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100 Gender Research Topics For Academic Papers

Gender research topics are very popular across the world. Students in different academic disciplines are often asked to write papers and essays about these topics. Some of the disciplines that require learners to write about gender topics include:

Sociology Psychology Gender studies Business studies

When pursuing higher education in these disciplines, learners can choose what to write about from a wide range of gender issues topics. However, the wide range of issues that learners can research and write about when it comes to gender makes choosing what to write about difficult. Here is a list of the top 100 gender and sexuality topics that students can consider.

Controversial Gender Research Topics

Do you like the idea of writing about something controversial? If yes, this category has some of the best gender topics to write about. They touch on issues like gender stereotypes and issues that are generally associated with members of a specific gender. Here are some of the best controversial gender topics that you can write about.

How human behavior is affected by gender misconceptions
How are straight marriages influenced by gay marriages
Explain the most common sex-role stereotypes
What are the effects of workplace stereotypes?
What issues affect modern feminism?
How sexuality affects sex-role stereotyping
How does the media break sex-role stereotypes
Explain the dual approach to equality between women and men
What are the most outdated sex-role stereotypes
Are men better than women?
How equal are men and women?
How do politics and sexuality relate?
How can films defy gender-based stereotypes
What are the advantages of being a woman?
What are the disadvantages of being a woman?
What are the advantages of being a man?
Discuss the disadvantages of being a woman
Should governments legalize prostitution?
Explain how sexual orientation came about?
Women communicate better than men
Women are the stronger sex
Explain how the world can be made better for women
Discuss the future gender norms
How important are sex roles in society
Discuss the transgender and feminism theory
How does feminism help in the creation of alternative women’s culture?
Gender stereotypes in education and science
Discuss racial variations when it comes to gender-related attitudes
Women are better leaders
Men can’t survive without women

This category also has some of the best gender debate topics. However, learners should be keen to pick topics they are interested in. This will enable them to ensure that they enjoy the research and writing process.

Interesting Gender Inequality Topics

Gender-based inequality is witnessed almost every day. As such, most learners are conversant with gender inequality research paper topics. However, it’s crucial to pick topics that are devoid of discrimination of members of a specific gender. Here are examples of gender inequality essay topics.

Sex discrimination aspects in schools
How to identify inequality between sexes
Sex discrimination causes
The inferior role played by women in relationships
Discuss sex differences in the education system
How can gender discrimination be identified in sports?
Can inequality issues between men and women be solved through education?
Why are professional opportunities for women in sports limited?
Why are there fewer women in leadership positions?
Discuss gender inequality when it comes to work-family balance
How does gender-based discrimination affect early childhood development?
Can sex discrimination be reduced by technology?
How can sex discrimination be identified in a marriage?
Explain where sex discrimination originates from
Discuss segregation and motherhood in labor markets
Explain classroom sex discrimination
How can inequality in American history be justified?
Discuss different types of sex discrimination in modern society
Discuss various factors that cause gender-based inequality
Discuss inequality in human resource practices and processes
Why is inequality between women and men so rampant in developing countries?
How can governments bridge gender gaps between women and men?
Work-home conflict is a sign of inequality between women and men
Explain why women are less wealthy than men
How can workplace gender-based inequality be addressed?

After choosing the gender inequality essay topics they like, students should research, brainstorm ideas, and come up with an outline before they start writing. This will ensure that their essays have engaging introductions and convincing bodies, as well as, strong conclusions.

Amazing Gender Roles Topics for Academic Papers and Essays

This category has ideas that slightly differ from gender equality topics. That’s because equality or lack of it can be measured by considering the representation of both genders in different roles. As such, some gender roles essay topics might not require tiresome and extensive research to write about. Nevertheless, learners should take time to gather the necessary information required to write about these topics. Here are some of the best gender topics for discussion when it comes to the roles played by men and women in society.

Describe gender identity
Describe how a women-dominated society would be
Compare gender development theories
How equally important are maternity and paternity levees for babies?
How can gender-parity be achieved when it comes to parenting?
Discuss the issues faced by modern feminism
How do men differ from women emotionally?
Discuss gender identity and sexual orientation
Is investing in the education of girls beneficial?
Explain the adoption of gender-role stereotyped behaviors
Discuss games and toys for boys and girls
Describe patriarchal attitudes in families
Explain patriarchal stereotypes in family relationships
What roles do women and men play in politics?
Discuss sex equity and academic careers
Compare military career opportunities for both genders
Discuss the perception of women in the military
Describe feminine traits
Discus gender-related issues faced by women in gaming
Men should play major roles in the welfare of their children
Explain how the aging population affects the economic welfare of women?
What has historically determined modern differences in gender roles?
Does society need stereotyped gender roles?
Does nature have a role to play in stereotyped gender roles?
The development and adoption of gender roles

The list of gender essay topics that are based on the roles of each sex can be quite extensive. Nevertheless, students should be keen to pick interesting gender topics in this category.

Important Gender Issues Topics for Research Paper

If you want to write a paper or essay on an important gender issue, this category has the best ideas for you. Students can write about different issues that affect individuals of different genders. For instance, this category can include gender wage gap essay topics. Wage variation is a common issue that affects women in different countries. Some of the best gender research paper topics in this category include:

Discuss gender mainstreaming purpose
Discuss the issue of gender-based violence
Why is the wage gap so common in most countries?
How can society promote equality in opportunities for women and men in sports?
Explain what it means to be transgender
Discuss the best practices of gender-neutral management
What is women’s empowerment?
Discuss how human trafficking affects women
How problematic is gender-blindness for women?
What does the glass ceiling mean in management?
Why are women at a higher risk of sexual exploitation and violence?
Why is STEM uptake low among women?
How does ideology affect the determination of relations between genders
How are sporting women fighting for equality?
Discuss sports, women, and media institutions
How can cities be made safer for girls and women?
Discuss international trends in the empowerment of women
How do women contribute to the world economy?
Explain how feminism on different social relations unites men and women as groups
Explain how gender diversity influence scientific discovery and innovation

This category has some of the most interesting women’s and gender studies paper topics. However, most of them require extensive research to come up with hard facts and figures that will make academic papers or essays more interesting.

Students in high schools and colleges can pick what to write about from a wide range of gender studies research topics. However, some gender studies topics might not be ideal for some learners based on the given essay prompt. Therefore, make sure that you have understood what the educator wants you to write about before you pick a topic. Our experts can help you choose a good thesis topic . Choosing the right gender studies topics enables learners to answer the asked questions properly. This impresses educators to award them top grades.

Gender equality: the route to a better world

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The Mosuo People lives in China and they are the last matriarchy society. Lugu, Sichuan, China.

The Mosuo people of China include sub-communities in which inheritance passes down either the male or the female line. Credit: TPG/Getty

The fight for global gender equality is nowhere close to being won. Take education: in 87 countries, less than half of women and girls complete secondary schooling, according to 2023 data. Afghanistan’s Taliban continues to ban women and girls from secondary schools and universities . Or take reproductive health: abortion rights have been curtailed in 22 US states since the Supreme Court struck down federal protections, depriving women and girls of autonomy and restricting access to sexual and reproductive health care .

SDG 5, whose stated aim is to “achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls”, is the fifth of the 17 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, all of which Nature is examining in a series of editorials. SDG 5 includes targets for ending discrimination and violence against women and girls in both public and private spheres, eradicating child marriage and female genital mutilation, ensuring sexual and reproductive rights, achieving equal representation of women in leadership positions and granting equal rights to economic resources. Globally, the goal is not on track to being achieved, and just a handful of countries have hit all the targets.

How the world should oppose the Taliban’s war on women and girls

In July, the UN introduced two new indices (see go.nature.com/3eus9ue ), the Women’s Empowerment Index (WEI) and the Global Gender Parity Index (GGPI). The WEI measures women’s ability and freedoms to make their own choices; the GGPI describes the gap between women and men in areas such as health, education, inclusion and decision making. The indices reveal, depressingly, that even achieving a small gender gap does not automatically translate to high levels of women’s empowerment: 114 countries feature in both indices, but countries that do well on both scores cover fewer than 1% of all girls and women.

The COVID-19 pandemic has made things worse, with women bearing the highest burden of extra unpaid childcare when schools needed to close, and subjected to intensified domestic violence. Although child marriages declined from 21% of all marriages in 2016 to 19% in 2022, the pandemic threatened even this incremental progress, pushing up to 10 million more girls into risk of child marriage over the next decade, in addition to the 100 million girls who were at risk before the pandemic.

Of the 14 indicators for SDG 5, only one or two are close to being met by the 2030 deadline. As of 1 January 2023, women occupied 35.4% of seats in local-government assemblies, an increase from 33.9% in 2020 (the target is gender parity by 2030). In 115 countries for which data were available, around three-quarters, on average, of the necessary laws guaranteeing full and equal access to sexual and reproductive health and rights had been enacted. But the UN estimates that worldwide, only 57% of women who are married or in a union make their own decisions regarding sexual and reproductive health and rights.

Systemic discrimination against girls and women by men, in many contexts, remains a colossal barrier to achieving gender equality. But patriarchy is not some “natural order of things” , argues Ruth Mace, an anthropologist at University College London. Hundreds of women-centred societies exist around the world. As the science writer Angela Saini describes in her latest book, The Patriarchs , these are often not the polar opposite of male-dominated systems, but societies in which men and women share decision making .

After Roe v. Wade: dwindling US abortion access is harming health a year later

One example comes from the Mosuo people in China, who have both ‘matrilineal’ and ‘patrilineal’ communities, with rights such as inheritance passing down either the male or female line. Researchers compared outcomes for inflammation and hypertension in men and women in these communities, and found that women in matrilineal societies, in which they have greater autonomy and control over resources, experienced better health outcomes. The researchers found no significant negative effect of matriliny on health outcomes for men ( A.  Z. Reynolds et al. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 117 , 30324–30327; 2020 ).

When it comes to the SDGs, evidence is emerging that a more gender-equal approach to politics and power benefits many goals. In a study published in May, Nobue Amanuma, deputy director of the Integrated Sustainability Centre at the Institute for Global Environmental Strategies in Hayama, Japan, and two of her colleagues tested whether countries with more women legislators, and more younger legislators, are performing better in the SDGs ( N. Amanuma et al. Environ. Res. Lett. 18 , 054018; 2023 ). They found it was so, with the effect more marked for socio-economic goals such as ending poverty and hunger, than for environmental ones such as climate action or preserving life on land. The researchers recommend further qualitative and quantitative studies to better understand the reasons.

The reality that gender equality leads to better outcomes across other SDGs is not factored, however, into most of the goals themselves. Of the 230 unique indicators of the SDGs, 51 explicitly reference women, girls, gender or sex, including the 14 indicators in SDG 5. But there is not enough collaboration between organizations responsible for the different SDGs to ensure that sex and gender are taken into account. The indicator for the sanitation target (SDG 6) does not include data disaggregated by sex or gender ( Nature 620 , 7; 2023 ). Unless we have this knowledge, it will be hard to track improvements in this and other SDGs.

The road to a gender-equal world is long, and women’s power and freedom to make choices is still very constrained. But the evidence from science is getting stronger: distributing power between genders creates the kind of world we all need and want to be living in.

Nature 621 , 8 (2023)

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-02745-9

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Promoting Gender Equality: A Systematic Review of Interventions

Open access
Published: 01 September 2022
Volume 35 , pages 318–343, ( 2022 )

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Michaela Guthridge ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5157-9839 1 , 3 ,
Maggie Kirkman 2 ,
Tania Penovic 4 , 5 &
Melita J. Giummarra 1 , 5

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More than four decades have passed since the United Nation’s Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) was adopted. Now is an opportune time to consider whether the interventions seeking to realise CEDAW’s aspirations have brought us closer to achieving gender equality. This systematic review aimed to identify and synthesise evidence for the effectiveness of social justice, cognitive, or behaviour-change interventions that sought to reduce gender inequality, gender bias, or discrimination against women or girls. Interventions could be implemented in any context, with any mode of delivery and duration, if they measured gender equity or discrimination outcomes, and were published in English in peer-reviewed journals. Papers on violence against women and sexuality were not eligible. Seventy-eight papers reporting qualitative (n = 36), quantitative (n = 23), and multi-methods (n = 19) research projects met the eligibility criteria after screening 7,832 citations identified from psycINFO, ProQuest, Scopus searches, reference lists and expert recommendations. Findings were synthesised narratively. Improved gender inclusion was the most frequently reported change (n = 39), particularly for education and media interventions. Fifty percent of interventions measuring social change in gender equality did not achieve beneficial effects. Most gender mainstreaming interventions had only partial beneficial effects on outcomes, calling into question their efficacy in practice. Twenty-eight interventions used education and awareness-raising strategies, which also predominantly had only partial beneficial effects. Overall research quality was low to moderate, and the key findings created doubt that interventions to date have achieved meaningful change. Interventions may not have achieved macrolevel change because they did not explicitly address meso and micro change. We conclude with a summary of the evidence for key determinants of the promotion of gender equality, including a call to address men’s emotional responses (micro) in the process of achieving gender equality (micro/meso/macrolevels).

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Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

The adoption of CEDAW was a remarkable achievement in the history of the women’s movement. Its ultimate aim was to catalyse social transformation that transcends cursory legislative reform (Facio & Morgan, 2009 ). Article 3 of CEDAW promotes this social transformation, calling for state parties to ‘take all appropriate measures’ to achieve gender equality. In practice this has included, but has not been limited to, gender-blind strategies, awareness raising, litigation, international advocacy, art and social media activism, and gender mainstreaming (see Table 1 for definition).

The Global Gender Gap Index 2022 benchmarks 146 countries on the evolution of gender-based gaps in economic participation and opportunity, educational attainment, health and survival, and political empowerment (World Economic Forum, 2022 ). Although the Index measures gender parity (defined in Table 1 ) rather than substantive equality, it is a useful tool for analysing progression and regression. With scores depicting the distance to parity on a scale of zero to one hundred, the 2022 Report found the average distance completed to parity was 68 per cent. With the present trajectory, it will take 132 years to close the gender gap and 151 years to achieve equal economic participation and opportunity (World Economic Forum, 2022 ). Moreover, these estimates are predicted to worsen as the world faces crises in politics, economics, health, food, and the environment. Now more than ever we must assess our successes and failures in attempting to reduce gender inequality and discrimination.

The aim of this systematic review was to identify and synthesise evidence of the effectiveness of social justice interventions that sought to reduce gender inequality, gender bias, or discrimination against women and girls. Because recent systematic reviews have examined the effectiveness of interventions targeting violence against women and sexuality (e.g. Karakurt et al., 2019 ; Bourey et al., 2015 ; Yakubovich et al., 2018 ) we did not include these types of interventions. We were unable, however, to identify systematic reviews examining other interventions targeting gender equality. Therefore, this review focused on interventions that sought to achieve gender equality in any political, social, cultural or economic context, except violence against women and sexuality.

Theoretical Framework

The truism ‘context matters’ is pertinent to this systematic review. According to contextual social psychology, effects brought about at a microlevel are modified by the mesolevel and macrolevel, and vice versa (Pettigrew, 2021 ). In this review, microlevel variables include individual characteristics, including biology, beliefs, behaviours, values, and emotions, such as empathy and resentment. Mesolevel contextual factors include interpersonal interactions in family, work, and school etc. (e.g. gender segregation), and macrolevel context includes broader social and cultural norms, including religion and politics. Social norms in this context are “rules of action shared by people in a given society or group; they define what is considered normal and acceptable behaviour for the members of that group” (Cislaghi & Heise, 2020 , p. 409). In this sense, social norms exist within the mind, while gender norms exist outside it, and both are produced and reproduced through social interaction. In contextual social psychology, beliefs are embedded in institutions that affect our relational behaviours. While there are psychological causes of macrophenomena (Pettigrew, 2021 ), these phenomena (such as patriarchy) also influence individual affect. For example, affirmative action laws (macro) should increase contact between genders (meso), which in turn should reduce individual prejudice (micro). While this is a top down example, it also works from the bottom up, whereby micro behaviours can affect macrophenomena. In this context, prejudice against women and girls is a “multilevel syndrome” (Pettigrew, 2021 , p. 74).

“Systems thinking” also recognises the intersection between problems and processes from local to global levels (Arnold & Wade, 2015 ). Systems thinking is a complex interplay of a multitude of constantly evolving factors (Banerjee & Lowalekar, 2021 ). According to systems thinking, gender equality will be realised when interventions at the micro, meso and macrolevel are configured holistically, rather than individualistically. Interventions at any level need to consider and accommodate the role of processes and factors that may support or hinder the effectiveness of the intervention to yield population benefits. The different contextual levels that impact on gender inequality may be successfully tackled by feminist movements, but integrating the interventions pluralistically rather than monistically remains elusive as feminist movements appear to continue to work in silos. In undertaking strategies across different contexts, however, we are more likely to achieve substantive equality. But we need to address this complexity in the three contextual levels (micro, meso, macro) in order to predict, modify and eliminate discrimination against women and girls. These theoretical frameworks are used throughout this review to aid the synthesis of the evidence and identification of implications for practice.

Review Design

The Sample, Phenomena of Interest, Design, Evaluation, Research type (SPIDER) tool was used to design the review (Cooke et al., 2012 ). SPIDER is appropriate for systematic reviews of quantitative, qualitative, and multi-methods research. We use the term multi method rather than mixed method because mixed method studies could be considered to have used multiple methods of data collection/analysis, but not all multi-methods studies follow “mixed methods” procedures as they do not always provide an integrated synthesis of findings across the methods used (Creswell, 2009 ). The search terms are documented in Supplementary Tables 1 and 2. The review was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Page et al., 2021 ). Rapid review methods were used for citation screening and data extraction (Plüddemann et al., 2018 ). Papers were eligible according to the criteria defined below.

The sample could include people of any age, race, or gender in local, global, or transboundary intervention contexts. The phenomena of interest included any social justice, cognitive or behaviour-change interventions that sought to reduce gender inequality, gender bias, or discrimination against women, with any mode of delivery and duration. Interventions could be any type of program (e.g. behaviour change), policy (e.g. gender mainstreaming), process (e.g. awareness raising) or experimental condition that aimed to influence gender-focused outcomes. An intervention was categorised as achieving its aim (e.g., having a beneficial effect on gender equality or reducing discrimination), partially achieving its aim, not achieving its aim according to the assessment in the paper (i.e. if the analyses in the respective paper found that the intervention did not work), or having a harmful effect (i.e. resulting in increased discrimination or inequality).

The intervention being investigated could have been administered by any party, including expert advocates, government or non-government organisations (NGOs), social justice enterprises, or academic researchers. The research design did not need to include a comparator or control group, but must have incorporated a between-groups or pre-post comparison, or retrospective assessment of the impact, feasibility or acceptability of the intervention or program. The primary outcome for evaluation was any measure of actual or perceived level of, or change in, gender (in)equality, gender bias, or discrimination against women or girls. Secondary outcomes were the perceived level of inclusion, solidarity, awareness, empowerment, or equity. The research methods could include qualitative, quantitative, and mixed- or multi-methods. Eligible papers were published in peer-reviewed journals in English from 1990 to 2022. Whilst CEDAW was adopted in 1979, this timeframe was selected to ensure contemporaneity. A protocol for the review was developed a priori, but not registered.

Search Strategy and Eligibility Screening

As this was a review of research across multiple disciplines, three databases were used: Scopus, ProQuest, and psycINFO, in addition to reviewing reference lists and recommendations by experts. Search terms were adapted to each database. After screening the first search results it was evident that the terms were not broad enough, so a second search including additional terms was undertaken (see Supplementary Tables 1 and 2 for terms of both search strategies). All search results were uploaded to Covidence for eligibility screening and duplicate removal by reviewer one. Using Abstrackr, a second author screened a minimum of 10 percent of citations, consistent with rapid review methods (Plüddemann et al., 2018 ), or until < 50 percent of citations were predicted to be relevant. Abstrackr is a machine-learning program that generates predictions of the likely relevance of records based on judgements made by the reviewer (Wallace et al., 2012 ), which has been found to have excellent sensitivity and to generate significant workload savings (Giummarra et al., 2020 ). After titles and abstracts were screened, full text articles were assessed against the eligibility criteria, noting reasons for exclusion. Both reviewers met to discuss any conflicts; if consensus could not be reached a third author was consulted. The authors included experts in gender equality who provided significant input into the search strategy, identification of relevant literature, and synthesis.

Quality Assessment

The quality of research was assessed by the first author using a standard method (Kmet et al., 2004 ) with the added criterion of whether papers reported approval by a formally constituted human research ethics committee. Supplementary Tables 3–5 specify the quality criteria. Overall quality was classified as poor (studies meeting < 0.50 criteria), adequate (0.50–0.69), good (0.70–0.80), or strong (> 0.80) consistent with previous studies (Parsons et al., 2017 ).

Data Extraction and Synthesis

Data were extracted in three categories: The authors and publication year of the paper ; research aims, theoretical approach, methods, sample size, eligibility criteria, and sample characteristics; and, the intervention , aim, type, sector, geographic region, description, duration, targeted outcomes, effects, and short- and long-term impacts. Figures to summarise the proportion of studies from different geographic regions were generated using www.sankeymatic.com/build/ . Ten percent of the full-text articles were randomly selected, stratified by research method, for independent data extraction by a second author, consistent with rapid review methods (Plüddemann et al., 2018 ). The data extracted from both reviewers was cross-checked for accuracy and completeness. Sources of heterogeneity were noted, particularly variation in study samples, settings, contexts and intervention designs or aims. Given the heterogeneity of the interventions and the research, meta-analysis and meta-synthesis were not appropriate. Therefore, the findings were thematically synthesised according to intervention sector (e.g. education, employment etc.) and context (i.e., micro, meso and macro levels).

A total of 7,832 records were screened for eligibility with the last search conducted on 18 July 2022 (Fig. 1 ). Seventy-eight papers, each reporting a single intervention and using qualitative (n = 36), multi (19), or quantitative (23) methods, met the inclusion criteria. The characteristics of qualitative, quantitative, and multi-methods studies are summarised in Supplementary Tables 6, 7, and 8, respectively. The intervention effects for each study are summarised in Supplementary Tables 9 and 10.

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic review and Meta-Analysis Protocol (PRISMA) Flow Diagram

Five interventions were at the microlevel, 37 were at the mesolevel, and 17 were at the macrolevel. The final 19 interventions straddled micro-meso, meso-macro, or micro–macro. No intervention covered all three levels or took a systems thinking approach.

The overall quality of each paper is detailed in Supplementary Tables 6–8, and ratings for each quality domain are in Supplementary Tables 3–5. Studies using quantitative methods (range 0.58–1.00; median = 0.92, Q1 = 0.82, Q3 = 1.00) had significantly higher quality than qualitative (range 0.41–0.91; median = 0.73, Q1 = 0.67, Q3 = 0.79; χ2(1) = 13.71, p < 0.001) and multi-method studies (range 0.48–0.94; median = 0.76, Q1 = 0.63, Q3 = 0.82; χ2(1) = 21.96, p < 0.001). There was no difference in the quality of qualitative and multi-methods studies ( p = 0.97).

All quantitative studies articulated the research question and reported the results adequately. Randomisation and blinding were used in most studies. While estimates of variance and controlling for confounding were not consistently reported, 18 studies using quantitative methods were considered to be strong quality, and seven had a perfect score.

In reports of qualitative studies, the study design, context, and conclusion were generally addressed well. However, only six studies used verification processes (see Table 1 for definition). No qualitative study received a perfect score; 20 studies were considered to be good quality.

For multi-method studies, the objective, context, data collection, analysis, and conclusion were generally reported well. Blinding was not applicable, and estimates of variance and control of confounding were generally not reported. No multi-method study received a perfect score although the quality of six of multi-methods papers was assessed as good.

Corresponding authors were contacted to confirm ethics approval; authors of two papers confirmed that the study did not receive ethics approval, and authors from 16 studies did not respond or confirm whether they had ethics approval. The omission of evidence of ethical approval is concerning and should be addressed in all future research with humans. The 18 studies with respect to which we either could not confirm ethics approval or did not receive ethics approval were all published in highly ranked journals. Furthermore, it was not, in general, clear in the majority of papers which agency or organisation conducted the intervention or undertook the study (e.g. government agency, NGO, academic researchers) making it difficult to assess reflexivity, and the prospect of future implementation.

Included Interventions

Intervention sectors.

Interventions were implemented and evaluated in various sectors: education (26 interventions); politics (10); employment (8); information, communications, and technology (6); legal (5); economics (6); health (3); sustainable development and land rights (3); sport (3); and women’s and girls’ rights (2). Interventions in the areas of conflict and of water, sanitation, and hygiene were reported in one paper each.

Intervention Settings

Interventions were set evenly throughout the Global South (35 papers) and the Global North (39 papers). Interventions were evaluated in Africa (15), Europe (12), North America (19), Asia (10), Latin America (6), the Middle East and North Africa (4), the United Kingdom (6), and the Pacific (4). Just under half of the Global South interventions were conducted in rural settings (16/35), whereas Global North interventions tended to be urban (22/39) (Fig. 2 ).

Settings for interventions in Global North and South Countries

Research Participant Characteristics

Twenty-seven interventions included both women and men as participants, 30 included only women, and one intervention included only men. Thirteen studies did not report the gender of the sample, and in seven studies gender of the sample or population was not applicable (e.g. intervention sought to affect a broad population approach irrespective of gender, such as a new law that applied to the whole population in order to improve gender equality, or a collective political party that sought to influence gender issues in parliament). Thirty papers did not report other participant demographic characteristics. Where sample characteristics were reported, participants were 10–80 years of age, with education level ranging from none to post-graduate.

Study Characteristics

All papers but one (Devasia, 1998 ) were published after 2005. Most papers reported data gathered across years, with twelve interventions taking place over hours or weeks. The timeframe did not appear to be associated with whether or not the intervention had a significant beneficial effect on the aims of the intervention. For example, McGregor and Davies’ ( 2019 ) two year study of the effects of a pay equity campaign achieved its aim (legislation was enacted), but Hayhurst’s ( 2014 ) girls’ entrepreneurship study that ran for several years had harmful effects (girls income was taken by men). Similarly, Zawadzki et al., ( 2012 ) board game intervention that takes 60–90 min achieved its aims but Krishnan et al. ( 2014 ) conditional cash transfer study over a month had no effect on social change.

In the qualitative and multi-method studies, theoretical frameworks were rarely reported. The few papers that did report theoretical frameworks used feminist standpoint theory, post-structuralist feminist theory, or social constructivist theory. Qualitative data collection methods were diverse: interviews (41 studies), focus groups (19), document analysis (18), observations (15), case studies (2), and visual techniques (e.g. PhotoVoice) (2). Quantitative and multi-method studies predominantly used surveys and questionnaires (22), with one study each using of the following tools: Gender Equitable Men’s Scale (Gottert et al., 2016 ), the Knowledge of Gender Equity Scale, the Empathy Questionnaire (Spreng et al., 2009 ), the Feminist Identity Scale (Rickard, 1989 ), and the Gender Related System Justification scale (Jost & Kay, 2003 ).

Few interventions aimed to achieve gender equality per se. Rather, they aimed to achieve components of gender equality (see Table 1 for definition), which ranged from gender neutrality through to striving towards a feminist revolution. Overall aims included greater awareness, inclusion, empowerment, parity, equity, and substantive equality (Supplementary Tables 6–8, column 3). The evaluation of whether interventions achieved their aims was usually assessed through surveying participants. The most common aim was to enhance “empowerment” (n = 18), which was generally not clearly defined. The interventions had various levels of effectiveness, with 37 studies having a significant beneficial effect on the aim of the intervention (i.e., they achieved their aims); 31 having a partial beneficial impact on the aim of the intervention; four studies having no beneficial or harmful impact on the aim of the intervention; and six studies having a harmful effect on the aim of the intervention (e.g., the intervention led to increased discrimination, inequality, or abuse). Examples of harmful effects include the ‘Girl Effect’ program in Uganda which resulted in participants being abused or robbed of the money they had earned (Hayhurst, 2014 ), and a girls’ resiliency program in the USA that resulted in increased abuse from male peers (Brinkman et al., 2011 ).

Intervention Design and Effectiveness by Sector

Education and training interventions.

Evaluations of education and training interventions were reported in 18 papers (6 qualitative, 6 quantitative, 6 multi-methods). Education interventions covered a range contexts (3 micro-meso, 11 meso, 3 meso-macro, 1 macro). Most interventions (14) used awareness-raising workshops targeting individual change, and reported only partially achieving the aim of the interventions. Five workshops were assessed in randomised controlled trials. Two qualitative studies targeted increasing girls’ enrolment in formal education in Morocco (Eger et al., 2018 ) and India (Jain & Singh, 2017 ), both of which achieved the aims of the interventions. One qualitative study in the Democratic Republic of Congo targeted behaviour change in men only (Pierotti et al., 2018 ), which had a partial beneficial effect because men increased their willingness to contribute to household chores but maintained control over the broader gender system. This intervention was an eight-week long mesolevel men’s discussion group focused on “undoing gender” through social interaction (e.g. promoting a more equal division of labour in the household, improving intra-household relationship quality, and questioning existing gender norms).

Gender parity in schools did not signal an end to, or transformation of, gender inequities in the schools or communities studied (Ralfe, 2009 ). To bring about education policy reform, Palmén et al. ( 2020 ) found that top-down institutional commitment to gender equality was essential to create change. However, bottom-up strategies were also needed as teachers had to foster cooperative learning that encouraged working together and valuing different abilities across genders (Sánchez-Hernández et al., 2018 ). Sufficient resources, in addition to monitoring and evaluation of education initiatives, were found to be a key to intervention success (Palmén et al., 2020 ). Ultimately, social norms did not change beyond the school environment (Chisamya et al., 2012 ; Jain & Singh, 2017 ).

While interventions in traditional education contexts only partially achieved their aims, experiential learning was found to be a powerful process to deliver knowledge about gender equity in a nonthreatening way (Zawadzki et al., 2012a ). Zawadzki’s study was a mesolevel intervention that used a board game to teach participants the cumulative effect of subtle, nonconscious bias, to discuss how bias hinders women’s promotion in the workplace, and to find solutions for what can be done to reduce that bias. They found that the delivery of information was less effective when new knowledge did not promote self-efficacy or lead participants to resist perceived attempts to influence their beliefs or behaviours. Furthermore, they established that learning about gender inequity was not sufficient for knowledge retention. Rather, participants had to link the knowledge to their own experiences and be empowered to feel that they could act on that knowledge.

Awareness-raising interventions in education and training generally only partially achieved the aims of the interventions, and did not necessarily translate into behaviour change (Ralfe, 2009 ). In the strong quality (0.93) quantitative mesolevel study by Moss-Racusin et al. ( 2018 ), the Video Interventions for Diversity in STEM (VIDS) intervention was found to achieve significantly greater awareness of bias in participants compared to the non-intervention control condition; however, effects on behaviour were not assessed. This intervention presented participants with short videos about findings from gender bias research in one of three conditions. One condition illustrated findings using narratives (compelling stories), the second presented the same results using expert interviews (straightforward facts), and a hybrid condition included both narrative and expert interview videos.

