main causes of poverty in south africa essay

The Biggest Causes of Poverty in South Africa

by Centre of Humanity | Apr 23, 2020 | News | 0 comments

According to reports, more than 50% of South Africans are currently living in poverty. Considering that poverty is such an epidemic in a developing country, which filled with plenty of resources that could provide it with wealth, such as diamonds, gold and large scale of agriculture, to name just a few, more should be done to marginalize the equality of individuals in our country.

As the leading cause of poverty in our country, education is also the one thing that drives the most concern in South Africa. When a country is uneducated, it cannot progress whatsoever, and with an unemployment rate of 25% in South Africa, it is no doubt as to why the country has many different problems, which not only includes education.

In South Africa, families with children depend on making sacrifices for their children to get the proper education they require to thrive. Yet, unfortunately, something that poses another major problem in the country, a lack of political development, also has a negative impact on education. Governments aren’t properly focused on providing the proper facilities for education, such as adequate classrooms in areas that are poor or underdeveloped.

In such areas, the education standards, along with the quality thereof is not being enough attention to whatsoever, and children aren’t making use of most of their potential possible.

There are also many budget constraints, along with corruption and administrative issues, that may affect a lack of growth in the education systems even more.

Looking at corruption, more than 1,000 reports on money stolen from school bank accounts by principles, were also reported between the years of 2012 and 2015. It is also feared that there hasn’t been anything done to prevent this problem from occurring once again.

Another major problem is the fact that school fees are on the rise, which makes the whole idea of sending your children to school even worse.

Problems faced now in 2018 are more than ever before, and while blaming South Africa in general, is easy to do, it’s about time, someone blamed the government, and permitted implications for those who fail the people of South Africa every single day. A lack of justice won’t get us anywhere.

Infrastructure and Inequality

The South African economy is, next to Nigeria, the second largest economy, yet it has a far better infrastructure that its opponent.

Our country has an impressive GDP per capita. Especially, when compared to other neighboring countries in Africa.

We also have some of the most wealth, yet also, the most poverty, which is something that shouldn’t even be an option for us, that is, if our government chose to play it fair.

Not only is our country looked at as one of the most interesting, due to our past, but are also ranks the lowest with one of the most unequal societies in the world.

Even though South Africa has come a long way, there is still a very long way to go. Considering that Apartheid ended just over two decades ago, the country is still in a process of healing.

Even though our country has second biggest economies in South Africa, it also has some of the biggest problems, which aside from poverty, includes a long list of electric power problems, inconsistent water supply, a lack of development, a lack of employment opportunities, and more.

Labor problems

BEE (Black Economic Empowerment, is considered one of the policies that have drawn the most criticism from economists in the country.

It has led to this idea that a very small percentage of South Africans can become rich, while the majority struggle or live below the breadline.

It has left an inequal perspective on what an economy and country should look like and have restricted individuals from getting a job. This has also led to large-scale unemployment rates, that continues to remain problematic.

Labour union rivalries have also increased issues surrounding labor, which has also resulted in a prolonged range of violent strikes in the country. Not only have strikes become more violent, but it has also set the tone for how residents choose to deal with the problems of our country, which is doing more harm than good.

Submit a Comment Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

What can be done to tackle the systemic causes of poverty in South Africa

Professor of Social Development Studies, University of Johannesburg

Associate professor at the Centre for Social Development in Africa, University of Johannesburg, University of Johannesburg

Disclosure statement

Leila Patel receives funding from the Department of Science and Technology (DST) and the National Research Foundation (NRF) for her Chair in Welfare and Social Development, and the University of Johannesburg.

Lauren Graham receives funding from the National Institute for the Humanities and Social Sciences, the British Academy, and the Capacity Building Programme for Employment Promotion via the University of Cape Town.

University of Johannesburg provides support as an endorsing partner of The Conversation AFRICA.

