with a powerful way to identify and measure causal relationships (and the direction of causality) between variables. However, developing a rigorous experimental design can be challenging as it’s not always easy to control all the variables in a study. This often results in smaller sample sizes , which can reduce the statistical power and generalisability of the results.

Moreover, experimental research design requires random assignment . This means that the researcher needs to assign participants to different groups or conditions in a way that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group (note that this is not the same as random sampling ). Doing so helps reduce the potential for bias and confounding variables . This need for random assignment can lead to ethics-related issues . For example, withholding a potentially beneficial medical treatment from a control group may be considered unethical in certain situations.

Quasi-Experimental Research Design

Quasi-experimental research design is used when the research aims involve identifying causal relations , but one cannot (or doesn’t want to) randomly assign participants to different groups (for practical or ethical reasons). Instead, with a quasi-experimental research design, the researcher relies on existing groups or pre-existing conditions to form groups for comparison.

For example, if you were studying the effects of a new teaching method on student achievement in a particular school district, you may be unable to randomly assign students to either group and instead have to choose classes or schools that already use different teaching methods. This way, you still achieve separate groups, without having to assign participants to specific groups yourself.

Naturally, quasi-experimental research designs have limitations when compared to experimental designs. Given that participant assignment is not random, it’s more difficult to confidently establish causality between variables, and, as a researcher, you have less control over other variables that may impact findings.

All that said, quasi-experimental designs can still be valuable in research contexts where random assignment is not possible and can often be undertaken on a much larger scale than experimental research, thus increasing the statistical power of the results. What’s important is that you, as the researcher, understand the limitations of the design and conduct your quasi-experiment as rigorously as possible, paying careful attention to any potential confounding variables .

Research Design: Qualitative Studies

There are many different research design types when it comes to qualitative studies, but here we’ll narrow our focus to explore the “Big 4”. Specifically, we’ll look at phenomenological design, grounded theory design, ethnographic design, and case study design.

Phenomenological Research Design

Phenomenological design involves exploring the meaning of lived experiences and how they are perceived by individuals. This type of research design seeks to understand people’s perspectives , emotions, and behaviours in specific situations. Here, the aim for researchers is to uncover the essence of human experience without making any assumptions or imposing preconceived ideas on their subjects.

For example, you could adopt a phenomenological design to study why cancer survivors have such varied perceptions of their lives after overcoming their disease. This could be achieved by interviewing survivors and then analysing the data using a qualitative analysis method such as thematic analysis to identify commonalities and differences.

Phenomenological research design typically involves in-depth interviews or open-ended questionnaires to collect rich, detailed data about participants’ subjective experiences. This richness is one of the key strengths of phenomenological research design but, naturally, it also has limitations. These include potential biases in data collection and interpretation and the lack of generalisability of findings to broader populations.

Grounded Theory Research Design

Grounded theory (also referred to as “GT”) aims to develop theories by continuously and iteratively analysing and comparing data collected from a relatively large number of participants in a study. It takes an inductive (bottom-up) approach, with a focus on letting the data “speak for itself”, without being influenced by preexisting theories or the researcher’s preconceptions.

As an example, let’s assume your research aims involved understanding how people cope with chronic pain from a specific medical condition, with a view to developing a theory around this. In this case, grounded theory design would allow you to explore this concept thoroughly without preconceptions about what coping mechanisms might exist. You may find that some patients prefer cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) while others prefer to rely on herbal remedies. Based on multiple, iterative rounds of analysis, you could then develop a theory in this regard, derived directly from the data (as opposed to other preexisting theories and models).

Grounded theory typically involves collecting data through interviews or observations and then analysing it to identify patterns and themes that emerge from the data. These emerging ideas are then validated by collecting more data until a saturation point is reached (i.e., no new information can be squeezed from the data). From that base, a theory can then be developed .

As you can see, grounded theory is ideally suited to studies where the research aims involve theory generation , especially in under-researched areas. Keep in mind though that this type of research design can be quite time-intensive , given the need for multiple rounds of data collection and analysis.

Ethnographic Research Design

Ethnographic design involves observing and studying a culture-sharing group of people in their natural setting to gain insight into their behaviours, beliefs, and values. The focus here is on observing participants in their natural environment (as opposed to a controlled environment). This typically involves the researcher spending an extended period of time with the participants in their environment, carefully observing and taking field notes .

All of this is not to say that ethnographic research design relies purely on observation. On the contrary, this design typically also involves in-depth interviews to explore participants’ views, beliefs, etc. However, unobtrusive observation is a core component of the ethnographic approach.

As an example, an ethnographer may study how different communities celebrate traditional festivals or how individuals from different generations interact with technology differently. This may involve a lengthy period of observation, combined with in-depth interviews to further explore specific areas of interest that emerge as a result of the observations that the researcher has made.

As you can probably imagine, ethnographic research design has the ability to provide rich, contextually embedded insights into the socio-cultural dynamics of human behaviour within a natural, uncontrived setting. Naturally, however, it does come with its own set of challenges, including researcher bias (since the researcher can become quite immersed in the group), participant confidentiality and, predictably, ethical complexities . All of these need to be carefully managed if you choose to adopt this type of research design.

Case Study Design

With case study research design, you, as the researcher, investigate a single individual (or a single group of individuals) to gain an in-depth understanding of their experiences, behaviours or outcomes. Unlike other research designs that are aimed at larger sample sizes, case studies offer a deep dive into the specific circumstances surrounding a person, group of people, event or phenomenon, generally within a bounded setting or context .

As an example, a case study design could be used to explore the factors influencing the success of a specific small business. This would involve diving deeply into the organisation to explore and understand what makes it tick – from marketing to HR to finance. In terms of data collection, this could include interviews with staff and management, review of policy documents and financial statements, surveying customers, etc.

While the above example is focused squarely on one organisation, it’s worth noting that case study research designs can have different variation s, including single-case, multiple-case and longitudinal designs. As you can see in the example, a single-case design involves intensely examining a single entity to understand its unique characteristics and complexities. Conversely, in a multiple-case design , multiple cases are compared and contrasted to identify patterns and commonalities. Lastly, in a longitudinal case design , a single case or multiple cases are studied over an extended period of time to understand how factors develop over time.

As you can see, a case study research design is particularly useful where a deep and contextualised understanding of a specific phenomenon or issue is desired. However, this strength is also its weakness. In other words, you can’t generalise the findings from a case study to the broader population. So, keep this in mind if you’re considering going the case study route.

How To Choose A Research Design

Having worked through all of these potential research designs, you’d be forgiven for feeling a little overwhelmed and wondering, “ But how do I decide which research design to use? ”. While we could write an entire post covering that alone, here are a few factors to consider that will help you choose a suitable research design for your study.

Data type: The first determining factor is naturally the type of data you plan to be collecting – i.e., qualitative or quantitative. This may sound obvious, but we have to be clear about this – don’t try to use a quantitative research design on qualitative data (or vice versa)!

Research aim(s) and question(s): As with all methodological decisions, your research aim and research questions will heavily influence your research design. For example, if your research aims involve developing a theory from qualitative data, grounded theory would be a strong option. Similarly, if your research aims involve identifying and measuring relationships between variables, one of the experimental designs would likely be a better option.

Time: It’s essential that you consider any time constraints you have, as this will impact the type of research design you can choose. For example, if you’ve only got a month to complete your project, a lengthy design such as ethnography wouldn’t be a good fit.

Resources: Take into account the resources realistically available to you, as these need to factor into your research design choice. For example, if you require highly specialised lab equipment to execute an experimental design, you need to be sure that you’ll have access to that before you make a decision.

Keep in mind that when it comes to research, it’s important to manage your risks and play as conservatively as possible. If your entire project relies on you achieving a huge sample, having access to niche equipment or holding interviews with very difficult-to-reach participants, you’re creating risks that could kill your project. So, be sure to think through your choices carefully and make sure that you have backup plans for any existential risks. Remember that a relatively simple methodology executed well generally will typically earn better marks than a highly-complex methodology executed poorly.

Recap: Key Takeaways

We’ve covered a lot of ground here. Let’s recap by looking at the key takeaways:

• Research design refers to the overall plan, structure or strategy that guides a research project, from its conception to the final analysis of data.
• Research designs for quantitative studies include descriptive , correlational , experimental and quasi-experimenta l designs.
• Research designs for qualitative studies include phenomenological , grounded theory , ethnographic and case study designs.
• When choosing a research design, you need to consider a variety of factors, including the type of data you’ll be working with, your research aims and questions, your time and the resources available to you.

If you need a helping hand with your research design (or any other aspect of your research), check out our private coaching services .

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10 Comments

Is there any blog article explaining more on Case study research design? Is there a Case study write-up template? Thank you.

Thanks this was quite valuable to clarify such an important concept.

Thanks for this simplified explanations. it is quite very helpful.

This was really helpful. thanks

Thank you for your explanation. I think case study research design and the use of secondary data in researches needs to be talked about more in your videos and articles because there a lot of case studies research design tailored projects out there.

Please is there any template for a case study research design whose data type is a secondary data on your repository?

This post is very clear, comprehensive and has been very helpful to me. It has cleared the confusion I had in regard to research design and methodology.

This post is helpful, easy to understand, and deconstructs what a research design is. Thanks

how to cite this page

Thank you very much for the post. It is wonderful and has cleared many worries in my mind regarding research designs. I really appreciate .

how can I put this blog as my reference(APA style) in bibliography part?

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Using Science to Inform Educational Practices

Descriptive Research

There are many research methods available to psychologists in their efforts to understand, describe, and explain behavior. Some methods rely on observational techniques. Other approaches involve interactions between the researcher and the individuals who are being studied—ranging from a series of simple questions to extensive, in-depth interviews—to well-controlled experiments. The main categories of psychological research are descriptive, correlational, and experimental research. Each of these research methods has unique strengths and weaknesses, and each method may only be appropriate for certain types of research questions.

Research studies that do not test specific relationships between variables are called  descriptive studies . For this method, the research question or hypothesis can be about a single variable (e.g., How accurate are people’s first impressions?) or can be a broad and exploratory question (e.g., What is it like to be a working mother diagnosed with depression?). The variable of the study is measured and reported without any further relationship analysis. A researcher might choose this method if they only needed to report information, such as a tally, an average, or a list of responses. Descriptive research can answer interesting and important questions, but what it cannot do is answer questions about relationships between variables.

Video 2.4.1.  Descriptive Research Design  provides explanation and examples for quantitative descriptive research. A closed-captioned version of this video is available here .

Descriptive research is distinct from  correlational research , in which researchers formally test whether a relationship exists between two or more variables.  Experimental research  goes a step further beyond descriptive and correlational research and randomly assigns people to different conditions, using hypothesis testing to make inferences about causal relationships between variables. We will discuss each of these methods more in-depth later.