A lack of awareness, knowledge, or understanding of women’s human rights was found to be a key barrier to the achievement of gender equality in education-based interventions (Murphy-Graham, 2009 ). Gervais ( 2010 ) reported that awareness-raising can have direct effects on participants by giving them confidence to speak up against violations of their rights, although they noted that this might anger violators. Similarly, education was found in some cases to enable women to negotiate power-sharing with their husbands, while other women were verbally abused and threatened because their husbands disapproved of the education program (Murphy-Graham, 2009 ). Similar to the study by Pierotti et al. ( 2018 ), Murphy-Graham ( 2009 ) sought to “undo gender” by encouraging students to rethink gender relations in their everyday lives (mesolevel). Including men together with women in education programs enabled women to gauge men’s reactions to social change in a safe environment (Cislaghi et al., 2019 ). Potential harmful effects of interventions are further summarised under the ‘The problem of hostile affect’ header below.

STEM Education

Among education interventions were a subset of Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths (STEM) education interventions. These specifically targeted secondary school girls as a pathway to tertiary STEM education, and were reported in eight papers (1 qualitative, 3 quantitative, 4 multi methods). The design of interventions varied from science clubs, outreach programs, after school sessions, residential camps and immersion days. Archer et al. ( 2014 ), however, took a multipronged approach. Their intervention included school excursions, visits from STEM Ambassadors and a researcher-in-residence, a STEM ‘speed networking’ event, and participation in a series of teacher-led sessions for girls aged 13–14 years. Despite this significant investment, the intervention did not significantly change students’ aspirations of studying science, although it did appear to have a beneficial effect on broadening students’ understanding of the range of science jobs.

All STEM education interventions were aimed at the mesolevel and were located in the urban Global North. While the long-term impact (e.g. increased enrolment of women into tertiary STEM education) were inconsistent among studies. Gorbacheva et al. ( 2014 ) found that secondary same-sex education had no influence on this objective. Alternatively, Hughes et al. ( 2013 ) found having role models was more critical than sex segregation. Finally, Lackey et al. ( 2007 ), Lang et al. ( 2015 ) and Watermeyer ( 2012 ) all established that a network of support (e.g. family, school, industry) made a positive difference to girls equality in STEM education.

Employment Interventions

Eight interventions focused on women’s employment: 4 qualitative, 2 quantitative, 2 multi-methods studies. They covered a range of contexts (1 micro/meso, 5 meso, 2 meso/macro). Three interventions addressed women’s promotion (Eriksson‐Zetterquist & Styhre, 2008 ; Grada et al., 2015 ; Smith et al., 2015 ). Two interventions evaluated microenterprise; one produced harmful effects (Hayhurst, 2014 ), and the other only partially achieved its aim (Strier, 2010 ). Hayhurst ( 2014 ) evaluated an intervention auspiced by the Nike Foundation and concluded that it had an unfair and deleterious effect by placing the burden of social change on girls. In this intervention, focusing on the mesolevel, girls were taught to be entrepreneurs to enable them to escape abuse, buy land, grow food, and work. In practice, this economic empowerment strategy led to increased abuse by men who wanted to take the girls’ money to pay their own taxes and fines. This study was good quality (0.73). Participants in the study by Strier ( 2010 ) thought that microenterprise promised self-realisation and escape from the slavery of the labour market, but they found it to be a false promise, characterising the informal sector as both a disappointment and a fraud. Overall, employment interventions led to unreliable and inconsistent outcomes.

Economic Interventions

Six interventions (1 qualitative, 2 quantitative, 3 multi-methods studies) addressed various contexts (1 micro, 1 micro/macro, 2 meso/macro, 2 macro interventions) that targeted economic empowerment. Overall, the interventions partially achieved their aims. For microfinance interventions, women benefited less than men because they were given smaller loans for less lucrative businesses (Haase, 2012 ). Krishnan et al. ( 2014 ) conducted a good quality (0.79) multi-method study of a micro–macro level intervention that provided conditional cash transfers in India, and found minimal positive effects from the implementation of this scheme to address social behaviours related to valuing girls. In this study, parents had to register the birth of their daughter in order to receive financial benefit, but this did not transform the social mindset that daughters are a burden. In another study, the size and frequency of cash transfers directly influenced outcomes: large but infrequent payments enabled investment that could facilitate economic transformation (Morton, 2019 ). Lump-sum payments also challenged stereotypes about what women could invest in, and could transform the gender asset gap. Institution of a social protection floor (e.g. welfare benefits) enhanced women’s power and control over household decision-making in financial matters and household spending in South Africa (Patel et al., 2013 ). While a social protection floor had benefits for women’s empowerment at the microlevel, it did not transform unequal and unjust gendered social relations of power at the macrolevel.

Legal Interventions

Five interventions (3 qualitative, 2 quantitative studies) in two contexts (1 meso/macro, 4 macro) reported on legal interventions. In Zartaloudis’s ( 2015 ) qualitative macrolevel study of an employment strategy in Greece and Portugal, legislation was found to have an important but not transformative effect on gender equality in employment. Three other studies found that changes in law must be accompanied by incentives and penalties in order to be effective (Kim & Kang, 2016 ; Palmén et al., 2020 ; Singh & Peng, 2010 ). While the decline in levels of discrimination was at first sharp after enacting anti-discrimination legislation, its implementation plateaued over time, calling into question the long-term sustainable effects of law reform without adequate enforcement mechanisms. In this macrolevel study by Singh and Peng ( 2010 ), the Ontario Pay Equity Act was effective because it was proactive in persuing pay equity, rather than being complaint based.

Legal opportunity and litigation were strategic choices in campaign strategies in one study, playing an important role in effecting change to prevent discriminatory pay for work typically performed by women (McGregor & Davies, 2019 ). The strong quality (0.92) macrolevel study by Mueller et al. ( 2019 ) increased access to legal services in order to improve legal knowledge in rural Tanzania. It found that, despite increased access to legal services, women still had moderate to low knowledge of marital laws, and only 2.7 percent of women would refer someone to a paralegal for problems with a widow’s assets, divorce, or marital disputes. Mueller et al. ( 2019 ) concluded that an increased investment in access to justice needed to be made through informal channels (mesolevel change) in addition to the macrolevel law reform.

Political Interventions

Ten papers (4 qualitative, 3 quantitative, 3 multi-methods studies) that covered a variety of contexts (1 micro/meso, 2 meso, 2 meso/macro, 5 macro) reported assessments of political interventions. Electing women to council increased other women’s access to councillors because women had greater heterosocial networks (i.e., comprising women and men), but did not affect men’s access to councillors (Benstead, 2019 ; Levy & Sakaiya, 2020 ). However, increasing the number of women in public office did not necessarily improve equality (McLean & Maalsen, 2017 ). For example, an evaluation of gendered outcomes of Hon. Julia Gillard’s tenure as Prime Minister of Australia saw increased gender-based denigration and vilification of her leadership (McLean & Maalsen, 2017 ).

A qualitative macro study using interviews and ethnography to explore the impact of political gender quotas in Mali (Johnson, 2019 ) found that savings groups, together with political gender quotas, were important for catalysing the first steps towards social and political transformation. In Mali, gender quota laws required political parties to field a minimum of 30 percent women candidates, and to include a woman within the first three places on a party’s candidate list. In this context, savings and credit associations developed women’s self-efficacy and increased their confidence to become political candidates (Johnson, 2019 ).

An example of discursive change based on political activism was found by Cowell-Meyers’ ( 2017 ) multi-method study examining the impact of a new feminist political party in Sweden. Near consensus by political parties that gender equality needed to be tackled through government intervention was achieved through the efforts of the small women’s rights party. However, another multi-method mesolevel study examining the effects of Transnational Advocacy Networks (TANs) in Europe found that they either ignored or subverted gender mainstreaming language (S. Lang, 2009 ). Gender mainstreaming policy interventions were found to have only partially achieved their aims, but were successful when law and policy detailed specific roles and responsibilities for action (Kim & Kang, 2016 ). Policymakers in two other studies were found to avoid the responsibility of implementation not because they opposed gender mainstreaming itself, but because they objected to being forced into it (Hwang & Wu, 2019 ; Kim & Kang, 2016 ). Therefore, the attitude of bureaucrats (microlevel) was considered to be an important factor in implementing gender equality initiatives at the macrolevel.

The strong (perfect quality score) quantitative study by Saguy and Szekeres ( 2018 ) reported on the effect on gender-based attitudes (microlevel) following exposure to the 2017 Women’s March across the US and worldwide in response to Donald Trump’s inauguration. The research found that large-scale collective action had a polarising effect on those exposed to it. Over time, men who identified more closely with their own gender increased the degree to which they justified gender inequality after exposure to the protests, suggesting a backlash reaction (mesolevel). People who were found to be positively affected by collective action were already in favour of the protesters’ cause. The backlash found for high-identifying men was explained by reactance theory (Brehm, 1966 ) whereby people become motivationally aroused by a threat to or elimination of a behavioral freedom (Brehm, 1989 ).

Barriers to Achieving Gender Equality: The Problem of Hostile Affect

No study accounted for men’s and boys’ emotions (microlevel change) as part of the aim and design of the intervention, but their significance became apparent in the results of several studies. Men and boys reported feeling hostility, resentment, fear and jealousy when social norms were challenged. Attempts at addressing gender inequality were found to threaten men’s sense of entitlement, and it was theorised that boys expected to be the centre of attention (Brinkman et al., 2011 ). In the meso study by MacPhail et al. ( 2019 ) that evaluated a men’s participation program in South Africa, participants reported equality as a zero-sum game that meant respecting women equated to disrespecting men. In that intervention, activities included intensive small group workshops, informal community dialogue through home visits, mural painting to stimulate discussions of key messages, informal theatre, soccer tournaments, and film screenings. In another study, women’s oppression was maintained by men because they feared losing control of ‘their’ women (Devasia, 1998 ). In several studies, men shared their fear of being perceived as weak or feminine in front of their peers or community (Bigler et al., 2019 ; McCarthy & Moon, 2018 ; Murphy-Graham, 2009 ; Pierotti et al., 2018 ; Singhal & Rattine-Flaherty, 2006 ). Male participants in the study by Pierotti et al. ( 2018 ) believed that allowing women to be leaders in households would disintegrate society. They believed that upholding men’s lack of accountability and position as ‘boss’ was important to maintaining the fabric of society.

In contrast, Cislaghi ( 2018 ) found that men in Senegal did not resist increased political participation of women. And a radio program in Afghanistan that addressed gender equality was found not to offend men’s cultural or religious beliefs, and ultimately succeeded in changing attitudes and behaviours towards women and girls (Sengupta et al., 2007 ). The outcome included changes in the community, such as giving permission to women to leave their home alone, to vote, to go to school, and to reject child marriage. While participants expressed increased empowerment (micro), they also acknowledged that they may have their rights, but can never make decisions pertaining to their rights (Sengupta et al., 2007 ). For example, women may have the right to vote (macro), but they cannot go to vote or decide who to vote for without male guardianship (meso). In that study, 15 h of civic education material was promoted by radio, focusing on peace, democracy, and women’s rights. At the community level, interviews and focus groups with participants revealed that there was no resistance to listening to the radio program from men or families. However, the Sengupta et al. study was not longitudinal and had a relatively small sample of 115 people (72.2% women), and the women in the study may not have been in a position that allowed them to admonish the men in their community.

It was found in one study that resistance and backlash can be ameliorated by including men and boys in the development and delivery of interventions (Sengupta et al., 2007 ). Behaviour change in men required an increase in empathy to achieve the aim of gender equality (Becker & Swim, 2011 ). Hadjipavlou ( 2006 ) and Vachhani and Pullen (2019) found that empathy was a viable alternative feminist strategy. In their qualitative study, Hwang and Wu ( 2019 ) in Taiwan found that trust-building between civil servants and advocates reduced resistance and hostility. Activists in this intervention used four strategies: (1) Giving praise and encouragement instead of criticism and blame; (2) Engaging civil servants on a personal level to create bonding; (3) Appeasing fears about being blamed by offering assistance; (4) Attempting to invoke their identification with the values of gender mainstreaming through informal educational efforts, all of which are mesolevel strategies.

Promoting Social Change to Reduce Gender Inequality

There was a wide array of types of change in different aspects of gender equality, with interventions varying in their success across settings and contexts. Table 2 summarises the types of change (e.g. legal, financial, behaviour, social) and the context (i.e., micro, meso, macro) that were identified and whether interventions aims were fully or partially achieved, or were not achieved, or had a harmful effect. Physical change, such as increased physical presence of women through inclusion or solidarity (meso) was the most consistently achieved beneficial outcome. Interventions targeting macrolevel social change, however, predominantly failed to achieve their aims or had harmful effects, reflecting how hard it is to realise social change, especially from a single, usually localised, intervention. Quotas could perhaps achieve their aim, although this finding was derived mostly from one good quality study (Johnson, 2019 ). The largest group of interventions were those implemented in education-based contexts, but these generally only partially achieved their aims, and focused mostly on physical changes (e.g., inclusion, solidarity). Most gender mainstreaming interventions did not achieved their aims.

Altogether, the findings confirm that social transformation is not automatic, easy, nor necessarily sustainable (Murphy-Graham, 2009 ). Furthermore, economic transformation is constrained if it is not supported by concurrent social transformation (Haase, 2012 ). One researcher, reporting a good quality meso-macro multi-method educational study in rural Bangladesh, claimed to have achieved social transformation (Sperandio, 2011 ). The appointment of women into roles that are traditionally occupied by men (in this case, teaching) led to widespread acceptance and normalisation of women in other non-traditional roles in a conservative village. Because the researcher did not interview or survey members of the community in which the intervention was evaluated, it is not clear whether broader social change was achieved.

It was found in several studies that dialogue was key to creating change in gender norms (Hwang & Wu, 2019 ; MacPhail et al., 2019 ; McGregor & Davies, 2019 ; Murphy-Graham, 2009 ; Sánchez-Hernández et al., 2018 ). However, Matich et al.’s ( 2019 ) qualitative study of the #freethenipple campaign and Boling’s ( 2020 ) study of the #ShePersisted campaign found that small steps bring about only small changes. For instance, in the #freethenipple campaign, women took control of how they were represented (microlevel) in order to challenge patriarchal gender norms (macrolevel). The authors noted that, despite good intentions, a hashtag cannot erase stereotyping. Pierotti et al. ( 2018 ) also found that small changes (micro) in quotidian tasks (e.g., participation in household chores) did not lead to substantive social change (macrolevel change). That is, while changes in tasks occurred with relative ease, social transformation through the cumulative effect of small steps towards egalitarianism did not occur.

In comparison, the qualitative study by McCarthy and Moon ( 2018 ) examined a women’s program in Ghana and found that changing everyday practices did matter, but becoming cognisant of the need for revolution led people to become overwhelmed and immune to change efforts. The researchers found that a key challenge in achieving social transformation was the need to bring about changes in daily interactions. For instance, one participant stated that if a person is not empowered at home, no matter how much money you give them, they are going to need more (McCarthy & Moon, 2018 ).

All genders need to participate to achieve a re-socialisation (Brinkman et al., 2011 ). Sengupta et al. ( 2007 ) concluded that their radio program would have alienated men if it had targeted only women. By including all genders, potential resistance to change can be neutralised (Devasia, 1998 ). In summary, social transformation is possible, but transformation is not likely to be universal or successful across all contexts (Sánchez-Hernández et al., 2018 ), particularly from any single monistic intervention. Holistic responses that take account of system thinking may create the change needed.

Overall, despite concerted effort, it seems that in the past thirty years we have not uncovered the keys to social change in order to enhance gender equality and non-discrimination against girls and women. Perhaps the reviewed interventions did not achieve macrolevel change because they did not simultaneously and explicitly address meso and micro change. Whilst CEDAW seeks the ‘elimination of all forms of discrimination’, achievement of that aim is far from complete, although it is not surprising that no single intervention could catalyse social change that achieves CEDAW’s objective. This review demonstrates that it will take time and a variety of endeavours to achieve gender equality.

To summarise the substantive lessons from this systematic review, we offer the following distillation as a summary of the findings to date. This distillation includes definitive statements that should be viewed only in the context of this review and may not generalise across all efforts towards gender equality in all societies.

What is Ineffective in Promoting Gender Equality

Small changes do not lead to big changes. Small concessions are granted to maintain peace, while big changes are often denied to maintain power.

Men and boys can feel the micro effects of fear, hostility, resentment, and jealousy when meso-macro gendered social norms are challenged.

Increased confidence, agency, empowerment, or individual leadership (micro) is not sufficient to promote the structural changes required to increase gender equality (macro).

A lack of change in mindsets (micro) and poor enforcement can mean that laws (macro) are not realised or have little effect at the community level (meso).

The overall focus on women ignores the real problem, and the need to engage with all members of society.

Education and awareness-raising may establish the right to education but do not necessarily create gender equality.

Raising awareness alone does not translate into behaviour change (meso to micro).

Transnational advocacy networks are not effective.

Protests in western democracies can have a polarising and backlash effect.

Gender mainstreaming efforts generally fail to achieve positive outcomes.

Economic transformation does not automatically lead to social transformation.

What is Effective in Promoting Gender Equality

Eliciting positive affect in interventions garners positive outcomes.

Empathy is a viable feminist strategy, although evidence is limited.

All genders need to participate in re-socialisation of gender norms.

Dialogue is a key to success.

A large number of women must behave differently for new behaviours to be accepted (micro to meso).

Experiential learning is a powerful way to embed knowledge about gender equity in a nonthreatening, lasting way.

Investment in access to justice must include informal channels of the justice system.

Social transformation can be achieved in households through daily interactions (meso to macro).

Enabling environments (macro) are more effective than individual empowerment (micro), but should include top-down and bottom-up approaches.

Quotas are effective.

Laws must be proactive as well as reactive or complaint based.

The contextual levels of analysis developed by Pettigrew ( 2021 ) has also been adapted from these lists into Fig. 3 . These distillations challenge our thinking about how to achieve gender equality and therefore require greater discussion amongst feminist activists, advocates, and the general population for ecological validation. The key findings of this review have implications for policy and practice because they call into question the type of change sought by feminist movements, the type of intervention used to achieve that change, and whether that intervention is likely to be effective in practice. Overall, this review gives pause for thought. We hope it will inform future decisions about how to achieve gender equality.

Contextual levels of analysis for this review, adapted from Pettigrew ( 2021 )

Strengths and Limitations

Our broad inclusion criteria identified relevant interventions across a range of political, economic, social and cultural contexts, published over a thirty year period. Consistent with the recommendations by Garritty et al. ( 2021 ) we used rapid review methods; this may have led to the omission of some eligible studies. However, the use of a machine learning approach by reviewer two to rapidly screen a sample of the records predicted to be most relevant helped to limit the omission of relevant studies. Moreover, our restriction of literature to 1990 onwards may have omitted some studies conducted since the adoption of CEDAW in 1979. Given that only one study was published from 1990–2000, however, it is unlikely that this restricted timeframe had a significant impact on the review. Excluding papers not published in English is a limitation, and may have led to the omission of studies in some settings. We urge those who have non-peer-reviewed evaluations to submit them to peer-reviewed journals for future inclusion in reviews like the present one. The results of the large number of studies included in the review are difficult to generalise given the heterogenous study methods, intervention designs, populations, and settings. Because of a lack of reflexivity in most qualitative and multi-method studies, it is impossible to discern (for example) whether research undertaken in the Global South was conducted by Global North researchers. Moreover, there was no evidence of the ethical conduct of 16 studies and two studies did not have ethics approval. Together, these limitations may indicate potential problems with informed consent and implicit racial or other biases, although none were explicitly identifiable. There was insufficient evidence to assess whether and how culture played a part in attempts to achieve gender equality. Furthermore, while 86 percent of interventions predominantly or partially achieved their aims, this may inflate the effectiveness of such interventions because of reporting biases that favour publication of positive results (Sengupta et al., 2007 ; Sperandio, 2011 ).

This review has taken stock of successes and failures in seeking to promote gender equality. The findings reveal that undue reliance has been placed on the presumed efficacy of awareness raising, and that the race to achieve gender parity has not yet catalysed the desired social transformation. Entrepreneur programs can be exploitative, and legal actions have had limited effects, potentially failing because of men’s feelings about change. This review has shown that men can be fearful, resentful, jealous, and angry towards acts that disrupt the status quo . Until we adequately address these emotions and biases, the change that women (and potentially all genders) want, and the equality we all need will not be realised. Social context and systems thinking have shown us the importance of holism when tackling systemic discrimination. In this context, to be fully human is to be emotionally fulfilled. Ergo , human rights will be realised when there is dignity, humanity and positive emotionality among genders. Only then is the promise of CEDAW likely to be fulfilled.

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What does gender equality look like today?

Date: Wednesday, 6 October 2021

Progress towards gender equality is looking bleak. But it doesn’t need to.

A new global analysis of progress on gender equality and women’s rights shows women and girls remain disproportionately affected by the socioeconomic fallout from the COVID-19 pandemic, struggling with disproportionately high job and livelihood losses, education disruptions and increased burdens of unpaid care work. Women’s health services, poorly funded even before the pandemic, faced major disruptions, undermining women’s sexual and reproductive health. And despite women’s central role in responding to COVID-19, including as front-line health workers, they are still largely bypassed for leadership positions they deserve.

UN Women’s latest report, together with UN DESA, Progress on the Sustainable Development Goals: The Gender Snapshot 2021 presents the latest data on gender equality across all 17 Sustainable Development Goals. The report highlights the progress made since 2015 but also the continued alarm over the COVID-19 pandemic, its immediate effect on women’s well-being and the threat it poses to future generations.

We’re breaking down some of the findings from the report, and calling for the action needed to accelerate progress.

The pandemic is making matters worse

One and a half years since the World Health Organization declared COVID-19 a global pandemic, the toll on the poorest and most vulnerable people remains devastating and disproportionate. The combined impact of conflict, extreme weather events and COVID-19 has deprived women and girls of even basic needs such as food security. Without urgent action to stem rising poverty, hunger and inequality, especially in countries affected by conflict and other acute forms of crisis, millions will continue to suffer.

A global goal by global goal reality check:

Goal 1. Poverty

Globally, 1 in 5 girls under 15 are growing up in extreme poverty.

In 2021, extreme poverty is on the rise and progress towards its elimination has reversed. An estimated 435 million women and girls globally are living in extreme poverty.

And yet we can change this .

Over 150 million women and girls could emerge from poverty by 2030 if governments implement a comprehensive strategy to improve access to education and family planning, achieve equal wages and extend social transfers.

Goal 2. Zero hunger

Small-scale farmer households headed by women earn on average 30% less than those headed by men.

The global gender gap in food security has risen dramatically during the pandemic, with more women and girls going hungry. Women’s food insecurity levels were 10 per cent higher than men’s in 2020, compared with 6 per cent higher in 2019.

This trend can be reversed , including by supporting women small-scale producers, who typically earn far less than men, through increased funding, training and land rights reforms.

Goal 3. Good health and well-being

In the first year of the pandemic, there were an estimated additional 1.4 million additional unintended pregnancies in lower- and middle-income countries.

Disruptions in essential health services due to COVID-19 are taking a tragic toll on women and girls. In the first year of the pandemic, there were an estimated 1.4 million additional unintended pregnancies in lower and middle-income countries.

We need to do better .

Response to the pandemic must include prioritizing sexual and reproductive health services, ensuring they continue to operate safely now and after the pandemic is long over. In addition, more support is needed to ensure life-saving personal protection equipment, tests, oxygen and especially vaccines are available in rich and poor countries alike as well as to vulnerable population within countries.

Goal 4. Quality education

Half of all refugee girls enrolled in secondary school before the pandemic will not return to school.

A year and a half into the pandemic, schools remain partially or fully closed in 42 per cent of the world’s countries and territories. School closures spell lost opportunities for girls and an increased risk of violence, exploitation and early marriage .

Governments can do more to protect girls education .

Measures focused specifically on supporting girls returning to school are urgently needed, including measures focused on girls from marginalized communities who are most at risk.

Goal 5. Gender equality

Women are restricted from working in certain jobs or industries in almost 50% of countries.

The pandemic has tested and even reversed progress in expanding women’s rights and opportunities. Reports of violence against women and girls, a “shadow” pandemic to COVID-19, are increasing in many parts of the world. COVID-19 is also intensifying women’s workload at home, forcing many to leave the labour force altogether.

Building forward differently and better will hinge on placing women and girls at the centre of all aspects of response and recovery, including through gender-responsive laws, policies and budgeting.

Goal 6. Clean water and sanitation

Only 26% of countries are actively working on gender mainstreaming in water management.

In 2018, nearly 2.3 billion people lived in water-stressed countries. Without safe drinking water, adequate sanitation and menstrual hygiene facilities, women and girls find it harder to lead safe, productive and healthy lives.

Change is possible .

Involve those most impacted in water management processes, including women. Women’s voices are often missing in water management processes.

Goal 7. Affordable and clean energy

Only about 1 in 10 senior managers in the rapidly growing renewable energy industry is a woman.

Increased demand for clean energy and low-carbon solutions is driving an unprecedented transformation of the energy sector. But women are being left out. Women hold only 32 per cent of renewable energy jobs.

We can do better .

Expose girls early on to STEM education, provide training and support to women entering the energy field, close the pay gap and increase women’s leadership in the energy sector.

Goal 8. Decent work and economic growth

In 2020 employed women fell by 54 million. Women out of the labour force rose by 45 million.

The number of employed women declined by 54 million in 2020 and 45 million women left the labour market altogether. Women have suffered steeper job losses than men, along with increased unpaid care burdens at home.

We must do more to support women in the workforce .

Guarantee decent work for all, introduce labour laws/reforms, removing legal barriers for married women entering the workforce, support access to affordable/quality childcare.

Goal 9. Industry, innovation and infrastructure

Just 4% of clinical studies on COVID-19 treatments considered sex and/or gender in their research

The COVID-19 crisis has spurred striking achievements in medical research and innovation. Women’s contribution has been profound. But still only a little over a third of graduates in the science, technology, engineering and mathematics field are female.

We can take action today.

Quotas mandating that a proportion of research grants are awarded to women-led teams or teams that include women is one concrete way to support women researchers.

Goal 10. Reduced inequalities

While in transit to their new destination, 53% of migrant women report experiencing or witnessing violence, compared to 19% of men.

Limited progress for women is being eroded by the pandemic. Women facing multiple forms of discrimination, including women and girls with disabilities, migrant women, women discriminated against because of their race/ethnicity are especially affected.

Commit to end racism and discrimination in all its forms, invest in inclusive, universal, gender responsive social protection systems that support all women.

Goal 11. Sustainable cities and communities

Slum residents are at an elevated risk of COVID-19 infection and fatality rates. In many countries, women are overrepresented in urban slums.

Globally, more than 1 billion people live in informal settlements and slums. Women and girls, often overrepresented in these densely populated areas, suffer from lack of access to basic water and sanitation, health care and transportation.

The needs of urban poor women must be prioritized .

Increase the provision of durable and adequate housing and equitable access to land; included women in urban planning and development processes.

Goal 12. Sustainable consumption and production; Goal 13. Climate action; Goal 14. Life below water; and Goal 15. Life on land

Women are finding solutions for our ailing planet, but are not given the platforms they deserve. Only 29% of featured speakers at international ocean science conferences are women.

Women activists, scientists and researchers are working hard to solve the climate crisis but often without the same platforms as men to share their knowledge and skills. Only 29 per cent of featured speakers at international ocean science conferences are women.

And yet we can change this .

Ensure women activists, scientists and researchers have equal voice, representation and access to forums where these issues are being discussed and debated.

Goal 16. Peace, justice and strong institutions

Women's unequal decision-making power undermines development at every level. Women only chair 18% of government committees on foreign affairs, defence and human rights.

The lack of women in decision-making limits the reach and impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and other emergency recovery efforts. In conflict-affected countries, 18.9 per cent of parliamentary seats are held by women, much lower than the global average of 25.6 per cent.

This is unacceptable .

It's time for women to have an equal share of power and decision-making at all levels.

Goal 17. Global partnerships for the goals

Women are not being sufficiently prioritized in country commitments to achieving the SDGs, including on Climate Action. Only 64 out of 190 of nationally determined contributions to climate goals referred to women.

There are just 9 years left to achieve the Global Goals by 2030, and gender equality cuts across all 17 of them. With COVID-19 slowing progress on women's rights, the time to act is now.

Looking ahead

As it stands today, only one indicator under the global goal for gender equality (SDG5) is ‘close to target’: proportion of seats held by women in local government. In other areas critical to women’s empowerment, equality in time spent on unpaid care and domestic work and decision making regarding sexual and reproductive health the world is far from target. Without a bold commitment to accelerate progress, the global community will fail to achieve gender equality. Building forward differently and better will require placing women and girls at the centre of all aspects of response and recovery, including through gender-responsive laws, policies and budgeting.

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Top picks by Nicoline de Haan, CGIAR GENDER Platform Director

#1 rural youth in southern nigeria.

There are three clear reasons why Rural Youth in Southern Nigeria: Fractured Lives and Ambitious Futures by Crossouard et al. sticks in my mind. First, because it is about youth. We often talk about youth and their importance for the future, but I have not seen much research about rural youth. As the CGIAR GENDER Platform evolves, we will work more on youth issues, so it is important we have more theoretical thinking and evidence in this space. My second reason is linked to the article’s approach: years ago, I was in the field in Kenya with a PhD student doing research on how rural education was preparing youth for the future, and she found that the education system was not at all linked to the realities. This article looks at that issue as well. Finally, I picked this because it is about Nigeria, and having spent seven years of my career there, Nigeria always interests me. It was also good to see a CGIAR scientist involved in this research.

#2 Gender equality in climate policy and practice

Gender Equality in Climate Policy and Practice Hindered by Assumptions by Lau et al. is one of those articles that should have been written a long time ago. It lays out the assumptions we are still dealing with in gender in agriculture research. For example, that women are caring and connected to the environment; that women are a homogenous and vulnerable group; that gender equality is a women’s issue; and that gender equality is a numbers game. The authors very nicely show how these assumptions hinder progress on climate change and how they can even be counterproductive. Now that this article is out there for the public, we can move on and really deal with the issues at hand!

Top picks by Marlene Elias, CGIAR GENDER Platform Alliances Module Lead

#3 gender expertise in environment and development.

This book, Negotiating Gender Expertise in Environment and Development by Resurrección and Elmhirst, is thoughtful and beautifully written. It brings together critical reflections from gender experts on their experiences working in environment and development organizations, including CGIAR. It takes an innovative format: a series of conversations between the co-editors and writers, Bernadette Resurrección and Rebecca Elmhirst, and gender experts who are working to place gender and social inclusion issues at the center of research and practice on sustainability and environmental management. These conversations surface the motivations, negotiations, achievements and daily struggles of these professionals as they navigate the complexities of all that is implied by working on gender in largely technical fields. Every chapter has a different flavor, but all will resonate with those of us working in this area; and make us nod our heads, sigh, laugh (or cry!) and better understand our profession and ourselves.

#4 Masculinities in forests

Colfer’s book, Masculinities in Forests: Representations of Diversity , focuses on how masculinities relate to forest management, drawing on her experience working in different forest contexts, from the USA to Indonesia. It takes a timely dive into diverse masculinities and how these shape practices in forest management, all the while recognizing men’s agency in expressing different masculine identities. Aside from the rich content that is discussed, couched in an accessible framework and language, I appreciated that the book examines masculinities among professionals working in the field of forestry as well as among various forest communities. I was also very impressed by how Colfer was able to re-examine decades of ethnographic research through a new lens to write this book. Wow!

Top picks by Els Lecoutere, CGIAR GENDER Platform Science Officer

#5 diffusion and dilution.