View all partners

Despite gains made in the first 15 years of democracy , 55.5% of South Africans lived below the poverty line as of 2015. Coupled with the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic , household food insecurity, child hunger, and extraordinarily high youth unemployment levels have eroded the early gains made.

The country’s expansive social grants system , insurance schemes and social relief are important mechanisms for ameliorating these challenges. But they need to go further. And the country should tackle the root causes of poverty, which are systemic. This means they cannot be shifted with a single intervention. That’s because cycles of disadvantage accumulate over long periods, generate multiple barriers, and are transferred across generations.

Poverty among young people

Take the case of young people who are not in employment, education or training ( NEET ). They are perhaps among the most vulnerable to lifelong poverty. Most NEET youth are black Africans. They are income poor, have no post-secondary education, and live in households in which nobody works.

Research into the agency and resilience of NEET youth found that they face multiple barriers as they attempt to secure their first job. This makes it difficult to choose between household income going to food or seeking work. They may also live far away from learning and income earning opportunities. They may have their own or other people’s children at home, or older people to care for, with few options for high-quality, low-cost care support.

The research found that young people try multiple strategies to make something of their lives, but are continuously derailed by a number of barriers. The end result is that some of them give up the search for work. They may even suffer poor mental health, which further erodes the possibility of escaping the poverty trap.

Childhood poverty

But the cycle of disadvantage begins much earlier in life, indicating the systemic and multilayered nature of poverty and disadvantage. One of our studies at the University of Johannesburg assessed children in the foundation grades R and 1 (most between the ages of 6 and 8) in five schools in Johannesburg’s poorest wards. It shows that many face multiple barriers that negatively affect their well-being.

These barriers include food insecurity, poverty-related depression among their caregivers, or lack of access to health screening to ensure they can see and hear to be able to learn. These poverty-related barriers are likely to keep them trapped in a vicious cycle of disadvantage for the rest of their lives.

South Africa has invested significantly in a social wage package that includes social grants , free basic education, healthcare, and basic services. A recent World Bank report shows that these have been incredibly important in limiting inequality and alleviating the worst effects of poverty. But, as the report also states,

there appears to be no overt consideration of or attempt to align [social grants] with South Africa’s systemic development challenges.

What the report is referring to is the need to connect the most vulnerable people with a range of public services that can address the multiple barriers poverty creates. This is crucial if South Africa is to tackle the systemic nature of poverty and disadvantage.

The connection of vulnerable people to a range of public services can be done through integrating public services at a national level. For instance, social grant beneficiaries could automatically be eligible for, and be informed of, complementary services such as public employment support through the Department of Labour .

Government is considering integrating social protection with other services so that existing services and investments can have a deeper impact on poverty.

Such integration also needs to exist at the local level, through communities of practice. These are innovative communities of researchers and practitioners, service agencies and service users that devise breakthrough ideas and solutions to protracted problems. This approach, also called collective impact by researchers, is used around the world.

Communities of practice for children and families

We are testing how such communities of practice can improve outcomes for vulnerable children and NEET youth. The Community of Practice for Social Systems Strengthening to Improve Child Well-being Outcomes (led by Professor Leila Patel) is under way. It aims to promote collaboration across different sectors to better address the complex and multiple needs of children growing up in poverty. It also aims to develop innovative, collaborative and breakthrough solutions to promote better outcomes for them.

In the first phase from February to November 2020 the communities of practice consortium of partners assessed a sample of children who were receiving the child support grant and were in the foundation years of schooling. That’s because targeted interventions in nutrition, health and education at this developmental stage could result in positive outcomes for children, families and communities.

After gathering data for 162 children’s health, home circumstances, psycho-social functioning, and school and learning experiences, potential interventions were identified that could mitigate the risks they face.

These interventions, rolled out in the course of 2021, considered the multilayered nature of poverty and the range of interventions a child may need. Local-level communities of practice designed action plans based on each child’s situation. These groups consist of teachers, principals, social workers, educational psychologists, community-based nurses and other health workers, and NGOs in the relevant community or school.