Table 2.4.1. Comparison of research design methods

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Educational Psychology Copyright © 2020 by Nicole Arduini-Van Hoose is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Bridging the Gap: Overcome these 7 flaws in descriptive research design

Descriptive research design is a powerful tool used by scientists and researchers to gather information about a particular group or phenomenon. This type of research provides a detailed and accurate picture of the characteristics and behaviors of a particular population or subject. By observing and collecting data on a given topic, descriptive research helps researchers gain a deeper understanding of a specific issue and provides valuable insights that can inform future studies.

In this blog, we will explore the definition, characteristics, and common flaws in descriptive research design, and provide tips on how to avoid these pitfalls to produce high-quality results. Whether you are a seasoned researcher or a student just starting, understanding the fundamentals of descriptive research design is essential to conducting successful scientific studies.

Table of Contents

What Is Descriptive Research Design?

The descriptive research design involves observing and collecting data on a given topic without attempting to infer cause-and-effect relationships. The goal of descriptive research is to provide a comprehensive and accurate picture of the population or phenomenon being studied and to describe the relationships, patterns, and trends that exist within the data.

Descriptive research methods can include surveys, observational studies , and case studies, and the data collected can be qualitative or quantitative . The findings from descriptive research provide valuable insights and inform future research, but do not establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Importance of Descriptive Research in Scientific Studies

1. understanding of a population or phenomenon.

Descriptive research provides a comprehensive picture of the characteristics and behaviors of a particular population or phenomenon, allowing researchers to gain a deeper understanding of the topic.

2. Baseline Information

The information gathered through descriptive research can serve as a baseline for future research and provide a foundation for further studies.

3. Informative Data

Descriptive research can provide valuable information and insights into a particular topic, which can inform future research, policy decisions, and programs.

4. Sampling Validation

Descriptive research can be used to validate sampling methods and to help researchers determine the best approach for their study.

5. Cost Effective

Descriptive research is often less expensive and less time-consuming than other research methods , making it a cost-effective way to gather information about a particular population or phenomenon.

6. Easy to Replicate

Descriptive research is straightforward to replicate, making it a reliable way to gather and compare information from multiple sources.

Key Characteristics of Descriptive Research Design

The primary purpose of descriptive research is to describe the characteristics, behaviors, and attributes of a particular population or phenomenon.

2. Participants and Sampling

Descriptive research studies a particular population or sample that is representative of the larger population being studied. Furthermore, sampling methods can include convenience, stratified, or random sampling.

3. Data Collection Techniques

Descriptive research typically involves the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data through methods such as surveys, observational studies, case studies, or focus groups.

4. Data Analysis

Descriptive research data is analyzed to identify patterns, relationships, and trends within the data. Statistical techniques , such as frequency distributions and descriptive statistics, are commonly used to summarize and describe the data.

5. Focus on Description

Descriptive research is focused on describing and summarizing the characteristics of a particular population or phenomenon. It does not make causal inferences.

6. Non-Experimental

Descriptive research is non-experimental, meaning that the researcher does not manipulate variables or control conditions. The researcher simply observes and collects data on the population or phenomenon being studied.

When Can a Researcher Conduct Descriptive Research?

A researcher can conduct descriptive research in the following situations:

• To better understand a particular population or phenomenon
• To describe the relationships between variables
• To describe patterns and trends
• To validate sampling methods and determine the best approach for a study
• To compare data from multiple sources.

Types of Descriptive Research Design

1. survey research.

Surveys are a type of descriptive research that involves collecting data through self-administered or interviewer-administered questionnaires. Additionally, they can be administered in-person, by mail, or online, and can collect both qualitative and quantitative data.

2. Observational Research

Observational research involves observing and collecting data on a particular population or phenomenon without manipulating variables or controlling conditions. It can be conducted in naturalistic settings or controlled laboratory settings.

3. Case Study Research

Case study research is a type of descriptive research that focuses on a single individual, group, or event. It involves collecting detailed information on the subject through a variety of methods, including interviews, observations, and examination of documents.

4. Focus Group Research

Focus group research involves bringing together a small group of people to discuss a particular topic or product. Furthermore, the group is usually moderated by a researcher and the discussion is recorded for later analysis.

5. Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research involves conducting detailed observations of a particular culture or community. It is often used to gain a deep understanding of the beliefs, behaviors, and practices of a particular group.

Advantages of Descriptive Research Design

1. provides a comprehensive understanding.

Descriptive research provides a comprehensive picture of the characteristics, behaviors, and attributes of a particular population or phenomenon, which can be useful in informing future research and policy decisions.

2. Non-invasive

Descriptive research is non-invasive and does not manipulate variables or control conditions, making it a suitable method for sensitive or ethical concerns.

3. Flexibility

Descriptive research allows for a wide range of data collection methods , including surveys, observational studies, case studies, and focus groups, making it a flexible and versatile research method.

4. Cost-effective

Descriptive research is often less expensive and less time-consuming than other research methods. Moreover, it gives a cost-effective option to many researchers.

5. Easy to Replicate

Descriptive research is easy to replicate, making it a reliable way to gather and compare information from multiple sources.

6. Informs Future Research

The insights gained from a descriptive research can inform future research and inform policy decisions and programs.

Disadvantages of Descriptive Research Design

1. limited scope.

Descriptive research only provides a snapshot of the current situation and cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships.

2. Dependence on Existing Data

Descriptive research relies on existing data, which may not always be comprehensive or accurate.

3. Lack of Control

Researchers have no control over the variables in descriptive research, which can limit the conclusions that can be drawn.

The researcher’s own biases and preconceptions can influence the interpretation of the data.

5. Lack of Generalizability

Descriptive research findings may not be applicable to other populations or situations.

6. Lack of Depth

Descriptive research provides a surface-level understanding of a phenomenon, rather than a deep understanding.

7. Time-consuming

Descriptive research often requires a large amount of data collection and analysis, which can be time-consuming and resource-intensive.

7 Ways to Avoid Common Flaws While Designing Descriptive Research

1. Clearly define the research question

A clearly defined research question is the foundation of any research study, and it is important to ensure that the question is both specific and relevant to the topic being studied.

2. Choose the appropriate research design

Choosing the appropriate research design for a study is crucial to the success of the study. Moreover, researchers should choose a design that best fits the research question and the type of data needed to answer it.

3. Select a representative sample

Selecting a representative sample is important to ensure that the findings of the study are generalizable to the population being studied. Researchers should use a sampling method that provides a random and representative sample of the population.

4. Use valid and reliable data collection methods

Using valid and reliable data collection methods is important to ensure that the data collected is accurate and can be used to answer the research question. Researchers should choose methods that are appropriate for the study and that can be administered consistently and systematically.

5. Minimize bias

Bias can significantly impact the validity and reliability of research findings.  Furthermore, it is important to minimize bias in all aspects of the study, from the selection of participants to the analysis of data.

6. Ensure adequate sample size

An adequate sample size is important to ensure that the results of the study are statistically significant and can be generalized to the population being studied.

7. Use appropriate data analysis techniques

The appropriate data analysis technique depends on the type of data collected and the research question being asked. Researchers should choose techniques that are appropriate for the data and the question being asked.

Have you worked on descriptive research designs? How was your experience creating a descriptive design? What challenges did you face? Do write to us or leave a comment below and share your insights on descriptive research designs!

extremely very educative

Indeed very educative and useful. Well explained. Thank you

Simple,easy to understand

Excellent and easy to understand queries and questions get answered easily. Its rather clear than any confusion. Thanks a million Shritika Sirisilla.

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The Basics of Descriptive Research, Procedure, and Examples

• Author Kultar Singh
• Published October 26, 2022

Descriptive research, as the name specifies, describes the scenario or case of a specific study. This research design is purely based on a theoretical foundation where the individual gathers data, analyzes, prepares, and then presents it for decisions.

We will define descriptive research, explain its methodology, and weigh the benefits and drawbacks of this method.

Table of Contents

A Brief Overview of Descriptive Research 

Descriptive research is the most generalized form of research design. It usually covers questions such as: 

• Do customers of a business prefer a product? 
• What are the most critical genetic, behavioral, and physical differences between products?  
• How common is a certain disease in a population? 

Essentially, descriptive research entails amassing numerical and organized information that may be utilized to evaluate the study’s subject’s inherent, uncontrolled factors.

One of the most significant contrasts between descriptive research is that descriptive research does not manipulate or alter factors. Instead, variables are just named, observed, and measured as a foundation for future research. It helps to get a thorough grasp of the research issue to answer it correctly with the data collected from descriptive research. 

Generally, cross-sectional studies are used to accomplish the descriptive approach of the investigation. An observational study that involves collecting data at the individual level on many variables is known as a cross-sectional study . Researchers can use descriptive methods to examine changes in variables over time and identify patterns, allowing them to compare variables. 

Comparing numerous components and how different populations respond to other variables may be accomplished through descriptive research. As well as identifying the subject’s characteristics, it can also be used to determine their gender. For example, it can include qualities like opinion, attributes, conduct, etc., to confirm or verify current circumstances. When judging the validity of an existing condition, descriptive research may be helpful because it requires a deep look at every variable before concluding. 

Methodologies Of Conducting Descriptive Research

Three primary strategies are used to conduct descriptive research are:

• Case studies
• Observations

• Surveys are a cost-effective way of collecting data as they can be conducted through digital and non-digital media, such as email, websites, and phone surveys. Survey analysis will help comprehend a place’s demographics or gauge public opinion on social or political issues. Check out  SurveyPoint  if you are seeking a survey companion to help create surveys that users are excited to fill out. Pick from a variety of professionally designed, editable survey layouts.
• The case study method requires an in-depth examination of individuals or groups. Case studies need specific data on a well-defined topic instead of amassing vast data to identify connections and trends. Therefore, this approach tends to describe the varied characteristics of a single subject rather than to explain generalizable facts. Case studies help academics create hypotheses that can extend the field of evaluation while investigating the phenomena observed. In this strategy, researchers watch subjects in their natural surroundings from a distance and, as a result, do not affect the examined variables. As a result, they can collect data on investigated behaviors and features without relying on respondents to provide accurate and truthful answers. 
• The observational approach is believed to be the most acceptable descriptive research strategy. This strategy includes both qualitative and quantitative data collection.

Let’s begin with the advantages of descriptive research. Among the data-gathering methods used in the descriptive analysis are case studies, observational data, and surveys. 

• It is fast and cost-efficient since the descriptive research design often incorporates questionnaires. Through this, data can be obtained from a huge sample size in a timely and cost-effective manner. 
• Comprehensive descriptive research typically combines quantitative and qualitative research, providing a complete understanding of the search issue and having high external validity. 
• Neither the context of the respondents’ lives nor the factors are altered during the study. Hence the results of descriptive research tend to have high external validity.

Disadvantages

• Due to the lack of explanation for the studied phenomena, descriptive research cannot be used to evaluate or validate the research question. 
• The approach lacks reliability. If the research topic isn’t well-thought-out, the data collected might not be completely reliable. As a result, it is harder to do a reliable investigation.
• Descriptive research depends on people’s responses, primarily when surveys are conducted. False feedback may occur, compromising the quality of the collected data and, eventually, the study results due to sampling errors . 
• The descriptive research method often employs random sampling when picking a sample group. Randomness may lead to sampling error, leading to unreliable and wrong results if the sample group isn’t representative of the whole population. 