Doss’ Diffusion and Dilution: The Power and Perils of Integrating Feminist Perspectives into Household Economics is important to me is because it acknowledges the advances we have made in integrating feminist economic perspectives into mainstream economics, but also points out areas for improvement. It helps us to stay focused. Personally, I find the call for careful consideration of benefits versus potential harm, and proper training of enumerators when collection data about domestic and gender-based violence, extremely important. I sometimes feel we make the decision to collect data about domestic and gender-based violence too lightly. The article further opens the discussion about two other pet topics of mine: First, how can we better capture the complexity of households, including the web of power relations between different members, in which individuals make decisions? Second, how can we measure social norms and their importance for people’s capabilities and choices? How can these be changed and what are the effects?

#6 A review of evidence

I keep going back to this brief, A Review of Evidence on Gender Equality, Women’s Empowerment and Food Systems by Njuki et al., mainly for its gendered food systems framework. The framework brings the different ways in which gender affects capabilities, choices and outcomes in food systems together. It provides a theoretical basis for various key questions in gender in agricultural and food system research and shows how this is supported by evidence. To me, its key contribution is the way it disentangles the different ‘entry points’ of gender constraints. Gender inequalities cannot only creep into biophysical, technological or economic drivers of food systems, shocks and vulnerabilities affecting these drivers can also affect men and women differently. Finally, the conceptualization of gendered food systems as systems underscores the dynamic, interdependent nature of the different elements and the need for a holistic approach to achieve gender equality in agriculture and food systems.

Top pick by Hazel Malapit and Elizabeth Bryan, CGIAR GENDER Platform Methods Module Co-leads

#7 advancing gender equality.

If you don’t have time to read the whole book, read the introduction. Pyburn and van Eerdewijk’s introduction to Advancing Gender Equality through Agricultural and Environmental Research excellently presents the topics discussed in the book, which features contributions from 55 CGIAR gender researchers. The book flips an often-posed question: instead of asking what gender equality can do for agricultural development, it asks how agricultural and environmental research can advance gender equality. One of the best overviews of gender research in CGIAR, the introductory chapter contextualizes CGIAR gender research within our organization’s struggles to address gender and within the broader thinking around gender and development. The introduction provides summaries of each chapter as well as information on the methodological and geographic breakdown of studies reviewed.

#8 Gender and agricultural economics

As gender researchers in the GCIAR are well aware, women and men in developing countries have different preferences and interests, and good policies and programs take these differences into account. But what about what researchers themselves bring to the table? This article, How Women Saved Agricultural Economics , by Offutt and McCluskey, points out that women (and minorities) tend to be under-represented in economics positions in government and academia, and are not recognized for their achievements with awards and editorships due to both overt discrimination and implicit bias. Yet, the authors say, the diversity resulting from women’s increased presence in field has increased the relevance of the discipline over the last several decades. This research documents the importance of increasing representation in academic fields where women (and other minorities) are traditionally under-represented. While this study focuses on agricultural economics in the United States, it has prompted further analysis of how these patterns apply in other countries, such as India and Kenya, and within other institutions.

Top picks by Ranjitha Puskur, CGIAR GENDER Platform Evidence Module Lead

#9 food and agriculture systems.

Foresight studies on agriculture tend to not integrate social dimensions as these often do not render themselves to quantitative measurement. This article, Food and Agriculture Systems Foresight Study: Implications for Gender, Poverty and Nutrition by Lentz, is a rare review that argues for mainstreaming a gender, poverty and nutrition focus into foresight research. This would help ensure that we reduce the risk of entrenching gender inequalities and promoting technologies that exacerbate inequality, and that we are able to inform policy- and innovation-led pathways. Having dabbled in participatory foresight analysis using scenario planning, visioning and backcasting, this piqued my curiosity. The paper offers helpful insights into how and when to bundle or sequence interventions and the need to understand the effects of interventions on the whole agri-food system. It offers a very engaging and useful read, even for those who are unfamiliar with foresight methods.

#10 Gender and land ownership

The issue of women’s limited land ownership is sticky and has occupied central stage in debates and discourses for a while. Nowhere have we been able to make any significant progress in reducing the gender gaps in land ownership. Cheryl Doss (2018) questioned the myth of women owning less than one percent of land globally. This continues to be a complex issue, with the definition of “ownership” being only one of the tricky issues. Agarwal’s 2021 paper, How Many and Which Women Own Land in India? , uses longitudinal data from the Village Level Studies (VLS), collected by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) from a set of Indian villages between 2009 and 2014, to look at which women are more likely to own land, why and how these patterns changed over the years. We at the CGIAR GENDER Platform have also been highlighting the need to focus more on unpacking intersectionalities to have better insights that can inform targeted solutions. This paper provides a very good example of the importance of intersectional approaches and it highlights the gap and the critical need for a national and state-level datasets.

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Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls

Gender equality is not only a fundamental human right, but a necessary foundation for a peaceful, prosperous and sustainable world. There has been progress over the last decades, but the world is not on track to achieve gender equality by 2030.

Women and girls represent half of the world’s population and therefore also half of its potential. But gender inequality persists everywhere and stagnates social progress. On average, women in the labor market still earn 23 percent less than men globally and women spend about three times as many hours in unpaid domestic and care work as men.

Sexual violence and exploitation, the unequal division of unpaid care and domestic work, and discrimination in public office, all remain huge barriers. All these areas of inequality have been exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic: there has been a surge in reports of sexual violence, women have taken on more care work due to school closures, and 70% of health and social workers globally are women.

At the current rate, it will take an estimated 300 years to end child marriage, 286 years to close gaps in legal protection and remove discriminatory laws, 140 years for women to be represented equally in positions of power and leadership in the workplace, and 47 years to achieve equal representation in national parliaments.

Political leadership, investments and comprehensive policy reforms are needed to dismantle systemic barriers to achieving Goal 5 Gender equality is a cross-cutting objective and must be a key focus of national policies, budgets and institutions.

How much progress have we made?

International commitments to advance gender equality have brought about improvements in some areas: child marriage and female genital mutilation (FGM) have declined in recent years, and women’s representation in the political arena is higher than ever before. But the promise of a world in which every woman and girl enjoys full gender equality, and where all legal, social and economic barriers to their empowerment have been removed, remains unfulfilled. In fact, that goal is probably even more distant than before, since women and girls are being hit hard by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Are they any other gender-related challenges?

Yes. Worldwide, nearly half of married women lack decision-making power over their sexual and reproductive health and rights. 35 per cent of women between 15-49 years of age have experienced physical and/ or sexual intimate partner violence or non-partner sexual violence.1 in 3 girls aged 15-19 have experienced some form of female genital mutilation/cutting in the 30 countries in Africa and the Middle East, where the harmful practice is most common with a high risk of prolonged bleeding, infection (including HIV), childbirth complications, infertility and death.

This type of violence doesn’t just harm individual women and girls; it also undermines their overall quality of life and hinders their active involvement in society.

Why should gender equality matter to me?

Regardless of where you live in, gender equality is a fundamental human right. Advancing gender equality is critical to all areas of a healthy society, from reducing poverty to promoting the health, education, protection and the well-being of girls and boys.

What can we do?

If you are a girl, you can stay in school, help empower your female classmates to do the same and fight for your right to access sexual and reproductive health services. If you are a woman, you can address unconscious biases and implicit associations that form an unintended and often an invisible barrier to equal opportunity.

If you are a man or a boy, you can work alongside women and girls to achieve gender equality and embrace healthy, respectful relationships.

You can fund education campaigns to curb cultural practices like female genital mutilation and change harmful laws that limit the rights of women and girls and prevent them from achieving their full potential.

The Spotlight Initiative is an EU/UN partnership, and a global, multi-year initiative focused on eliminating all forms of violence against women and girls – the world’s largest targeted effort to end all forms of violence against women and girls.

Facts and figures

Goal 5 targets.

With only seven years remaining, a mere 15.4 per cent of Goal 5 indicators with data are “on track”, 61.5 per cent are at a moderate distance and 23.1 per cent are far or very far off track from 2030 targets.
In many areas, progress has been too slow. At the current rate, it will take an estimated 300 years to end child marriage, 286 years to close gaps in legal protection and remove discriminatory laws, 140 years for women to be represented equally in positions of power and leadership in the workplace, and 47 years to achieve equal representation in national parliaments.
Political leadership, investments and comprehensive policy reforms are needed to dismantle systemic barriers to achieving Goal 5. Gender equality is a cross-cutting objective and must be a key focus of national policies, budgets and institutions.
Around 2.4 billion women of working age are not afforded equal economic opportunity. Nearly 2.4 Billion Women Globally Don’t Have Same Economic Rights as Men
178 countries maintain legal barriers that prevent women’s full economic participation. Nearly 2.4 Billion Women Globally Don’t Have Same Economic Rights as Men
In 2019, one in five women, aged 20-24 years, were married before the age of 18. Girls | UN Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Violence Against Children

Source: The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2023

5.1 End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere

5.2 Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation

5.3 Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation

5.4 Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public services, infrastructure and social protection policies and the promotion of shared responsibility within the household and the family as nationally appropriate

5.5 Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decisionmaking in political, economic and public life

5.6 Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights as agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of their review conferences

5.A Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial services, inheritance and natural resources, in accordance with national laws

5.B Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology, to promote the empowerment of women

5.C Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels

He for She campaign

United Secretary-General Campaign UNiTE to End Violence Against Women

Every Woman Every Child Initiative

Spotlight Initiative

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)

UN Population Fund: Gender equality

UN Population Fund: Female genital mutilation

UN Population Fund: Child marriage

UN Population Fund: Engaging men & boys

UN Population Fund: Gender-based violence

World Health Organization (WHO)

UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights

UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)

UN Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)

UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Gender Statistics

Fast Facts: Gender Equality

Infographic: Gender Equality

The Initiative is so named as it brings focused attention to this issue, moving it into the spotlight and placing it at the centre of efforts to achieve gender equality and women’s empowerment, in line with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

An initial investment in the order of EUR 500 million will be made, with the EU as the main contributor. Other donors and partners will be invited to join the Initiative to broaden its reach and scope. The modality for the delivery will be a UN multi- stakeholder trust fund, administered by the Multi-Partner Trust Fund Office, with the support of core agencies UNDP, UNFPA and UN Women, and overseen by the Executive Office of the UN Secretary-General.

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Twenty years of gender equality research: A scoping review based on a new semantic indicator

Paola belingheri.

1 Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell’Energia, dei Sistemi, del Territorio e delle Costruzioni, Università degli Studi di Pisa, Largo L. Lazzarino, Pisa, Italy

Filippo Chiarello

Andrea fronzetti colladon.

2 Department of Engineering, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy

3 Department of Management, Kozminski University, Warsaw, Poland

Paola Rovelli

4 Faculty of Economics and Management, Centre for Family Business Management, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Bozen-Bolzano, Italy

Associated Data

All relevant data are within the manuscript and its supporting information files. The only exception is the text of the abstracts (over 15,000) that we have downloaded from Scopus. These abstracts can be retrieved from Scopus, but we do not have permission to redistribute them.

Gender equality is a major problem that places women at a disadvantage thereby stymieing economic growth and societal advancement. In the last two decades, extensive research has been conducted on gender related issues, studying both their antecedents and consequences. However, existing literature reviews fail to provide a comprehensive and clear picture of what has been studied so far, which could guide scholars in their future research. Our paper offers a scoping review of a large portion of the research that has been published over the last 22 years, on gender equality and related issues, with a specific focus on business and economics studies. Combining innovative methods drawn from both network analysis and text mining, we provide a synthesis of 15,465 scientific articles. We identify 27 main research topics, we measure their relevance from a semantic point of view and the relationships among them, highlighting the importance of each topic in the overall gender discourse. We find that prominent research topics mostly relate to women in the workforce–e.g., concerning compensation, role, education, decision-making and career progression. However, some of them are losing momentum, and some other research trends–for example related to female entrepreneurship, leadership and participation in the board of directors–are on the rise. Besides introducing a novel methodology to review broad literature streams, our paper offers a map of the main gender-research trends and presents the most popular and the emerging themes, as well as their intersections, outlining important avenues for future research.

Introduction

The persistent gender inequalities that currently exist across the developed and developing world are receiving increasing attention from economists, policymakers, and the general public [e.g., 1 – 3 ]. Economic studies have indicated that women’s education and entry into the workforce contributes to social and economic well-being [e.g., 4 , 5 ], while their exclusion from the labor market and from managerial positions has an impact on overall labor productivity and income per capita [ 6 , 7 ]. The United Nations selected gender equality, with an emphasis on female education, as part of the Millennium Development Goals [ 8 ], and gender equality at-large as one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to be achieved by 2030 [ 9 ]. These latter objectives involve not only developing nations, but rather all countries, to achieve economic, social and environmental well-being.

As is the case with many SDGs, gender equality is still far from being achieved and persists across education, access to opportunities, or presence in decision-making positions [ 7 , 10 , 11 ]. As we enter the last decade for the SDGs’ implementation, and while we are battling a global health pandemic, effective and efficient action becomes paramount to reach this ambitious goal.

Scholars have dedicated a massive effort towards understanding gender equality, its determinants, its consequences for women and society, and the appropriate actions and policies to advance women’s equality. Many topics have been covered, ranging from women’s education and human capital [ 12 , 13 ] and their role in society [e.g., 14 , 15 ], to their appointment in firms’ top ranked positions [e.g., 16 , 17 ] and performance implications [e.g., 18 , 19 ]. Despite some attempts, extant literature reviews provide a narrow view on these issues, restricted to specific topics–e.g., female students’ presence in STEM fields [ 20 ], educational gender inequality [ 5 ], the gender pay gap [ 21 ], the glass ceiling effect [ 22 ], leadership [ 23 ], entrepreneurship [ 24 ], women’s presence on the board of directors [ 25 , 26 ], diversity management [ 27 ], gender stereotypes in advertisement [ 28 ], or specific professions [ 29 ]. A comprehensive view on gender-related research, taking stock of key findings and under-studied topics is thus lacking.

Extant literature has also highlighted that gender issues, and their economic and social ramifications, are complex topics that involve a large number of possible antecedents and outcomes [ 7 ]. Indeed, gender equality actions are most effective when implemented in unison with other SDGs (e.g., with SDG 8, see [ 30 ]) in a synergetic perspective [ 10 ]. Many bodies of literature (e.g., business, economics, development studies, sociology and psychology) approach the problem of achieving gender equality from different perspectives–often addressing specific and narrow aspects. This sometimes leads to a lack of clarity about how different issues, circumstances, and solutions may be related in precipitating or mitigating gender inequality or its effects. As the number of papers grows at an increasing pace, this issue is exacerbated and there is a need to step back and survey the body of gender equality literature as a whole. There is also a need to examine synergies between different topics and approaches, as well as gaps in our understanding of how different problems and solutions work together. Considering the important topic of women’s economic and social empowerment, this paper aims to fill this gap by answering the following research question: what are the most relevant findings in the literature on gender equality and how do they relate to each other ?

To do so, we conduct a scoping review [ 31 ], providing a synthesis of 15,465 articles dealing with gender equity related issues published in the last twenty-two years, covering both the periods of the MDGs and the SDGs (i.e., 2000 to mid 2021) in all the journals indexed in the Academic Journal Guide’s 2018 ranking of business and economics journals. Given the huge amount of research conducted on the topic, we adopt an innovative methodology, which relies on social network analysis and text mining. These techniques are increasingly adopted when surveying large bodies of text. Recently, they were applied to perform analysis of online gender communication differences [ 32 ] and gender behaviors in online technology communities [ 33 ], to identify and classify sexual harassment instances in academia [ 34 ], and to evaluate the gender inclusivity of disaster management policies [ 35 ].

Applied to the title, abstracts and keywords of the articles in our sample, this methodology allows us to identify a set of 27 recurrent topics within which we automatically classify the papers. Introducing additional novelty, by means of the Semantic Brand Score (SBS) indicator [ 36 ] and the SBS BI app [ 37 ], we assess the importance of each topic in the overall gender equality discourse and its relationships with the other topics, as well as trends over time, with a more accurate description than that offered by traditional literature reviews relying solely on the number of papers presented in each topic.

This methodology, applied to gender equality research spanning the past twenty-two years, enables two key contributions. First, we extract the main message that each document is conveying and how this is connected to other themes in literature, providing a rich picture of the topics that are at the center of the discourse, as well as of the emerging topics. Second, by examining the semantic relationship between topics and how tightly their discourses are linked, we can identify the key relationships and connections between different topics. This semi-automatic methodology is also highly reproducible with minimum effort.

This literature review is organized as follows. In the next section, we present how we selected relevant papers and how we analyzed them through text mining and social network analysis. We then illustrate the importance of 27 selected research topics, measured by means of the SBS indicator. In the results section, we present an overview of the literature based on the SBS results–followed by an in-depth narrative analysis of the top 10 topics (i.e., those with the highest SBS) and their connections. Subsequently, we highlight a series of under-studied connections between the topics where there is potential for future research. Through this analysis, we build a map of the main gender-research trends in the last twenty-two years–presenting the most popular themes. We conclude by highlighting key areas on which research should focused in the future.

Our aim is to map a broad topic, gender equality research, that has been approached through a host of different angles and through different disciplines. Scoping reviews are the most appropriate as they provide the freedom to map different themes and identify literature gaps, thereby guiding the recommendation of new research agendas [ 38 ].

Several practical approaches have been proposed to identify and assess the underlying topics of a specific field using big data [ 39 – 41 ], but many of them fail without proper paper retrieval and text preprocessing. This is specifically true for a research field such as the gender-related one, which comprises the work of scholars from different backgrounds. In this section, we illustrate a novel approach for the analysis of scientific (gender-related) papers that relies on methods and tools of social network analysis and text mining. Our procedure has four main steps: (1) data collection, (2) text preprocessing, (3) keywords extraction and classification, and (4) evaluation of semantic importance and image.

Data collection

In this study, we analyze 22 years of literature on gender-related research. Following established practice for scoping reviews [ 42 ], our data collection consisted of two main steps, which we summarize here below.

Firstly, we retrieved from the Scopus database all the articles written in English that contained the term “gender” in their title, abstract or keywords and were published in a journal listed in the Academic Journal Guide 2018 ranking of the Chartered Association of Business Schools (CABS) ( https://charteredabs.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/AJG2018-Methodology.pdf ), considering the time period from Jan 2000 to May 2021. We used this information considering that abstracts, titles and keywords represent the most informative part of a paper, while using the full-text would increase the signal-to-noise ratio for information extraction. Indeed, these textual elements already demonstrated to be reliable sources of information for the task of domain lexicon extraction [ 43 , 44 ]. We chose Scopus as source of literature because of its popularity, its update rate, and because it offers an API to ease the querying process. Indeed, while it does not allow to retrieve the full text of scientific articles, the Scopus API offers access to titles, abstracts, citation information and metadata for all its indexed scholarly journals. Moreover, we decided to focus on the journals listed in the AJG 2018 ranking because we were interested in reviewing business and economics related gender studies only. The AJG is indeed widely used by universities and business schools as a reference point for journal and research rigor and quality. This first step, executed in June 2021, returned more than 55,000 papers.

In the second step–because a look at the papers showed very sparse results, many of which were not in line with the topic of this literature review (e.g., papers dealing with health care or medical issues, where the word gender indicates the gender of the patients)–we applied further inclusion criteria to make the sample more focused on the topic of this literature review (i.e., women’s gender equality issues). Specifically, we only retained those papers mentioning, in their title and/or abstract, both gender-related keywords (e.g., daughter, female, mother) and keywords referring to bias and equality issues (e.g., equality, bias, diversity, inclusion). After text pre-processing (see next section), keywords were first identified from a frequency-weighted list of words found in the titles, abstracts and keywords in the initial list of papers, extracted through text mining (following the same approach as [ 43 ]). They were selected by two of the co-authors independently, following respectively a bottom up and a top-down approach. The bottom-up approach consisted of examining the words found in the frequency-weighted list and classifying those related to gender and equality. The top-down approach consisted in searching in the word list for notable gender and equality-related words. Table 1 reports the sets of keywords we considered, together with some examples of words that were used to search for their presence in the dataset (a full list is provided in the S1 Text ). At end of this second step, we obtained a final sample of 15,465 relevant papers.

	Keyword set	Examples of searched words
Gender	Bride
	Daughter	,
	Female	,
	Femini	, ,
	Girl
	Lady	,
	Maid
	Mother	, ,
	Queen
	Widow
	Wife	,
	Woman	,
Equality	Bias	, ,
	Diversity	,
	Empower	, ,
	Equality	, ,
	Equity	, ,
	Homeworking	, ,
	Inclusion	, ,
	Quota
	Stereotype	, ,

Text processing and keyword extraction

Text preprocessing aims at structuring text into a form that can be analyzed by statistical models. In the present section, we describe the preprocessing steps we applied to paper titles and abstracts, which, as explained below, partially follow a standard text preprocessing pipeline [ 45 ]. These activities have been performed using the R package udpipe [ 46 ].

The first step is n-gram extraction (i.e., a sequence of words from a given text sample) to identify which n-grams are important in the analysis, since domain-specific lexicons are often composed by bi-grams and tri-grams [ 47 ]. Multi-word extraction is usually implemented with statistics and linguistic rules, thus using the statistical properties of n-grams or machine learning approaches [ 48 ]. However, for the present paper, we used Scopus metadata in order to have a more effective and efficient n-grams collection approach [ 49 ]. We used the keywords of each paper in order to tag n-grams with their associated keywords automatically. Using this greedy approach, it was possible to collect all the keywords listed by the authors of the papers. From this list, we extracted only keywords composed by two, three and four words, we removed all the acronyms and rare keywords (i.e., appearing in less than 1% of papers), and we clustered keywords showing a high orthographic similarity–measured using a Levenshtein distance [ 50 ] lower than 2, considering these groups of keywords as representing same concepts, but expressed with different spelling. After tagging the n-grams in the abstracts, we followed a common data preparation pipeline that consists of the following steps: (i) tokenization, that splits the text into tokens (i.e., single words and previously tagged multi-words); (ii) removal of stop-words (i.e. those words that add little meaning to the text, usually being very common and short functional words–such as “and”, “or”, or “of”); (iii) parts-of-speech tagging, that is providing information concerning the morphological role of a word and its morphosyntactic context (e.g., if the token is a determiner, the next token is a noun or an adjective with very high confidence, [ 51 ]); and (iv) lemmatization, which consists in substituting each word with its dictionary form (or lemma). The output of the latter step allows grouping together the inflected forms of a word. For example, the verbs “am”, “are”, and “is” have the shared lemma “be”, or the nouns “cat” and “cats” both share the lemma “cat”. We preferred lemmatization over stemming [ 52 ] in order to obtain more interpretable results.

In addition, we identified a further set of keywords (with respect to those listed in the “keywords” field) by applying a series of automatic words unification and removal steps, as suggested in past research [ 53 , 54 ]. We removed: sparse terms (i.e., occurring in less than 0.1% of all documents), common terms (i.e., occurring in more than 10% of all documents) and retained only nouns and adjectives. It is relevant to notice that no document was lost due to these steps. We then used the TF-IDF function [ 55 ] to produce a new list of keywords. We additionally tested other approaches for the identification and clustering of keywords–such as TextRank [ 56 ] or Latent Dirichlet Allocation [ 57 ]–without obtaining more informative results.

Classification of research topics

To guide the literature analysis, two experts met regularly to examine the sample of collected papers and to identify the main topics and trends in gender research. Initially, they conducted brainstorming sessions on the topics they expected to find, due to their knowledge of the literature. This led to an initial list of topics. Subsequently, the experts worked independently, also supported by the keywords in paper titles and abstracts extracted with the procedure described above.

Considering all this information, each expert identified and clustered relevant keywords into topics. At the end of the process, the two assignments were compared and exhibited a 92% agreement. Another meeting was held to discuss discordant cases and reach a consensus. This resulted in a list of 27 topics, briefly introduced in Table 2 and subsequently detailed in the following sections.

Topic	Short Description
Behavior	Behavioral aspects related to gender
Board of directors	Women in boards of directors
Career Progression	Women’s promotion and career advancement
Compensation	Salary and rewards in relation to employment
Culture	Ideas, customs and social behaviors, including bias and stereotypes
Decision-making	The decision-making process
Education	Primary, secondary and tertiary education
Empowerment	Authority, power and self-confidence
Entrepreneurship	Women starting their own enterprises
Family	Women’s relationship with family and family obligations, wok-life balance
Feminine	Female characteristics
Governance	The governance structures of firms and society
Hiring	Appointing women to positions within the workforce
Human Capital	The intellectual capital resulting from education and social capital
Leadership	Leadership skills and leadership positions
Management	Managerial practices and processes
Masculine	Male characteristics
Network	Networking dynamics as they relate to women
Organization	The organization of firms
Parenting	The act of raising children and its implications
Performance	Measuring the work output of individuals, teams and organizations
Personality	Traits and individual characteristics of women
Politics	Policies and regulations, women in politics
Reputation	How women are viewed by their colleagues, peers and society
Role	The roles covered by women in the workforce
Sustainability	Women’s relation to sustainability and social responsibility
Well-Being	Psychological, personal, and social welfare of women

Evaluation of semantic importance

Working on the lemmatized corpus of the 15,465 papers included in our sample, we proceeded with the evaluation of semantic importance trends for each topic and with the analysis of their connections and prevalent textual associations. To this aim, we used the Semantic Brand Score indicator [ 36 ], calculated through the SBS BI webapp [ 37 ] that also produced a brand image report for each topic. For this study we relied on the computing resources of the ENEA/CRESCO infrastructure [ 58 ].

The Semantic Brand Score (SBS) is a measure of semantic importance that combines methods of social network analysis and text mining. It is usually applied for the analysis of (big) textual data to evaluate the importance of one or more brands, names, words, or sets of keywords [ 36 ]. Indeed, the concept of “brand” is intended in a flexible way and goes beyond products or commercial brands. In this study, we evaluate the SBS time-trends of the keywords defining the research topics discussed in the previous section. Semantic importance comprises the three dimensions of topic prevalence, diversity and connectivity. Prevalence measures how frequently a research topic is used in the discourse. The more a topic is mentioned by scientific articles, the more the research community will be aware of it, with possible increase of future studies; this construct is partly related to that of brand awareness [ 59 ]. This effect is even stronger, considering that we are analyzing the title, abstract and keywords of the papers, i.e. the parts that have the highest visibility. A very important characteristic of the SBS is that it considers the relationships among words in a text. Topic importance is not just a matter of how frequently a topic is mentioned, but also of the associations a topic has in the text. Specifically, texts are transformed into networks of co-occurring words, and relationships are studied through social network analysis [ 60 ]. This step is necessary to calculate the other two dimensions of our semantic importance indicator. Accordingly, a social network of words is generated for each time period considered in the analysis–i.e., a graph made of n nodes (words) and E edges weighted by co-occurrence frequency, with W being the set of edge weights. The keywords representing each topic were clustered into single nodes.

The construct of diversity relates to that of brand image [ 59 ], in the sense that it considers the richness and distinctiveness of textual (topic) associations. Considering the above-mentioned networks, we calculated diversity using the distinctiveness centrality metric–as in the formula presented by Fronzetti Colladon and Naldi [ 61 ].

Lastly, connectivity was measured as the weighted betweenness centrality [ 62 , 63 ] of each research topic node. We used the formula presented by Wasserman and Faust [ 60 ]. The dimension of connectivity represents the “brokerage power” of each research topic–i.e., how much it can serve as a bridge to connect other terms (and ultimately topics) in the discourse [ 36 ].

The SBS is the final composite indicator obtained by summing the standardized scores of prevalence, diversity and connectivity. Standardization was carried out considering all the words in the corpus, for each specific timeframe.

This methodology, applied to a large and heterogeneous body of text, enables to automatically identify two important sets of information that add value to the literature review. Firstly, the relevance of each topic in literature is measured through a composite indicator of semantic importance, rather than simply looking at word frequencies. This provides a much richer picture of the topics that are at the center of the discourse, as well as of the topics that are emerging in the literature. Secondly, it enables to examine the extent of the semantic relationship between topics, looking at how tightly their discourses are linked. In a field such as gender equality, where many topics are closely linked to each other and present overlaps in issues and solutions, this methodology offers a novel perspective with respect to traditional literature reviews. In addition, it ensures reproducibility over time and the possibility to semi-automatically update the analysis, as new papers become available.

Overview of main topics

In terms of descriptive textual statistics, our corpus is made of 15,465 text documents, consisting of a total of 2,685,893 lemmatized tokens (words) and 32,279 types. As a result, the type-token ratio is 1.2%. The number of hapaxes is 12,141, with a hapax-token ratio of 37.61%.

Fig 1 shows the list of 27 topics by decreasing SBS. The most researched topic is compensation , exceeding all others in prevalence, diversity, and connectivity. This means it is not only mentioned more often than other topics, but it is also connected to a greater number of other topics and is central to the discourse on gender equality. The next four topics are, in order of SBS, role , education , decision-making , and career progression . These topics, except for education , all concern women in the workforce. Between these first five topics and the following ones there is a clear drop in SBS scores. In particular, the topics that follow have a lower connectivity than the first five. They are hiring , performance , behavior , organization , and human capital . Again, except for behavior and human capital , the other three topics are purely related to women in the workforce. After another drop-off, the following topics deal prevalently with women in society. This trend highlights that research on gender in business journals has so far mainly paid attention to the conditions that women experience in business contexts, while also devoting some attention to women in society.

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Fig 2 shows the SBS time series of the top 10 topics. While there has been a general increase in the number of Scopus-indexed publications in the last decade, we notice that some SBS trends remain steady, or even decrease. In particular, we observe that the main topic of the last twenty-two years, compensation , is losing momentum. Since 2016, it has been surpassed by decision-making , education and role , which may indicate that literature is increasingly attempting to identify root causes of compensation inequalities. Moreover, in the last two years, the topics of hiring , performance , and organization are experiencing the largest importance increase.

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Fig 3 shows the SBS time trends of the remaining 17 topics (i.e., those not in the top 10). As we can see from the graph, there are some that maintain a steady trend–such as reputation , management , networks and governance , which also seem to have little importance. More relevant topics with average stationary trends (except for the last two years) are culture , family , and parenting . The feminine topic is among the most important here, and one of those that exhibit the larger variations over time (similarly to leadership ). On the other hand, the are some topics that, even if not among the most important, show increasing SBS trends; therefore, they could be considered as emerging topics and could become popular in the near future. These are entrepreneurship , leadership , board of directors , and sustainability . These emerging topics are also interesting to anticipate future trends in gender equality research that are conducive to overall equality in society.

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In addition to the SBS score of the different topics, the network of terms they are associated to enables to gauge the extent to which their images (textual associations) overlap or differ ( Fig 4 ).

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There is a central cluster of topics with high similarity, which are all connected with women in the workforce. The cluster includes topics such as organization , decision-making , performance , hiring , human capital , education and compensation . In addition, the topic of well-being is found within this cluster, suggesting that women’s equality in the workforce is associated to well-being considerations. The emerging topics of entrepreneurship and leadership are also closely connected with each other, possibly implying that leadership is a much-researched quality in female entrepreneurship. Topics that are relatively more distant include personality , politics , feminine , empowerment , management , board of directors , reputation , governance , parenting , masculine and network .

The following sections describe the top 10 topics and their main associations in literature (see Table 3 ), while providing a brief overview of the emerging topics.