These groups work collaboratively with the schools and, crucially, with caregivers whose children have been identified as needing extra support. That includes everything from arranging eye and hearing screenings to referring families to food support programmes, and ensuring that teachers are better equipped to improve children’s numeracy and literacy.

Drawing on the data from our communities of practice study, we also designed and delivered educational messaging, via community radio, on promoting parental involvement in children’s education, nutrition, financial education and tips for parents and other caregivers.

At the time of writing the communities of practice had ensured that 50 children’s vaccinations were completed; 30 had educational assessments, with recommendations about learning support provided to schools. Twenty-five families identified as having struggles at home were referred to Sihleng’imizi , a family strengthening programme.

Caregivers who showed depressive symptoms received follow-up visits by social workers based in each school, and were to be referred to the South African Depression and Anxiety Group . We are collecting follow-up data to understand what changes have been observed.

A promising approach

The results of the child well-being project suggest that communities of practice may improve outcomes by referring children and caregivers to whichever services they need to overcome the barrier they are facing at a given time. They can also be a basis upon which to connect social grant recipients to complementary services that can unlock the multiple barriers that people living in poverty face.

A similar approach will soon be applied to NEET youth. The Basic Package of Support programme will pilot communities of practice in three communities. It will bring together local colleges, work-seeker support programmes, health and mental health support facilities, childcare programmes and food support programmes, among others, to collaboratively learn about the challenges that these youth face, and how to better support them.

Such an approach promises to ensure that young people can connect to the wide range of services and opportunities they need to break down the many barriers they face as they seek to move into learning and earning.

This approach, as our research projects and examples from elsewhere prove, is a valuable way to tackle some of the conditions that contribute to poverty.

• Unemployment
• Social security
• Youth unemployment
• Food insecurity
• Peacebuilding
• Social grants
• inequality in South Africa
• vulnerable children
• Child welfare

Project Manager SSTP

Head of Evidence to Action

Supply Chain - Assistant/Associate Professor (Tenure-Track)

OzGrav Postdoctoral Research Fellow

Casual Facilitator: GERRIC Student Programs - Arts, Design and Architecture

• Tools and Resources
• Customer Services
• African Diaspora
• Afrocentrism
• Archaeology
• Central Africa
• Colonial Conquest and Rule
• Cultural History
• Early States and State Formation in Africa
• East Africa and Indian Ocean
• Economic History
• Historical Linguistics
• Historical Preservation and Cultural Heritage
• Historiography and Methods
• Image of Africa
• Intellectual History
• Invention of Tradition
• Language and History
• Legal History
• Medical History
• Military History
• North Africa and the Gulf
• Northeastern Africa
• Oral Traditions
• Political History
• Religious History
• Slavery and Slave Trade
• Social History
• Southern Africa
• West Africa
• Women’s History
• Share This Facebook LinkedIn Twitter

Article contents

Poverty and inequality in south africa: a history.

• Colin Bundy Colin Bundy History Department, Green Templeton College, Oxford
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.659
• Published online: 30 June 2020

Contemporary South Africa exhibits widespread and persistent poverty and an extraordinarily high level of inequality. Historically, poverty and inequality were forged by forms of racial subordination and discrimination shaped successively by slavery, by colonial settlement and conquest, and by a mining-based industrial revolution in the last quarter of the 19th century. The explosive growth of capitalism and urbanization in a colonial context shaped a set of institutions and social relations—the “native reserves,” migrant labor, pass laws, job reservation, urban segregation, and the like—which reached their most stringent form under apartheid legislation, from 1948 on. The political, social, and economic system of apartheid entrenched white wealth and privilege and intensified the poverty of black South Africans, particularly in rural areas. By the 1970s, the apartheid project began to flounder and the National Party government launched a series of concessions intended to stimulate the economy and to win the support of black South Africans. A historic transition during the late apartheid years saw a shift from labor shortages to a labor surplus, generating structural unemployment on a massive scale. This was a problem that the African National Congress (ANC), in power since 1994, has been unable to solve and which has been a major factor in the levels of poverty and inequality during the democratic era. The ANC has made some advances in combating poverty, especially through the rapid expansion of welfare in the form of pensions and social grants. This has reduced ultra-poverty or destitution. In addition, the provision of housing, water, sanitation, and electricity to black townships has seen significant growth in assets and services to the poor. Yet since 1994, inequality has increased. South Africa has become a more unequal society and not a more equal one. Two factors have caused inequality to deepen: increasingly concentrated income and wealth, and a sharp rise of inequality within the African population. The ANC continues to commit itself to “pro-poor” policies; yet its ability to reduce poverty, and especially to achieve greater equality, appears to be substantially compromised by its failure to reverse or reform the structure, characteristics, and growth path of the economy.