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Methodology

Research Methods | Definitions, Types, Examples

Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.

First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :

• Qualitative vs. quantitative : Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
• Primary vs. secondary : Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that has already been collected by someone else?
• Descriptive vs. experimental : Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?

Second, decide how you will analyze the data .

• For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships between variables.
• For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.

Table of contents

Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.

Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.

Qualitative vs. quantitative data

Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.

For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .

If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .

You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Primary vs. secondary research

Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).

If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.

Descriptive vs. experimental data

In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .

In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .

To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.

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Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.

Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.

Qualitative analysis methods

Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:

• From open-ended surveys and interviews , literature reviews , case studies , ethnographies , and other sources that use text rather than numbers.
• Using non-probability sampling methods .

Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .

Quantitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).

You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:

• During an experiment .
• Using probability sampling methods .

Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.

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If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square test of independence
• Statistical power
• Descriptive statistics
• Degrees of freedom
• Pearson correlation
• Null hypothesis
• Double-blind study
• Case-control study
• Research ethics
• Data collection
• Hypothesis testing
• Structured interviews

Research bias

• Hawthorne effect
• Unconscious bias
• Recall bias
• Halo effect
• Self-serving bias
• Information bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

• If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
• If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
• If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

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Costs of Electronic Payments in K-12 Schools

1. executive summary.

As of Fall 2023, more than 52 million students were enrolled at public schools throughout the United States. 1 Over a school year, students incur a series of expenses for school meals, bus passes, after-school programs, and technology and materials needed for class, among other costs. As the broader payments ecosystem continues shifting towards more digital options in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, school districts are increasingly contracting with payment processing companies to provide an avenue for families to pay school-related expenses online. While convenient for both families and school districts, electronic payment options present new costs and challenges for the families using them.

For example, in many schools, families can electronically load funds into an account that students can draw from to pay for school meals. Although federal policy specifies that schools must provide a fee-free option for school lunch payment, many payment processors charge a transaction fee each time a user electronically adds money to a student’s school cafeteria account. 2 Payment processing companies have broad control over fee rates, though payment companies maintain that school districts have the opportunity to negotiate these rates during the contracting process. Some districts cover part or all of this fee, but it is frequently paid by the families who make electronic payments. Over the course of a school year, transaction fees for electronic payments in and outside of the lunchroom can significantly increase a family’s total spending on school-related costs and may disproportionately impact families with lower incomes. 3

To better understand the emergence of electronic payment processors in K-12 schools, the CFPB analyzed publicly available information from the 300 largest public school districts in the U.S. and held unstructured interviews with public school officials and companies offering these payment platforms. The sample of school districts covers more than 16.7 million students across more than 25,000 schools. This spotlight highlights average costs and potential risks for families using electronic payment platforms to add money to their child’s school lunch account and reviews the market size and landscape of companies offering them, building upon initial observations referenced in the Fall 2023 edition of Supervisory Highlights. 4

1.1 Key Findings

• School districts are increasingly shifting to cashless operations. This shift is partly to prioritize administrative savings and efficiency and partly due to a larger shift towards digital payments. Many schools, including 87 percent of sampled school districts, contract with payment processors to enable electronic payments for expenses like school lunch costs.
• School lunch payment processors typically charge fees to add money to a student’s school lunch account, which collectively can cost families upwards of $100 million each year. The CFPB observed that school lunch payment processors within the sample levy transaction fees of $2.37 or, separately, 4.4 percent of the total transaction, on average, each time money is added into a payment account. Families may also incur similar transaction fees when paying for other school-related expenses online. Previously, the CFPB’s Fall 2023 edition of Supervisory Highlights noted that payment processors have maintained payment platforms on which consumers may have paid fees that they would not have paid had the consumers understood that they were entitled to free options.
• Over the course of a school year, families with children eligible for means-tested reduced price lunch programs may send $0.60 to payment processors for each $1 they spend on school lunch. Families making online payments every other week, an industry-estimated frequency that CFPB interviews indicate may be conservative in some cases, can incur as much as $42 in transaction fees over the course of a school year. For families paying full price for lunch, every $1 they spend to pay for their child’s lunch incurs $0.08 in transaction fees. For those paying reduced price for lunch, this ratio grows to $0.60 for every $1 spent. Additional fees may further increase the cost of using electronic payment platforms.
• Fee-free options may not be meaningfully available to all families, leading to fees that can be burdensome and difficult to avoid, particularly for low-income families. These fees, which are most often a flat amount, may be disproportionately burdening lower-income families making smaller payments more frequently, compared to families who can afford to load a substantial amount into their child’s account at one time. Both school districts and processors frequently fail to post the availability of free payment methods, and further, free options may be more burdensome than electronic options.
• Three companies (MySchoolBucks, SchoolCafé, and LINQ Connect) dominate the school lunch payments market. While more than 20 unique companies offer these services to school districts nationwide, 67 percent of enrolled students in the sample are served by just three market leaders.
• Complex payment processor company structures and contracts may insulate companies from competition and make school districts less likely to negotiate fees for these services. For school districts considering contracts, payment platforms may be just one element of a larger contract for back-end school nutrition or information management services.
• Consumers cannot choose their payment platform. Because contracts are determined at a school-district level, families have no choice over which company they must use to add funds into online student lunch accounts. As a result, it may be especially difficult for them to avoid harmful practices, including those that may violate federal consumer protection law.

2. Background

As digital payments have become increasingly popular across sectors, more and more school districts around the country are offering parents and caregivers the ability to pay school-related expenses, including for field trips, athletics, and school lunches, online. 5

Families can typically access online payment portals through a link on their school district website, or through the company’s own webpage or app. Depending on the district, schools may partner with one payment processor for all electronic payments or may have one platform for school meal payments, for example, and another for other school-related payments.

School districts contract with third-party payment processing companies with the expectation that they will lower school district processing costs and increase administrative efficiency, accuracy, and security. 6 For example, digital payment information can automatically be integrated with student information, potentially minimizing errors from manually applying funds to a student’s account balance. Many payment processors also offer electronic solutions that purport to lessen administrative burden on school district staff, such as automated messaging features to parents and caregivers about unpaid academic fees or negative lunch account balances.

Despite these perceived benefits, there are also risks related to accepting electronic payments. For example, families typically have to pay fees to make electronic transactions or may have difficulty accessing timely refunds of unspent funds. Some school districts may also limit their acceptance of other payment methods like cash, even though the ability to make cash payments may remain preferable or necessary for some families. 7

Due to both the administrative efficiencies offered by online payment platforms and the high volume of daily transactions, school lunch programs present a clear opportunity to explore online payments in K-12 schools. This issue spotlight primarily focuses on the companies processing electronic payments for school lunches and the potential risks they pose to school districts and families.

2.1 School Lunch Payments

Most public schools participate in the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) and the School Breakfast Program (SBP), which are both federally assisted meal programs from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) that provide low-cost, or free meals to K-12 students. 8 Each day, on average, 19 million students participate in the free lunch program, 1.1 million in the reduced price lunch program, and 8.5 million in the full-price lunch program at public and private schools throughout the country. 9 Families with incomes at or below 130 percent of the federal poverty line are eligible for free lunch, and those with incomes between 130 and 185 percent are eligible for reduced price lunch. 10

Participation in the free and reduced price meal programs may not always fully reflect a student’s ability to afford food or cover the number of meals needed in a day. 11 As such, students who need lower-cost lunch options but do not participate in the free or reduced price meal programs as well as those who receive free or reduced price meals may still need to pay for food at school, potentially using a payment platform.

Nationwide, the average price of a middle school lunch is $3.00, or $0.40 for those participating in the reduced price lunch program. 12 A family with two children paying full price for lunch at school every day can expect to spend, on average, $1,080 on school lunches over the course of a school year. 13 Given these averages, and daily participation in the NSLP, the CFPB estimates that participating schools across the country are paid approximately $26 million every day and $4.68 billion every year by families purchasing their child’s first lunch. 14 Schools may be collecting more as students purchase additional meals or a la carte items.

The school district’s “school food authority” (SFA) manages its school nutrition program and determines what payment options are available to facilitate these transactions. 15 While there is no official market-wide estimate, one payment processor estimated that as many as a third of students at school districts with an online payment processor pay for lunch using funds electronically loaded to their account. 16 Interviews with school district administrators suggest that online payment options are popular among both families and school districts for their perceived security and convenience. 17

2.2 Relevant Federal Authorities

Nonbank covered persons, including online payment processors, are generally subject to the CFPB’s regulatory and enforcement authority and must comply with federal consumer financial protection laws. 18 Particularly relevant is the Consumer Financial Protection Act’s prohibition of unfair, deceptive, and abusive practices. 19 The CFPB’s Fall 2023 edition of Supervisory Highlights noted that certain covered persons maintained online school lunch payment platforms, and that certain practices related to the platforms may not comply with federal consumer financial protection laws. 20 Although local rules and state laws may govern types of school-related purchases, other aspects of federal law are also relevant to school lunch payments.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has long established that children participating in school nutrition programs “shall not be charged any additional fees” for the services provided in conjunction with the delivery of school lunch benefits. 21 In this policy, the USDA specified, “by charging fees in addition to the regular reduced price or paid meal charge, a school is limiting access to the program and imposing an additional criterion for participation.” 22 In 2014, the USDA published a policy memorandum that specifically addressed online fees in school meal programs, stating that school food authorities can charge a fee for online services, but only if they also offer a method for households to add money to the account that doesn’t incur any additional fees. In the policy, the USDA suggests that schools accept money at the school food service office or cash payments at the point of service as fee-free options. 23 In 2017, the USDA issued another policy reiterating this requirement and stating that school food authorities cannot exclusively use online payment systems. 24 The 2017 guidance also requires school food authorities to notify families of all available payment options, including any associated fees. In the last seven years since the USDA published this guidance, the popularity of digital payments has grown significantly across sectors. 25

3. Market Overview

The market of K-12 payment processors overlaps with two related industries: general payment processing and student information management software. Broadly, the top K-12 payment platforms are offered by subsidiaries of large financial institutions and by companies specializing in comprehensive student data management software. Among companies that specialize in school lunch payments, the same parent holding company may operate multiple payment platforms (see Figure 1). In recent years, many smaller companies offering the same services have been acquired by larger firms or have begun offering compatible products.

Many school payment processors, which may appear to occupy a niche industry and may lack broader name recognition, are owned by, or serve, significantly larger institutions with robust revenue streams and compliance capabilities. 26 Eight of the 20 K-12 payment processors identified by the CFPB are affiliated with larger companies that offer multiple school lunch payment products, creating a potentially misleading sense of product variety and market competition. 27 Generally, the leading K-12 payment platforms are well connected to large companies in the payments and financial services sectors. For example, five are operated by independent sales organizations 28 that provide payment processing services and generate revenue for Wells Fargo, a company that is also dominant in the higher education payments market. 29

FIGURE 1: The Market for School Lunch Payment Processors

3.1 School District Contracts

School districts enter into contracts with payment processors to help manage a number of financial and administrative responsibilities. In addition to providing user-facing payment portals, many payment processors also provide back-end services like point-of-sale software for school cafeteria systems, HR management systems, and student information systems for collecting applications for free or reduced price lunch. All these services are typically acquired under one contract, which determines what the school district pays for the services provided.