Topic	Top associations (other topics in bold)
Behavior	social, work, , differences, related, , child, positive, group, individual, self, influence, relationship, stereotype, health, inequality, change, , student, participant, , , experience, , , intention
Career Progression	, inequality, difference , work, social, equity, , , , , level, , development, policy, examine, role, self, experience, , support, , individual, , perceive, academic, differences
Compensation	gap, , difference, inequality, , , work, increase, higher, lower, market, less, labor, household, low, , age, time, high, labour, attention, discrimination, change, country, individual, status
Decision Making	, , social, work, , , inequality, household, group, policy, , process, , health, , level, role, individual, , , equity, , stereotype, different, , change
Education	age, inequality, level, , study, social, health, gap, status, equity, student, , , child, , school, economic, policy, work, , experience, higher, access, household, development
Hiring	, work, , , discrimination, level, , time, , gap, sector, , market, social, increase, status, , policy, inequality, experience, differences, lower, equity, high, data, satisfaction,
Human Capital	, , work, , social, , , , self, , health, , , student, , group, child, individual, development, age, differences, lack, gap, focus, change
Organization	work, , , inequality, , , social, diversity, policy, level, change, , employee, individual, , equity, , practice, value, , management, structure, discrimination, ,
Performance	, , , stereotype, work, , , , , self, impact, social, , , difference, high, firm, threat, student, inequality, role, , increase, relationship, experience
Role	, , work, , , , firm, , , social, , role, , employee, less, increase, experience, traditional, , stereotype, sector, , business, gap, group, data

Compensation

The topic of compensation is related to the topics of role , hiring , education and career progression , however, also sees a very high association with the words gap and inequality . Indeed, a well-known debate in degrowth economics centers around whether and how to adequately compensate women for their childbearing, childrearing, caregiver and household work [e.g., 30 ].

Even in paid work, women continue being offered lower compensations than their male counterparts who have the same job or cover the same role [ 64 – 67 ]. This severe inequality has been widely studied by scholars over the last twenty-two years. Dealing with this topic, some specific roles have been addressed. Specifically, research highlighted differences in compensation between female and male CEOs [e.g., 68 ], top executives [e.g., 69 ], and boards’ directors [e.g., 70 ]. Scholars investigated the determinants of these gaps, such as the gender composition of the board [e.g., 71 – 73 ] or women’s individual characteristics [e.g., 71 , 74 ].

Among these individual characteristics, education plays a relevant role [ 75 ]. Education is indeed presented as the solution for women, not only to achieve top executive roles, but also to reduce wage inequality [e.g., 76 , 77 ]. Past research has highlighted education influences on gender wage gaps, specifically referring to gender differences in skills [e.g., 78 ], college majors [e.g., 79 ], and college selectivity [e.g., 80 ].

Finally, the wage gap issue is strictly interrelated with hiring –e.g., looking at whether being a mother affects hiring and compensation [e.g., 65 , 81 ] or relating compensation to unemployment [e.g., 82 ]–and career progression –for instance looking at meritocracy [ 83 , 84 ] or the characteristics of the boss for whom women work [e.g., 85 ].

The roles covered by women have been deeply investigated. Scholars have focused on the role of women in their families and the society as a whole [e.g., 14 , 15 ], and, more widely, in business contexts [e.g., 18 , 81 ]. Indeed, despite still lagging behind their male counterparts [e.g., 86 , 87 ], in the last decade there has been an increase in top ranked positions achieved by women [e.g., 88 , 89 ]. Following this phenomenon, scholars have posed greater attention towards the presence of women in the board of directors [e.g., 16 , 18 , 90 , 91 ], given the increasing pressure to appoint female directors that firms, especially listed ones, have experienced. Other scholars have focused on the presence of women covering the role of CEO [e.g., 17 , 92 ] or being part of the top management team [e.g., 93 ]. Irrespectively of the level of analysis, all these studies tried to uncover the antecedents of women’s presence among top managers [e.g., 92 , 94 ] and the consequences of having a them involved in the firm’s decision-making –e.g., on performance [e.g., 19 , 95 , 96 ], risk [e.g., 97 , 98 ], and corporate social responsibility [e.g., 99 , 100 ].

Besides studying the difficulties and discriminations faced by women in getting a job [ 81 , 101 ], and, more specifically in the hiring , appointment, or career progression to these apical roles [e.g., 70 , 83 ], the majority of research of women’s roles dealt with compensation issues. Specifically, scholars highlight the pay-gap that still exists between women and men, both in general [e.g., 64 , 65 ], as well as referring to boards’ directors [e.g., 70 , 102 ], CEOs and executives [e.g., 69 , 103 , 104 ].

Finally, other scholars focused on the behavior of women when dealing with business. In this sense, particular attention has been paid to leadership and entrepreneurial behaviors. The former quite overlaps with dealing with the roles mentioned above, but also includes aspects such as leaders being stereotyped as masculine [e.g., 105 ], the need for greater exposure to female leaders to reduce biases [e.g., 106 ], or female leaders acting as queen bees [e.g., 107 ]. Regarding entrepreneurship , scholars mainly investigated women’s entrepreneurial entry [e.g., 108 , 109 ], differences between female and male entrepreneurs in the evaluations and funding received from investors [e.g., 110 , 111 ], and their performance gap [e.g., 112 , 113 ].

Education has long been recognized as key to social advancement and economic stability [ 114 ], for job progression and also a barrier to gender equality, especially in STEM-related fields. Research on education and gender equality is mostly linked with the topics of compensation , human capital , career progression , hiring , parenting and decision-making .

Education contributes to a higher human capital [ 115 ] and constitutes an investment on the part of women towards their future. In this context, literature points to the gender gap in educational attainment, and the consequences for women from a social, economic, personal and professional standpoint. Women are found to have less access to formal education and information, especially in emerging countries, which in turn may cause them to lose social and economic opportunities [e.g., 12 , 116 – 119 ]. Education in local and rural communities is also paramount to communicate the benefits of female empowerment , contributing to overall societal well-being [e.g., 120 ].

Once women access education, the image they have of the world and their place in society (i.e., habitus) affects their education performance [ 13 ] and is passed on to their children. These situations reinforce gender stereotypes, which become self-fulfilling prophecies that may negatively affect female students’ performance by lowering their confidence and heightening their anxiety [ 121 , 122 ]. Besides formal education, also the information that women are exposed to on a daily basis contributes to their human capital . Digital inequalities, for instance, stems from men spending more time online and acquiring higher digital skills than women [ 123 ].

Education is also a factor that should boost employability of candidates and thus hiring , career progression and compensation , however the relationship between these factors is not straightforward [ 115 ]. First, educational choices ( decision-making ) are influenced by variables such as self-efficacy and the presence of barriers, irrespectively of the career opportunities they offer, especially in STEM [ 124 ]. This brings additional difficulties to women’s enrollment and persistence in scientific and technical fields of study due to stereotypes and biases [ 125 , 126 ]. Moreover, access to education does not automatically translate into job opportunities for women and minority groups [ 127 , 128 ] or into female access to managerial positions [ 129 ].

Finally, parenting is reported as an antecedent of education [e.g., 130 ], with much of the literature focusing on the role of parents’ education on the opportunities afforded to children to enroll in education [ 131 – 134 ] and the role of parenting in their offspring’s perception of study fields and attitudes towards learning [ 135 – 138 ]. Parental education is also a predictor of the other related topics, namely human capital and compensation [ 139 ].

Decision-making

This literature mainly points to the fact that women are thought to make decisions differently than men. Women have indeed different priorities, such as they care more about people’s well-being, working with people or helping others, rather than maximizing their personal (or their firm’s) gain [ 140 ]. In other words, women typically present more communal than agentic behaviors, which are instead more frequent among men [ 141 ]. These different attitude, behavior and preferences in turn affect the decisions they make [e.g., 142 ] and the decision-making of the firm in which they work [e.g., 143 ].

At the individual level, gender affects, for instance, career aspirations [e.g., 144 ] and choices [e.g., 142 , 145 ], or the decision of creating a venture [e.g., 108 , 109 , 146 ]. Moreover, in everyday life, women and men make different decisions regarding partners [e.g., 147 ], childcare [e.g., 148 ], education [e.g., 149 ], attention to the environment [e.g., 150 ] and politics [e.g., 151 ].

At the firm level, scholars highlighted, for example, how the presence of women in the board affects corporate decisions [e.g., 152 , 153 ], that female CEOs are more conservative in accounting decisions [e.g., 154 ], or that female CFOs tend to make more conservative decisions regarding the firm’s financial reporting [e.g., 155 ]. Nevertheless, firm level research also investigated decisions that, influenced by gender bias, affect women, such as those pertaining hiring [e.g., 156 , 157 ], compensation [e.g., 73 , 158 ], or the empowerment of women once appointed [ 159 ].

Career progression

Once women have entered the workforce, the key aspect to achieve gender equality becomes career progression , including efforts toward overcoming the glass ceiling. Indeed, according to the SBS analysis, career progression is highly related to words such as work, social issues and equality. The topic with which it has the highest semantic overlap is role , followed by decision-making , hiring , education , compensation , leadership , human capital , and family .

Career progression implies an advancement in the hierarchical ladder of the firm, assigning managerial roles to women. Coherently, much of the literature has focused on identifying rationales for a greater female participation in the top management team and board of directors [e.g., 95 ] as well as the best criteria to ensure that the decision-makers promote the most valuable employees irrespectively of their individual characteristics, such as gender [e.g., 84 ]. The link between career progression , role and compensation is often provided in practice by performance appraisal exercises, frequently rooted in a culture of meritocracy that guides bonuses, salary increases and promotions. However, performance appraisals can actually mask gender-biased decisions where women are held to higher standards than their male colleagues [e.g., 83 , 84 , 95 , 160 , 161 ]. Women often have less opportunities to gain leadership experience and are less visible than their male colleagues, which constitute barriers to career advancement [e.g., 162 ]. Therefore, transparency and accountability, together with procedures that discourage discretionary choices, are paramount to achieve a fair career progression [e.g., 84 ], together with the relaxation of strict job boundaries in favor of cross-functional and self-directed tasks [e.g., 163 ].

In addition, a series of stereotypes about the type of leadership characteristics that are required for top management positions, which fit better with typical male and agentic attributes, are another key barrier to career advancement for women [e.g., 92 , 160 ].

Hiring is the entrance gateway for women into the workforce. Therefore, it is related to other workforce topics such as compensation , role , career progression , decision-making , human capital , performance , organization and education .

A first stream of literature focuses on the process leading up to candidates’ job applications, demonstrating that bias exists before positions are even opened, and it is perpetuated both by men and women through networking and gatekeeping practices [e.g., 164 , 165 ].

The hiring process itself is also subject to biases [ 166 ], for example gender-congruity bias that leads to men being preferred candidates in male-dominated sectors [e.g., 167 ], women being hired in positions with higher risk of failure [e.g., 168 ] and limited transparency and accountability afforded by written processes and procedures [e.g., 164 ] that all contribute to ascriptive inequality. In addition, providing incentives for evaluators to hire women may actually work to this end; however, this is not the case when supporting female candidates endangers higher-ranking male ones [ 169 ].

Another interesting perspective, instead, looks at top management teams’ composition and the effects on hiring practices, indicating that firms with more women in top management are less likely to lay off staff [e.g., 152 ].

Performance

Several scholars posed their attention towards women’s performance, its consequences [e.g., 170 , 171 ] and the implications of having women in decision-making positions [e.g., 18 , 19 ].

At the individual level, research focused on differences in educational and academic performance between women and men, especially referring to the gender gap in STEM fields [e.g., 171 ]. The presence of stereotype threats–that is the expectation that the members of a social group (e.g., women) “must deal with the possibility of being judged or treated stereotypically, or of doing something that would confirm the stereotype” [ 172 ]–affects women’s interested in STEM [e.g., 173 ], as well as their cognitive ability tests, penalizing them [e.g., 174 ]. A stronger gender identification enhances this gap [e.g., 175 ], whereas mentoring and role models can be used as solutions to this problem [e.g., 121 ]. Despite the negative effect of stereotype threats on girls’ performance [ 176 ], female and male students perform equally in mathematics and related subjects [e.g., 177 ]. Moreover, while individuals’ performance at school and university generally affects their achievements and the field in which they end up working, evidence reveals that performance in math or other scientific subjects does not explain why fewer women enter STEM working fields; rather this gap depends on other aspects, such as culture, past working experiences, or self-efficacy [e.g., 170 ]. Finally, scholars have highlighted the penalization that women face for their positive performance, for instance when they succeed in traditionally male areas [e.g., 178 ]. This penalization is explained by the violation of gender-stereotypic prescriptions [e.g., 179 , 180 ], that is having women well performing in agentic areas, which are typical associated to men. Performance penalization can thus be overcome by clearly conveying communal characteristics and behaviors [ 178 ].

Evidence has been provided on how the involvement of women in boards of directors and decision-making positions affects firms’ performance. Nevertheless, results are mixed, with some studies showing positive effects on financial [ 19 , 181 , 182 ] and corporate social performance [ 99 , 182 , 183 ]. Other studies maintain a negative association [e.g., 18 ], and other again mixed [e.g., 184 ] or non-significant association [e.g., 185 ]. Also with respect to the presence of a female CEO, mixed results emerged so far, with some researches demonstrating a positive effect on firm’s performance [e.g., 96 , 186 ], while other obtaining only a limited evidence of this relationship [e.g., 103 ] or a negative one [e.g., 187 ].

Finally, some studies have investigated whether and how women’s performance affects their hiring [e.g., 101 ] and career progression [e.g., 83 , 160 ]. For instance, academic performance leads to different returns in hiring for women and men. Specifically, high-achieving men are called back significantly more often than high-achieving women, which are penalized when they have a major in mathematics; this result depends on employers’ gendered standards for applicants [e.g., 101 ]. Once appointed, performance ratings are more strongly related to promotions for women than men, and promoted women typically show higher past performance ratings than those of promoted men. This suggesting that women are subject to stricter standards for promotion [e.g., 160 ].

Behavioral aspects related to gender follow two main streams of literature. The first examines female personality and behavior in the workplace, and their alignment with cultural expectations or stereotypes [e.g., 188 ] as well as their impacts on equality. There is a common bias that depicts women as less agentic than males. Certain characteristics, such as those more congruent with male behaviors–e.g., self-promotion [e.g., 189 ], negotiation skills [e.g., 190 ] and general agentic behavior [e.g., 191 ]–, are less accepted in women. However, characteristics such as individualism in women have been found to promote greater gender equality in society [ 192 ]. In addition, behaviors such as display of emotions [e.g., 193 ], which are stereotypically female, work against women’s acceptance in the workplace, requiring women to carefully moderate their behavior to avoid exclusion. A counter-intuitive result is that women and minorities, which are more marginalized in the workplace, tend to be better problem-solvers in innovation competitions due to their different knowledge bases [ 194 ].

The other side of the coin is examined in a parallel literature stream on behavior towards women in the workplace. As a result of biases, prejudices and stereotypes, women may experience adverse behavior from their colleagues, such as incivility and harassment, which undermine their well-being [e.g., 195 , 196 ]. Biases that go beyond gender, such as for overweight people, are also more strongly applied to women [ 197 ].

Organization

The role of women and gender bias in organizations has been studied from different perspectives, which mirror those presented in detail in the following sections. Specifically, most research highlighted the stereotypical view of leaders [e.g., 105 ] and the roles played by women within firms, for instance referring to presence in the board of directors [e.g., 18 , 90 , 91 ], appointment as CEOs [e.g., 16 ], or top executives [e.g., 93 ].

Scholars have investigated antecedents and consequences of the presence of women in these apical roles. On the one side they looked at hiring and career progression [e.g., 83 , 92 , 160 , 168 , 198 ], finding women typically disadvantaged with respect to their male counterparts. On the other side, they studied women’s leadership styles and influence on the firm’s decision-making [e.g., 152 , 154 , 155 , 199 ], with implications for performance [e.g., 18 , 19 , 96 ].

Human capital

Human capital is a transverse topic that touches upon many different aspects of female gender equality. As such, it has the most associations with other topics, starting with education as mentioned above, with career-related topics such as role , decision-making , hiring , career progression , performance , compensation , leadership and organization . Another topic with which there is a close connection is behavior . In general, human capital is approached both from the education standpoint but also from the perspective of social capital.

The behavioral aspect in human capital comprises research related to gender differences for example in cultural and religious beliefs that influence women’s attitudes and perceptions towards STEM subjects [ 142 , 200 – 202 ], towards employment [ 203 ] or towards environmental issues [ 150 , 204 ]. These cultural differences also emerge in the context of globalization which may accelerate gender equality in the workforce [ 205 , 206 ]. Gender differences also appear in behaviors such as motivation [ 207 ], and in negotiation [ 190 ], and have repercussions on women’s decision-making related to their careers. The so-called gender equality paradox sees women in countries with lower gender equality more likely to pursue studies and careers in STEM fields, whereas the gap in STEM enrollment widens as countries achieve greater equality in society [ 171 ].

Career progression is modeled by literature as a choice-process where personal preferences, culture and decision-making affect the chosen path and the outcomes. Some literature highlights how women tend to self-select into different professions than men, often due to stereotypes rather than actual ability to perform in these professions [ 142 , 144 ]. These stereotypes also affect the perceptions of female performance or the amount of human capital required to equal male performance [ 110 , 193 , 208 ], particularly for mothers [ 81 ]. It is therefore often assumed that women are better suited to less visible and less leadership -oriented roles [ 209 ]. Women also express differing preferences towards work-family balance, which affect whether and how they pursue human capital gains [ 210 ], and ultimately their career progression and salary .

On the other hand, men are often unaware of gendered processes and behaviors that they carry forward in their interactions and decision-making [ 211 , 212 ]. Therefore, initiatives aimed at increasing managers’ human capital –by raising awareness of gender disparities in their organizations and engaging them in diversity promotion–are essential steps to counter gender bias and segregation [ 213 ].

Emerging topics: Leadership and entrepreneurship

Among the emerging topics, the most pervasive one is women reaching leadership positions in the workforce and in society. This is still a rare occurrence for two main types of factors, on the one hand, bias and discrimination make it harder for women to access leadership positions [e.g., 214 – 216 ], on the other hand, the competitive nature and high pressure associated with leadership positions, coupled with the lack of women currently represented, reduce women’s desire to achieve them [e.g., 209 , 217 ]. Women are more effective leaders when they have access to education, resources and a diverse environment with representation [e.g., 218 , 219 ].

One sector where there is potential for women to carve out a leadership role is entrepreneurship . Although at the start of the millennium the discourse on entrepreneurship was found to be “discriminatory, gender-biased, ethnocentrically determined and ideologically controlled” [ 220 ], an increasing body of literature is studying how to stimulate female entrepreneurship as an alternative pathway to wealth, leadership and empowerment [e.g., 221 ]. Many barriers exist for women to access entrepreneurship, including the institutional and legal environment, social and cultural factors, access to knowledge and resources, and individual behavior [e.g., 222 , 223 ]. Education has been found to raise women’s entrepreneurial intentions [e.g., 224 ], although this effect is smaller than for men [e.g., 109 ]. In addition, increasing self-efficacy and risk-taking behavior constitute important success factors [e.g., 225 ].

Finally, the topic of sustainability is worth mentioning, as it is the primary objective of the SDGs and is closely associated with societal well-being. As society grapples with the effects of climate change and increasing depletion of natural resources, a narrative has emerged on women and their greater link to the environment [ 226 ]. Studies in developed countries have found some support for women leaders’ attention to sustainability issues in firms [e.g., 227 – 229 ], and smaller resource consumption by women [ 230 ]. At the same time, women will likely be more affected by the consequences of climate change [e.g., 230 ] but often lack the decision-making power to influence local decision-making on resource management and environmental policies [e.g., 231 ].

Research gaps and conclusions

Research on gender equality has advanced rapidly in the past decades, with a steady increase in publications, both in mainstream topics related to women in education and the workforce, and in emerging topics. Through a novel approach combining methods of text mining and social network analysis, we examined a comprehensive body of literature comprising 15,465 papers published between 2000 and mid 2021 on topics related to gender equality. We identified a set of 27 topics addressed by the literature and examined their connections.

At the highest level of abstraction, it is worth noting that papers abound on the identification of issues related to gender inequalities and imbalances in the workforce and in society. Literature has thoroughly examined the (unconscious) biases, barriers, stereotypes, and discriminatory behaviors that women are facing as a result of their gender. Instead, there are much fewer papers that discuss or demonstrate effective solutions to overcome gender bias [e.g., 121 , 143 , 145 , 163 , 194 , 213 , 232 ]. This is partly due to the relative ease in studying the status quo, as opposed to studying changes in the status quo. However, we observed a shift in the more recent years towards solution seeking in this domain, which we strongly encourage future researchers to focus on. In the future, we may focus on collecting and mapping pro-active contributions to gender studies, using additional Natural Language Processing techniques, able to measure the sentiment of scientific papers [ 43 ].

All of the mainstream topics identified in our literature review are closely related, and there is a wealth of insights looking at the intersection between issues such as education and career progression or human capital and role . However, emerging topics are worthy of being furtherly explored. It would be interesting to see more work on the topic of female entrepreneurship , exploring aspects such as education , personality , governance , management and leadership . For instance, how can education support female entrepreneurship? How can self-efficacy and risk-taking behaviors be taught or enhanced? What are the differences in managerial and governance styles of female entrepreneurs? Which personality traits are associated with successful entrepreneurs? Which traits are preferred by venture capitalists and funding bodies?

The emerging topic of sustainability also deserves further attention, as our society struggles with climate change and its consequences. It would be interesting to see more research on the intersection between sustainability and entrepreneurship , looking at how female entrepreneurs are tackling sustainability issues, examining both their business models and their company governance . In addition, scholars are suggested to dig deeper into the relationship between family values and behaviors.

Moreover, it would be relevant to understand how women’s networks (social capital), or the composition and structure of social networks involving both women and men, enable them to increase their remuneration and reach top corporate positions, participate in key decision-making bodies, and have a voice in communities. Furthermore, the achievement of gender equality might significantly change firm networks and ecosystems, with important implications for their performance and survival.

Similarly, research at the nexus of (corporate) governance , career progression , compensation and female empowerment could yield useful insights–for example discussing how enterprises, institutions and countries are managed and the impact for women and other minorities. Are there specific governance structures that favor diversity and inclusion?

Lastly, we foresee an emerging stream of research pertaining how the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic challenged women, especially in the workforce, by making gender biases more evident.

For our analysis, we considered a set of 15,465 articles downloaded from the Scopus database (which is the largest abstract and citation database of peer-reviewed literature). As we were interested in reviewing business and economics related gender studies, we only considered those papers published in journals listed in the Academic Journal Guide (AJG) 2018 ranking of the Chartered Association of Business Schools (CABS). All the journals listed in this ranking are also indexed by Scopus. Therefore, looking at a single database (i.e., Scopus) should not be considered a limitation of our study. However, future research could consider different databases and inclusion criteria.

With our literature review, we offer researchers a comprehensive map of major gender-related research trends over the past twenty-two years. This can serve as a lens to look to the future, contributing to the achievement of SDG5. Researchers may use our study as a starting point to identify key themes addressed in the literature. In addition, our methodological approach–based on the use of the Semantic Brand Score and its webapp–could support scholars interested in reviewing other areas of research.

Supporting information

Acknowledgments.

The computing resources and the related technical support used for this work have been provided by CRESCO/ENEAGRID High Performance Computing infrastructure and its staff. CRESCO/ENEAGRID High Performance Computing infrastructure is funded by ENEA, the Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development and by Italian and European research programmes (see http://www.cresco.enea.it/english for information).

Funding Statement

P.B and F.C.: Grant of the Department of Energy, Systems, Territory and Construction of the University of Pisa (DESTEC) for the project “Measuring Gender Bias with Semantic Analysis: The Development of an Assessment Tool and its Application in the European Space Industry. P.B., F.C., A.F.C., P.R.: Grant of the Italian Association of Management Engineering (AiIG), “Misure di sostegno ai soci giovani AiIG” 2020, for the project “Gender Equality Through Data Intelligence (GEDI)”. F.C.: EU project ASSETs+ Project (Alliance for Strategic Skills addressing Emerging Technologies in Defence) EAC/A03/2018 - Erasmus+ programme, Sector Skills Alliances, Lot 3: Sector Skills Alliance for implementing a new strategic approach (Blueprint) to sectoral cooperation on skills G.A. NUMBER: 612678-EPP-1-2019-1-IT-EPPKA2-SSA-B.

Data Availability

Understanding Poverty

publication

World Bank Group Gender Equality Strategy (FY16-23)

Gender equality is central to the World Bank Group’s goals of ending extreme poverty and boosting shared prosperity. No society can develop sustainably without transforming the distribution of opportunities, resources and choices for males and females so that they have equal power to shape their own lives and contribute to their families, communities, and countries.

Henriette Kolb

WDR 2012: Gender Equality and Development

Gender equality is a core development objective in its own right. But greater gender equality is also smart economics, enhancing productivity and improving other development outcomes.

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15 Gender Issues We Must Address

According to The Gender Snapshot 2022 report, it will take around 300 years to reach gender equality. If countries do not make significant progress, the world won’t achieve Sustainable Development Goal #5 by 2030. There is no simple solution to gender inequality. It’s a complex web of intersecting issues that reinforce each other. How can the world untangle the web? Here are 15 gender issues that need to be addressed:

#1. Education access

The world has made significant progress in ensuring education access. Globally, girls have either closed or reversed gaps in accessing and completing education. Certain areas are still far behind and there’s still gender inequality among adults. Adult women are more likely to be illiterate compared to men. In sub-Saharan Africa, more than 1 in 4 young women can’t read. COVID-19 likely had a negative impact, but specific data is still being collected and analyzed. Education is crucial for gender equality and the success of nations. A World Bank study estimated that when girls aren’t educated, it can cost countries $15-$30 trillion in lost lifetime productivity and earnings.

#2. Maternal death rate

Maternal death rate (also known as maternal mortality) refers to deaths caused by complications from pregnancy or childbirth. There was significant progress between 2000-2017. The global maternal death rate decreased by 38%. There’s still a long way to go, especially since deaths are mostly preventable. Among the wealthiest countries, the United States in particular needs to take action. The CDC recently released maternal mortality stats for 2020, revealing that deaths had increased from 2019 . Black women are three times more likely to die than white women. Overall, the United States’ maternal mortality rate is almost three times higher than France, which has the next highest death rate. Maternal death has a huge impact on families and society. In 2014, a study in three sub-counties in Western Kenya found that when a mother dies in pregnancy or childbirth, it triggers a wave of harm affecting her children, their education, the family’s health, and more.

#3. Abortion and birth control access

Access to family planning resources (which include abortion and birth control) is essential to a person’s bodily autonomy. Access is also critical for the health, well-being, and economic prosperity of families, communities, and nations. At the time of writing, there are 24 countries or territories that prohibit abortion for any reason. At least 75 countries allow abortion on request with gestational limits. When the United States Supreme Court overturned Roe v. Wade in 2022, it joined just three countries (Poland, Nicaragua, and El Salvador) that have gone backward on abortion rights since 1994. Experts worry that states banning abortion will come for birth control like Plan B and IUDs next. Reproductive rights like abortion and birth are gendered, but it’s important to remember restrictions threaten everyone’s freedom.

#4. Informal employment

The informal economy is a sector of the economy that isn’t monitored or taxed. It forms a large part of developing countries, and while it provides work and wages, it’s much less secure or safe. The International Labor Organization estimates that around 60% of the world’s labor force works (at least part-time) in the informal economy. Why is this a gender issue? In low-income countries, 92.1% of employed women work in the informal economy compared to 87.5% of employed men. When the pandemic hit, women’s employment suffered the most. As an example, home-based workers earned 2% of their median pre-pandemic income in the middle of 2021 while in sub-Saharan Africa, 41% of women-owned businesses closed (compared to 34% of businesses owned by men). By supporting those in informal employment, countries can make progress on gender inequality.

#5. Unpaid labor

Unpaid labor includes childcare, cleaning, cooking, and caring for older family members. Globally, women spend about 3.2 times more time on unpaid work than men. No country on the planet splits this work evenly. While unpaid labor often fills in social service gaps, keeps families afloat, and supports economies, unpaid labor isn’t valued. Women are simply expected to sacrifice their time – which they could use to work for pay or pursue education – without compensation. This can keep families locked in cycles of poverty and fuel gender inequality. Countries can change things by legislating more paid leave, investing in high-quality childcare, offering child tax credits, and more. These solutions will primarily help women because they do so much unpaid labor, but it’s good for other caregivers, families, and children, too.

#6. The gender pay gap

The gender pay gap is one of the best-known gender issues, but progress has been slow. Globally, the World Bank estimates that about 2.4 billion women of working age don’t get equal economic opportunities compared to men. The amount of unpaid labor put on women is a big reason why, but many countries aren’t paying women as much as men. The World Bank also found that just 95 of the surveyed 190 economies mandate equal pay for equal work for men and women. In the United States, eliminating the gender pay gap could halve the poverty rate for all working women.

#7. Gender-based violence

Gender-based violence (GBV) is a persistent issue infecting the entire world. According to the World Health Organization , 30% of women will be subjected to physical and/or sexual violence in their lifetimes. 38% of murdered women are killed by their intimate partners. Crises like the COVID-19 pandemic and war increase gender-based violence. Why is this such a significant issue? The fear and reality of violence severely restrict a woman’s ability to move and live freely. This limits every area of her life, including career opportunities. Stopping gender-based violence is challenging. Solutions include recognizing warning signs of violence, investing in accountability, eliminating poverty, and ending the normalization of violence.

#8. Political representation

Men hold most of the world’s power. According to UN Women data from September 2022, there were 28 countries where 30 women served as Heads of State and/or Government. At this rate, it will take another 130 years to reach gender equality in the highest positions of power. Lower levels aren’t much better. Worldwide, women remain underrepresented at all levels of decision-making. Representation of trans people is also essential to gender equality worldwide.

#9. Transphobia

Because of transphobia, trans people face increased levels of violence and discrimination worldwide. In the US’ largest study of transgender and gender non-conforming people, 28% reported harassment in healthcare settings. In 2020, Human Rights Watch tracked a record number of violent attacks against transgender and gender non-conforming people. The real numbers are most likely higher as most harassment and violence are never reported. In the US, bills targeting trans youth have been piling up. Unless transphobia is addressed, things will only get worse.

#10. Human trafficking

Human trafficking affects all genders, but not in the same ways. Women and girls made up 60% of all victims in 2020. They’re also three times more likely to experience extreme violence. The share of male victims has been increasing. This is most likely because forced labor is becoming more common and more men and boys are trafficked for this purpose. Gender norms about masculinity and exploitation play a role in identification; many men don’t call themselves human trafficking victims. When dealing with human trafficking, it’s important to understand the gendered dynamics.

#11. Racialized gender

The term “ racialized gender ” refers to how race intersects with gender. While white women face gender discrimination, their whiteness shields them from oppression doled unto women of color. This changes the nature of the gender equality fight as Black women, Latina women, Indigenous women, Asian women, etc, face different barriers and increased (and often sexualized) violence. Recognizing these differences, as well as the prevalence of racism within white feminism movements, is important.