• unemployment
• settler colonialism
• racial capitalism
• pro-poor policies

You do not currently have access to this article

Please login to access the full content.

Access to the full content requires a subscription

Printed from Oxford Research Encyclopedias, African History. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a single article for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice).

date: 27 August 2024

• Cookie Policy
• Privacy Policy
• Legal Notice
• Accessibility
• [81.177.182.159]
• 81.177.182.159

Character limit 500 /500

• Where We Work
• South Africa

Developing an Inclusive South Africa

Story highlights.

• The recent World Bank Group Systematic Country Diagnostic for South Africa, which explores key development challenges and opportunities for the country, identifies five binding constraints to tackling poverty and inequality
• It notes that the root causes of persistently high poverty, inequality, and unemployment are linked to South Africa’s history of exclusion, which continues to be entrenched in land, capital, labor and product markets, despite progress made since the dawn of democracy in 1994
• Reducing poverty and inequality are goals of the South African government under its National Development Plan, and the World Bank Group

PRETORIA ,  May 14, 2018 –   Tackling the root causes of poverty, inequality, and unemployment through coordinated reforms could help South Africa make further progress toward its Vision 2030 in the National Development Plan, according to the new World Bank Group Systematic Country Diagnostic (SCD) for the country.

Prepared in close consultation with national authorities and other stakeholders, the SCD, An Incomplete Transition: Overcoming the Legacy of Exclusion in South Africa , looks at the interplay between history, social, economic, financial, fiscal and environmental issues, and their impact on poverty and inequality. The SCD also identifies challenges and opportunities to accelerate progress toward reducing poverty and boosting shared prosperity, the core tenets of the World Bank Group’s mission.

Many of the challenges identified, such as insufficient skills for employment, are linked to South Africa’s long history of exclusion.

“The Government of South Africa has done much to address its most pressing development challenges, the triple challenge of high unemployment, poverty and inequality, but much still remains to be done,” said Paul Noumba Um, World Bank Country Director for South Africa. “As the World Bank we stand ready to support South Africa in its efforts to tackle the triple challenge.”

The SCD places special emphasis to the need for large-scale job creation. The diagnostic says that while South Africa underwent a successful and peaceful political transition in 1994, too many South African remain excluded from participating in the economy, rendering the transition incomplete. The persistent legacy of exclusion makes it difficult to build the post-apartheid social contract, the diagnostic says, resulting in contestation over resources and undermining investment and economic growth as well as financial, fiscal, and external sustainability. In addition, climate change poses shocks that further undermine the country’s its sustainability, according to the SCD.