User-facing payment platforms are governed by these contracts, which also set the rates for fees charged to end users. Unlike other elements of these larger contracts, school districts typically do not have to pay to enable electronic transactions via an affiliated payment platform. Since payment processing companies have a fee-based revenue model, much of their revenue comes in the form of transaction fees.

Although school districts may experience cost savings or efficiencies of their own when contracting with processors, those financial benefits are not usually passed directly to families. Transaction fees are sometimes fully paid by a school district. 30 The USDA has a policy explicitly allowing school districts to cover transaction fees on families’ behalf using the funds in their nonprofit school food service account. 31 However, transaction fees are more commonly paid in part or full by families themselves. 32 The CFPB did not encounter any examples of school districts paying for payment processing services, except through these transaction fees, nor any examples of school districts receiving revenue from the fees that payment processors charge. 33

For many districts, the back-end software may be the main consideration when choosing a company to contract with. When this happens, a user-facing payment platform comes as part-and-parcel of a larger school nutrition program management system, insulating payment processors from competition based on transaction fees and negotiation that could lower fees assessed on end-users. Since payment platforms are typically provided without any up-front costs for school districts when included as part of a larger contract, school districts are not incentivized to prioritize low rates on fees that they will typically, in part or whole, pass on to end users. Families are only able to use the payment platform that their district has chosen, making it impossible to shop around for lower fees.

School districts that try to minimize fees charged to families may also run into challenges. Many districts may be limited in which payment options they can provide, due to cost or resource constraints that incentivize choosing providers who ultimately charge fees to families. Negotiating with payment companies may also be difficult for school districts. Although two school districts published information online about successfully negotiating with a payment company to offer a lower fee rate, 34 in interviews school officials at several districts across the country expressed that they were unaware that they could negotiate fee rates or otherwise felt that fee rates were non-negotiable. 35 Negotiating power may also vary by school district, as large districts may have additional leverage with payment processing companies or may benefit from fee discounts based on higher overall transaction volume. Smaller districts may not have the same advantages.

3.2 Payment Platform Features and Fees

3.2.1 product features.

Most companies that enable electronic school lunch payments advertise additional features for users, including scheduling automatic payments, sending low balance alerts, sharing account balance and meal purchase information, and processing payments. Some payment processors also provide a space in their user portals for schools to upload monthly lunch menus or post other announcements for caregivers to review. For many districts, families also use these online portals to submit applications for the free and reduced price lunch programs. Apart from making electronic payments, companies promote many of these features as free with the creation of an account. 36

3.2.2 Product Fees

Payment processors typically charge transaction fees each time an electronic payment is made. Companies that process school lunch payments may also charge other fees like convenience fees, which may include a fee for transferring funds between student accounts, or annual program fees that increase the cost of making online payments. 37

As previously discussed, fee rates are determined by each school district’s contract with the payment processor. Interviews with school district officials and information published on school district websites suggest that companies have broad control over fee rates. 38 Payment processors’ terms of service also establish the company’s unilateral control over fee levels and its ability to change them at any time. 39 School districts that cover all transaction fees on behalf of their users may pay more favorable fee rates compared to individuals. At least one school district entering into a contract with MySchoolBucks received certain fee discounts after indicating that the district planned to cover all transaction fees. 40

3.2.3 Costs of Electronic Transactions

Electronic transactions incur costs for payment processors. These costs differ depending on which payment mechanism is used. On their online portals, payment processors typically offer credit, debit, and prepaid cards, and, in fewer cases, Automated Clearing House (ACH) transactions. 41 Typically, processor’s payment processing costs fall around 1.53 percent of a total transaction for credit, debit, or prepaid cards, 42 and between $0.26 and $0.50 per transaction for ACH transfers. 43 Nonetheless, even the lowest transaction fees assessed by payment processors in school districts observed in the CFPB sample ($1.00 or 3.25%) 44 are significantly higher than the payment processors’ costs of processing electronic transactions.

4. Sample Findings

In a sample consisting of the 300 largest public school districts in the United States, 45 261 school district websites disclosed a partnership with a payment processor for school lunch payments. Once a partnership was identified, the CFPB recorded a number of variables including information about associated fees, fee types, and amounts (see Appendix A).

4.1 Sample Market Composition

Three providers, MySchoolBucks, SchoolCafé, and LINQ Connect, are the largest school payment processors in the sample according to the number of school district partnerships, school partners, and related total enrollment (see Table 1). In the sample, these three providers served more than 9.2 million students across more than 13,500 schools and 181 public school districts. MySchoolBucks is the largest across all three metrics, with almost 100 school district partnerships and more than 5 million enrolled students within the sample.

Table 1: Top 5 Payment Processors in CFPB Sample

4.1 Fee Rates

4.2.1 transaction fees.

While USDA guidance requires that families are notified about available payment methods and associated fees, many school districts do not publish information related to fees on their websites. 46 Across the 63 school districts in the CFPB sample that do publish fee specifics, average transaction fees were $2.37 for flat fees, and 4.4 percent for percentage fees. Median fees were $2.49 and 4.5 percent. Since these figures are from only the 21 percent of school districts in the CFPB sample that publicly report fee amounts, they may misestimate the true market average.

In the CFPB sample, payment processors at more than 70 percent of the districts that publish fee information charge flat transaction fees. At around 25 percent of these school districts, payment processors charge percentage fees, and a much smaller portion have a transaction fee model that incorporates both a flat per transaction fee and a percentage fee that varies based on deposit size. 47 Overall, fee levels vary widely between providers, and for the same provider across different school districts (see Table 2).

Table 2: Fee Range and Average Fees for Top 5 Payment Processors in CFPB Sample

NA appears where fee data was not observed.

Flat fees observed in the CFPB sample ranged from $1.00 to $3.25 per transaction. 48 The highest flat fees observed were from school districts partnering with MySchoolBucks ($3.25) 49 and EZSchoolPay ($3.00). 50 Percentage fees ranged from 3.25 percent to 5 percent of the total deposit. The highest percentage-based transaction fees were observed at school districts partnering with SchoolCafé (5 percent). 51

4.2.2 Other Fees

In addition to transaction fees, some school district websites also mention other fees that may increase the total cost for families using these services. It is unclear whether school districts are able to negotiate these fees in their contracts.

• Though many payment processors advertise free account membership, one leading payment processor is also starting to roll out a one-time program fee to be paid when a new account is opened. The CFPB has observed this fee type costing $2.50 per account. 52
• Instead of paying a fee for each transaction, some payment processors offer annual fees that cover certain electronic transactions for a full year. The CFPB has observed this fee type costing $12.95 per year for a single student or $26.95 per year for a family. 53
• Another payment processor charges a convenience fee for users to transfer funds between student accounts within the same family. The CFPB has observed this fee type costing $2.99 for a full year of transfer capabilities. 54
• Some payment processors also set a maximum deposit amount limiting how much a user can upload to their student’s lunch account in one transaction. For example, with a cap of $200 per transaction, a family would have to make at least three deposits a year per student to cover the average cost of school lunches, with each transaction incurring its own fee. 55

5. Costs and Difficulties for Consumers

Online payment platforms offer convenient solutions for school districts and families, but they also present potential negative implications for consumers. School lunch costs can be a challenge to families across the country, in part illustrated by the national average meal debt of $180.60 per child, per year. 56 Families, particularly those that are struggling to cover the cost of lunch itself, may find it difficult to avoid fees and may face other difficulties exacerbated by the use of payment platforms.

5.1 Inaccessible Fee-Free Options

Although payment platforms often perform a variety of services for school districts, including certain functions that help enable compliance, companies leave it to school districts alone to create and, in many cases advertise or disclose, any fee-free payment methods. Some school district websites note that families can add funds in person or by sending cash or check with a student. 57 Other school districts have policies that limit the use of cash, personal checks, or both, 58 which may raise questions regarding the districts’ conformity with USDA policy. 59 Even if families are aware of alternative options for paying school-related expenses, they may also potentially come with their own costs and limitations, in the form of transportation costs or difficulty accessing financial services. 60

Even where school districts allow fee-free payment options, free methods may not be meaningfully available to all families. Although school districts are required by USDA to provide fee-free methods and to inform families of their options to pay for school lunch, 61 not all school districts make the information readily available to families on their website. School districts are also not required to provide comparable online payment options that do not incur fees. As a result, other payment methods may be less well-known and less accessible than online payments. For non-meal-related expenses, the CFPB did not encounter any examples of similar requirements, so families may not have any fee-free options for paying these other expenses.

It may also be difficult for families to predict the total cost of using an electronic payment option. In many cases, the first time a caretaker will see how much they must pay to use an online payment platform is at the point of sale, which obscures the total cost until near the end of the transaction. Only 21 percent of sampled school districts explicitly disclose the fees associated with online transactions and no payment processors in the sample include specific information about potential fees on their website.

In some cases, families may be paying fees for electronic payments without knowing that they are entitled to fee-free options. The CFPB’s Fall 2023 edition of Supervisory Highlights noted that payment processors have maintained payment platforms on which consumers may have paid fees that they would not have paid had the consumers understood that they were entitled to free options. As a result, the CFPB observed that the payment processors’ practices may not have complied with consumer financial protection laws. 62

5.2 Difficulty Canceling Automatic Payments

Many payment processors allow users to turn on automatic payments at scheduled intervals or when school lunch account balances fall below a certain threshold. Conversations with school district officials described certain issues faced by families who set up autopay and then had difficulties canceling or otherwise forgot to cancel it when no longer needed. 63 Excess funds can quickly accrue in a student’s school lunch account if automatic payments are accidentally left on. 64 Each automatic transaction still incurs a per-transaction fee assessed by the payment processor, so families using automatic payments may be paying additional per-transaction fees to add unnecessary funds. Families are instructed to go directly to their child’s school for refunds, so any extra funds paid into a student’s school lunch account create additional administrative tasks for school district staff and may further delay when a refund is ultimately received.

5.3 Difficulty Accessing Timely Refunds

At the end of an academic year, funds in a student’s lunch account generally roll over for use when the school year resumes in the fall. There may be times, however, when families need to request a refund of the funds paid into their student’s lunch account. Terms and conditions of payment platforms generally note that if a caregiver is seeking a refund from a student’s account, they must contact their child’s school directly. 65 Payment processors do not hold on to student lunch account funds, as funds are directly transferred to school district bank accounts once a payment is made. Each school has its own process for distributing refunds. 66

At some school districts, the refund process can be complicated, requiring additional paperwork for families, 67 and may take weeks for the money to be returned. 68 Families using these payment platforms may be less willing to add a substantial amount to their accounts, due to the difficulty of accessing refunds, which may result in incurring additional per-transaction fees.