#12. Mental health

Mental health and mental illnesses are complex, but there do seem to be differences when it comes to gender. Women are more likely to report depression and anxiety , although men could be hiding their mental health struggles due to societal biases about masculinity. Women are more likely to attempt suicide while men are four times more likely (in the United States) to successfully end their own lives. This could be because men tend to choose more violent, lethal methods. Researchers are still untangling the mysteries about mental health, but it’s clear gender plays a role.

#13. Online radicalization

In the past decade or so, several young men have carried out mass shootings. Many of them have something in common: they were radicalized online. Experts are raising the alarm about these toxic online spaces, which target lonely men and boys as young as middle school. Organized networks of anti-feminist, racist influencers congregate where they know boys hang out (like gaming websites) and seed hateful, violent rhetoric and beliefs. Algorithms also play a role in pulling young men deeper and deeper down the rabbit hole. Parents, educators, and schools need to learn to recognize warning signs and intervene before beliefs turn into violence.

#14. Climate change

change affects men and women differently . In areas where climate change’s effects are most powerful, women are usually the ones who collect food, water, and fuel. If male family members need to leave home for work, women and girls take on even more unpaid labor, which is made more difficult by climate change. According to recent forecasts , 62.8% of the world’s poorest women live in sub-Saharan Africa, which is also the region most vulnerable to climate change. While climate change doesn’t discriminate based on gender, its effects are not proportionate. Gender equality is key to fighting climate change.

#15. Discriminatory laws

Many of the world’s gender issues have roots in the law. According to the World Bank’s Women, Business, and the Law report, on average women get about ¾ of the same legal rights as men. The report uses eight indicators to measure women’s “interactions with the law” throughout their careers: Mobility, Workplace, Pay, Marriage, Parenthood, Entrepreneurship, Assets, and Pension. There’s been some progress as 23 economies made reforms. However, 46 economies still don’t have legislation on sexual harassment in the workplace. 89 economies also need legal reforms to improve women’s agency and decision-making within marriage. Laws aren’t a magic bullet, but they’re an essential foundation for better gender equality

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About the author, emmaline soken-huberty.

Emmaline Soken-Huberty is a freelance writer based in Portland, Oregon. She started to become interested in human rights while attending college, eventually getting a concentration in human rights and humanitarianism. LGBTQ+ rights, women’s rights, and climate change are of special concern to her. In her spare time, she can be found reading or enjoying Oregon’s natural beauty with her husband and dog.

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What is gender equality?

Equality between the sexes is a huge part of basic human rights. It means that men and women have the same opportunities to fulfil their potential in all spheres of life.

Today, we still face inequality issues as there is a persistent gap in access to opportunities for men and women.

Women have less access to decision-making and higher education. They constantly face obstacles at the workplace and have greater safety risks. Maintaining equal rights for both sexes is critical for meeting a wide range of goals in global development.

Inequality between the sexes is an interesting area to study so high school, college, and university students are often assigned to write essays on gender topics.

In this article, we are going to discuss the key peculiarities of gender equality essay. Besides, we have created a list of the best essay topic ideas.

What is the specifics of gender equality essay?

Equality and inequality between the sexes are important historical and current social issues which impact the way students and their families live. They are common topics for college papers in psychology, sociology, gender studies.

When writing an essay on equality between the sexes, you need to argue for a strong point of view and support your argument with relevant evidence gathered from multiple sources.

But first, you’d need to choose a good topic which is neither too broad nor too narrow to research.

Research is crucial for the success of your essay because you should develop a strong argument based on an in-depth study of various scholarly sources.

Equality between sexes is a complex problem. You have to consider different aspects and controversial points of view on specific issues, show your ability to think critically, develop a strong thesis statement, and build a logical argument, which can make a great impression on your audience.

If you are looking for interesting gender equality essay topics, here you will find a great list of 100 topic ideas for writing essays and research papers on gender issues in contemporary society.

Should you find that some topics are too broad, feel free to narrow them down.

Powerful gender equality essay topics

Here are the top 25 hottest topics for your argumentative opinion paper on gender issues.

Whether you are searching for original creative ideas for gender equality in sports essay or need inspiration for gender equality in education essay, we’ve got you covered.

Use imagination and creativity to demonstrate your approach.

Analyze gender-based violence in different countries
Compare wage gap between the sexes in different countries
Explain the purpose of gender mainstreaming
Implications of sex differences in the human brain
How can we teach boys and girls that they have equal rights?
Discuss gender-neutral management practices
Promotion of equal opportunities for men and women in sports
What does it mean to be transgender?
Discuss the empowerment of women
Why is gender-blindness a problem for women?
Why are girls at greater risk of sexual violence and exploitation?
Women as victims of human trafficking
Analyze the glass ceiling in management
Impact of ideology in determining relations between sexes
Obstacles that prevent girls from getting quality education in African countries
Why are so few women in STEM?
Major challenges women face at the workplace
How do women in sport fight for equality?
Women, sports, and media institutions
Contribution of women in the development of the world economy
Role of gender diversity in innovation and scientific discovery
What can be done to make cities safer for women and girls?
International trends in women’s empowerment
Role of schools in teaching children behaviours considered appropriate for their sex
Feminism on social relations uniting women and men as groups

Gender roles essay topics

We can measure the equality of men and women by looking at how both sexes are represented in a range of different roles. You don’t have to do extensive and tiresome research to come up with gender roles essay topics, as we have already done it for you.

Have a look at this short list of top-notch topic ideas .

Are paternity and maternity leaves equally important for babies?
Imagine women-dominated society and describe it
Sex roles in contemporary western societies
Compare theories of gender development
Adoption of sex-role stereotyped behaviours
What steps should be taken to achieve gender-parity in parenting?
What is gender identity?
Emotional differences between men and women
Issues modern feminism faces
Sexual orientation and gender identity
Benefits of investing in girls’ education
Patriarchal attitudes and stereotypes in family relationships
Toys and games of girls and boys
Roles of men and women in politics
Compare career opportunities for both sexes in the military
Women in the US military
Academic careers and sex equity
Should men play larger roles in childcare?
Impact of an ageing population on women’s economic welfare
Historical determinants of contemporary differences in sex roles
Gender-related issues in gaming
Culture and sex-role stereotypes in advertisements
What are feminine traits?
Sex role theory in sociology
Causes of sex differences and similarities in behaviour

Gender inequality research paper topics

Examples of inequality can be found in the everyday life of different women in many countries across the globe. Our gender inequality research paper topics are devoted to different issues that display discrimination of women throughout the world.

Choose any topic you like, research it, brainstorm ideas, and create a detailed gender inequality essay outline before you start working on your first draft.

Start off with making a debatable thesis, then write an engaging introduction, convincing main body, and strong conclusion for gender inequality essay .

Aspects of sex discrimination
Main indications of inequality between the sexes
Causes of sex discrimination
Inferior role of women in the relationships
Sex differences in education
Can education solve issues of inequality between the sexes?
Impact of discrimination on early childhood development
Why do women have limited professional opportunities in sports?
Gender discrimination in sports
Lack of women having leadership roles
Inequality between the sexes in work-family balance
Top factors that impact inequality at a workplace
What can governments do to close the gender gap at work?
Sex discrimination in human resource processes and practices
Gender inequality in work organizations
Factors causing inequality between men and women in developing countries
Work-home conflict as a symptom of inequality between men and women
Why are mothers less wealthy than women without children?
Forms of sex discrimination in a contemporary society
Sex discrimination in the classroom
Justification of inequality in American history
Origins of sex discrimination
Motherhood and segregation in labour markets
Sex discrimination in marriage
Can technology reduce sex discrimination?

Most controversial gender topics

Need a good controversial topic for gender stereotypes essay? Here are some popular debatable topics concerning various gender problems people face nowadays.

They are discussed in scientific studies, newspaper articles, and social media posts. If you choose any of them, you will need to perform in-depth research to prepare an impressive piece of writing.

How do gender misconceptions impact behaviour?
Most common outdated sex-role stereotypes
How does gay marriage influence straight marriage?
Explain the role of sexuality in sex-role stereotyping
Role of media in breaking sex-role stereotypes
Discuss the dual approach to equality between men and women
Are women better than men or are they equal?
Sex-role stereotypes at a workplace
Racial variations in gender-related attitudes
Role of feminism in creating the alternative culture for women
Feminism and transgender theory
Gender stereotypes in science and education
Are sex roles important for society?
Future of gender norms
How can we make a better world for women?
Are men the weaker sex?
Beauty pageants and women’s empowerment
Are women better communicators?
What are the origins of sexual orientation?
Should prostitution be legal?
Pros and cons of being a feminist
Advantages and disadvantages of being a woman
Can movies defy gender stereotypes?
Sexuality and politics

Feel free to use these powerful topic ideas for writing a good college-level gender equality essay or as a starting point for your study.

No time to do decent research and write your top-notch paper? No big deal! Choose any topic from our list and let a pro write the essay for you!

11 simple steps to help you write a research paper on climate change

Desperate questions for writing a Paper

Gender Inequality Topics Topics: 75
Gender Equality Research Topics Topics: 77
Color Blindness Topics Topics: 49
Animal Rights Research Topics Topics: 55
Gender Stereotypes Paper Topics Topics: 94
Homelessness Topics Topics: 151
Gender Issues Topics Topics: 101
Social Inequality Research Topics Topics: 77
Domestic Violence Topics Topics: 160
Black Lives Matter Research Topics Topics: 112
Animal Testing Topics Topics: 111
Animal Cruelty Essay Topics Topics: 107
Animal Abuse Topics Topics: 97
Animal Ethics Paper Topics Topics: 60
Social Problems Paper Topics Topics: 157

569 Gender Essay Topics & Research Topics on Gender

Looking for gender research topics for your paper? Look no further! In this awesome list, you will find here plenty of research questions about gender, essay topics, discussion ideas, and more. Check it out!

🏆 Best Essay Topics on Gender

⭐ catchy gender essay topics, 👍 good gender research topics & essay examples, 🌶️ hot gender studies research topics to write about, 🎓 most interesting gender research titles, 💡 simple gender issues topics for research paper, 📌 easy gender essay topics, ❓ research questions about gender, 🔥 interesting research topics on women’s issues, ✅ gender studies topics to write about.