The diagnostic identifies five binding constraints that reflect the root causes in tackling poverty and inequality in the country, and recommendations:

• Insufficient skills: The SCD recommends focusing on children and young adults as the most critical. Policy options expected to have the most impact include strengthening nutrition and early years development, training school teachers, expanding affordable university access to poor students, reforming the Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) system, and active labor market policies.
• Skewed distribution of land and productive assets and weak property rights , is the second binding constraint. The SCD suggests reforms that can strengthen the asset base of the poor, while also increasing property security for investors.
• Low competition and low integration in global and regional value chains. Reform of transport-related state-owned enterprises, including greater private sector participation; attracting foreign direct investment, linking small-medium enterprises (SMEs) with lead firms to connect them with international value chains, are among suggested policies.
• Limited or expensive connectivity and under-serviced historically disadvantaged settlements: Policy options include fostering strategic densification of cities and diversifications of land use, as well as expanding basic services in underserviced settlements. Other interventions are better integrated transport planning and land use, as well as strengthening regulatory framework in support of competition in the minibus taxi sector.
• Climate shocks: Disruptions to the economy and jobs as South Africa transitions to a low-carbon economy will need to be mitigated carefully, the diagnostic suggests. Climate change also puts further pressure on the country’s scarce water resources which require long-term planning and strategic adaptation.
• PRESS RELEASE: World Bank Group Releases its Systematic Country Diagnostic for South Africa
• BLOG: An incomplete transition: Overcoming the legacy of exclusion in South Africa
• The World Bank in South Africa
• The World Bank in Africa
• FULL REPORT: Systematic Country Diagnostic - An Incomplete Transition: Overcoming the Legacy of Exclusion in South Africa English | Northern Sotho | Zulu
• BACKGROUND NOTES
• A brief profile of the status of health and the health system in South Africa
• Between Gatekeeper and Gateway: Taking Advantage of Regional and Global Value Chains by Addressing Barriers to South Africa's Trade Competitiveness
• Corporate governance in South African state-owned enterprises
• Crime Violence and Exclusion in South African Society
• Education in South Africa
• Exchange rate misalignment and its relationship to output growth in South Africa
• Exchange rate volatility, uncertainty, and corporate investment
• Gender in South Africa
• Job training in the Republic of Korea
• Minibus taxis, public transport, and the poor
• Systemic Sectoral Risk and the Myth of a Corporate Savings Glut Background Note
• The development of South African policy planning : a quantitative text analysis
• Wage setting and labor regulatory challenges in a middle income country setting : the case of South Africa
• What is the impact of investment on labor income?
• When the Cycle Becomes the Trend : The Emerging Market Experience with Fiscal Policy during the Last Commodity Super Cycle