5.4 Fee Burden

Fees charged by payment platforms affect all families, though low-income families may be disproportionately impacted depending on the fee type and how often they make deposits over the course of a school year. Based on sample averages, school lunch payment processors nationwide may be collecting more than $100 million each year in transaction fees alone. 69 The total fee revenue collected by payment processors could be higher, after including revenue from other fees or additional lunchtime expenses. For families paying for their child’s lunch, these fees may pose a significant additional expense.

Flat transaction fees, as opposed to percentage fees, are much more prevalent among sampled school districts. By nature, flat fees have a regressive impact on lower-income users. Payment platforms appear to charge the same transaction fee for all users, regardless of whether a student receives free or reduced price lunch. Flat transaction fees are also much more expensive for users who make deposits more frequently, compared to those who can afford to deposit more money less frequently. 70 An industry-sponsored survey found that 60 percent of users on online school payment portals make two or more deposits per month, amounting to approximately 18 deposits per year. 71 Conversations with school district administrators suggested that some families may be using these online services much more often, up to once a week. 72 Although some families are able to deposit significant amounts into their child’s account at the beginning of a school year, that option might not be available for families living paycheck to paycheck. Frequent deposits can exacerbate the regressive effect of flat fees for families who do not have the financial flexibility to pre-load hundreds of dollars into their child’s lunch account at one time.

Table 3 shows three scenarios of potential fee burdens associated with full-priced school lunch costs. The below scenarios are based on two different levels of deposit frequency (twice per month, or biweekly, and three times a year), the average flat and percentage fee rates from the CFPB sample ($2.37 and 4.4 percent), the average full-price cost of a middle school lunch ($3.00), 73 and the average length of a school year (180 school days). 74

Table 3: Sample Costs for Families Paying Full Price for School Lunch with Online Payments

Families who pay full price for school meals and make two deposits a month into their child’s lunch account would incur over $42 in fees over the course of a school year. For these families, for every $1 they spent on school lunch, they paid $0.08 to the company processing their payments. Families who instead make just three payments a year end up paying much less in fees, around $7. In this case, for every $1 spent on school lunch, they paid just over $0.01 to a payment processor.

Table 4 shows three scenarios of potential fee burdens associated with reduced priced lunches, which cost $0.40 per lunch on average. 75 Since transaction fees appear to be the same across the board regardless of whether a student is eligible for free or reduced price lunch, families who pay for reduced price lunch pay more in fees relative to their school lunch costs during a school year.

Table 4: Sample Costs for Families paying Reduced Price for School Lunch with Online Payments

Families who pay for reduced price lunch and make two deposits a month into their child’s school lunch account would still incur over $42 in fees over the course of a school year. For these families, every $1 spent on school meals for their child corresponds to $0.60 that was paid to a payment processor. Families who can afford to make just three payments a year still pay $7 in fees, which amounts to about $0.10 for every $1 paid for school lunch.

6. Conclusion

Every day, families of school-aged children across the country spend millions of dollars on school lunch. Many caregivers opt to use online platforms to deposit money into their children’s accounts, incurring average fees of $2.37 or 4.4% of the total deposit per transaction. These fees are widespread, regressive, and may be burdensome for families and districts, who have little control over fee rates and few opportunities to shop around.

School food authorities participating in the USDA’s National School Lunch Program are required to provide fee-free avenues to pay for school lunch and inform families about all available payment methods, including associated fees. However, these fee-free options are not always well advertised or accessible. Despite requirements from the USDA, families may be paying more in fees than they would choose to if they had access to comparably convenient payment options with lower or no fees. Although school districts are able to negotiate fees while contracting with payment platforms, payment processors appear to have broad control over the fees they charge. Few school districts have been successful in ultimately lowering fees for families.

School districts face limited options. The market for school-related payment processing is dominated by a few market leaders and school food authorities may be locked in to using a certain payment platform due to its connection to the back-end service managing their school nutrition program. In turn, families have little choice in the payment platform offered by their school district and may be particularly vulnerable to harmful practices, including those that may violate federal consumer protection law.

Appendix A: Methodology

Sample construction.

This report analyzed data from the 300 largest public school districts by enrollment according to Fall 2021 data from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). 76 The CFPB examined the website of each school district in the dataset to identify publicly available information on lunch payment processor partnerships and fees. The CFPB also searched the websites of associated payment processors. This research was conducted between December 2023 and April 2024.

Once a school district was identified, the CFPB recorded the URL for the relevant district website, whether a payment processor is used for online school meal payments, whether the district offered free lunch for all students during the 2023-2024 school year, whether there is a fee associated with online payments, the fee category (e.g., flat fee or percentage), the fee amount, and relevant URLs. School districts within the sample that use only alternative channels to inform families of online lunch payment options, such as direct-to-family newsletters or printed resources distributed at the beginning of the school year, are not adequately captured in this dataset. Only cases where a payment processor for school lunch payments could definitively be identified are observed in the sample.

The CFPB also included descriptive statistics for each school district in the sample, including public high school graduation rates, total number of English language learners, the share of students eligible for free or reduced price lunches, the poverty rate of 5-to 17-year-olds within the district, and the number of schools for each district. For the sample of the 300 largest districts, this data comes from the National Center for Education Statistics. 77

Table 5 contains a comparison between descriptive statistics of the CFPB sample and public school districts nationwide.

Table 5: Comparison between National and CFPB Sample Descriptive Statistics

NA appears where a calculation is not applicable.

The CFPB sample, which includes data from the 300 largest school districts by fall 2021 enrollment, is not representative of the full population of public schools across the country. The CFPB dataset overrepresents large school districts, with the sample average school district size (55,782) far exceeding the national average (3,484). According to data from the National Center for Education Statistics, 71 percent of school districts in the U.S. had fewer than 2,500 enrolled students in the fall of 2021. However, these schools serve just 16.7 percent of the total number of enrolled students nationwide. The CFPB sample captures 36.1 percent of total student enrollment, while featuring only 2.25 percent of school districts. The CFPB dataset reflects nationwide trends for the percent of students eligible for free and reduced price lunch at about 48.5 percent.

In addition to the sample of the 300 largest school districts, the CFPB also analyzed data from a sample of 50 rural 79 public school districts, selected randomly from all U.S. counties with a nonmetro 2023 Rural-Urban Continuum Code (RUCC), 80 then subsequently matched with a corresponding district. 81 This rural sample was used to verify that smaller school districts, serving fewer students, also use these payment products for school lunch costs. Figures from the rural sample were not used to generate fee ranges or averages reported in the body of this issue spotlight. Among 50 rural school districts, 29 disclose a partnership with a third-party payment processor. MySchoolBucks is also the largest provider in the rural sample with 8 district partnerships. The rural sample is not large enough to analyze other information, such as fee averages.

Appendix B: Ownership Structures of Payment Processors

To generate Figure 1, the CFPB identified 20 lunch payment processing platforms in use at public schools in the United States. The CFPB gathered an initial list of platforms by searching for key words and phrases (including “online school lunch payment,” “lunch payment platform,” and “pay lunch online”) and examining the first five pages of search results. Platforms discovered through the construction of the school district sample (see Appendix A) were added to the list. The CFPB initially identified 26 platforms through these data collection methods. The CFPB then validated the list by, for each platform: (1) noting any public marketing statements by the processor or related companies confirming that they serve U.S. public schools; (2) finding U.S. public school districts that confirm usage of the platform on their websites; and (3) identifying any mergers or acquisitions with other platforms. The CFPB removed platforms that were not confirmed to serve U.S. public schools or have been merged into other existing platforms, paring the list down to 20 platforms. The CFPB then analyzed the ownership structures of the payment platforms to identify their parent and affiliate companies, both through examining their websites and the public securities filings of related entities.

EMS LINQ, Inc. owns two payment platforms that the CFPB identified—LINQ Connect, the third largest platform in the CFPB sample, and K-12 Payment Center. 82 The CFPB additionally found two lunch payment processors that have been consolidated into LINQ Connect: Titan, which EMS LINQ acquired in a $75 million leveraged buyout in 2020; and MealsPlus, which was previously marketed as a “LINQ solution” but merged into LINQ Connect in 2021. 83 Some school district webpages and public resources continue to use these older product names, and as of February 2024 the website of MealsPlus continues to exist, though most of its buttons redirect to LINQ Connect. In its public marketing materials, LINQ claims to serve 30 percent of U.S. school districts through its suite of K-12 business products. 84

Additionally, Constellation Software Inc., a Canadian conglomerate, owns N. Harris Computer Corporation, which owns Harris School Solutions, which operates two platforms: MealTime and EZSchoolPay. 85

Five of the payment platforms identified by the CFPB are registered ISOs of Wells Fargo. These platforms include: MySchoolBucks, (a product of Heartland Payment Systems and a subsidiary of Global Payments Direct, Inc.), 86 PaySchools and SchoolPay (products of i3 Verticals), and MySchoolAccount and RevTrak (products of Vanco Payments). 87 Heartland Payment Systems is an ISO of Wells Fargo and the Bancorp Bank, and Global Payments Direct, Inc. is an ISO of Wells Fargo and BMO Harris Bank. i3 Verticals is an ISO of Wells Fargo, RBS Worldplay, Deutsche Bank, Merrick Bank, BMO Harris Bank, and Fifth Third Bank. 88 Vanco Payments is an ISO solely of Wells Fargo. 89

The remaining 11 platforms identified by the CFPB do not appear to belong to companies offering multiple K-12 lunch payment processors, but many are owned by subsidiaries of large, publicly traded holding companies or marketed as part of a suite of K-12 information management products. Cybersoft Technologies owns SchoolCafé. 90 Roper Technologies, a publicly traded software and technological holding company, owns MyPaymentsPlus. 91 PCS Revenue Control Systems, a tech company specializing in K-12 nutrition software, owns PayPAMS. 92 Community Brands HoldCo LLC, a cloud-based software conglomerate, owns MySchoolWallet. 93 FocalTech, Inc., an information technology and e-commerce services provider, owns School Payment Portal. 94 Southwest Business Corporation, a diversified financial services company, owns e-Funds for Schools. 95 Computer Systems Design, Inc., a food and nutrition management software provider, owns LunchMoneyNow. 96 KEV Group, an international school activity fund management company, owns SchoolCash Online. 97 Two separate, independent companies named after their products own MealManage and CheddarUp. 98 Finally, PowerSchool Holdings, a publicly traded comprehensive K-12 software company, owns PowerLunch. 99

U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, Enrollment in public elementary and secondary schools, (retrieved April 2024), https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d13/tables/dt13_203.20.asp .

The requirement extends to schools participating in the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s National School Meal Program. As of February 2024, the National School Lunch Program served 30 million students daily in public and nonprofit private schools, and residential child care institutions, See U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, National School Lunch Program, (retrieved June 2024), https://www.fns.usda.gov/nslp ; See U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, Child Nutrition Tables, (last updated February 2024, retrieved February 2024), https://www.fns.usda.gov/pd/child-nutrition-tables .

Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, Supervisory Highlights: Junk Fees Update Special Edition, Issue 31, Fall 2023 (Oct. 2023), https://www.consumerfinance.gov/data-research/research-reports/supervisory-highlights-junk-fees-update-special-edition-issue-31-fall-2023/ , at 15.

Sometimes school districts will partner with multiple companies, often having one contract with a payment processor that covers school lunch and other food-related payments and a separate contract with a different payment processor that covers other academic or extracurricular fees.

The CFPB conducted a series of unstructured interviews with school district officials around the country from February through March 2024. In these interviews, school district officials mentioned consistently choosing to contract with payment processors that enable online payments for school lunches due to the perceived increase in efficiency, accuracy, and security online platforms would provide. School districts officials indicated they may contract with payment processors to alleviate the need for employees to handle cash or checks and mitigate the perceived risk of fraud or theft.

Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, A fatal cash crash? Conditions were ripe for it after the pandemic hit, but it didn’t happen , Lindsay, Jay, (November 2, 2023), https://www.bostonfed.org/news-and-events/news/2023/11/cash-crash-pandemic-increasing-credit-card-use-diary-of-consumer-payment-choice.aspx

88 percent of public schools in the country participate in the USDA School Meal Program, as of October 2022, estimated by the U.S. Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics in their School Pulse Survey. The same survey found that 69 percent of public schools report a majority of their students as participating in the USDA School Meal Program. See National Center for Education Statistics, School Pulse Panel, (retrieved February 2024), https://ies.ed.gov/schoolsurvey/spp/ ; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, National School Lunch Program (NSLP) Fact Sheet, (last updated April 2023, retrieved February 2024), https://www.fns.usda.gov/nslp/nslp-fact-sheet .

As of 2022, around 90,000 schools participated in the National School Lunch Program and/or the School Breakfast Program, with many schools participating in both. Of participating schools, 4% of those participating in the NSLP are private schools and 3% of those participating in SBP are private. See U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, Child Nutrition Tables, (last updated February 2024, retrieved February 2024), https://www.fns.usda.gov/pd/child-nutrition-tables ; Congressional Research Service, School Meals and Other Child Nutrition Programs: Background and Funding, (accessed Jun. 12, 2024), https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46234 .

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Child Nutrition Programs: National School Lunch Program, (accessed Mar. 4, 2024), https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/food-nutrition-assistance/child-nutrition-programs/national-school-lunch-program/ .

By some estimates, eligibility requirements may fail to account for families’ complex socioeconomic realities, such as debt burdens, health and medication costs, and the high cost of living in many urban areas. See Pearce, Allie; Alleyne, Akilah; Neal, Anona, 5 States Addressing Child Hunger and Food Insecurity With Free School Meals for All, https://www.americanprogress.org/article/5-states-addressing-child-hunger-and-food-insecurity-with-free-school-meals-for-all

School Nutrition Association, School Meal Statistics, (accessed Mar. 2024), https://schoolnutrition.org/about-school-meals/school-meal-statistics .

The average cost estimate is based on the length of an average school year, which is 180 days. See U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, Average number of hours in the school day and average number of days in the school year for public schools, (last updated 2007-08, retrieved May 2024), https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/tables/sass0708_035_s1s.asp .

Based on averages, 8.5 million students paying full price ($3.00) for school lunch spend about $25.5 million daily on school lunch. 1.1 million students paying reduced price ($0.40) for school lunch spend about $440,000 daily on school lunch. Together, this amounts to just over $25.9 million. This estimate does not include any costs for additional lunches purchased or a la carte items, which are generally not reimbursable for schools participating in the USDA School Meal Program and are not counted in daily participation totals.

A “school food authority” is the governing body responsible for the administration of one or more schools and has the legal authority to operate the schools’ nutrition program(s). In this report, “school district” and “school food authority” or “SFA” may be used interchangeably when describing the relationship between school district entities and the companies they contract with to provide online payment capabilities. See 7 C.F.R. § 210.2 “School food authority,” (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-7/subtitle-B/chapter-II/subchapter-A/part-210/subpart-A/section-210.2 .

In a March 2024 CFPB market monitoring meeting with a payment processor, company officials indicated that as many as a third of students pay for lunch using funds electronically loaded to their account.

The CFPB conducted a series of unstructured interviews with school district officials around the country from February through March 2024.

See 12 U.S.C. 5481(15)(A)(vii). 12 U.S.C. 5481(6) defines “covered person” as (A) any person that engages in offering or providing a consumer financial product or service; and (B) any affiliate of a person described in subparagraph A if such affiliate acts as a service provider to such person.

CFPA section 1036(a)(1)(B), 12 U.S.C. 5536(a)(1)(B). In CFPA section 1031, Congress prohibited covered persons and service providers from committing or engaging in unfair, deceptive, or abusive acts or practices in connection with the offering or provision of consumer financial products or services. CFPA sections 1031(c) & (d) set forth the general standard for determining whether an act or practice is unfair or abusive. See 12 U.S.C. §§ 5531(c) & (d).

FNS Instruction 782-6 Rev. 1, Fees for Lunchroom Services (U.S.D.A. 2010), https://www.fns.usda.gov/cn/fees-lunchroom-services .

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, Memo SP02-2015: Online Fees in the School Meal Programs , (Oct. 8, 2014), https://www.fns.usda.gov/cn/online-fees-school-meal-programs .

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, Memo SP23-2017: Unpaid Meal Charges: Guidance and Q&A , (March 23, 2017), https://www.fns.usda.gov/cn/unpaid-meal-charges-guidance-qas .

While cash remained the third-most-used payment instrument in 2023, its use as a payment instrument has dropped 48 percent since the first iteration of the Federal Reserve’s Diary of Consumer Payment Choice in 2016. In 2023, consumers continued to increase the share of payments made online or remotely. See The Federal Reserve, 2024 Findings from the Diary of Consumer Payment Choice , Bayeh, Berhan; Cubides, Emily; and, O’Brien, Shaun, https://www.frbservices.org/binaries/content/assets/crsocms/news/research/2024-diary-of-consumer-payment-choice.pdf .

See Appendix B for additional information on company ownership structures.

For example, EMS LINQ, Inc. operates both LINQ Connect and K-12 Payment Center. I3 Verticals operates both PaySchools and SchoolPay. Vanco Payments operates both MySchoolAccount and RevTrak. Harris School Solutions, which is a subsidiary of Constellation Software Inc. (a large holdings conglomerate), operates both MealTime and EZSchoolPay. See Appendix B for additional information on company ownership structures.

Independent Sales Organizations (ISOs) provide payment processing services on behalf of a financial institution that acquires funds from a transaction. ISOs help the financial institutions they serve generate revenue through acquirer mark-ups, ACH transaction fees, and other fees charged for facilitating a transaction. ISOs are also called Merchant Service Providers (MSPs). For more information, see U.S. Department of the Treasury, Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, Comptroller's Handbook: Merchant Processing, Safety and Soundness (Version 1.0), (Aug. 2014), https://www.occ.treas.gov/publications-and-resources/publications/comptrollers-handbook/files/merchant-processing/pub-ch-merchant-processing.pdf .

MySchoolBucks is a product of Heartland Payment Systems, which is a registered ISO of Wells Fargo and the Bancorp Bank, and a subsidiary of Global Payments Direct, Inc., which is an ISO of Wells Fargo and BMO Harris Bank. Wells Fargo also has payment relations with four other platforms: PaySchools and SchoolPay, which are products of i3 Verticals, a registered ISO of Wells Fargo and several other banks; and MySchoolAccount and RevTrak, which are products of Vanco Payments, a registered ISO solely of Wells Fargo. (See Appendix B for more information). Wells Fargo is also a significant player in the higher education payment processing space, generating revenue from ISOs that help colleges embed tuition payment plan processing functions into student portals such as Nelnet, TouchNet (Heartland), and ECSI (Heartland). See Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, Tuition Payment Plans in Higher Education, (Sep. 2023), https://files.consumerfinance.gov/f/documents/cfpb_tuition_payment_plan_report_2023-09.pdf .

District of Columbia Public Schools partners with LINQ Connect to enable families to make school lunch-related payments without transaction fees. The school district subsidizes the full fee that would otherwise be paid by individual families. See District of Columbia Public Schools, “Meal Prices and Payment,” (accessed March 2024), https://dcps.dc.gov/page/meal-prices-and-payment ; The 2018-2019 contract between the School District of Escambia County, FL and Heartland Payment Systems, LLC provides two "fee model” options in the contract: “District Absorbed” or “Parent Paid.” This contract uses “Parent Paid.” See The School District of Escambia County Purchasing Department, Online Payment Processing for Hosted School Nutrition and Point of Sale Software , (accessed Apr. 2024). https://www.escambia.k12.fl.us/board/PDF%2018/June/06_19_18_regmtg/V_b_2_E_13.pdf .

USDA policy memoranda SP 02-1015: Online Fees in School Meals Programs , and SP 23-2017: Unpaid Meal Charges: Guidance and Q&A , allow school food authorities to pay fees associated with using an online system on behalf of families as an alternative to charging parents fees for such services. See U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, Memo SP02-2015: Online Fees in the School Meal Programs , (Oct. 8, 2014), https://www.fns.usda.gov/cn/online-fees-school-meal-programs ; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, Memo SP23-2017: Unpaid Meal Charges: Guidance and Q&A , (March 23, 2017), https://www.fns.usda.gov/cn/unpaid-meal-charges-guidance-qas .

The Minneapolis Public Schools website describes how the district uses funds to subsidize part of the transaction fee for online lunch payments: “LINQ Connect charges a processing fee of $2.60 for each online payment transaction, no matter the amount. MPS pays $1.60 of this fee and the family pays $1.” See Minneapolis Public Schools, Eating at School, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.mpschools.org/departments/cws/menus/eating .

The 2015 contract between Stamford, CT Public Schools and Heartland School Solutions notes that the line-item cost of “MySchoolBucks Payment Services" is $0.00 for the school district, see Stamford Public Schools Purchasing Department, BID/RFP/Contract Award – Recommendation , (accessed May 2024), https://stamfordapps.org/boecontracts/Docs/Contracts/VENDOR%20CONTRACTS/FY20-21/181105%20Heartland%20School%20Solutions%20TIPS%20contract.pdf ; The 2022 contract between Chapel Hill- Carrboro, NC Public Schools and EMS LINQ also shows a line item charge of $0.00 for “K12 Payment Center Meals & Fees,” see Chapel Hill-Carrboro City Schools Board of Education, Agenda Abstract , (accessed May 2024), https://chccs.granicus.com/MetaViewer.php?view_id=2&clip_id=550&meta_id=36302 .