Gender-Based Violence in South Africa
Gender and Sexuality: Essay Example
The Social Construction of Gender
Preventing Gender-Based Violence
The Social Construction of Gender Roles
Elizabethan Era Gender Roles in Shakespeare Plays
Gender-Based Violence and Its Effects: Literature Review
Gender Inequality Issue and Solutions Gender equality is a key human right that should be enjoyed by everyone. All people – regardless of their gender – should be able to enjoy the same rights and opportunities.
Gender Roles in The Tempest Looking for an essay on gender roles in The Tempest by Shakespeare? Here is a great essay sample on the topic! Use it to get inspired.
Gender-Neutral Toilets in Schools Schools with both gender-expansive and transgender students are often endeavoring to create an enabling environment that addresses the needs of such a diverse population.
Gender Inequality in the Workplace The global fight against gender inequality in the workplace can be successful if appropriate initiatives and interventions are taken at the organizational level.
Impact of Fashion on Gender and Sexual Identity Fashion has long been used to communicate gender and sexuality. Clothing is a powerful way of expressing identity and communicating with the outside world.
Social Construction of Gender and Sexual Dichotomy Gender is usually divided into two sexes, namely male and female, in modern society. Traditionally, gender is determined by various physiological features, such as genitalia.
Gender Lightbulb Moment in Personal Experience The sex-role stereotyping and gender bias can be countered by educating people on the importance of diversity.
Gender Discrimination Issues and Interventions Women should be encouraged to more actively protect their labor rights, do not be afraid to apply to the prosecutor’s office, the state labor inspectorate, or the court.
Speech of Emma Watson: Gender Equality The paper discusses the process of Emma Watson makes the first speech called United Nations Address on Gender Equality, focusing on gender equality.
Gender Roles Effects on Children Development Many aspects of children education affect their development. One of these aspects is the way in which they are taught about gender roles.
Horizontal and Vertical Gender Segregation in Employment Gender segregation refers to unequal distribution of men and women in the occupational structure. Vertical segregation refers to placing men at the top of occupational hierarchies.
Gender and Sexuality in Contemporary Culture In the contemporary society, gender and sexuality forms the basis for recognition. In effect, social construction defines that males and females are different creatures.
The Issue of Gender-Separated Sports Gender-separated sports provide better opportunities for all gender involved while also respecting gender-related patterns of building social relations.
Women and Men Empowerment for Gender Equality The current world has emphasized women empowerment that has led to men’s disempowerment. It is important to involve men in the intervention of gender equality.
Gender Roles in “Wide Sargasso Sea” by Jean Rhys The impacts of colonialism and civilisation on the society in the Jean Rhys’ novel, Wide Sargasso Sea and specifically regarding its impact on gender roles in society.
How Gender Stereotypes Affect Society Gender stereotypes are harmful because they only teach men and women to act in certain ways; they confine people to a set of behaviors associated with their gender.
Changing Gender Roles in Families This essay analyzes two articles on family gender roles and argues that the changing gender roles in modern society is rapidly being driven by single parent family controversy.
Gender Discrimination and Performance in the Workplace While talking about the gender discrimination, both sexes are considered although on discrimination the female are mainly on the receiving end.
Gender and Grade Point Average: Statistical Analysis This research paper aims to assess the relationship between Grade Point Average and gender by applying correlation analysis with stratified sampling.
Gender Stereotyping in the “Pretty Woman” Movie The movie Pretty Woman, starring Julia Roberts and Richard Gere, created quite a bit of stirring among the feminist supporters of the country.
Gender Stereotypes in Western and Eastern Culture Stereotypes claim that the girls from the east are well behaved. They are shy and respectful, quiet and smart.
Gender Differences in Delinquency Research shows that gender is the most influential correlate for juvenile delinquency. In other words, males tend to commit more crimes than women.
Japanese vs. American Male Gender Roles American males perceived their women as weak and powerless creatures requiring protection, whereas the Japanese male stereotypes envisioned their women as being subordinate to men.
Gender Representation in Akira Kurosawa’s Films This paper is intended to analyze one of the most controversial topics of Kurosawa’s films, specifically gender representation.
Postmodern Feminism and Its Theory of Gender as Social Construction Post modern feminists argue that there are no natural building blocks between genders. It is the society that structures human being in a particular way to keep differences.
Gender Roles in Medea – Stereotypes & Resistance With the help of Medea and Jason, the main characters of the play “Medea”, Euripides presented individuals as complex creatures who carry both women’s and man’s characteristics.
Biology and Culture of Gender Color Stereotypes This paper attempts to answer this question and determine whether the indicated color genders are biologically based or culturally embedded.
Gender Differences in Using the English Language This paper investigates gender differences in using the English language to understand the attitudes of men and women when they choose the way of pronunciation and vocabulary.
Race and Gender Stereotypes in Literature Literary texts are used to advance gender and race-related stereotypes. In this paper, the author examines three literary texts: Araby, The Hound of the Baskervilles and The False Gems.
The Movie”Smurfs”: The Problem of Gender Roles The gender roles in the Smurfs are polarized and fixed between male and female stereotypes, which is a mentality of the past.
Is Gender a Culturally or Biologically Perscribed Role? The concept of gender as a product of culture or biology has been debated and analyzed by various researchers. The result of this debate has further polarized the topic.
Influence of Gender on Life and Sexism Sexism is a negative phenomenon meaning that individuals face various opportunities and attitudes based on their genders.
The Gender Dysphoria Concept Gender dysphoria is a condition that manifests in a mismatch between a person’s biological sex and gender identity.
Performative Acts and Gender Constitution The rationale for Butler’s idea that gender represents actions that are norms and traditions of our society reflects cultural and historical experience.
Personal Awareness: Gender Identity Personal awareness is an important aspect of life cause it empowers a person on how to make cognizant decisions. Friends, family and society have a profound impact on personality.
Multiculturalism as a Threat to Gender Equality To make democratic states realize that tolerance must not equal acceptance and that the specifics of a particular culture must not be projected onto another one.
Objective Social Structure: Race, Gender, and Class The vast majority of social divisions take place based on race, gender, and class, where one or all three categories are imposed on individuals.
Gender, Racial Discrimination, and Exclusion in Toni Morrison’s “Paradise” “Paradise” addresses the issue of racism by narrating a story about African Americans who move to the town of Ruby, in which people repeat certain mistakes.
Gender & Feminism in A Doll’s House The paper uses a combination of gender focus and reader-response approaches and argues that in “A Doll’s House” women’s self-sacrifice is viewed as a regular responsibility.
Gender Discrimination in “Disgrace” by J.M Coetzee J.M Coetzee’s book “Disgrace” that has been examined in this paper explores the nature of gender discrimination meted on women in South Africa.
Gender Divide and Solidarity in Susan Glaspell’s ‘Trifles’ Trifles is an one-act play written by Susan Glaspell which crux of the story is the murder of John Wright, and the subsequent investigation of this event by other characters.
Cultural Impact on Gender and Sexuality The biblical understanding of sexuality and gender perceives gender as a result of differences in traditional scripts for boys and girls.
Addressing the Issue of Gender Equality Gender equality is one of the core problems of the current century. It means providing equal conditions for men and women
Women: Gender Inequality and Discrimination This paper explains whether innate gender differences exist and how they determine the abilities, choices, and aptitudes that differentiate men from women.
Themes of Feminism & Gender in A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen Ibsen is considered one of the most successful play writers of the 19th century. He has a large body of work in various genres of literature.
Factors Contributing to the Gender Pay Gap in the UK The gender pay gap still exists; this essay will discuss what causes the gap and human resource strategies to eliminate the inequalities in remunerations.
Social Learning and Gender Schema Theories The paper states that social learning theory and gender schema theory, studying the same subject, provide their perceptions of gender-role development.
What About Gender Is Most Interesting to Sociologists? Before the emergence of the discipline of gender studies, there was an understanding that the social is biologically determined.
Does Gender Affect the Type of Law Violation? One of the most predominant and consistent observations in the criminal justice system is that the type of law violation is often dependent on gender.
Sexism and Gender Inequality in Sport The paper reviews an example of sexism and gender inequality and academic scholarship on the topic. Women athletes have faced gender inequality and sexism.
Gender in The Great Gatsby & The Yellow Wallpaper The complexities of men and women in the texts were examined and evaluated on the basis of sexuality and relationship and the inferences would be supported by the text itself.
Gender and Sexual activity: Literature Review This literature review focus on various perspectives of gender and sexuality in the context of different arenas of social groups.
“Lanval”: Summary & Analysis of Gender Roles and Courtly Love “Lanval” is one of Marie de France’s lais in which the idea of love is discussed from the specific perspective according to which women and men are equal in their love.
Susan Glaspell’s ‘Trifles’ – Gender Oppression and Justice The drama Trifles by Susan Glaspell revolves around the murder of John Wright, a farmer described by his peers as an honest and hard-working man.
Role of Gender in Society In today’s society, equality is an issue that has not been fully achieved and integrated in the society, and hence gender roles are very distinguishable
Gender Inequality and Feminism in a TV Series Gender inequality indicators measure quantifiable aspects of biases against women or men. It is the women who suffer the most from gender discrimination.
The Problem of Gender Identity in Sports Allowing athletes to compete regardless of their gender may effectively address gender segregation often shown in sports.
Cinderella and Girl: Feminist and Gender Critique Anne Sexton, in her poem Cinderella focuses on the position of women in society on the material of the well-known fairy tale by the Brothers Grimm.
Gender Bias in Sports Commentary Observations The analysis of the ESPN coverage of sporting events shows that, although women are portrayed mostly equally, they generally receive less media attention than men.
Gender Is a Culturally Prescribed Role, Rather Than a Biological Sex The debates concerning the notions of “sex” and “gender” have been going on over the years.
Gender Relations in Roman Society The aspect of gender relations in Rome involves some peculiarities which help to perceive the whole essence of the Roman culture.
Women and Gender Roles in “Antigone” by Sophocles Sophocles’ “Antigone” tells a story of a woman who disobeys the order of the ruler of Thebes who decided to leave the body of her brother unburied on the battlefield.
Role of Mass Media in Gender Issues This paper discusses the role of mass media in the presentation of gender and examines standards from various media sources to demonstrate how some news stories develop.
Gender Stereotypes and Misunderstanding Stereotypes predetermine a human life and a female life, in particular, explaining the approaches that can change the situation, and defining the power of stereotypes.
Modern Issues of Gender Studies The study of gender entails consideration of men and women in the society. The subject defines the notion of gender and how society has been shaping the concept over the time.
Gender Dynamics in Development This essay opens with the indication of how serious gender dynamics affect life. Gender issues must be understood if development goals are to be realized.
Gender Roles and Inequalities in Advertisement The perfume for men, Dior Sauvage, was released in 2019, and an advertising campaign supported it with Johnny Depp.
Gender Roles in “The Handmaid’s Tale” by Atwood Margaret Atwood’s “The Handmaid’s Tale” is a novel illustrating a dystopian system in which fertile women become the maids of couples who cannot conceive.
Futurama Series Speaks Against Gender Stereotypes Although Futurama may seem to be a sexist series, at first sight, a closer examination reveals several directions in which this work speaks against gender stereotypes.
“Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment” by Kabeer Gender inequality is an issue that has led to endless debates with different people proposing diverse solutions to ensure equality is exercised.
Gender Inequality in French Hospitality Industry The study scrutinizes the French hotel and tourism sector and the concerns and challenges women encounter in management roles and compares them to the trends.
Shifting Gender Norms in Isabel Allende’s The House of the Spirits The questions of gender equality and the role of women in family and society are central for Isabel Allende’s novel The House of the Spirits that was first published in 1982.
Sexuality in “Love Beyond Gender” by Alysia Abbott The question of sexuality has always been an ongoing issue for human society. Sexual interest impacts the life of an individual and predetermines the choice of a partner.
Chip ‘n Dale Rescue Rangers: Gender Roles The domination of the female gender in the cartoon Chip ‘n Dale Rescue Rangers is presented with the expression of the males’ agreement to subject to that domination.
Gender and Sexuality and Their Role in Life The importance of studying the subjects of gender and sexuality should be discussed concerning their role in different aspects of people’s lives.
Understanding Different Gender Roles and the Impact on Marketing There are traditional and nontraditional gender roles that determine how male and female models are used in commercials.
Gender Differences in Development of Schizophrenia Schizophrenia has varied effects on men’s and women’s sexual life. These effects could be due to variances in the start of schizophrenia at different ages.
Intersectionality of Race and Gender The paper states that considering the scope of the stigma that overwhelms the lives of women of different races, intersectionality continues to impose a moral struggle on women.
How Society Influences the Gender Roles Society should reconsider some of the gender roles to close the gap and give people equal opportunities to thrive and explore.
Gender Roles in Married at First Sight and Other Media Sources Every society and culture have different gender role expectations. This paper focuses on the comparison of the media sources’ assumptions about genders.
Influence of Culture and Gender on Personality Disorders Diagnosis The ongoing polemics is believed to have a positive influence on the functioning and finding new approaches while treating personality disorders.
Analyzing the Relationship Between Gender and Victimization Women generally do not perform criminal activities as often as men. What is more, they are clearly underrepresented in the criminal justice system.
Single Parenthood Households and Gender-Related Issues In contemporary society, single parenthood has become common. Marriages between two couples are no longer popular.
Marriage and Inequalities With Gender The issue of bridging gender equality has been the center of debate in the 21 century. The role of women in society could no longer be underestimated.
Gender Issues in the Leadership of the Organization Traditional stereotypes of women as being less suited for leadership roles is also one of the reasons why gender has been linked to leadership.
Gender Mainstreaming For Effective Development Of Our Company Gender mainstreaming entails assessing the effects to both men and women of any planed undertaking be it legislative, a program or policies covering all levels of development.
The Concept of Gender Socialization and Ageism As they grow older, children are expected to soak up the information about social norms as a sponge and learn to demonstrate the appropriate reactions to other people’s actions.
Gender Bias Issues: Types of Gender Bias in the Workplace and Their Impact on Productivity Issues of gender bias have been identified as critical in organizational theory and behavior. Today there are more calls for equal treatment of both men and women in organizations.
Gender Equality and Women’s Rights The issue of gender equality in society has gained popularity in the course of the precedent century with the rise of the feminist movement and women’s struggle for equal rights.
The Color of Sex: Postwar Histories of Race and Gender The article “The Color of Sex: Postwar Photogenic Histories of Race and Gender in National Geographic Magazines” disclosed how the images of people of color are formed by the popular culture.
The Role of Gender in Interactions via Social Media Females tend to focus on development of certain relationships and creating a community while males tend to use social media to get information, have fun and so on.
Is Gender Natural or Acquired? Gender may be categorized as both natural and acquired since one has the ability to transform from one gender to another.
Unveiling the Gender Gap: Feminist Theory in Sociology Feminist theory in sociology shifts the emphasis from men to women and from social structure to the lived experiences of individuals.
Gender Pay Gap From Feminist Perspective Feminists are in the best position to comprehend and articulate the causes of the problems women face in society, which include the gender pay gap.
Gender and Racial Equality Barriers in the Workplace Gender and racial bias still exist in many fields, resulting in significant turnover rates among female and black workers.
Gender in Traditional Superhero Costumes The traditional superhero costumes reinforce gender and sexuality by emphasizing the need for men to be well-built and the women to reveal their upper body and legs.
Gender Inequality at Google Inc. Some percentage of women employed in Google shows that it is possible and both genders should work hard to get a job there.
Gender Bias During the Hiring Process Gender bias in hiring has been a problem that many organizations have dealt with, as many employers prefer to hire men because of the notion that they are more committed.
Role of Gender Stereotypes in Advertising The paper states that it is of great significance to understand the reasons behind the advertisers’ attachment to socially constructed gender differences.
Sally Haslanger’s “Gender and Race” Review In Sally Haslanger’s philosophical essay ‘Gender and Race: (What) are they? (What) do we want them to be?’ the author utilizes an analytical approach to gender and race.
Gender Bias in the Aviation Industry The findings of the court of appeal in the case of Cello Diaz versus Pan American World Airways, was significant towards employment equity.
Nursing Attitudes toward Trans and Gender-Nonconforming Pediatric Patients The PICO question of the paper: Does nursing knowledge and attitudes toward trans and gender-nonconforming pediatric patients improve cultural competence and healthcare disparities?
Gender Stereotyping in Audi’s Used Car Ad Audi’s Used Car Ad was chosen because it sparked outrage on Chinese social media and worldwide because of the severe misogyny and stereotyping.
Gender, Social Structure and Division of Labor In every community, there is a gender structure that provides bodies with inequality through the sex category.
Societal and Gender Construction Affecting Incidents of Domestic Violence The paper intends to explore how societal and gender construction can affect the incidences of domestic violence.
Impact of Gender and Sexuality on Advertisement Sex, gender, and sexuality often appear in advertisements for various products. It is so because these phenomena have a robust impact on people.
Gender Non-Conforming or Transgender Children Care The purpose of this paper is to discuss the challenges to be aware of when working with gender non-conforming or transgender children and adolescents.
Gender Gap in Financial Literacy The presented paper studies the topic of the differences in financial knowledge between male and female undergraduate psychology students.
Gender Studies: Feminine Men and Masculine Women Women have a vital role in society: they bring up children and ensure the comfort and psychological well-being of all the family members.
Rethinking Sexual Harassment and Gender Discrimination The paper focuses on the theory of egoism and when to apply the theory in the work environment to avoid sexual discrimination.
Gender Differences in Mate Selection Gender differences influences who men and women seek to be their mates. Social, cultural and biological factors in individuals affect what they choose to be of importance, while selecting a person of interest.
Gender Roles: “What’s That Smell in the Kitchen” by Piercy “What’s That Smell in the Kitchen” by Marge Piercy is a poem that speaks against gender-stereotyped roles in society. It considers as a feminist literary piece of the 20th century.
Gender Discrimination in Society and Social Media: Solutions The paper finds out to what extent discriminatory attitudes are present in different societies and how much social media induce them.
Gender Expectations in the Disney Film “The Little Mermaid” This article will show that the Disney’s work magnifies the evolving roles of women in society, and despite the existing tensions and backlash, women are integrating successfully into the society.
Gender Display in TV Shows, Movies and News From the television to the movies going to the news, men have always been at the forefront, eventually overshadowing women in the media industry.
Income Inequality Based on Gender Income inequality based on gender is the dissimilarity between male and female earnings usually expressed in part by male earnings.
Gender Changes in the Film “Far from Heaven” by Todd Haynes The movie “Far from Heaven” by Todd Haynes examines how and why gender has changed since the 1950s in the US. The story describes the traditional family of Whitakers living in 1957.
Gender in the 21st Century: Fighting Dangerous Stereotypes Women happen to be the victims of gender stereotyping, men also suffer from the clichés concerning masculinity, which authors address in essays.
Impact of Globalization on Norms and Experiences around Gender Inequality is one of the most prolonged global debates that have refused to go away despite the great strides made through globalization
Gender Equality in Britain in the 20th Century In Britain, the media through the television systems operated discussions and seminars on issues concerning gender in society.
Untraditional Gender Roles Distribution The experiences of different cultures and family institution patterns show that gender role distribution can have various forms.
Children and Gender: Growing Up Trans by Frontline PBS Review The documentary “Growing Up Trans” by Frontline PBS becomes a valuable source of information about what it is like to realize at an early age that one identifies.
Career-Related Decision-Making and Gender Differences The paper focuses on career-related decision-making differences between men and women in general and the incidence of depression in the context of career advancement in particular.
Gender and Race in Langston Hughes’ Poetry of the Spanish Civil War Langston Hughes was a crucial figure in the 1920s Harlem Renaissance, which blossomed black intellectual, literary, and creative life in several American cities, particularly Harlem.
Stereotypes of Gender Roles The paper details the scientific justification, impacts, development, prevention strategies, and how gender role stereotypes can be addressed.
Contemporary Gender Equality Challenge This essay investigates the issues associated with gender equality on both individual and community levels and identifies the possible responses to those challenges.
Gender, Generations, and Communications The discussion focused on developing different approaches to bridging socio-cultural discrepancies associated with different generations in the workplace.
The Gender Pay Gap in Australia The existence of a gender gap is a severe problem for economic equality in a democratic society. This paper tests the idea that a gender pay gap exists using Australian workers.
The Issue of Gender Discrimination Related to Business and Society In this paper, the issue of gender discrimination will be analyzed based on how the deteriorated relationships taking root from societal issues affect all sides of the conflict.
Economic Inequality Between Genders Discussions on the problems of gender inequality have been going on for decades that’s why the difference in the earnings between men and women is called the gender pay gap.
Gender Roles in the Buddhist Culture In the Buddhist culture, women are considered weak beings and require men to provide them with protection. Furthermore, men are considered to be the strong and family breadwinners.
Gender Inequality in Security Sector The assumption of gender composition in the security sector has been linked with the apparent norm that women cannot work in the military.
Gender, Philosophy, and Religion in the Axial Age The philosophers of the axial age were primarily involved in the discussion of justice as the principal condition of citizens’ wellbeing.
Absurd of Predetermined Gender Roles in Literature This essay aims to analyze “The Importance of Being Earnest,” “Blood Relations,” and “Essay” to argue for the absurdity of predetermined gender roles in society.
Gender Quotas in Saudi Arabia: Unpacking the Political Conditions Talking about gender quotas and their sociology, it is interesting to take a look at the example of Saudi Arabia. It is the seemingly most unexpected place to introduce a policy.
Perkin-Gilman’s Feminist Theory and View on Gender Discrimination In “The Yellow Wallpaper”, Gilman depicts in novel structure how the house turns into a women’s jail and how being shut in could lead to mental distress in women.
Discussion of Gender and Society Themes in Films The paper discusses gender and society themes in “The Power of Categories”, “How to Survive a Plague”, “Intersexion” and “The Edge Of Gender”.
Gender-Oriented Products: Branding and Marketing Marketing of gender-oriented products should be more gender-neutral oriented because to be efficient in the market, the brand needs to meet the changing social requirements.
Gender and Entrepreneurship Relations This paper analyzes how different factors affect both men and women in deciding to become entrepreneurs. Marital status is a significant factor for entrepreneurial women.
Sexism & Gender Wage Gap: Deconstructing the Myths A recent Harvard study reveals that the gender earnings gap is primarily associated with the amount of time one works.
Gender Discrimination as an Ethical Issue Society is related to discrimination, inequality, and ethical injustice due to the increasing rates of incompetence incidence based on racial, gender, or ethnic affiliation.
Sexual Agency: The Gender Politics of Campus Sex Sexual agency is the ability to make decisions freely in situations that involve a sexual context. It is the choice of whether one wants to engage in sexual activity.
Gender-Related Barriers to E-commerce Adoption in the UAE The work diagnoses the problem of low E-Commerce adoption among Emirati women by identifying barriers and proposing possible strategies and tactics for removing them.
Representing Islam: Racial and Gender Identities For African women, racial and ethnic identities are potentially viewed as their sources of discrimination, which have had a detrimental influence on social interactions.
Gender, Race, and Trade Unions It can be noted that there are particular strategies, which can be applied when gender or racial discrimination happens.
Comparison of Gender Differences in Communication Considering a number of biological, evolutionary, social, and historical aspects, men and women tend to prove different psychological and behavioral patterns.
Gender Gaps in Student Academic Achievement The following research paper will focus on the issue discussed by Tsai et al. in “Gender gaps in student academic achievement and inequality.”
Gender Roles Within Greek Society Gender roles in Greek society were determined by social and cultural traditions, position of women in society and their significance as citizens.
Advertising and Gender Roles Mass media, especially television imposes certain stereotypes on our consciousness and the most interesting thing is that we take these stereotypes as examples.
Gender Roles and Psychological Health The emergence of traditional gender roles and the images of masculinity and femininity can be regarded as an attempt to organize society and create stable social structures.
Chapter 12 of Introduction to Women’s and Gender Studies by Gills & Jacobs Chapter 12 of “Introduction to Women’s and Gender Studies” by Gills & Jacobs made me think that feminism is often misunderstood due to the diversity of opinion.
Gender Discrimination Topic for Research Gender discrimination is a social phenomenon based on cultural practices that set a glass ceiling to women in many aspects of life.
Male Gender Role in the Chinese Workplace The expectations placed on males are very high, given that a man is viewed as both the protector and the provider in the Chinese culture.
Sex and Gender as a Social Phenomenon The paper establishes the differences between sex and gender; defines the term of gender identity; interprets gender from the viewpoint of every sociological angle.
The Five-Factor Theory, Personality, and Gender Freud developed the psychosocial stages of human development. It begins at childhood to adulthood. The primary concern in his study was that people grow through various stages.
Behavioral Learning Approach and Gender-Role Behavior Individuals learn particular behaviors when influenced by various environmental factors associated with specific macro- and micro-social contexts.
Gender-Neutral Upbringing: Reasonable and Possible? The gender-neutral upbringing gains popularity. The paper finds out if it is reasonable to set the goal of gender-neutrality and if it can ever be accomplished.
Gender Roles in Cartoons Most people believe that children can use the portrayals of gender in cartoons arrangement to establish their roles of their gender and to understand their roles in their culture.
Gender is a Role, not a Biological Sex, and it is Cultural Gender identity differs from person’s sexual orientation or biological sex, it is rather a social role which an individual links himself/herself to.
How Gender Norms and Stereotypes Contribute to Inequality in Society Over the years, the United States and other countries around the world have faced inequality issues. They arise from different factors.
A Critical Analysis of Gender Dynamics in Glaspell’s ‘Trifles’
Gender Dynamics in American Slavery
Plato vs. Wollstonecraft on Education and Gender Relations
Gender: Navigating State, Religion and Gender
The Role of Gender in Gilman’s “The Yellow Wallpaper”
Chapter 5 “Gender” of “The Family” by Cohen
Examples of Employment Discrimination: Gender, Age, Race, & Others
Gender Roles in Dual-Income Families
Racial Formation and Gender Performance in “13th”
Gender: The Social Roles of Men and Women
The Autism-Gender Relationship Analysis
Sexual and Gender-Based Violence
How Societies Construct Gender Identities, Sexual Practices, and Gendered Bodies
The Gender-Based Pay Inequality Factors
Gender Inequality in “The Yellow Wallpaper”, “A Rose for Emily”, and “Trifels”
Gender Differences in the Prevalence and Characteristics of Pain in Spain
Gender in Sophocles’ Tragedy Antigone
Gender and Students’ Performance
Gender Intersectionality: Fighting Discrimination
The Gender Pay Gap and Coping Strategies
Gender Socialization During the First 12 Years of Life
Heart Disease Risk Profiles and Gender Differences
“Gender Disparity in Students’ Choices…” by Zhang et al.
Gender Diversity Within and Beyond School Contexts
Analyzing Gender Bias in the Fire Department
Forum: Gender and Gender Roles
The Role of Gender in Social and Moral Development
Embracing Gender Identity: Pursuing a Fulfilling and Authentic Life
Smoking and Gender Factors of Lung Cancer
Discussion: Race, Gender, and Science
Gender Identity and Correctional Institutions
Global Gender Inequality and Its Main Trends
Gender and Sexuality in the United States History
Gender Differences in Schizophrenia
Gender, Labor, and Power in the Global Apparel Industry by Jane L. Collins
Shifting Gender Politics in Fashion and Textiles
The Influence of Gender and Power Disparities on the Workplace
Gender Equality: Language and Literature
Gender Norms’ Impact on Men and Women
Sociology of Race, Gender, Identity, and Sexuality
The Relationship Between Gender and GPA
Gender Inequality for Men and Women
Critical Areas in Women and Gender Studies
The Types of Law Violations: Gender Effects
Race, Sex, and Gender in Cultural Anthropology
Gender as a Social Construct and Related Issues
Gender Equality in Daily Life: Fictional Works Analysis
The Gender Concept and Its Impact on Health and Wellness
The US History, Markets, Geography, and Gender Politics
Gender Inequality Among Women in Canada
Gender Equality Cannot Be a Universal Concept
The Gender-Based Marketing and Its Negative Sides
Importance of Gender Reveal Ultrasound
The Gender Pay Gap Problem: Why Women Earn Less
Age and Gender Stratification in Older Adults
Gender Role Differences and Immigration
Sexuality and Gender-Related Behavior During Adolescence
Society’s Conception of Gender Roles in Media
Health Care Disparities: Race and Gender
Gender Differences and Self-Esteem in Exact Sciences
Issues Associated With Gender and Incarceration
The Gender Influence on the Language of Communication
The Issue of Gender Inequality in Kenya
Gender Stereotypes in Academic and Family Settings
Gender Stereotype in Advertisement
What Will Happen When AI Picks Up Social Biases About Gender?
Gender Roles in the Boys Don’t Cry Movie
Gender Stereotypes Have Changed by Eagly et al.
Housing Discrimination Across Race, Gender, and Felony History
Racial and Gender Macroaggression in the White College Campus
Aspects of Society in Relation to Gender and Sex
Gender Identity Development
Race and Gender in 17th-18th Century American Colonies
“Glass Ceiling” in the Theory of Gender Studies
Historical Review of Gender Inequality in the USA
Gender, Sexuality, Power Relations, and Social Expectations
Disability: Social Origin and the Role of Aging, Gender, and Race
Ethics: Discourses of Love and Gender
Toxic Masculinity and Gender Equality in the US
Aspects of Parenting and Gender Roles
Gender Diversity in Organizations
Telephone Culture and Role of Gender Differences
Social Work Assignment: Gender, Money, and the Charity Organization Society
Gender Roles in a Modern Society
Issues of Female Gender in Modern World
Gender Roles in Advertisements
Discussion of Race and Gender Identity
Ethnicity, Race, and Gender as Social Constructs
Gender in Workplace and Induction Case Study
Gender Ideology in the 1930s by Alice Kessler-Harris
Women in Business and Gender Diversity Policy
Gender and Sexual Scripts in the American Culture
Gender Identity Evolution and Its Results
Gender Disparity in Citations in High-Impact Journal Articles
Social Constructs of Race and Gender
Data, Technology, Gender, and Society
Gender Roles in Trifles Play by Susan Glaspell
Gender and Sexuality in Modern Society
Gil’s Idea of the Paradoxical Body and Gender Constitution and Concerning Black Identity
The Labels Adolescents Use to Describe Their Gender Identity
Discussion of Sex, Gender, and Culture
Gender Differences in Aggression
Gender Inequality in Social Inequality
Fair Treatment of Both Genders and John Rawls’ Theory of Justice
Intersection of Disability Justice, Race, and Gender
Gender Differences in the Dream Content of Children and Adolescents
Gender Equality Strategies in Education
Issues of Sex and Gender in Society Today
Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, and Citizenship
Discussion of Gender Roles in Modern World
Gender, Emotional Labor, Harm, and Safety
Gender and Ethnic Diversity in Leadership
Gender Equality: Do Women Have Equal Rights?
The Inclusivity of Language: Gender Issues
Gender Diversity: Impact on the Organizational Performance
Gender Equality in the Media Workforce
Nature-Nurture Debate of Gender Identity
Intersectionality in Gender and Sexual Differences
Gender Stereotypes and Their Role in Advertising
Gender Education: Sociological Review
The Gender-Neutral Conceptualization of Parenting
Global Misunderstanding of the Idea of Feminism and Gender Equality
How Gender, Race, and Class Impact Criminality Levels
Sex and Gender Equality in a Personal Worldview
Gender Pay Gap for Women: The Main Causes
Gender Stereotyping at Workplaces
Researching of Gender and Work-Life Balance
The Problem of Gender Stereotypes
The Politics of Gender and Race in the Ilbert Bill Controversy
Gender Norms and Contemporary Culture
Gender Pay Gap Problem Overview
Gender and Ethnic Diversity in Healthcare
Gender Pay Gap in the Modern Society
Expanding Reach: Addressing Gender Barriers in COVID-19 Vaccine Rollout
Gender Dysphoria in Adolescents
Gender, Power, Privilege, and Feminism in the USA
Gender Impact on Societies Worldwide
Occupational Gender Segregation and Its Causes
Gender Equality as Smart Economics’ Policy Agenda
Marketing and Interaction Through Social Media Platforms and Gender Inequalities
Social Construction of Race and Gender in the United States and Brazil
Discussion of Gender Bias in Research
Social Construction of Gender. Sociology in Modules
“Women’s Assessments of Gender Equality Critique” by Kurzman
Gender Messages From Social Institutions: Family, School, and Mass Media
Gender-Role Attitudes: Society Values & Standards
Role of Ideology and Institutions in Gender Inequality
Gender and Communication in “Modern Family” by Lloyd
Discusses of the Role of Gender in the Employment
Culture, Gender, and Price in Consumer Behavior
Doing Genders: Social Constructs of Gender
Vision of Gender Stratification in an Advertisement
Relationship Between Gender and Death Anxiety
Families, Gender Relations and Social Change in Brazil
The Problems of Gender Inequality
Implications of Current Gender Expectations
Racial and Gender Disparities Among Evicted Americans
What Makes an Ideal Society? Revolutionary Ideas for Gender Equality
Gender Differences in Public Health
Integration of Gender Equality in Organizational Management
“Gender Gap in Academic Seminar Questions” by Pells
Gender Representation in American Pop Culture
Gender Inequality Articles by Beaumont vs. Eigenberg
Age and Gender Discrimination in the Workplace
Evolution, Not Revolution: Gender Law and Women Rights in Saudi Arabia
Qualitative Research on the Gender Perception of E-Commerce
Gender and Racial Socialization
“Gender Wage Gap”: The Pay Disparity Issue
Factors that Contribute to the Housework Gender Gap
Gender Inequality in Ohio’s Education and Labor Market
Gender Differences in the Treatment and Outcomes of Patients With ACSs
The Effects of Gender on Child Obesity
Gender Pay Gap: Making Change With Civil Disobedience
Intersectionality of Religion with Gender, Race, and Class
Gender Identity in Life-Span Development
Gender Norms, Roles, and Stereotypes: Act Analysis
Embracing Equality: Gender in Medieval Europe
Gender Effect on the Growth of Nursing as a Knowledge-Based Profession
Oppressive Gender Norms and Roles
Intersectionality of Gender With Race, Culture, and Politics
Sex and Gender Beyond the Binaries
Job Limitation and Gender Sensitivity
Queer Representation of Gender and Sexual Non-Conformity
Gender: Do People Choose Their Sexual Orientation?
Gender Equality: Men as Daycare Professionals
Gender and Sexual Labeling
“Is Gender Equality the Silent Killer of Marriages?” Article Analysis
Dominant Parenting Styles: Gender-Differentiated Parenting Revisited
Trans Individuals’ Sexual and Gender Identities
Household Composition and Gender Differences
Factors of the Gender Pay Gap
Woman and Gender Equality in Canada
‘Sex Under Pressure: Jerks, Boorish Behavior, and Gender Hierarchy’ by S. A. Anderson
Challenging Gender Norms: Personal Experience
Gender Norms in Different Cultures
Racial and Gender Diversity in Hollywood
Gender Issues in the Us Correctional System
Gender Inequality in Modern Societies and Its Reasons
Racial and Gender Issues in Modern Society
Gender-Assigned Social Norms: Male Socialization Experiences
Gender Identity in Athletics: “The Battle Over Title IX and Who Gets to Be a Woman in Sports”
Hispanic Community: Alcohol & Substance Abuse Among the Female Gender Population
Gender Stratification and Divorce Trends
The Article About Gender Gap and Delinquency
Gender, Sex, and Sexuality in the U.S.
Gender Stigmas: From the Past to the Present
The Impact of Gender on Pay and Their Gap
Sociological Issues About Social Class and Poverty, Race and Ethnicity, Gender
Ethical Dilemma of Worldwide Gender Equality
Human Rights and Gender Issues: “The Love Suicides at Amijima” & “Tale of Kieu”
Racial, Ethnic and Gender Categories in the U.S. Census
“Gender and Education” by David, Ball, Davies, and Reay
Childhood Gender Analysis: Factors Influencing Gender Perception
Gender Dysphoria in Adolescents and Adults
Gender Conflict in “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston
Primetime TV Shows and Gender Portrayals
Finding the Link Between Gender and Sexuality
Gender in Perception of Barriers to E-commerce in UAE
Gender as a Role, Cultural and Not Biological
Images and Messages Patterns About Gender Given by Advertisers in Mass Media
Gender and Cultural Factors in Risky Behavior Among Adolescents in the US and Asia
Formation of Sexual Identity, Sexual Customs and Gender Bodies
The Role of a Gender in the Media
Influence of Gender and Race on Our Life Experiences
Gender & Politics in Post- Modernist Society
Gender Representation: Term Definition
Identities, Gender & Sexuality: Linguistic Anthropology
Gender Differences in Agressive Behavior
What Ideas About Gender & Sexuality Are Communicated by Contemporary Fashion Images?
Gender Ideology in the U.S. and Japan
Transnationalism Issues: Migration and Gender
Representation of Australian Indigenous Sex and Gender
Gender Construction and Heterosexism
Gender Socialization of Children
The Issue of Gender Pay Discrimination in Canada
Gender Differences in Depressive Symptoms
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: An Etiquette Without Gender Discrimination Terms
Religious and Biological Approaches of Gender and Nature
Interrelation of Gender and Contemporary Society: Madonna
Gender and Cultures in Conflict Resolution
Issues in Sports: Gender Equality
Communicative Features of Gender-Neutral Language
The Problem of Gender Identity Disorder
Leadership and Gender Relations Analysis
The Importance of Gender in Marketing
Female Gender and Changes over the Last 150 Years
Gender Hierarchy in English Language
Gender Symbols Usage in International Family-Oriented Marketing
Gender Inequality in Democratic Welfare States
Misconceptions of Gender and Migration Issues
Gender, Race and Class in American Television
Development of Voting Rights of Religious, Socioeconomic Groups, Gender, and Racial Minorities
Gender Question in O’Connor and Williams’ Novels
Race and Gender: Dimensions of Power
Gender and Sexuality in “The Exorcist” Film
Gender as a Social Process: Theoretical Foundation
Race and Gender in Public Relations
Discrimination Against Racial and Gender Minorities
Gender in “The Chrysanthemums” by John Steinbeck
Gender Differences in Financial Knowledge
Value of Genders in Society: Agents of Socialization
Gender Stereotyping in American Media
Gender and the Rights of Women in Morocco and Saudi Arabia
Gender in the Saudi Arabian Educational Setting
Gender Norm Violation Study: Evaluating Impact on the Society
Economic Benefits of Gender Equality in the European Union
Gender Studies. “A Cyborg Manifesto” by Haraway
Gender Issues and the U.S. Constitutional Law: Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. v. Dukes et al.
Race and Gender in Public Relations Field
Gender Discrimination and Intervention Program
Gender Pay Gap as a Serious Social Issue
Gender Equality in Jackson’s “The Lottery”
Gender Stereotypes of the US Women
Gender Stereotypes: Data Presentation Strategy
Data Analysis Proposal: Gender Stereotypes
Gender Stereotypes: Research Question
Issue of Gender Discrimination in Different Societies
Gender Roles and Social Groups
Social Experiment: Informal Norms of Gender Issues
Gender Studies: The Queer of Color Theory
Narration and Gender: Hardy’s The Mayor of Casterbridge, Burney’s Evelina, Winterson’s Sexing the Cherry
Gender Stereotypes in Family and Academic Settings
Diversity and Society: Race, Ethnicity and Gender
Gender Identification in Coed Dormitories
The Gender Stereotypes in the Workplace
Gender Identities Within the Farm Family
Preventative Care Depending on Age and Gender
Gender Differences in Managerial Behavior
Gender Equity and Social Justice in Schoolchildren
Gender-Based Social Responsibilities and Structure
Transgender and Gender Non-Conforming Children
Community Health Status: Development, Gender, Genetics
Gender Stereotypes in Family: Research Methods
Homonationalism and Gender Identity in Catholicism
Global Sense: Female Leadership and Gender Equity
Gender-Based Discrimination during Surgical Training
Gender Inequality as an International Issue
The Fifth Element: Gender and Sexuality in Cinema
Gender Studies and Feminization in Education
Gender Stereotyping in Athletic Management
Gender Roles in “Herland” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman
Emotion Perception and Gender Factor in Stress
Gender Stereotypes in Families: Parents’ Gender Roles and Children’s Aspirations
Gender Stereotypes Formation in Children
Parents’ Gender Roles and Children’s Aspirations
ANOVA Research: Person’s Gender and Level of Education
Gender Stereotypes Developed Within Families
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Sexism and Gender: Culture and Conflict Reflection
Pauli Murray’s Advocacy for Civil and Gender Rights
Gender Stereotypes’ Effects Career and Mental Health
Gender, Race and Sexuality Issues in Society
Gender Mainstreaming of European Union Institutions
Gender in Fiction and Sociological Literature
Gender Stereotyping among Children
Does the Gender Pay Gap Still Exist?
Women’s Views on Long-Existing Gender Stereotypes
Racial Gender Inequality in the United States
Promotion and Gender: Scenario Analysis
Women’s Stereotypes of Gender Roles Distribution
Gender Stereotypes in Women’s Opinion Study
The Gender Differences Concept
Gender in Arab Politics, State and Business
Gender Discrimination and Equality Promotion at Work
Gender-Neutral Schools in Sweden
Gender Stereotyping Experiment: The Level of Gender Stereotyping in Society
Sex, Gender, and Inequalities
Gender Dysphoria: Classification, Causes and Treatment
Gender Inequality in India and Iran Politics
Do Child Toys Restrict Criteria for Gender?
Gender Studies: Same-Sex Marriage
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Female Gender Bias in College
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Understanding Human Rights: Labor Rights in a Globalizing World and Gender Rights
Gender Identity: Promotion of Equality for Sexual Orientation
Global Inequality: Gender, Racial and Ethnic Inequality
Gender Studies: Same Sex Marriages
Are Females the Only Gender Discriminated Against?
Are Gender Roles and Relationships More Equal in Modern Family Life?
What Are Examples of Gender Issues?
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Why Does Gender Stratification Exist?
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How Gender Roles Has Changed Over the Last Centuries?
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How Does Graham Greene Explore Gender Representation in Brighton Rock?
What Is the Difference Between Sex and Gender?
Does Men’s Fashion Reflect Changes in Male Gender Roles?
Does Mulan Overthrow Oppressive Gender Norms?
Is Gender Diversity Good for Business?
What Does Gender Representation Mean?
Did the First World War Represent an Irrevocable Crisis of Gender in the UK?
How Is Gender Represented in Advertisements?
What Are the Stages of Gender Transition?
Can Additional Training Help Close the ADHD Gender Gap?
Are Gender Stereotypes Perpetuated in Children’s Magazines?
Are Gender Roles Defined by Society or by Genetics?
What Are the Three Gender Identities?
What Is Gender Identity and Why Is It Important?
How Does Bullying Affect People Based on Gender or Race?
Women’s Rights in Conflict Zones
The Role of Women in STEM Fields
Prevalence of Violence against Women in the US
Strategies for Equality in Leadership and Politics
How Can Women Achieve Work-Life Balance?
Women’s Empowerment and Economic Development
Gender-Related Factors Influencing Women’s Earnings
Healthcare Access, Quality, and Reproductive Rights of Women
Gender Stereotypes’ Impact on Women’s Opportunities
The Overlapping Identities and Challenges of Diverse Women.
Intersectionality and Experiences of Gender
The Struggle for Equality and LGBTQ+ Rights
Comparison of Gender-Specific Challenges and Stigmas
Strategies for the Elimination of Gender Wage Gap
How Access to Healthcare Relates to Reproductive Justice
Why Are Women Underrepresented in Positions of Power?
Toxic Masculinity and its Harmful Effects on Men and Society
Gender Disparities and Promotion of Inclusivity in Schools
The Influence of Culture and Media on Gender Roles and Socialization
Gender Discrimination, Harassment, and Bias in the Workplace

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Gender in Sports: Challenges, Impacts and Pathways to Equity

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Gender bias in sports is a longstanding issue that affects athletes and women in leadership positions across all levels of competition. Despite significant progress in gender equity initiatives, disparities persist in media coverage, funding, sponsorship, coaching opportunities, and leadership roles. The bias not only impacts the visibility and financial support for women but also influences their psychological well-being, career longevity, and overall experience in sports. This Research Topic aims to address the critical problem of gender bias in sports. It seeks to provide a platform for analyzing the effects of gender bias on athletes, leadership positions, and sports organizations. It aims to explore the role of media and cultural perceptions in perpetuating gender disparities, as well as evaluate and highlight effective policies and initiatives that have successfully promoted gender equity. By gathering diverse perspectives and evidence-based research, this collection strives to identify practical strategies for overcoming gender bias and promoting inclusivity within sports environments. The ultimate goal is to foster dialogue, inform policy-making, and inspire actionable solutions that will contribute to reducing gender disparities and advancing equity in sports at all levels. This Research Topic invites contributions that explore various aspects of gender bias in sports, including but not limited to: • Disparities in media representation and coverage • Inequities in funding, sponsorships, and resource allocation • Gender differences in coaching opportunities and leadership roles • Psychological impacts of gender bias on athletes • Economic analysis of gender disparities in professional sports, the Olympic Games, and the Paralympic Games • Intersectional perspectives on gender bias We welcome all types of manuscripts and papers focusing on underrepresented groups, innovative solutions, and practical applications are particularly encouraged.

Keywords : Gender bias, sports equity, professional sports, amateur sports, collegiate sports, economic impact, intersectionality, media representation, psychological effects, policy initiatives, pay gap, leadership

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08-25-2024 WORK LIFE

Development aid helps to fight gender inequality. Here are 5 research-backed steps to take

The benefits of empowering women extend far beyond the immediate recipients of gender-related aid, fostering economic growth, political stability, and social cohesion.

[Source Photo: Pixabay ]

BY The Conversation 4 minute read

Gender inequality isn’t just unfair—it’s also a drag on the world economy . Giving women the same economic opportunities as men would add about US$12 trillion to global gross domestic product by 2025, one analysis found. That’s an 11% boost.

The link between women’s empowerment and economic growth is well established. When women are economically empowered, they invest more in their families, creating a cycle of positive outcomes that spans generations . Women’s participation in the workforce leads to greater productivity and brings diverse perspectives that enhance decision-making and drive innovation .

Recognizing these benefits, governments and nongovernmental organizations have increasingly directed aid —funds provided to developing countries to foster economic growth—toward promoting women’s empowerment.

As an economist who studies development , I wanted to know: Does all that money really make a difference? So, in a recent study , my colleagues and I analyzed the impact of gender-related aid on gender inequality using data from 118 countries over a 13-year period, from 2009 to 2022.

What we found was uplifting: Gender-related aid reduced inequality in most countries we studied.

We looked at two types of gender-related aid. The first is funding for projects that tie gender into larger economic goals. Development experts call this “ significant gender-related aid .” There’s also aid funding that narrowly and explicitly targets gender equality. Experts call this “principal gender-related aid.”

We found that the first approach consistently and significantly reduced gender inequality in 115 out of 118 counties we studied. The latter approach had statistically significant effects in 85 countries. It also appeared to be much more effective when paired with the first approach.

Our findings strongly suggest that integrating gender-related aid into broader development efforts is crucial for promoting gender equality. Gender and development are intricately intertwined, a fact often overlooked. Recognizing this connection is crucial for achieving sustainable and inclusive growth.

Women’s empowerment success stories

That might all sound pretty abstract, but our research shows that the world has made progress in real people’s lives over the past decades. Cases from several countries show just how much progress is possible:

Rwanda: Following the 1994 genocide, Rwanda made a concerted effort to rebuild its society with gender equality at its core. Today, women hold 61% of parliamentary seats , the highest percentage in the world . This remarkable achievement is in part a direct result of gender-focused policies and significant investments in women’s political empowerment. Rwanda’s progress illustrates how political will and dedicated gender-related aid can transform a society .

Bangladesh: Despite traditional gender roles, Bangladesh has made significant strides in gender equality , particularly in education and economic participation . Through targeted programs like the Female Secondary School Stipend Program and microfinance initiatives by organizations like the Grameen Bank, Bangladesh has seen substantial improvements in girls’ education and women’s economic empowerment. These initiatives have contributed to a decline in gender disparities and have spurred economic growth.

Ethiopia: In recent decades, Ethiopia has invested heavily in education , particularly for girls. Programs aimed at increasing school enrollment and reducing dropout rates among girls have led to improved literacy rates and better health outcomes. These educational advancements have empowered women economically and socially, reducing gender inequality .

Despite progress made, these achievements aren’t set in stone. Instability can rapidly undo years of progress. Recent policy backsliding in Afghanistan , Brazil and the United States shows the need for vigilance.

Empowering women empowers men, too

Discussions about the importance of reducing gender inequality often revolve around the direct benefits to women and girls. But everyone, including men, stands to win in a more gender-equal society.

First, women’s economic empowerment leads to stronger economies , which benefits everyone. Research shows that gender equality promotes healthier relationships, reduces violence and fosters more cohesive and supportive communities . Similarly, workplaces prioritizing gender equality tend to have better team dynamics, higher employee satisfaction and increased productivity . These are gains for everyone, regardless of gender.

And gender equality has distinct benefits for men. This is because it alleviates the pressures associated with traditional masculinity , which can lead to better mental health. For example, in more gender-equal societies, men report being happier with life and less stressed and depressed .

This shows that the benefits of gender equality aren’t limited to women and girls; they extend to all members of society. Everyone has a stake in helping progress move along.

Research-backed best practices

Governments and aid professionals should follow five steps for success to safeguard the advances made in gender equality and continue progressing:

1. Keep the aid flowing: Continued financial and technical support for gender equality initiatives is vital. Our research suggests policymakers should focus on integrating gender considerations into all development projects.

2. Engage everyone: Involving men and boys in gender equality efforts helps to challenge and change harmful gender norms, fostering a more inclusive society.

3. Tailor strategies: Although aid has an effect across the board, gender equality initiatives must consider each country’s unique sociopolitical and cultural contexts. Tailoring strategies to fit these contexts ensures that interventions are relevant and practical .

4. Strengthen institutions: Effective institutions and governance are crucial for successfully implementing and sustaining gender equality initiatives. Efforts to improve governance and reduce corruption will enhance the impact of aid

5. Promote education: Schools are a powerful tool for promoting gender equality. Investing in educational programs that empower women and girls and raise awareness about gender issues is essential for long-term change .

Gender equality is a cornerstone of a just and prosperous society. The benefits of empowering women extend far beyond the immediate recipients of gender-related aid, fostering economic growth, political stability and social cohesion. Our research shows that efforts to empower women really do pay off—literally and otherwise.

Bedassa Tadesse is a professor of economics at the University of Minnesota Duluth .

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article .

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Why research is important to attaining gender equality

Author: guest contributor.

In honor of International Women's Day (March 8th) we're highlighting the expertise and experience of a few of our female authors whose own research investigates topics related to gender equality. Here we're sharing a guest blog from Mousumi Dutta, Professor and Head of the Economics Department at Presidency University in Kolkata, India. Plus, explore Springer Nature's new SDG5 hub for more discussions around gender equality.

Written by Mousumi Dutta

Addressing SDG5 in research: a personal experience

My interest on gender issues was aroused in 2009. I had been invited to be associated with a Rosa Luxemburg Society-funded study on “Women, Work and Education”. I had to analyse the data on women workers in the IT sector. Although the respondents were highly educated, and were earning high wages, I was surprised at how their agency was constrained in the domain of the working area and within their home.

Subsequently, in my research, I have analysed the dynamics of gender relations and disparity in domains of education, health, and labour market to examine how gender discrimination has evolved in the current millennium. Results reveal some positive signs. In school level education, for instance, the gender gap in enrolment and completion rate of primary, secondary, and high school levels has decreased. In urban areas, a child who completes secondary school is more likely to complete high school if the child is a girl. Another interesting insight is that, while gender disparities do exist in economically and socially backward communities like the Muslim community, such disparities are less than within advantaged socio-religious groups.

Failures, however, far outweigh the successes. In the labour market, there is considerable gender-based occupational segregation. Women workers are concentrated in low paying sectors; further, their earnings are below that of male workers, after accounting for factors like education and experience. Glass ceilings exist even in high paying sectors, like the Information Technology and Information Technology Enabled Sector. Using National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) data, we estimated that the country lost 1.13% of GDP in 2011-12 because of gender-based segregation in the Indian labour market. Women workers complain that, on one hand they are expected to play the role of caregiver; while, on the other, they have to conform to work patterns defined by male workers.

The vulnerability of women increases during moments of crises.

In one of our recent studies funded by The International Growth Centre (IGC) we found that, during the lockdown to contain COVID-19, the number of food groups consumed by women decreased significantly in rural Bihar. Consequently, a lower proportion of women attain the Minimum Dietary Diversity norm of consuming at least four food groups.