• Search Menu

Sign in through your institution

• Browse content in Arts and Humanities
• Browse content in Archaeology
• Anglo-Saxon and Medieval Archaeology
• Archaeological Methodology and Techniques
• Archaeology by Region
• Archaeology of Religion
• Archaeology of Trade and Exchange
• Biblical Archaeology
• Contemporary and Public Archaeology
• Environmental Archaeology
• Historical Archaeology
• History and Theory of Archaeology
• Industrial Archaeology
• Landscape Archaeology
• Mortuary Archaeology
• Prehistoric Archaeology
• Underwater Archaeology
• Zooarchaeology
• Browse content in Architecture
• Architectural Structure and Design
• History of Architecture
• Residential and Domestic Buildings
• Theory of Architecture
• Browse content in Art
• Art Subjects and Themes
• History of Art
• Industrial and Commercial Art
• Theory of Art
• Biographical Studies
• Byzantine Studies
• Browse content in Classical Studies
• Classical Numismatics
• Classical Literature
• Classical Reception
• Classical History
• Classical Philosophy
• Classical Mythology
• Classical Art and Architecture
• Classical Oratory and Rhetoric
• Greek and Roman Archaeology
• Greek and Roman Papyrology
• Greek and Roman Epigraphy
• Greek and Roman Law
• Late Antiquity
• Religion in the Ancient World
• Social History
• Digital Humanities
• Browse content in History
• Colonialism and Imperialism
• Diplomatic History
• Environmental History
• Genealogy, Heraldry, Names, and Honours
• Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing
• Historical Geography
• History by Period
• History of Agriculture
• History of Education
• History of Emotions
• History of Gender and Sexuality
• Industrial History
• Intellectual History
• International History
• Labour History
• Legal and Constitutional History
• Local and Family History
• Maritime History
• Military History
• National Liberation and Post-Colonialism
• Oral History
• Political History
• Public History
• Regional and National History
• Revolutions and Rebellions
• Slavery and Abolition of Slavery
• Social and Cultural History
• Theory, Methods, and Historiography
• Urban History
• World History
• Browse content in Language Teaching and Learning
• Language Learning (Specific Skills)
• Language Teaching Theory and Methods
• Browse content in Linguistics
• Applied Linguistics
• Cognitive Linguistics
• Computational Linguistics
• Forensic Linguistics
• Grammar, Syntax and Morphology
• Historical and Diachronic Linguistics
• History of English
• Language Variation
• Language Families
• Language Evolution
• Language Reference
• Language Acquisition
• Lexicography
• Linguistic Theories
• Linguistic Typology
• Linguistic Anthropology
• Phonetics and Phonology
• Psycholinguistics
• Sociolinguistics
• Translation and Interpretation
• Writing Systems
• Browse content in Literature
• Bibliography
• Children's Literature Studies
• Literary Studies (Modernism)
• Literary Studies (Romanticism)
• Literary Studies (American)
• Literary Studies (Asian)
• Literary Studies (European)
• Literary Studies (Eco-criticism)
• Literary Studies - World
• Literary Studies (1500 to 1800)
• Literary Studies (19th Century)
• Literary Studies (20th Century onwards)
• Literary Studies (African American Literature)
• Literary Studies (British and Irish)
• Literary Studies (Early and Medieval)
• Literary Studies (Fiction, Novelists, and Prose Writers)
• Literary Studies (Gender Studies)
• Literary Studies (Graphic Novels)
• Literary Studies (History of the Book)
• Literary Studies (Plays and Playwrights)
• Literary Studies (Poetry and Poets)
• Literary Studies (Postcolonial Literature)
• Literary Studies (Queer Studies)
• Literary Studies (Science Fiction)
• Literary Studies (Travel Literature)
• Literary Studies (War Literature)
• Literary Studies (Women's Writing)
• Literary Theory and Cultural Studies
• Mythology and Folklore
• Shakespeare Studies and Criticism
• Browse content in Media Studies
• Browse content in Music
• Applied Music
• Dance and Music
• Ethics in Music
• Ethnomusicology
• Gender and Sexuality in Music
• Medicine and Music
• Music Cultures
• Music and Culture
• Music and Media
• Music and Religion
• Music Education and Pedagogy
• Music Theory and Analysis
• Musical Scores, Lyrics, and Libretti
• Musical Structures, Styles, and Techniques
• Musicology and Music History
• Performance Practice and Studies
• Race and Ethnicity in Music
• Sound Studies
• Browse content in Performing Arts
• Browse content in Philosophy
• Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art
• Epistemology
• Feminist Philosophy