In 2018, Hawaii Public Schools stated that they “negotiated a $0.13 convenience fee with the new vendor, saving parents $0.67. With the new meal payment system, the transaction fee is also lower at 1.99 percent. The previous transaction fee was 5 percent.” According to reporting, the Hawaii State Department of Education switched from SchoolCafé to EZSchoolPay in 2018, when their contract with the former payment company lapsed. See Hawaii State Department of Education, Hawaii public schools to launch new online lunch payment system, (May 2, 2018), https://www.hawaiipublicschools.org/ConnectWithUs/MediaRoom/PressReleases/Pages/2018-eTrition-online-payments.aspx ; In 2017, Charles County Public Schools stated that they “recently negotiated an agreement with My Payments Plus to eliminate fees for system users” after charging a 3.75% service fee per transaction with the same platform. See Charles County Public Schools, CCPS Eliminates Service Fees for My Payments Plus , (December 22, 2017), https://www.ccboe.com/about/public-info-media/details/~board/press-releases/post/ccps-eliminates-service-fees-for-my-payments-plus .

The CFPB conducted a series of unstructured interviews with school district officials from around the country from February through March 2024.

For example , “Registering online with MyPaymentsPlus allows you to view your student’s account balances, purchase history, and payment history online, and even be notified by email when account balances fall below a designated amount. You do not have to make prepayments to use these features.” See Cobb County School District, “Food and Nutrition Services,” (accessed Mar. 2024), https://www.cobbk12.org/foodservices/page/45098/paying-for-meals ; “Myschoolbucks.com is an online payment portal specially designed to allow parents to make quick and easy online payments to their children's school accounts. The system allows parents to manage their children's lunch accounts, including viewing food selection.” See Coconut Creek Elementary (Broward County Public Schools), “Set Up Your Child’s Online Meal Payment Account via MySchoolBucks,” (accessed Mar. 2024), https://www.browardschools.com/site/default.aspx?PageType=3&DomainID=27&ModuleInstanceID=3466&ViewID=6446EE88-D30C-497E-9316-3F8874B3E108&RenderLoc=0&FlexDataID=235479&PageID=47 .

Some payment processors use different names to distinguish fee types. This report refers to any fees that are processed on a per-transaction basis as “transaction fees.” Other fee types are explained in Section 4.2.2.

“LINQ may charge a fee in connection with the Services and/or transactions processed through the Services. The Fee will apply to each one-time, automated, and scheduled payment.” See EMS LINQ Inc., LINQ Connect Terms of Service , (accessed Feb. 2024), https://linqconnect.com/main/terms ; “If you use MySchoolBucks to add funds to your child’s account, you may pay a program fee for the convenience of using our online service.” See MySchoolBucks, Terms of Service , (accessed Feb. 2024), https://login.myschoolbucks.com/users/etc/getterms.action?clientID=schoolbucks ; “SchoolCafé imposes a convenience fee on every payment made using the Service. The convenience fee, an amount or a percentage of the payment, is set solely at the discretion of SchoolCafé and can be changed at any time without notice.” See SchoolCafé, Terms of Service , (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.schoolcafe.com/ .

“We [Heartland Payment Systems, Inc.] understand that instead of passing the convenience fees along to the parents, FCPS plans to absorb those fees directly. In light of that, we are able to offer more favorable pricing than what was contained in our original proposal…When compared to our original pricing, we reduced the number of volume-based tiers and lowered the fee for each tier.” See Fairfax County Public Schools, Acceptance Agreement Attachment D, (Aug. 12, 2014), https://www.fairfaxcounty.gov/cregister/DownloadPDF.aspx?AttachmentID=926546c7-25aa-4447-a696-885077c7f569 .

Information on payment processing websites suggests that available payment methods ultimately depend on the contract between the payment processor and school district.

A recent The Nilson Report notes that the weighted average of processing fees that merchants paid in 2023 was 1.53 percent of purchase volume on all credit, debit, and prepaid general purpose and private label cards. Fees related to debit card transactions are typically lower. Since 2011, debit card fees are capped by the Federal Reserve at $0.21 plus 0.05% of the transaction value for covered issuers. According to data from 2022, average interchange fees for all debit transactions (both exempt and covered) were $0.34 or 0.73% of the average transaction value. See The Nilson Report, Issue 1259 (Mar 2024); The Federal Reserve, Regulation II (Debit Card Interchange Fees and Routing) , (accessed April 2024), https://www.federalreserve.gov/paymentsystems/regii-average-interchange-fee.htm .

The 2022 Payments Cost Benchmarking Survey found the median cost of initiating and receiving an ACH payment for all businesses to be between 26 cents and 50 cents. See Nacha, ACH Costs are a Fraction of Check Costs for Businesses, AFP Survey Shows , (accessed April 2024), https://www.nacha.org/news/ach-costs-are-fraction-check-costs-businesses-afp-survey-shows .

For example, Poudre School District, (accessed May 2024), https://www.psdschools.org/schools/student-fees-charges/pay-feescharges-online ; For example, Plano School District, (accessed May 2024), https://www.pisd.edu/Page/3841 .

The sample constructed by the CFPB is based on the 300 largest school districts in the United States by enrollment during the 2021-2022 school year. Enrollment data is from the National Center for Education Statistics. See Appendix A: Methodology for more information.

For example, “There is an additional fee of 2.9% +$0.25 per transaction (for debit or credit card).” See Indian Prairie School District #204, PushCoin , (accessed March 2024), https://www.ipsd.org/Page/2623 .

Most payment processors charge one fee regardless of payment method, others have fees that vary. For example, Chandler Unified School District has information on their website that specifies, “When using MySchoolBucks.com platform to fund student accounts, the following fees will be charged to the user: Funded by credit card/debit card: $3.25 per transaction; Funded by e-check/bank account transaction: $2.75.” See Chandler Unified School District, “Online Student Meal Payment Account,” (accessed April 2024), https://www.cusd80.com/Page/118077 .

For example, Pinellas County Schools, (accessed Mar. 2024), https://www.pcsb.org/Page/40505 .

For example, Deer Valley Unified School District, (accessed Mar. 2024), https://www.dvusd.org/studentaccounts .

For example, Virginia Beach City School District, (accessed Mar. 2024), https://www.vbschools.com/families/food-and-nutrition-services ; Omaha School District, (accessed March 2024), https://www.ops.org/Page/319 ; Beaverton 48J School District, https://www.beaverton.k12.or.us/departments/nutrition-services/student-account ; Douglas County School District, (accessed Mar. 2024), https://www.dcsd.net/departments/nutrition-services .

“Beginning next week, some parents in your district will see a Fall 2023 Program Fee of $2.50 at their next transaction on MySchoolBucks.” See Escambia County Public Schools, Food Services, (accessed Mar. 2024), https://www.escambiaschools.org/Page/802 .

“My School Bucks now has an option available to pay an annual, one-time flat fee of $12.95 for a single student or $26.95 for a family. The “OnePay” option gives you unlimited transactions for 12 months, instead of the per-transaction fee of $2.75 for individual transactions.” See McKinney ISD, Meal Prices & Payments , (accessed March 2024), https://www.mckinneyisd.net/school-nutrition/meal-prices-payments/ ; Chandler Unified School District, Online Student Meal Payment Account , (accessed March 2024), https://www.cusd80.com/Page/118077 .

“If you are only transferring funds between siblings enrolled in CCSD, you have the option of doing so online via MyPaymentsPlus.com for any registered students on your account. There is a $2.99 convenience fee for this service for a full year of access to transfers.” See Cobb County School District, Food and Nutrition Services , (accessed March 2024), https://www.cobbk12.org/foodservices/page/45098/paying-for-meals .

The average cost of a middle school lunch nationwide is $3.00. Over the course of 180-day school year, this would amount to $540 per year. Adding $540 to an account with a per-transaction cap of $200 would take three separate transactions, each incurring its own transaction fee.

Education Data Initiative, “School Lunch Debt Statistics,” Hanson, Melanie, (accessed June 2024), https://educationdata.org/school-lunch-debt ; U.S. Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service, Cost of school meals and households’ difficulty paying for expenses: Evidence from the Household Pulse Survey , Toossi, S., (accessed June 2024), https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/106915/eb-37.pdf?v=6431.1 .

“Of course, meal payments can also be made by sending cash or checks (payable to the school cafeteria) to school with your child.” See Forsyth School District, Food & Nutrition Services , (accessible Mar. 2024), https://www.forsyth.k12.ga.us/page/401 ; “Meals may still be prepaid by depositing cash into student accounts.” See Spring ISD, Online Payment Option Available for Meals , (accessed Mar. 2024), https://www.springisd.org/page/online-payments ; “Families without credit/debit cards can add money to their students’ account by bringing a check to the cafeteria staff at the school. There is no processing fee charged for these transactions.” See Minneapolis Public Schools, Eating at School , (accessed Mar. 2024), https://www.mpschools.org/departments/cws/menus/eating .

“This school year (SY2023-24) students will be able to purchase items a la carte, such as milk. To do so, they need to have money loaded onto their MySchoolBucks account. No cash will be accepted.” See SDU46, School Breakfast & Lunch Menus , (accessed Mar. 2024), https://www.u-46.org/Page/9190 ; “Meals may be purchased with cash or by using the online payment system, [SchoolCafe]…The Pasadena Independent School District Nutrition Services will not accept personal checks.” See Pasadena Independent School District, Meal Price & Online Payments , (accessed Mar. 2024), https://www.pasadenaisd.org/13013_4 .

According to USDA guidance, SFAs cannot exclusively use an online system for payment. Those that do use an online system must provide an alternative option to meet the needs of families who do not have access to a computer or who prefer to make their payment in person. See U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, Memo SP 23-2017: Unpaid Meal Charges: Guidance and Q&A , (March 23, 2017), https://www.fns.usda.gov/cn/unpaid-meal-charges-guidance-qas .

For example, one school district specifies that they do not accept cash but will accept cashier’s checks or money orders to pay for school lunch. These banking services may be difficult to access for some families, making it more expensive to avoid fees. See Atlanta Public Schools, Nutrition Pre-Payment Options , (accessed Mar. 2024), https://www.atlantapublicschools.us/domain/14255 ; “Many types of bill payments incur costs for consumers… Some payment instruments can be costly to obtain, such as money orders and checks, while others can be costly to use, such as some credit cards. Consumers usually incur the highest costs when paying a bill in person (regardless of payment instrument) due to transportation costs and the lowest costs when paying over the phone or online; paying through the mail, which incurs postage costs, is somewhere in between.” See also Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City , When Paying Bills, Low-Income Consumers Incur Higher Costs, (accessed Mar. 2024), https://www.kansascityfed.org/research/payments-system-research-briefings/when-paying-bills-low-income-consumers-incur-higher-costs/ .

For example, The Lewisville ISD website includes information warning caregivers that they must turn off auto-replenish and low balance alerts on their RevTrak payment platform before requesting a refund from the school district. See Lewisville ISD, Refunds, A la Carte Policy, and LISD Employee Accounts , (accessed April 2024), https://www.lisd.net/Page/22806 .