While researchers have traditionally focused on how male members act to control the agency of women, it is also time to investigate the complexities of intra-household relationships. Another IGC funded study by us observed that mothers-in-law attended meetings of Self-Help Groups instead of members; they became gatekeepers controlling the flow of information from grass root health workers to their daughters-in-law, ensuring conformity to traditional norms relating to reproductive health, fertility, and dietary practices.

Measuring gender equality

Since, gender discrimination is a multi-dimensional phenomenon, progress on this front has to be assessed using indicators in different fields. Fortunately, there are many such indicators that may be evaluated to assess the fields where we are lagging behind. For instance, NSSO releases information on work force participation, male and female wages, and educational attainments every five years. Decadal Census provides information on sex ratio—for children in the age group 0-6 years, and for the entire population; this data is supplemented by Sample Registration Survey every year. Census also provides information on work force participation, and education levels disaggregating the data by gender, age groups and by social groups. Information on consumption of major food groups, anaemia, contraception use, violence and empowerment levels in different domains are provided in National Family Health Surveys. So, it is not that information is not there. Rather researchers need to utilise this rich data base and provide meaningful cutting-edge policy-centric research to highlight the progress with respect to gender disparity.

Engaging with policy makers

Unfortunately, the body of research that has been produced in the field of gender has rarely tried to engage with policy makers but focused simply on publishing.

One reason for this is that policy makers are hostile to any whiff of criticism, and are often harsh to academic researchers, dismissing their work as ivory tower intellectualism.

Researchers must rise to the challenge and evolve new forms of disseminating their idea. While blogs are becoming popular, researchers may also think of posting videos of five minutes’ duration, bringing out the highlights of their work. Further, instead of a frontal attack on Government policies, researchers should acknowledge the ground level realities that constrain the actions of policy makers and executive bodies implementing policy decisions. A sympathetic portrayal of how policy makers and executive officers try to implement decisions can gradually win over their confidence and get rid of the image of researchers as highbrows indulging in Government baiting.

While researchers may look down upon such efforts at populism, they should realise that they have a social obligation. While it is true that funds to research have dried up in recent years, one reason for this is the failure of academics to produce socially meaningful and policy relevant research. We should realise that the country has invested a lot in education — in absolute terms, at least. Monitoring the country’s progress towards meeting the Sustainable Development Goal of gender equality is one way of paying back our debt to society.

Explore Springer Nature's new SDG5 hub dedicated to gender equality

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Articles on Equality in sport

Displaying all articles.

The Paris Olympics celebrated the gender-equal games. The picture isn’t so rosy for women Paralympians

Georgia Munro-Cook , Griffith University

‘Play well, win well’: new Australian sports chair Kate Jenkins faces challenges and opportunities

Lisa Gowthorp , Bond University

Women in Formula One: how the sport is trying to redress its longstanding lack of support for female drivers and staff

Paolo Aversa , King's College London

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Published: 23 August 2024

Tackling gender disparities in energy research: a diagnostic tool for equality in research centres

Sara Sánchez-López 1 ,
Rocío Poveda-Bautista 1 ,
Carmen Corona-Sobrino 2 ,
Paula Otero-Hermida 1 &
Mónica García-Melón 1

Energy, Sustainability and Society volume 14 , Article number: 51 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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In a case study in Spain, the unequal proportion of men and women in a research organization in the energy sector is severe, and long-established dynamics that might determine differences in access to leadership positions and inequalities in research careers are evident. The gender gap in historically masculinized fields, such as energy engineering reflects more than simply the differences in male and female values and personalities. This study seeks to explore the gender gap in energy research centres and to identify barriers that potentially hinder the research careers of women. It proposes the development of a diagnostic tool, based upon indicators, to monitor and evaluate gender roles and inequalities in the management of research centres for identifying and addressing the dynamics and obstacles that hinder women's progress in the energy sector and their potential contribution to the field. This participatory multicriteria-based tool prioritizes the proposed indicators by their influence and importance in the context of energy research and applies it to the monitoring of a specific Spanish energy research centre.

The results are threefold: (i) the methodology is adaptable to different research centres; (ii) the analysis of indicators’ prioritization could lead to recommendations that should be addressed first; (iii) the diagnostic tool used in this in-depth case study of an energy research centre in Spain allowed results to be achieved in terms of gender dynamics. Two indicators stand out as the most relevant in our analysis: gender diversity in leadership positions and uncomplicated application of work–life balance measures. In this case study, the measurement of the first indicator has drawn unsatisfactory results, and the research of the latter is considered still insufficient. In conclusion, this difference becomes a vicious or negative circle for attracting and retaining more women to the research centre. Despite these results, no gender gap seems to be recognized and thus, no measures are being taken to improve the situation.

Conclusions

Comprehensive data and contextualized monitoring are necessary to effectively study and enhance the presence and participation of women in the energy science sector. This approach, combining quantitative and qualitative techniques, is suitable for any research centre that would like to monitor its gender gap, identify potential sources of inequity and address them.

Globally, the limited access to energy disproportionately affects women [ 1 ] and highlights the importance of considering gender in discussions about fair energy distribution and its role in development [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ]. Despite this, the energy sector remains predominantly male-dominated. Not only do women face greater difficulties in accessing energy resources, but they also “continue to be an unrealized potential asset for the development of the energy sector” [ 6 ].

Women bring distinct economic and social capitals to the table [ 7 ], and lack of gender balance might not only be a matter of fairness and social justice, but could also be detrimental to innovative research. The involvement of women in the field of energy, and particularly in the context of sustainability [ 6 , 8 , 9 ], has been identified as pivotal for addressing emerging future advances, governance structures, and frameworks through which we might tackle the required issues, among others [ 10 ]. However, their participation remains limited not only to energy production, but also to the development of alternative consumption and production patterns [ 7 , 11 , 12 ]. This similarly occurs in the production of knowledge within the field where only 15.7 percent of energy scholarship authors have been women [ 13 ].

It is widely argued that one of the problems in an area like engineering or energy is the low number of women students. At a macro level, focusing on the case of Spain, where the study case is located, the proportion of women researchers in Spanish universities is 43.67% [ 14 ]. However, the main problem lies in the unequal distribution according to career progression, with only 25.6% of women reaching the highest category (full professor) and even more at the study phase. In the field of engineering, for instance, only 9% women are to be found in the highest category. In addition, only 52.4% of women have attained permanent positions in the system [ 14 ].

At the meso-level of the university institution examined, 31.98% of the staff are women [ 15 ], of which only 30% have attained permanent positions. In the area of engineering, this percentage drops to 21.39% of women researchers with permanent contracts [ 15 ]. Regarding the presence of women in public research centres in Spain, only 26.8% of women hold a permanent position working in the field of “natural resources”, which includes the energy sector [ 16 ]. This figure improves substantially in the initial categories with 57.7% of doctoral students being women [ 16 ]. Furthermore, in the case of the Spanish energy sector, only 22.2% of Spain’s scientific production on renewable energies in 2022 was led by women researchers [ 17 ].

While a significant body of literature and diverse approaches to addressing the scarcity of women in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) are available, a notable gap in the case of the energy sector is evident [ 10 , 13 , 18 ]. The presence and participation of women in the field of energy have been studied in boards and management groups of large energy companies [ 19 ], in decision-making processes in the renewable energy sector [ 20 ] or in energy policymaking [ 12 ]. However, to the best of our knowledge, gender roles and inequalities in the management of research energy centres aimed to address the gender gap remain unexplored in the scientific literature, and our study is the first that seeks to specifically address the monitoring of energy research centres.

Monitoring the gender gap in science: contextualization and indicators used at the organizational level

In Europe, gender gap monitoring in science, research and innovation is highly directed by European Union (EU) approaches. Specifically, the Strategic Vision of the European Research Area has set as a goal for 2030 that half of all scientific personnel, in all disciplines and at all levels of the scientific system, should be women. The aim is to break the horizontal and vertical segregation that currently exists in European science, especially in historically masculinized fields like energy [ 21 ]. Thus, EU members such as Spain have advanced legislation in this area to achieve the Strategic Vision of the European Research Area.

The indicators used to monitor policies in European reports, such as She Figures and their counterpart reports in Spain, tend to focus primarily on providing numbers of men and women. Therefore, despite its relevance, they have scarce information on how gender dynamics work in scientific and innovative working environments, where personnel perform their functions and interact on a daily basis [ 22 , 23 , 24 ].

The meso-organizational level is key in the “quality of equality” which means that inclusion is not merely having women but where—in which areas, in which roles—and how are they included [ 25 ] is essential; and where—without this information, it is not possible to understand why, for instance, many women leave engineering careers or whether women or other underrepresented collectives in the discipline have a similar wellbeing status.

The organizational level includes crucial issues for equal access and quality such as staff awareness of equality measures, the distribution of tasks and responsibilities, management of projects, recognition, work culture, work–life balance culture, and use of time or personnel selection. At this level, there is a concentration of conditioning factors to accumulate merits in a markedly meritocratic science system. In this context, which is depicted as neutral and universal within the meritocratic system, it becomes clear that the system is vulnerable to gender dynamics which apparently affects objective processes such as hiring and promotion [ 26 ] or the definition of academic excellence [ 27 ].

The organizational level is crucial in science development and the lack of indicators may result from intrinsic difficulties in gender monitoring. Monitoring is usually a synonym for quantitative approaches which often tends to focus on public information like how many of each sex are to be found. On the other hand, gender dynamics are difficult to capture without perception and other qualitative indicators [ 28 ] which are more difficult to operationalize, and which often require the preparation of surveys or choosing other methods like organizing focus groups to gather primary data. However, the effort can be worthwhile considering that monitoring is not unambiguous in its use and that indicators are not equally relevant. Monitoring can be applied to control policy development, distribute funding, compare organizations, or check the advance of some implemented measures, for instance. Those purposes and the ultimate justification, such as social justice or achieving efficiency, determine institutional logics that affected the final use of monitoring and resulted in different indicator panels which also reflects a different understanding of the issue that is monitored [ 23 ].

Measuring gender at the organizational level pursues some primary goals: diagnosis and learning. However, indicators receive their significance from institutional practices [ 29 ]. Thus, contextualized monitoring through gathering secondary and primary data, both quantitative and qualitative, is crucial and it becomes essential to go beyond “counting heads” [ 30 ] to understand not only the number of women present in energy research centres, but also the dynamics that hinder the development of women’s careers in these areas, i.e. the distribution of tasks, management, projects, and recognition. In Europe, gender gap indicators are focused on policy monitoring at the national level, while the organizational level still needs to be developed, which is another challenge to be addressed [ 23 ].

Contextualization or context-sensitive monitoring implies a better understanding of different levels as the centre and the research system provides in regards to the conditions of understanding research excellence, access to positions or research funding. This requires expert integration in the monitoring process, to interpret the relevance and cross-influence of the indicators, as is given in more detail in the methods part. Thus, it is crucial to include the context where gendered energy research takes place and to provide a systemic contextualization [ 12 ].

We developed a tool based upon performance indicators to monitor and evaluate gender roles and inequalities in research centres. The tool provides feedback to the literature review and quantitative and qualitative inputs at the organizational level which is a sensible step within the overall gender and science context, with a focus on Spain in this case. This perspective also facilitates the integration of the inherent complexity of measuring relational dynamics in organizations, which contributes to the gender gap [ 31 ]. The gender gap should be understood as a multi-dimensional concept: people involved, relational dynamics [ 31 ], and organizational culture. Therefore, it should be treated as a multi-criteria problem and studied using multi-criteria decision-making methods (MCDM). These methods are highly appreciated for developing monitoring tools [ 22 ], for example, the work of [ 32 ] where a multi-criteria decision model is used to measure sustainable energy development efficiency [ 22 ]. See [ 33 ] for more information on MCDM.

We propose a methodology for an in-depth study of research centres investigating energy-related issues. This methodology can be adapted to develop tools to monitor and diagnose different research centres and their specific contexts.

Our proposal will make three contributions to the energy research field: first, by presenting the possible indicators at the organizational level in research centres and a methodology to prioritize them according to the centre’s needs; second, by monitoring and presenting results of a specific research centre in the energy field; and third, by including recommendations to address the gender dynamics contributing to indicate gender gaps within the monitored centre.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows: “ Methodology ” section presents the research methodology and methods employed. “ Results ” section shows the results and “ Discussion ” section discusses the implications and is divided into the case of study recommendations and general contributions to the energy field. Finally, “ Conclusions ” section summarizes the conclusions of the research.

Methodology

The proposed methodological approach of this research is presented in Fig. 1 . It is developed through two main stages: the design of the general methodology and the application to a specific energy research centre.

Methodology diagram. The stages of the methodology correspond to the sections where these tasks are described in the paper

Our diagnostic tool is developed in two stages. The first is generic and useful for any public research organization. The second is specific to a particular research centre in the energy field. In other words, we obtain generic indicators that can be used to measure any organization and we adapt them to the context and then use them to monitor and diagnose a particular Spanish Energy Research Centre.

The goal of the first is to identify all the relevant perspectives and dimensions related to the gender gap and to determine a specific list of performance indicators to monitor and evaluate gender roles and inequalities in research centres. This general methodology employs an integrated MCDM-based approach using a combination of Decision-Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory (DEMATEL) and Analytic Network Process (ANP) to determine the most influential criteria for the gender gap in research centres. The combination of these two methodologies (DANP) is novel in the context of gender policies and integrates the benefits of both methods. ANP [ 34 ] allows us a full analysis of the influence of all the factors that make up a network (see [ 34 ] for more information on ANP). In addition, DEMATEL [ 35 ] permits a cause and effect analysis of the various network elements involved [ 36 , 37 ].

The aim of the second is to monitor the performance of a selected Spanish Energy Research Centre (ERC). All the indicators will be measured and analysed according to the results of importance and influence obtained for each.

This stage of the methodology has involved the thorough documentation of the institution itself (bibliometric indicators and other registered numerical indicators), as well as the document analysis of relevant scientific legislation. The analysis of hiring and promotion processes, among other variables, has entailed an in-depth examination of the laws and regulations governing these processes in Spain. A comprehensive study of documentation on Spanish state-level legislation and university organization was conducted to understand the specificities of the case study in the scientific context. A document analysis was carried out to analyse and perform an in-depth study of the chosen case study. Likewise, the content analysis of scientific Spanish legislation [ 38 ] and scientific reports [ 16 , 28 ] have also served methodologically when designing the script of the in-depth interviews. For methodological reasons, a binary gender system has been assumed in the construction of indicators and in the analysis of results. Nevertheless, in the sociodemographic questions of the questionnaire, the possibility of including other gender identities has been provided. This assumption of the binary system aims to facilitate both the research and the data interpretation. However, the authors are aware of the limitations posed by this binary approach and acknowledge the diverse expressions and identities that may manifest within such contexts.

Finally, some recommendations and guidelines will be addressed to the management team of the research centre in order to target their gender gap.

General methodology

Selection of indicators and relevant aspects.

Focusing on the selection of indicators, [ 22 ] proposed a list for Research and Innovation purposes from a Responsible Perspective for the Spanish context subsequent to an in-depth review of the existing indicators provided by relevant reports, such as the Responsible Research and Innovation (RRI) European Expert Group , the collection of She Figures EU reports, or the Spanish version of She Figures, Científicas en Cifras . Based on [ 22 ] study and previous knowledge, we developed a general, extensive list of indicators that should be considered in the analysis of the gender gap in research centres (Table 1 ). This preliminary list of indicators is organized into 6 main groups, which are the most common when analysing the gender gap in research centres.

Prioritization of indicators by experts

The DANP technique is used to evaluate the gender gap criteria (indicators), allowing us to rank these criteria in relation to the objective: evaluate gender roles and inequalities in research centres.

Selection of experts

Our methodology considers the inclusion of energy stakeholders, not only gender experts [ 39 ], in an interdisciplinary approach that combines experts from social sciences, politics, and engineering for methodological development. This interdisciplinary approach aligns with the underlying debate about the topic in energy studies [ 40 ].

The research team includes various types of experts, encompassing those dedicated to gender issues within the Spanish scientific system and engineers specializing in energy. The MCDM technique we use relies heavily on the quality, rather than the quantity, of these experts due to its semi-quantitative and expert-oriented nature [ 41 ]. It is vital that the experts display both a comprehensive understanding of the implications of their fields within the context of our case study and a holistic perspective on research centre activities. In order to ensure a comprehensive assessment, our DANP model requires multiple experts on each panel for cross-verification purposes. Our panel, comprised five individuals—one political scientist, one sociologist, and three engineers—was initially chosen to define the DANP model and validate context-based indicators suitable for any research centre. Recognizing the need to integrate the specific dynamics of the energy engineering sector, we expanded our expert panel by including two additional individuals with in-depth knowledge of the field of energy research. With a total of 7 experts, this panel evaluated context-based indicators, weighting them based on their impact on gender equity.

A detailed description of the cross-experience of our 7 experts is shown in Table 2

Model definition

The ranking model is built upon a network of criteria that have mutual influence. These criteria are derived from a literature review and the context is validated by the panel of 5 experts through a first participatory session.

The relevance of the indicators is heavily affected by the different contexts. The panel evaluates the criteria (indicators) integrating the context. Expert prioritization pinpoints the causal relations and diverse shapes of a specific problem that refuses to be measured.

The objective will be to identify which are important and which are crucial in the specific setting of the energy research centre within both the university and the Spanish research system, considering a panoramic view of the gathered data. This will contribute significantly to an interpretation of the results and the formation of recommendations. The aim is to tailor the general gender gap indicators for research centres (preliminary list) into indicators suitable for monitoring Spanish energy research centres (list of context-based indicators).

For this purpose, we designed a questionnaire that was used to ask the experts individually to elicit their judgements.

Application to a specific Energy Research Centre

Weighting and interactions of indicators.

After constructing the model and receiving validation from the experts, the DANP method is applied in five steps:

Step 1: Generation of Direct-Relation Matrix A. Firstly, measuring the relationship between criteria requires the design of a comparison scale on a 0–4 scale:

0 (no influence)

1 (low influence)

2 (medium influence)

3 (high influence)

4 (very high influence)

Next, experts make pairwise comparisons of the influences between the criteria. Then, the initial data are obtained as the direct-relation matrix. Matrix A is an nxn matrix in which aij denotes the degree to which criterion i affects criterion j .

Step 2: Normalizing the direct-relation matrix. On the basis of direct-relation matrix A , the normalized direct-relation matrix X can be obtained through equations:

where a ij is the values of the direct-relation matrix.

Step 3: Obtaining the total-relation matrix: T can be obtained by using (Eq. 5 ), in which the I is denoted as the identity matrix:

Step 4: Obtaining the causal diagram of the criteria. Parameters D and Rare obtained for each criterion from matrix T using the following equations:

The cause–effect diagram permits the analysis of the degree of prominence, given by the sum of D and R (horizontal axis), and the degree of cause or effect, given by the subtraction of D and R (vertical axis).

Step 5: Normalizing each column of the T matrix (unweighted) by its sum, we obtain the weighted supermatrix:

where w ij is the values of the weighted supermatrix and t ij is the values of the total-relation matrix.

Step 6: Calculating the limit matrix. In this step, the weighted matrix is multiplied by itself until all its columns become equal, i.e. the values converge, and the process ends. This way, each element’s individual influences on the network’s other elements are obtained from this limit supermatrix.

The criteria values are extracted from the vector of the limit supermatrix and normalized by the sum to obtain their final weights. In this way, we can obtain the criteria ranking, which will allow us to understand the decision profile of the experts.

After receiving individual assessment results of DANP, each expert validates her/his own results. If the results are unsatisfactory, she/he revises the results of the pairwise comparisons to ensure that the results are coherent with her/his knowledge and overall assessment.

Monitoring of the research centre

Online survey: primary data.

In addition to the personal interviews, an online survey was designed and circulated to reach as many people as possible within the organization. The study aimed to obtain qualitative and quantitative information to study the gender gap in Energy Research Centres and to identify barriers that potentially hinder the careers of women. Data were gathered through single and multiple choice, and open-ended questions by using Qualtrics software, Version July 2023. Copyright© 2023 Qualtrics. Gender and year of birth were requested for data analysis purposes but no information that would potentially identify the respondent was collected. The survey consisted of 20 questions addressing the level of seniority achieved, the perception of the formal and informal atmosphere of the organization, awareness of the equity plan, use of work–life balance measures, and experience in leading projects.

The survey was sent to the head of the research centre to be internally disseminated by email to all the workers of the institution. Our population is all the researchers who were registered as members of the ERC in May 2023, i.e. 48 people. A total of 36 people answered and, according to their distribution by professional category and gender, it was concluded that the sample was sufficiently representative. The only a priori bias detected was motivation, i.e. the proportion of women in relation to the total number of employees answering the questionnaire is higher than that of men. However, both gender groups are sufficiently represented.

The content validity of the survey was initially tested on a sample of 10 people from diverse academic backgrounds residing in Spain. The survey was adjusted by integrating the feedback received. The data from the pilot are not included in the results.

Databases: secondary data

The institutional database and the university’s website were consulted for information on the position, professional category, and academic merits (patents, scientific production, projects and other outcomes) of all the members of the research centre.

In-depth interviews: primary data

Twelve in-depth interviews (30–60 min long) were conducted with women and men in permanent and non-permanent positions at the centre (12 in total). The interviewees were selected based on a strategic selection of participants to ensure representativeness and to provide diverse and information-rich perspectives on the research topic. The distribution of interviewees corresponds to the structure of the energy engineering field itself, a highly masculine area as seen above.

The aim of the interviews was to obtain information on the perceptions, opinions, and experiences of the centre’s staff as regards gender issues from a representative number of individuals of differing professional categories and genders. Following the logic of the dimensions of the indicators, the interview guide was structured into these four blocks (see “ Qualitative information ” section). The information extracted was transcribed and analysed according to the qualitative content method [ 42 ]. The N-VIVO software was used as a tool to support the analysis.

We have divided the analysis of the results into two parts. In the first part, we show the results obtained for the indicators. These results are generic, i.e. they could be useful for monitoring the gender gap in any research centre in the Spanish research system.

Secondly, we present the results of the weighting of the context-based indicators and the monitoring of an energy technology research centre. The results have been obtained by measuring the performance of a particular centre for each of the proposed indicators.

Indicators to monitor the gender gap in research centres in Spain

Model description (energy research gender indicators).

Once the preliminary list of indicators was obtained (see “ Selection of indicators and relevant aspects ” section), and based on the context of the research centres, the main indicators were selected for the purposes of monitoring these centres. The final list of indicators, which was drawn up through a second participatory session of scientists with expertise in gender and energy, is shown in Table 3 . These selected indicators will be the DANP elements of the network.

This second expert prioritization phase took place during a comprehensive face-to-face session. The experts were convened for a half-day session. The initial session started with the validation of the indicators, which were thoroughly examined and deliberated over to ensure unanimous agreement on the list. Once the indicators were validated, the facilitators (some authors of this paper) elucidated the DANP principles, enhancing the experts’ comprehension and facilitating the clarity of the subsequent surveys. After that, each expert addressed his/her surveys individually under the guidance of facilitators. The results of each survey were immediately processed and presented to each of the experts for review. Subsequently, the facilitators aggregated all the individual results using the geometric mean, the consensus judgement according to [ 41 ], so as to obtain the group responses.

The criteria are clustered into four categories as shown in Fig. 2 : research management and results, staff configuration and structure, work culture, and gender contents in research.

Overview of the proposed model

Results obtained for the weights and interactions of the indicators

The context-based indicators already defined must be weighted, obtaining the Energy Research Gender Indicators (ERGIs). For this, we use the DEMATEL technique.

The expanded panel of experts (see Table 2 ) will then be asked individually to elicit their judgements. To this end, we designed a questionnaire in which they will be asked to rate the intensity of the influence between each pair of criteria from 0 to 4, in which 0 is no influence and 4 is maximum influence. An example of this questionnaire is shown in Fig. 3 .

Questionnaire used to weight the influence of context-based indicators

The DANP method prioritizes the selected indicators from the most to the least important for the evaluation of gender issues in the ERC, according to the participating experts.

The final prioritization of indicators for the aggregated group of experts obtained with the DANP technique is shown in Table 4 and Fig. 4 .

Prioritization of the indicators

In Fig. 4 , three indicators stand out slightly from the rest. The first is C24: Gender diversity in organizational leadership positions; the second C34: Existence of an equality plan, and the third C11: Gender diversity in research leadership. Two of them are related to the leadership of women.

This graph also shows that indicators related to the organization’s own structure, staff configuration and work culture, are more important than indicators related to research outputs when measuring the gender gap in the institution. The use of the DEMATEL technique also allows us to obtain very detailed and relevant information regarding the influences exerted by the indicators on each other. In Table 5 , we present the matrix of influences obtained by the set of experts. In this matrix, each cell represents the influence that the indicator in the row exerts on the indicator in the column.

The total relationship matrix presented in Table 5 shows the results in three different levels according to the two obtained thresholds for relevance [ 21 ]:

Threshold 1. Moderate influence: mean + 1 standard deviation (0.209)

Threshold 2. High influence: mean + 2 standard deviation (0.292)

Grey values are below threshold 1, black values are above threshold 1, and bold values are above threshold 2.

In addition, in the matrix we present the results of the calculations of factors D and R for each indicator (see Eqs. 1 – 5 ). Recall that factor D indicates the level of influence exerted by an indicator and factor R represents the level of influence that the indicator receives. In this second level of analysis, we can see that the indicators with the greatest influence are C34 and C24, which coincide with the two indicators that Fig. 3 shows as being the most important. We also observe that the two most influential indicators are C34 and C11. In other words, the indicators that stand out for their influence on the network coincide with the most important.

We would like to represent this information in a cause-effect diagram; in Fig. 5 we present the X -axis, which shows the degree of importance of each indicator ( R + R ) and the Y -axis, which shows the degree of cause (positive values) or effect (negative values) of each indicator ( D – R ).

Cause–effect diagram of the ERGIs

As can be seen in this diagram, the indicators are classified into four quadrants [ 43 ]. We may observe that the indicators that appear in quadrant II are: C24, gender diversity in organizational leadership positions and C31, ease-of-use of work–life balance measures. These can be considered key factors and should be taken into account when designing gender actions. Indicator C31 has not appeared until now as it belongs neither to the most influential nor to the most important group. However, the combination of both properties places it in quadrant II, which makes it a relevant factor when measuring the gender gap in research centres. Our interpretation of these two key factors is that the role of senior researchers is crucial because the fact that there are women in the relevant positions serves as a mirror in which they look for the other women working in the same research centre. In addition, the dynamics can be different when there are women in leadership since it makes clear to the staff in their charge what position they might occupy in the hierarchy of the organization. This result aligned with those from previous studies [ 30 ]. In our case study, the effect of the low number of women and the fact that part of the staff is not accustomed to mixed-gendered interactions have been clearly stated during the interviews. We find that women with a clear vision of equality problems in the centre have probably created a safe environment, bearing in mind that the younger women under their command have not perceived the problems they had faced. However, that affects only a few of the research groups of the centre, groups in which there is a high concentration of female members by the way.

On the other hand, the availability and ease of use of work–life balance measures are considered highly relevant factors that could make the difference when attempting to attract more women to a field as masculine as energy engineering.

Additional conclusions that can be drawn from Fig. 5 are as follows:

These indicators are isolated: C12, mobility actions carried out ; C33, existence of regulations on conduct in cases of workplace harassment and C14, participation of women in knowledge transfer . This means that they are less influential on others. For instance, according to the national authorities, mobility or knowledge transfer are relevant requirements for career advancement but have limited impact on other gender aspects, as is the case of sexual harassment regulations, which are highly relevant but not so closely related to others.

C41, gender contents in research appears to be of low influence and not of great importance. Not all research leaves room for gender perspective integration as is the case of some research in the field of energy.

Finally, we would like to re-emphasize those indicators that appear to be very influential but not very important: C23, transparency in selection processes ; C35, specific training in gender issues . These would be indicators that have a strong influence on others, but which would not be so important on their own, i.e. without considering their relationships with the rest. It is necessary to consider them whenever their influence is exerted on important indicators. For instance, transparency in selection processes affects the distribution of staff both vertically and horizontally, whereas the fact that staff are trained in gender issues will make them more aware of these issues and more critical of inequalities.

Results of the monitoring of a research centre in energy engineering

Qualitative information.

The three thematic blocks of the information obtained from the personal interviews correspond to the dimensions developed in the Energy Research Gender Indicators (ERGIs): (1) research management and results; (2) staff configuration and structure; (3) working culture; and (4) gender contents in research.

Firstly, as regards research management, a large proportion of the men interviewed stated that the organization, participation, and leadership of research in the centre only respond to meritocratic and hierarchical issues and that gender has no influence whatsoever. A researcher stated “the truth is that we were surprised by your interview because here we do not… here what matters is what matters. (…) women, men, and everything. And the truth is that I believe that no discrimination has ever been made” (I1). However, the women interviewed expressed a more critical attitude towards the management of gender diversity in the centre.

Secondly, the unequal proportion of men and women in the organization is one of the issues most frequently mentioned. It is stated that this is a structural problem of the discipline, which manifests itself as early as undergraduate studies, on which very few women are enrolled, and which is reproduced on the subsequent levels of the scientific career and, therefore, at the centre. Furthermore, they state that in comparison, “there are many women at the entry level, but very few go all the way [to a research career]” (I3). There are no proactive measures to try to reverse the structural inequality in the centre by taking positive discrimination measures in selection processes or by making specific calls to attract more women. The permanent researchers interviewed claim to select members of their group based on their knowledge and specialization, regardless of gender. Furthermore, as will be seen in the quantitative results (“ Quantitative information ” section), there is a clear gender gap in positions of responsibility, both vertically and horizontally.

Thirdly, as regards the work culture, working hours are flexible, which is seen as positive for both the family and private life of men and women. However, these measures are still insufficient, as one of the interviewees stated: “private life still affects women more in terms of career development (…) motherhood (…) leaves you behind” (I7).

It is also important to highlight the participation dynamics and the atmosphere in the centre. The fact that there is a reduced number of women is influential, insofar as the women feel less involved because they are in a smaller proportion. And “I do have to say that it is still noticeable that men are not used to it. There are very, very few …that will surely affect that men are accustomed to dealing with men” (I7).

Finally, the incorporation of the gender perspective in research, which is seen, in most cases, as something alien to the nature of the work due to its object of study (e.g., fundamental science). In these studies, in which this perspective would have a place, it is considered that “[considering] research questions or the object of our work is more difficult for us because we do not have the skills. What we know how to do, we do not know how it can contribute” (I10).

On the other hand, although most of the interviewees know of the existence of an equality plan and sexual harassment protocols, it is only their existence that is acknowledged, not their content or implications in the centre.

In short, most of the male interviewees’ discourse centred around the fact that there is no gender-related problem at the institution, either in the management of research or in the working environment. However, this is not the case for some of the women interviewed who do allude to different problems of gender discrimination, such as “the distribution of tasks and roles in the centre” (I2).

Quantitative information

Primary data results: survey.

Researchers who indicated they had children (60%) were asked whether they had taken maternity/paternity leave. 100% of the women with children reported taking maternity leave, whereas less than 50% of the men did. This is especially relevant since maternity leave was regarded by some of the researchers as a critical point in the development of a woman’s scientific career, leading to them losing advantage compared to their male counterparts. If men took paternity leave as well, the difference would not be so blatant, and the impact would be smaller.