• History of Western Philosophy
• Metaphysics
• Moral Philosophy
• Non-Western Philosophy
• Philosophy of Action
• Philosophy of Law
• Philosophy of Religion
• Philosophy of Language
• Philosophy of Mind
• Philosophy of Perception
• Philosophy of Science
• Philosophy of Mathematics and Logic
• Practical Ethics
• Social and Political Philosophy
• Browse content in Religion
• Biblical Studies
• Christianity
• East Asian Religions
• History of Religion
• Judaism and Jewish Studies
• Qumran Studies
• Religion and Education
• Religion and Health
• Religion and Politics
• Religion and Science
• Religion and Law
• Religion and Art, Literature, and Music
• Religious Studies
• Browse content in Society and Culture
• Cookery, Food, and Drink
• Cultural Studies
• Customs and Traditions
• Ethical Issues and Debates
• Hobbies, Games, Arts and Crafts
• Natural world, Country Life, and Pets
• Popular Beliefs and Controversial Knowledge
• Sports and Outdoor Recreation
• Technology and Society
• Travel and Holiday
• Visual Culture
• Browse content in Law
• Arbitration
• Browse content in Company and Commercial Law
• Commercial Law
• Company Law
• Browse content in Comparative Law
• Systems of Law
• Competition Law
• Browse content in Constitutional and Administrative Law
• Government Powers
• Judicial Review
• Local Government Law
• Military and Defence Law
• Parliamentary and Legislative Practice
• Construction Law
• Contract Law
• Browse content in Criminal Law
• Criminal Procedure
• Criminal Evidence Law
• Sentencing and Punishment
• Employment and Labour Law
• Environment and Energy Law
• Browse content in Financial Law
• Banking Law
• Insolvency Law
• History of Law
• Human Rights and Immigration
• Intellectual Property Law
• Browse content in International Law
• Private International Law and Conflict of Laws
• Public International Law
• IT and Communications Law
• Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law
• Law and Society
• Law and Politics
• Browse content in Legal System and Practice
• Courts and Procedure
• Legal Skills and Practice
• Legal System - Costs and Funding
• Primary Sources of Law
• Regulation of Legal Profession
• Medical and Healthcare Law
• Browse content in Policing
• Criminal Investigation and Detection
• Police and Security Services
• Police Procedure and Law
• Police Regional Planning
• Browse content in Property Law
• Personal Property Law
• Restitution
• Study and Revision
• Terrorism and National Security Law
• Browse content in Trusts Law
• Wills and Probate or Succession
• Browse content in Medicine and Health
• Browse content in Allied Health Professions
• Arts Therapies
• Clinical Science
• Dietetics and Nutrition
• Occupational Therapy
• Operating Department Practice
• Physiotherapy
• Radiography
• Speech and Language Therapy
• Browse content in Anaesthetics
• General Anaesthesia
• Clinical Neuroscience
• Browse content in Clinical Medicine
• Acute Medicine
• Cardiovascular Medicine
• Clinical Genetics
• Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
• Dermatology
• Endocrinology and Diabetes
• Gastroenterology
• Genito-urinary Medicine
• Geriatric Medicine
• Infectious Diseases
• Medical Oncology
• Medical Toxicology
• Pain Medicine
• Palliative Medicine
• Rehabilitation Medicine
• Respiratory Medicine and Pulmonology
• Rheumatology
• Sleep Medicine
• Sports and Exercise Medicine
• Community Medical Services
• Critical Care
• Emergency Medicine
• Forensic Medicine
• Haematology
• History of Medicine
• Medical Ethics
• Browse content in Medical Skills
• Clinical Skills
• Communication Skills
• Nursing Skills
• Surgical Skills
• Browse content in Medical Dentistry
• Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
• Paediatric Dentistry
• Restorative Dentistry and Orthodontics
• Surgical Dentistry
• Medical Statistics and Methodology
• Browse content in Neurology
• Clinical Neurophysiology
• Neuropathology
• Nursing Studies
• Browse content in Obstetrics and Gynaecology
• Gynaecology
• Occupational Medicine
• Ophthalmology
• Otolaryngology (ENT)
• Browse content in Paediatrics
• Neonatology
• Browse content in Pathology
• Chemical Pathology
• Clinical Cytogenetics and Molecular Genetics
• Histopathology
• Medical Microbiology and Virology
• Patient Education and Information
• Browse content in Pharmacology
• Psychopharmacology
• Browse content in Popular Health
• Caring for Others
• Complementary and Alternative Medicine
• Self-help and Personal Development
• Browse content in Preclinical Medicine
• Cell Biology
• Molecular Biology and Genetics
• Reproduction, Growth and Development