“If you are not satisfied with any good or service purchased using the Services, you agree to resolve the issue exclusively with the Student’s School… You agree that you will not seek and are not entitled to a refund from LINQ.” See EMS LINQ Inc., LINQ Connect Terms of Service , (accessed Feb. 2024), https://linqconnect.com/main/terms ; “You agree that you will not seek and are not entitled to a refund from HPS. If you would like a refund of any kind from you Student’s school or school district, you must contact your student’s school or school district.” See MySchoolBucks, Terms of Service , (accessed Feb. 2024), https://login.myschoolbucks.com/users/etc/getterms.action?clientID=schoolbucks ; “All issues relating to unused funds on a student account should be addressed directly with the students’ school districts SchoolCafé cannot be held liable to the Users for any unused funds.” See SchoolCafé, Terms of Service , (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.schoolcafe.com .

On their website, MySchoolBucks specifies that “Payments placed through MySchoolBucks are quickly expedited to your school’s bank for deposit. All funds are housed by your district office.” See MySchoolBucks, Top Support Questions , (accessed March 2024), https://www.myschoolbucks.com/ver2/etc/getcontacts.action?clientKey=ZZHKFGWNS605S8L#:~:text=All%20funds%20are%20housed%20by,department%20to%20obtain%20a%20refund .

For example, caregivers seeking a refund for school lunch account balances are required to submit a W-9 form to the Albuquerque Public Schools. See Albuquerque Public Schools, Food and Nutrition Services, (accessed April 2024), https://www.aps.edu/food-and-nutrition-services/school-menus-and-prices .

For example, information on the Spring Branch Independent School District website says that refunds can take 2-3 weeks to process. See Spring Branch ISD, Payments and Refunds , (accessed April 2024), https://www.springbranchisd.com/about/departments/finance/school-nutrition-services/payments-and-refunds ; Since refunds at Prince William County schools are sent in the form of checks via mail, they take between 4 and 6 weeks to process. See PWCS Nutrition, (accessed April 2024), https://www.pwcsnutrition.com/index.php?sid=0408101731444083&page=prepaidacct .

Estimates are made based on national averages, including average cost of school lunch ($3.00 or $0.40), length of a school year (180 days), and sample averages of flat fee prevalence compared to percentage fee prevalence (74 percent and 26 percent, respectively), average fee rates ($2.37 or 4.4 percent), and the proportion of schools in the sample that enable electronic payments through a payment platform (87 percent). Using USDA data describing daily participation in the National School Lunch program (8.5 million for full-priced lunch and 1.1 million for reduced price lunch) and insight from a payment processing company estimating that as many as a third of students paying for lunch do so using funds added to their account electronically, the CFPB estimated that 315,810 students pay for reduced price lunch and 2.4 million students pay for full price lunch using online payment methods. Using these estimates, as well as the annual fee costs for a student paying for full or reduced price lunch every school day, and the relative prevalence of flat and percentage fees in the CFPB sample, the CFPB estimates that companies collect between $28 million and $92 million in fees from students paying for full-priced lunch and between $1.9 million and $10.2 million from students paying for reduced price lunch in transaction fees each year. The lower end of the estimated fee range is based on families making just 3 payments per year. The higher end of the range is based on families making payments every other week, or 18 deposits a year. This estimated range in transaction fee revenue is just for transaction fees incurred while paying for a student’s first lunch, without including any transaction fees for additional meals or a la carte purchases.

EMS LINQ, Inc., 2023 K-12 Payments Survey Report at 9, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.linq.com/report/2024-k12-payments-survey-report/ .

School Nutrition Association, School Meal Statistics: School Meal Prices and Unpaid Meals, (accessed Mar. 4, 2024), https://schoolnutrition.org/about-school-meals/school-meal-statistics/ .

U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, Average number of hours in the school day and average number of days in the school year for public schools, (last updated 2007-08, retrieved May 2024), https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/tables/sass0708_035_s1s.asp .

National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, “Table 215.10 – Selected statistics on enrollment, staff, and graduates in public school districts enrolling more than 15,000 students in fall 2021 (1990 through 2021),” https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d22/tables/dt22_215.10.asp , “Table 215.20 – Revenues, expenditures, poverty rate, and Title I allocations of public school districts enrolling more than 15,000 students in fall 2021,” https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d22/tables/dt22_215.20.asp .

Nationwide statistics are from Tables 204.10, 214.20, and 214.40 of the most recent edition of the Digest of Education Statistics from the National Center for Education Statistics. All statistics are from the 2021-2022 academic year. See National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics , (accessed February 2024), https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/current_tables.asp .

In this report, “rural” is used interchangeably with “nonmetro” as classified in the Rural-Urban Continuum Codes documented by the USDA.

The 2023 Rural-Urban Continuum Codes distinguish U.S. metropolitan counties by the population size of their metro area, and nonmetropolitan counties by their degree of urbanization and adjacence to a metro area. The division of counties as either metro or nonmetro, based on the 2023 Office of Management and Budget (OMB) delineation of metro areas, is further subdivided into three metro and six nonmetro categories. Counties with an RUCC of greater than or equal to 4 are considered nonmetro, with counties classified as a 9 exhibiting the least urbanization. All told, the 2023 Rural-Urban Continuum Codes include 1,186 metro counties and 1,958 nonmetro counties in U.S. States and the District of Columbia. See U.S. Department of Agriculture, Rural-Urban Continuum Codes Documentation , (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/rural-urban-continuum-codes/documentation/ .

The random sampling was performed using the RAND function in Microsoft Excel. Each county with an RUCC of equal to or greater than 4 was assigned a random string of numbers, which was then ordered from Smallest to Largest. The first 50 counties in this randomly assigned order were chosen and matched with a school district in that county. For more information about the RAND function in Excel, see Microsoft, Excel: RAND Function, (accessed Mar. 4, 2024), https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/office/rand-function-4cbfa695-8869-4788-8d90-021ea9f5be73 .

EMS LINQ, Inc., LINQ Connect: Online Portal for K-12, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.linq.com/solutions/nutrition/district-nutrition/front-of-house/online-portal/ ; K-12 Payment Center, About Us, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.k12paymentcenter.com/Home/AboutUs ; MealsPlus, Site Banner, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.mealsplus.com/welcome-to-meals-plus/ .

Globe Newswire, LINQ & TITAN School Solutions Announce Merger, (Nov. 10, 2020), https://www.globenewswire.com/en/news-release/2020/11/10/2123594/0/en/LINQ-TITAN-School-Solutions-Announce-Merger.html ; Stradling Law, TITAN School Solutions Completes $75 Million Acquisition by EMS LINQ, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.stradlinglaw.com/experience/titan-school-solutions-completes-dollar75-million-acquisition-by-ems-linq.html ; MealsPlus, Site Banner, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.mealsplus.com/welcome-to-meals-plus/ ; @MealsPlus, Twitter/X (Dec. 18, 2020), https://twitter.com/MealsPlus/status/1339933615807971329 .

EMS LINQ, Inc., Home Page, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.linq.com/ .

Harris School Solutions, MealTime: School Nutrition Program Management Software, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://harrisschoolsolutions.com/products/mealtime-elementor/ ; Harris School Solutions, EZSchoolPay: Your Digital, Full-Cycle School Payment Software, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://harrisschoolsolutions.com/products/mealtime-elementor/ ; Harris Computer, Public Sector Solutions, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.harriscomputer.com/public-sector ; Constellation Software, Inc., Our Companies, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.csisoftware.com/our-companies .

MySchoolBucks, Site Banner, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.myschoolbucks.com/ ; Heartland Payment Systems, Site Banner, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.heartland.us/about/about-us ; Global Payments Direct, Inc., Site Banner, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.globalpayments.com/ .

i3 Verticals, LLC, Education Products and Site Banner, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.i3verticals.com/education/ ; MySchoolAccount, Site Banner, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.myschoolaccount.com/ ; Vanco Payments, RevTrak: Vanco’s Online School Payment System and Site Banner, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.vancopayments.com/education/online-payment-processing .

i3 Verticals LLC, Site Banner, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://investors.i3verticals.com/ .

Vanco Payments, RevTrak: Vanco’s Online School Payment System and Site Banner, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.vancopayments.com/education/online-payment-processing .

Cybersoft Technologies, About, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.cybersoft.net/about/ ; SchoolCafé, About, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://SchoolCafék12.com/about/ .

MyPaymentsPlus is a product of Horizon Software, which operates as a unit of Roper Technologies (ROP: NYSE). See MyPaymentsPlus, Site Banner, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.mypaymentsplus.com/welcome ; Horizon Software, Online Payments: MyPaymentsPlus, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://horizonsoftware.com/online-payments ; Horizon Software, About, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://horizonsoftware.com/about-us .

PCS Revenue Control Systems, PayPAMS Family Portal, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://pcsrcs.com/pcs-solutions/parent-account-portal/ .

MySchoolWallet is a product of Diamond Mind, which is part of Community Brands HoldCo LLC. See Diamond Mind Inc., Introducing MySchoolWallet, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.diamondmindinc.com/resources/product-videos/introducing-myschoolwallet/ ; Community Brands, Solutions: School Accounting, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.communitybrands.com/solutions/school-accounting/ ; Community Brands, Our Brands, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.communitybrands.com/company/our-brands/ .

School Payment Portal is a product of LunchTime Software, which is an affiliate of Focal Tech Inc. See Focal Tech Inc., Contact Us, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.focaltechinc.com/Contact-Us#contact ; School Payment Portal, Site banner, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.schoolpaymentportal.com/Default.aspx .

e-Funds for Schools is a product of Magic-Wrighter, which was acquired by SWIVEL Transactions LLC in 2023, which is a subsidiary of Southwest Business Corporation (SWBC). See e-Funds for Schools, About Us, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://efundsforschools.com/about-us/ ; Magic-Wrighter, About Us, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.magicwrighter.com/about-us/ ; SWIVEL, SWBC’s SWIVEL Acquires Magic-Wrighter, Inc. (Dec. 5, 2023), https://www.getswivel.io/press-releases/swbcs-swivel-acquires-magic-wrighter-inc/ ; Southwest Business Corporation, Payment Solutions, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.swbc.com/payment-solutions .

Computer Systems Design, Inc., Lunch Money Now, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://systemsdesignusa.com/SDwp/sd/software/lunch-money-now/ .

KEV Group, Products, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://kevgroup.com/products/ ; SchoolCash Online, Home page, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.schoolcashonline.com/ .

MealManage, About, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.mealmanage.com/about.php ; CheddarUp, About, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://www.cheddarup.com/about-cheddar-up/ .

PowerSchool offers K-12 information management portals that integrate other lunch payment processors. The CFPB identified many lunch payment processors that offer software integrations with PowerSchool’s online portal (for which they must pay an annual fee proportionate to their user base). PowerLunch is the user-facing name of the portal’s lunch payment module. See PowerSchool Holdings, Inc., Investor Relations, (accessed Feb. 2024), https://investors.powerschool.com/home/default.aspx ; U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, “Letter from PowerSchool Holdings, Inc., re: Draft Registration Statement on Form S-1, CIK No. 0001835681,” EDGAR Archives, (Dec. 22, 2020), https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1835681/000095012321000843/filename1.htm at p. 12.