The large majority of respondents (75%) reported not having received any gender equality training (see Fig. 6 ). The primary source of training for those who did was the university.

Gender equality training received

Secondary data results: website of the centre and official university database

The research outcomes of all ERC staff were thoroughly reviewed and analysed. This examination included several variables, such as the quantity of published papers, papers published as first authors, research projects as PI, contracts obtained, number of contracts in which they participate, and patents. The analysis was focused on the data from 2019–2023, which were later on segregated by gender. The aim was to identify key factors contributing to scientific career advancement.

Table 6 shows the members of the monitored centre classified according to professional categories following the Spanish university system. Notably, there are no women in the highest category.

Figures 7 and 8 compare gender distribution in research contracts between private companies and publicly funded R&D projects. A notable difference emerges in leadership roles: senior men predominantly lead contracts with private companies, while senior women tend to lead publicly funded R&D projects. As regards the higher number of women leading public projects (Fig. 7 ), there could be several reasons for this, such as: (i) networking, (ii) the policy of promoting gender equality and (iii) the differences between the motivations and values of men and women in terms of the impact of their results.

Principal investigators of publicly funded R&D projects attending to professional tenure and gender

Principal investigators of private contracts attending to professional tenure and gender

Private contracts lack regulations for PIs, whereas for publicly funded projects, there is a policy promoting gender equality in science that positively evaluates projects led by women. On the other hand, and as far as the higher number of men leading private contracts is concerned (Fig. 8 ), that could be a question of ease-of-access to advertising venues since, as the information is not open, are obtained through contacts. Again, the dynamics of a male-connected engineering environment may be observed.

Monitoring of the Research Centre: gathering of data indicators

The results obtained for ERGIs in the monitoring of a Spanish Energy Research Centre as well as the sources from which these results have been collected are shown in Table 7 .

As regards the results of the DANP model and the ERGI values obtained for the ERC, we propose some recommendations focusing on key factors that should be considered when designing gender actions in this centre. These key factors will be those indicators that are important or influential, (or those that combine both properties), and whose ERGI values are low or qualitatively deficient for the centre. We propose recommendations for those indicators marked with * in Table 7 .

For recommendation purposes, from the total list of 14 indicators we choose those that add up to 50% of the total weight. This prioritization allows us to focus on the most important factors that are likely to have the greatest impact on the outcome and prevents the inclusion of too many recommendations that could lead to excessive complexity and potentially obscure the improvement of the process. Therefore, we will more thoroughly analyse the indicators that add up to 50% of the weighting process according to Fig. 1 : C24, C34, C11, C21, and C35.

Case study: key indicators and recommendations

As far as the results of the DANP model and the ERGI values obtained for the analysed ERC are concerned, we propose recommendations in the following indicators (marked in Table 7 with *):

C24. Gender diversity in organizational leadership positions

C34. Awareness of the existence of an equality plan

C11. Gender diversity in research leadership—% Women principal investigators of projects

C21. Vertical segregation

C35. Gender-specific training

C31. Ease-of-use of work–life balance measures

The lack of women in organizational leadership positions is pronounced in the case of the study as no women are present in head positions. This indicator (C24) affects multiple dimensions. The insufficient or, in this case, inexistent female representation in high-level positions might dissuade women from joining an organization in which they do not foresee career development. The presence of women in management might be perceived as making panels more approachable or more receptive to the acknowledgement and tackling of gender issues than those that are exclusively male. Additionally, the absence of women in high positions can potentially disincentivize them from entering an institution where gender dynamics might pose a challenge. These arguments also apply to indicators C21: Vertical segregation and C11: Gender diversity in research leadership . In the case of indicator C11, it is worth highlighting that being the principal investigator of projects is a requirement for any advancement in academic research in the energy sector in Spain. The low proportion of female principal investigators in projects could explain the absence of women in leadership positions. The difficulty they experience in advancing their scientific careers, and consequently accessing management positions, may be a contributing factor.

There is a prevailing belief within the research centre that only meritocracy drives success, dismissing other factors—especially gender—as irrelevant. Despite the evidence, including the low representation of female leaders in the scientific output of the Spanish energy sector [ 17 ], many members fail to recognize existing differences or inequalities. Consequently, these indicators could serve as a pivotal tool to raise awareness and challenge expected resistance towards equality measures within specific groups.

Specific training on gender (C35) would address two different aspects identified in this case study. Firstly, it would provide training to those people who recognize that there is a gender gap and are willing to work towards reducing it but do not have the tools or knowledge to address it, either as a power figure or as part of the group. And secondly, it would increase the awareness of those who consider that no gender gap exists, nor that changes should be made to accommodate a more inclusive view. Thus, given its importance, gender training should not be the sole responsibility of the University's Equality Committee, but the research centre should also oversee the proposal and development of activities that promote training in equality to make this as cross-cutting and diverse as possible.

Furthermore, there is a significant lack of awareness regarding the content of the equality plan (C34). The actions taken to circulate this content and make it visible to the staff should be promoted by the management. However, this would require an initial acknowledgment of the gender gap by the heads of the institution.

The availability of work–life balance measures (C31) is identified as a crucial indicator for the career development of women in research. Yet, availability is not enough. The acceptance of such measures by the work environment as well as whether men make use of them are important factors that weigh in women’s career development. If men in the institution are making equal use of the measures, women’s careers will be less negatively impacted from a competitive point of view when they use them. Besides, it is also a sign that the organizational culture is more sensitive, and that care is not considered a women-only issue.

Furthermore, the ease with which women can make use of the work–life balance measures is considered a highly relevant factor, which leads us to believe that centres not placing obstacles in their way—considering the reasons why they use them—would be an attractive factor for women. Particularly in a field as masculine as energy engineering.

While work–life balance measures are present they are often informal, and the absence of official guidelines gives line managers the discretion to determine the extent, duration, and timing of these measures. Therefore, a change of manager might entail a change of conditions or some uncertainty towards what their rights will be, as some men pointed out in the interviews.

The Gender Perspective in Research Content (C41) was not identified as a relevant indicator, possibly due to the nature of the research. Indeed, for some of the research conducted, gender perspective cannot be applied; for example, in the study of the disposition of photovoltaic cells. However, it was detected that this possibility had often not been considered. Therefore, future research should assess whether its impact may be different for women and whether it is possible to integrate a gender perspective into both the samples and data collection. Several studies have shown that men and women may have different energy consumption patterns due to varying daily routines, responsibilities, and access to resources [ 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 ]. Taking gender differences into consideration can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the energy needs and these consumption patterns. This is particularly relevant, since women are the primary users of household energy in both developing and industrialized countries [ 8 ]. It could also contribute to the fostering of a broader and fairer approach in policy and technology development; for instance, adapting renewable energy projects to address specific needs of women in rural areas [ 18 , 48 ], or simply having enough understanding not to create inequalities or perpetuate those already existing.

Finally, a recommendation is addressed to the home institution of the research centre. The centre has no expertise in gender equality, while the equality plans are located at university level. We have identified that some gendered distortions that exist throughout the whole Spanish research system- such as gendered precariousness and the impact of family responsibilities- are not mitigated by centre measures and university measures are equally absent and unrecognized. Considering the effort to be made, the research centre cannot do it alone; for its development, it should have the support of the equality unit of the institution to which it belongs. The centre could greatly benefit from developing a tailored equality plan that considers its unique circumstances as regards the gender gap. While rooted in the general measures of the institution's plan, the centre’s plan should incorporate specific aspects that reflect its nuances. This entails integrating measures specifically designed to address and bridge the gender gap within the research centre.

General discussion

To effectively study and enhance the presence and participation of women in the field of energy science, comprehensive data are imperative. Disaggregated data, at least separated into area of knowledge, category, and gender, is vital for both informed decision-making and understanding the reality within research centres, enabling the necessary steps to be taken.

The case study research method carried out aims to provide insights into the workings of a particular process within its context, enabling us to observe the dynamics of the agents and infer explanations. However, it is important to note that this approach is not representative and can only be compared once more cases have been developed [ 49 ]. Expanding the research to monitor additional energy research centres would enhance the model and offer deeper insights into the unique dynamics and challenges within this domain. While each centre may present distinct dynamics, this adaptable model is designed to accommodate and integrate these differences. Therefore, this tool can serve both diagnostic and awareness-raising purposes—a conversation starter rooted in data, demonstrating the persistent existence of the gender gap demanding attention and resolution. The presented indicators possess the potential to serve as diagnostic tools for understanding the gender gap within research institutions and for raising awareness. This is particularly crucial in fields such as energy, where according to the cited literature, the gender gap is often overlooked, as we found out in our case study.

We are currently monitoring other research centres using the same general methodology and replicating the specific methodological part of the case study in two additional scientific sectors: applied technologies and biology sciences. The findings in these two case studies reveal similar dynamics in the underrepresentation of women, especially in leadership roles in research and management positions. What may also be observed is how little aware these organizations are of the existing gender gap.

The development of an indicator tool based on DANP not only serves as a proactive approach to the monitoring and evaluation of gender roles and inequalities in research centres but also contributes to interpreting results and forming recommendations. Applied in a case study, this tool is specifically tailored to incorporate findings from literature reviews and both qualitative and quantitative organizational inputs, considering the broader energy, science, and gender context in Spain.

The tool’s design considers the complexity of measuring relational dynamics within organizations, recognizing that these dynamics significantly contribute to the gender gap. This perspective helps integrate various dimensions, including the individuals involved, relational dynamics, and organizational culture. The gender gap is portrayed as a multi-dimensional problem, extending beyond mere numerical representation. Using a multi-criteria decision-making method, we assess the impact of the indicators on gender equality in order to address the gender gap in a specific research centre. This method entails the selection and grouping of decision criteria, followed by the analysis of interactions within the network model defined, considering the opinion of energy stakeholders, not only gender experts.

Our context-sensitive methodology reveals specific dynamics. For instance, in the analysed centre, a sexist environment emerges through informal comments, such as jokes; men often underuse available life–work balance measures, and there is a gendered pattern in fund access: women primarily lead publicly funded projects, limiting their diversification due to a more limited access to private funds.

The use of indicators serves as powerful diagnostic tool and catalyst for awareness. They highlight the persistent gender gap, particularly in traditionally male-dominated fields, such as energy engineering, where this gap often goes unrecognized and acts as a catalyst for conversations about the changes required.

It is advisable to expand the research so as to monitor more centres for the purposes of refining the model and better understanding the nuances of the gender gap. An ongoing monitoring would help to identify existing disparities and instigate actions toward gender equality. For this reason, the research would benefit from the monitoring of more energy research centres to further adapt the model and better understand the particularities that this area might include. Our findings, from an in-depth case study, can be discussed in the development of further research avenues on gender and energy. However, each organization is unique and the methodology we propose is designed to fit the specific dynamics of each centre.

Limitations and future research lines

We acknowledge and emphasize the intrinsic limitation of our in-depth case study methodology and encourage further research that can provide additional insights and patterns into the gender dynamics in energy research centres. Our purpose is to follow up with other energy engineering institutes in Spain, as well as to establish comparisons with other geographical contexts, such as with similar studies conducted in Germany [ 50 ]. This could provide a broader view and strengthen the applicability of the proposed tool in various contexts. We are currently monitoring several research institutes in differing areas of knowledge, also in Spain, with results that are very similar to those presented in this analysis. We intend to continue this study by applying the proposed methodology and carrying out a comparative study of these institutions.

Moreover, we also want to highlight some other limitations regarding data gathering. We were unable to employ any strategies to mitigate non-response bias in the collection of primary data, such as follow-up contacts or incentives for participation due to confidentiality reasons of the monitored centre. This could have compromised the representativeness of the quantitative results through the survey.

Finally, as regards the interpretation of some of the qualitative results, we know that there is an interpretation bias in the results on paternity leave due to the fact that the length of this leave in Spain has varied greatly over the last 20 years from 4 days to 6 months. Since age was not asked in order to anonymize the responses to the questionnaire, it is not possible to relate the length of leave to whether it was taken or not. Further research could have an impact on this issue, since no data has been available until recently.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to the need to protect the privacy of study participants but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Energy Research Centre

Analytic Network Process

Combination of DEMATEL and ANP (DANP)

Decision-Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory

Energy Research Gender Indicators (ERGIs)

European Union

Multi-criteria decision methods

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Acknowledgements

This is an extended and updated version of a paper originally presented at the 18th Conference on Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems (SDEWES 2022) held in Paphos, Cyprus, over the period 24th to 29th September 2023 (denoted then as paper SDEWES2023.00425 Proposal of an Energy Research Gender Indicator as a diagnostic tool for energy research organizations). Thanks to everyone who contributed to the study by commenting on, filling out and sharing the questionnaire and being interviewed. We would also like to thank the panel of experts in the surveys for their willingness to participate. Finally, we would like to thank Michael Colin Bennett for assisting us with the English revision of the final version of this paper.

Open Access funding provided thanks to the CRUE-CSIC agreement with Springer Nature. This work was supported by project INVISIBLES funded by the regional public administration of Valencia under the grant (AICO/2021/133).

This work was also partly supported by the Ministry of Universities through the EU-funded Margarita Salas programme NextGeneration EU, Valencia University under the Grant (2021-1099).

This work was also partly supported by European Commission H2020 Scientific Understanding and Provision of an Enhanced and Robust Monitoring system for RRI SUPER_MoRRI (H2020-SWAFS/0467-Grant-agreement nº 824671).

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Sara Sánchez-López: writing—original draft, methodology, visualization, data curation. Rocío Poveda-Bautista: conceptualization, methodology, writing—original draft, writing—review & editing, supervision. Carmen Corona-Sobrino: conceptualization, methodology, software, data curation, visualization, writing—original draft, writing review & editing. Paula Otero-Hermida: conceptualization, writing—review & editing, supervision. Mónica García-Melón: methodology, data-curation, writing—review and editing.

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Correspondence to Sara Sánchez-López .

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The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board (or Ethics Committee) of Universitat Politècnica de València (P17_10_01_20, 10 January 2020). The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study. The questionnaire and interviews did not collect personally identifiable data, according to Delegación de Protección de Datos, IRB of Universitat Politècnica de València, and national regulations Law 3/2018, 5th of December, Protection of Personal Data and guarantee of digital rights, article 7, published in BOE núm. 294, 06/12/2018, (Reference: BOE-A-2018–16673). The purpose of the study was explained to all the participants at the beginning of the questionnaire and interviews. The participants were also informed that they have the right to leave the questionnaire or interview at any time whenever they feel uncomfortable or do not want to answer any further questions.

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Sánchez-López, S., Poveda-Bautista, R., Corona-Sobrino, C. et al. Tackling gender disparities in energy research: a diagnostic tool for equality in research centres. Energ Sustain Soc 14 , 51 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13705-024-00479-8

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s13705-024-00479-8

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Can organisations thrive in a changing environment if their approach to Diversity focuses only on Gender Equality?

The recruitment phase is as critical for any organisation as it is demanding for the human resources team responsible for conducting it.

This phase is of the utmost importance since the organisation aims to select the most qualified candidate for the duties to be performed. Furthermore, the process is also time-consuming and resource-intensive, given that it traditionally involves lengthy periods of analysing CVs and conducting interviews.

However, the paradigm has evolved to the benefit of all parties involved – the organisation, human resources, and candidates – since the advent of algorithm-based tools and, more recently, the explosion of Artificial Intelligence (AI). In this context, while most organisations continue to adopt traditional recruitment methods (such as CV screening, psychotechnical tests, and interviews), there has been a notable rise in the adoption of gamification – i.e. , the application of gaming techniques and design – as a growing trend in candidate selection.

This selection methodology makes the process more efficient, enabling candidates’ technical and behavioural skills to be assessed in a more natural environment, while simultaneously saving time for human resources teams and offering candidates a more stimulating experience.

The use of gamification in recruitment can take the form of quizzes, simulations, or competitions, among others. These are designed to reproduce real work environment scenarios and challenge candidates to solve problems or carry out tasks related to the job in question.

By using these methods, organisations can assess candidates on a range of skills, including strategy, teamwork, analytical and reasoning abilities, and alignment with the organisation’s culture and values. Unlike CVs or interviews, where candidates may present an image that does not fully reflect reality, a candidate’s performance in a game is unlikely to be tampered with.

When implementing gamification in recruitment processes, it is important to consider the limitations that may arise from the applicable legal framework.

Firstly, it is essential to guarantee that the personal data of prospective employees collected for the purpose of the recruitment process is adequate, relevant, and limited to what is necessary for the fulfilment of its purpose. Specifically, this means that only the data essential for assessing the candidate’s technical and behavioural skills should be collected, considering the duties to be performed. It is crucial to ensure that no superfluous data is collected, and that any information relating to the candidate’s private life or health is avoided – except when specific requirements inherent to the nature of the professional activity justify it and the respective grounds are provided in writing.

In terms of transparency, and still related in relation to personal data, organisations must inform candidates of the purpose of the data collected. Moreover, whenever gamification experiences are based on algorithms or other forms of AI, candidates must be informed of the parameters, criteria, rules, and instructions that form the basis for decision-making in such systems. Otherwise, the organisation may face significant administrative penalties.

It is also essential to ensure that the gamification experience respects the right to equal opportunities and equal treatment, and that it does not benefit, favour, or disadvantage certain candidates, directly or indirectly, on the grounds of any discriminatory factor. This is in accordance with the Portuguese Labour Code, which prohibits discrimination on the grounds of ancestry, age, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, marital status, family situation, economic situation, education, social origin or condition, genetic heritage, reduced working capacity, disability, chronic illness, nationality, ethnic origin or race, territory of origin, language, religion, political or ideological beliefs, and trade union membership, inter alia.

Despite an organisation’s awareness of its obligations regarding equal opportunity and treatment and its diligence in avoiding conscious infringement of the relevant legal rules, it is possible (and often frequent) that the gamification experience may have been designed in a way that could inadvertently generate a discriminatory situation. For this reason and considering that discriminatory acts harming candidates give them the right to compensation for pecuniary and non-pecuniary damage, it is crucial that organisations have a comprehensive understanding of the gamification experiences they implement, ensuring they comply with all relevant legal requirements.

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10 things we learned about gender issues in the U.S. in 2017

Allegations about sexual misconduct by prominent men in politics, entertainment, media and other industries have reverberated across the United States in recent months, drawing attention to issues of gender equality in the workplace and in broader American society. As 2017 comes to a close, here are 10 key findings about gender issues that are in the news today, drawn from Pew Research Center surveys conducted over the course of the year.

Women and men in both political parties believe recent sexual harassment allegations primarily reflect widespread societal problems . Two-thirds of Americans overall (66%) attribute the allegations mainly to widespread problems in society, while just 28% of adults attribute them mainly to incidents of individual misconduct, according to a survey conducted in November and December. While majorities of men and women and Democrats and Republicans see the allegations as reflective of societal problems, women are more likely than men to hold this view (71% vs. 60%). Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents are also somewhat more likely to say this than Republicans and Republican leaners (70% vs. 61%).

About one-in-five employed women in the U.S. (22%) say they have been sexually harassed at work . In a survey conducted in July and August – before the spate of recent misconduct allegations and the rapid spread of the #metoo social media campaign – 22% of employed women said they have experienced sexual harassment on the job, compared with 7% of employed men. Some more recent surveys by other organizations (using somewhat different question wording) have placed the figure higher: In an NPR/PBS NewsHour/Marist poll conducted Nov. 13 to 15, for example, 35% of women said they have personally experienced sexual harassment or abuse from someone in the workplace.

About four-in-ten employed women (42%) say th ey have experienced some form of gender discrimination at work , according to the July and August Pew Research Center survey. The survey asked Americans whether they had faced any of eight different kinds of gender discrimination in the workplace, including being treated as if they were not competent; experiencing repeated, small slights at work; and receiving less support from senior leaders than someone of the opposite sex who was doing the same job. Among employed men, 22% say they have experienced some form of gender discrimination at work. One especially stark gender gap involves income: Employed women are five times more likely than employed men (25% vs. 5%) to say they have earned less for doing the same job as someone of the other gender.

A majority of women say the country hasn’t gone far enough when it comes to giving women equal rights with men . About six-in-ten women (57%) hold this view , compared with 42% of men. But there are sharp differences by political affiliation and – among Democrats – education. About three-quarters (74%) of women who are Democrats or Democratic-leaning independents say the country hasn’t gone far enough on gender equality, compared with just a third (33%) of women who are Republican or Republican leaners. Among Democrats, women with a college degree are more likely than less-educated women to say the country hasn’t gone far enough on gender equality.

Majorities of both women (54%) and men (58%) say there is no difference in terms of which gender has it easier in the country these days . Still, 41% of women say men have it easier than women, a view shared by 28% of men. Relatively small shares of women (5%) and men (14%) say women have it easier than men. Again, there are some substantial educational and political differences on this question. Among women, Millennials are significantly more likely than those in older generations to say men have it easier these days.

Roughly three-quarters of U.S. adults (73%) see gender discrimination in the tech industry as at least a minor problem. Women and men have different views of the size of the problem, though. Among women, 44% say such discrimination is a major problem, a view shared by 29% of men. While the tech industry has drawn attention when it comes to the way women in that field are treated at work, Americans tend not to see gender discrimination as more widespread in the tech industry than in others. More than half (57%) say there is about the same amount of discrimination against women in tech as there is against women in other industries.

Most Americans say women face a lot of pressure to be an involved parent and be physically attractive. The public sees vastly different pressure points for men and women as they navigate roles in society. Large majorities say women face a lot of pressure to be an involved parent (77%) and be physically attractive (71%). Far fewer say men face these types of pressures, though majorities of Americans say men face a lot of pressure to support their family financially (76%) and be successful in their job or career (68%).

A substantial share of men in the U.S. (45%) say men face a lot or some pressure to join in when other men talk about women in a sexual way . Four-in-ten men perceive similar societal pressure on men to have many sexual partners. In both cases, Millennial men are more likely than older men to say such pressures exist. About six-in-ten Millennial men (61%), for example, say there is societal pressure on men to have many sexual partners, a view shared by only about a third or fewer men in older generations.

Seven-in-ten women see online harassment as a major problem . A January Pew Research Center survey asked Americans about online harassment, which was defined using six categories of behavior: offensive name-calling, purposeful embarrassment, physical threats, stalking, sexual harassment, or harassment over a sustained period of time. Women were more likely than men to view online harassment as a major problem (70% vs. 54%). Women were also more likely than men to say offensive content online is too often dismissed as not a big deal (50% vs. 35%) and to say people should be able to feel welcome and safe in online spaces (63% vs. 43%).

About one-in-five U.S. women under 30 say they have been sexually harassed online . Women ages 18 to 29 are more than twice as likely as men in the same age group to report being sexually harassed online (21% vs. 9%). Among the youngest adults – those ages 18 to 24 – women are more than three times as likely as men to say they’ve been sexually harassed online (20% vs. 6%). Women under 30 also are more likely than men in the same age group to say they’ve received explicit images they didn’t ask for (53% vs. 37%).

Comparison of Generations
Economics, Work & Gender
Family & Relationships
Gender & LGBTQ
Gender & Politics
Gender & Work
Gender Equality & Discrimination
Gender Roles
Motherhood & Fatherhood
Online Harassment & Bullying
Sexual Misconduct & Harassment

John Gramlich is an associate director at Pew Research Center .

Large shares in many countries are pessimistic about the next generation’s financial future

Key facts about asian americans, a diverse and growing population, the ways hispanics describe their identity vary across immigrant generations, u.s. millennials tend to have favorable views of foreign countries and institutions – even as they age, younger, more educated u.s. adults are more likely to take part in citizen science research, most popular.

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100 Best Gender Research Topics
100 Gender Research Topics For Academic Papers. Gender research topics are very popular across the world. Students in different academic disciplines are often asked to write papers and essays about these topics. Some of the disciplines that require learners to write about gender topics include: Sociology. Psychology.
Twenty years of gender equality research: A scoping review based on a
Gender equality is a major problem that places women at a disadvantage thereby stymieing economic growth and societal advancement. In the last two decades, extensive research has been conducted on gender related issues, studying both their antecedents and consequences. However, existing literature reviews fail to provide a comprehensive and clear picture of what has been studied so far, which ...
Gender equality: the route to a better world
The road to a gender-equal world is long, and women's power and freedom to make choices is still very constrained. But the evidence from science is getting stronger: distributing power between ...
Promoting Gender Equality: A Systematic Review of Interventions
The Global Gender Gap Index 2022 benchmarks 146 countries on the evolution of gender-based gaps in economic participation and opportunity, educational attainment, health and survival, and political empowerment (World Economic Forum, 2022).Although the Index measures gender parity (defined in Table 1) rather than substantive equality, it is a useful tool for analysing progression and regression.
Gender and sex inequalities: Implications and resistance
Introduction. Although the world has seen great strides toward gender/sex equality, a wide gap still remains and unfortunately may be widening. The World Economic Forum (WEF, Citation 2017) annually evaluates the world's progress toward gender inequality in economic participation and opportunity, educational attainment, health and survival, and political empowerment.
What does gender equality look like today?
A new global analysis of progress on gender equality and women's rights shows women and girls remain disproportionately affected by the socioeconomic fallout from the COVID-19 pandemic, struggling with disproportionately high job and livelihood losses, education disruptions and increased burdens of unpaid care work. Women's health services, poorly funded even before the pandemic, faced ...
Gender Equality & Discrimination
For Women's History Month, a look at gender gains - and gaps - in the U.S. Women made up 47% of the U.S. civilian labor force in 2023, up from 30% in 1950 - but growth has stagnated. reportSep 27, 2023.
Education & Gender
Muslim societies have gained a reputation in recent decades for failing to adequately educate women. But a new analysis of Pew Research Center data on educational attainment and religion suggests that economics, not religion, is the key factor limiting the education of Muslim women. 1 2 3.
Top 10 gender research reads from 2021
#7 Advancing gender equality. If you don't have time to read the whole book, read the introduction. Pyburn and van Eerdewijk's introduction to Advancing Gender Equality through Agricultural and Environmental Research excellently presents the topics discussed in the book, which features contributions from 55 CGIAR gender researchers. The ...
Gender Overview: Development news, research, data
A series of thematic policy notes and causal evidence briefs , along with data, research, global knowledge, and lessons from experience has informed the forthcoming World Bank Gender Strategy 2024-30 to be launched in 2024. The World Bank Group has been promoting gender equality in development since 1977. Yet today, in many parts of the world ...
United Nations: Gender equality and women's empowerment
Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls. Gender equality is not only a fundamental human right, but a necessary foundation for a peaceful, prosperous and sustainable world ...
Views of gender equality by country
Fewer than a third of Hungarians (29%) believe gender equality has increased in their society. Many in the Asia-Pacific region view their countries as becoming more egalitarian, including roughly three-quarters of Indonesians (77%), Indians (76%), Australians (75%) and South Koreans (74%). A majority of Japanese also hold this view, though 34% ...
77 Gender Equality Essay Topics & Research Titles at StudyCorgi
👍 Good Gender Equality Research Topics & Essay Examples. On-time delivery! Get your 100% customized paper done in as little as 1 hour. Let's start. Gender and Gender Equality: Prejudice and Lack of Understanding. Well-Being and Social Development in the Context of Gender Equality.
Twenty years of gender equality research: A scoping review based on a
Research on education and gender equality is mostly linked with the topics of compensation, human capital, career progression, hiring, parenting and decision-making. Education contributes to a higher human capital [ 115 ] and constitutes an investment on the part of women towards their future.
Gender Research
Latest research from the World Bank on Gender, including reports, studies, publications, working papers and articles. ... research and publications, and topics in poverty and development. ... Gender equality is central to the World Bank Group's goals of ending extreme poverty and boosting shared prosperity. No society can develop sustainably ...
15 Gender Issues We Must Address
Here are 15 gender issues that need to be addressed: #1. Education access. The world has made significant progress in ensuring education access. Globally, girls have either closed or reversed gaps in accessing and completing education. Certain areas are still far behind and there's still gender inequality among adults.
Top 10 Gender Research Topics & Writing Ideas
Issues modern feminism faces. Sexual orientation and gender identity. Benefits of investing in girls' education. Patriarchal attitudes and stereotypes in family relationships. Toys and games of girls and boys. Roles of men and women in politics. Compare career opportunities for both sexes in the military.
569 Gender Essay Topics & Research Topics on Gender
Clothing is a powerful way of expressing identity and communicating with the outside world. Social Construction of Gender and Sexual Dichotomy. Gender is usually divided into two sexes, namely male and female, in modern society. Traditionally, gender is determined by various physiological features, such as genitalia.
Gender in Sports: Challenges, Impacts and Pathways to Equity
Keywords: Gender bias, sports equity, professional sports, amateur sports, collegiate sports, economic impact, intersectionality, media representation, psychological effects, policy initiatives, pay gap, leadership . Important Note: All contributions to this Research Topic must be within the scope of the section and journal to which they are submitted, as defined in their mission statements.
Development aid helps to fight gender inequality. Here are 5 research
Gender inequality isn't just unfair—it's also a drag on the world economy.Giving women the same economic opportunities as men would add about US$12 trillion to global gross domestic product ...
Gender & LGBTQ
The Enduring Grip of the Gender Pay Gap. The difference between the earnings of men and women has barely closed in the United States in the past two decades. This gap persists even as women today are more likely than men to have graduated from college, suggesting other factors are at play such as parenthood and other family needs.
Why research is important to attaining gender equality
Women workers engaged in the formal sector earn 19% less than men. From 2011 to 2012, there was a 7.5% increase in domestic violence, while over 5,000 dowry deaths were reported in 2018 in the country. Not surprisingly, India's Gender Inequality Index rating in 2017 is low (0.524); India is ranked in the bottom 20% of countries.
Twenty years of gender equality research: A scoping review based on a
Abstract. Gender equality is a major problem that places women at a disadvantage thereby stymieing economic growth and societal advancement. In the last two decades, extensive research has been conducted on gender related issues, studying both their antecedents and conse-quences.
Equality in sport News, Research and Analysis
Browse Equality in sport news, research and analysis from The ... Related Topics 2024 Paris Olympics ... Australian Sports Commission; Female athletes; Formula 1; Gender equality; Give me ...
Tackling gender disparities in energy research: a diagnostic tool for
In a case study in Spain, the unequal proportion of men and women in a research organization in the energy sector is severe, and long-established dynamics that might determine differences in access to leadership positions and inequalities in research careers are evident. The gender gap in historically masculinized fields, such as energy engineering reflects more than simply the differences in ...
How Americans view gender equality as 19th ...
Key takeaways on Americans' views on gender equality a century after U.S. women gained the right to vote. Aug. 18 marks the 100-year anniversary of the ratification of the 19th Amendment, which granted women in the United States the right to vote. As this milestone approaches, about half of Americans (49%) say granting women the right to vote ...
Can organisations thrive in a changing environment if their ...
This is in accordance with the Portuguese Labour Code, which prohibits discrimination on the grounds of ancestry, age, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, marital status, family situation ...
Key findings on gender equality and ...
Allegations about sexual misconduct by prominent men in politics, entertainment, media and other industries have reverberated across the United States in recent months, drawing attention to issues of gender equality in the workplace and in broader American society. As 2017 comes to a close, here are 10 key findings about gender issues that are in the news today, drawn from Pew Research Center ...

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What does gender equality look like today?

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Top 10 gender research reads from 2021

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Top pick by Hazel Malapit and Elizabeth Bryan, CGIAR GENDER Platform Methods Module Co-leads

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