• Primary Care
• Professional Development in Medicine
• Browse content in Psychiatry
• Addiction Medicine
• Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
• Forensic Psychiatry
• Learning Disabilities
• Old Age Psychiatry
• Psychotherapy
• Browse content in Public Health and Epidemiology
• Epidemiology
• Public Health
• Browse content in Radiology
• Clinical Radiology
• Interventional Radiology
• Nuclear Medicine
• Radiation Oncology
• Reproductive Medicine
• Browse content in Surgery
• Cardiothoracic Surgery
• Gastro-intestinal and Colorectal Surgery
• General Surgery
• Neurosurgery
• Paediatric Surgery
• Peri-operative Care
• Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
• Surgical Oncology
• Transplant Surgery
• Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery
• Vascular Surgery
• Browse content in Science and Mathematics
• Browse content in Biological Sciences
• Aquatic Biology
• Biochemistry
• Bioinformatics and Computational Biology
• Developmental Biology
• Ecology and Conservation
• Evolutionary Biology
• Genetics and Genomics
• Microbiology
• Molecular and Cell Biology
• Natural History
• Plant Sciences and Forestry
• Research Methods in Life Sciences
• Structural Biology
• Systems Biology
• Zoology and Animal Sciences
• Browse content in Chemistry
• Analytical Chemistry
• Computational Chemistry
• Crystallography
• Environmental Chemistry
• Industrial Chemistry
• Inorganic Chemistry
• Materials Chemistry
• Medicinal Chemistry
• Mineralogy and Gems
• Organic Chemistry
• Physical Chemistry
• Polymer Chemistry
• Study and Communication Skills in Chemistry
• Theoretical Chemistry
• Browse content in Computer Science
• Artificial Intelligence
• Computer Architecture and Logic Design
• Game Studies
• Human-Computer Interaction
• Mathematical Theory of Computation
• Programming Languages
• Software Engineering
• Systems Analysis and Design
• Virtual Reality
• Browse content in Computing
• Business Applications
• Computer Games
• Computer Security
• Computer Networking and Communications
• Digital Lifestyle
• Graphical and Digital Media Applications
• Operating Systems
• Browse content in Earth Sciences and Geography
• Atmospheric Sciences
• Environmental Geography
• Geology and the Lithosphere
• Maps and Map-making
• Meteorology and Climatology
• Oceanography and Hydrology
• Palaeontology
• Physical Geography and Topography
• Regional Geography
• Soil Science
• Urban Geography
• Browse content in Engineering and Technology
• Agriculture and Farming
• Biological Engineering
• Civil Engineering, Surveying, and Building
• Electronics and Communications Engineering
• Energy Technology
• Engineering (General)
• Environmental Science, Engineering, and Technology
• History of Engineering and Technology
• Mechanical Engineering and Materials
• Technology of Industrial Chemistry
• Transport Technology and Trades
• Browse content in Environmental Science
• Applied Ecology (Environmental Science)
• Conservation of the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Environmental Sustainability
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Environmental Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Environmental Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environmental Science)
• Nuclear Issues (Environmental Science)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Environmental Science)
• History of Science and Technology
• Browse content in Materials Science
• Ceramics and Glasses
• Composite Materials
• Metals, Alloying, and Corrosion
• Nanotechnology
• Browse content in Mathematics
• Applied Mathematics
• Biomathematics and Statistics
• History of Mathematics
• Mathematical Education
• Mathematical Finance
• Mathematical Analysis
• Numerical and Computational Mathematics
• Probability and Statistics
• Pure Mathematics
• Browse content in Neuroscience
• Cognition and Behavioural Neuroscience
• Development of the Nervous System
• Disorders of the Nervous System
• History of Neuroscience
• Invertebrate Neurobiology
• Molecular and Cellular Systems
• Neuroendocrinology and Autonomic Nervous System
• Neuroscientific Techniques
• Sensory and Motor Systems
• Browse content in Physics
• Astronomy and Astrophysics
• Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics
• Biological and Medical Physics
• Classical Mechanics
• Computational Physics
• Condensed Matter Physics
• Electromagnetism, Optics, and Acoustics
• History of Physics
• Mathematical and Statistical Physics
• Measurement Science
• Nuclear Physics
• Particles and Fields
• Plasma Physics
• Quantum Physics
• Relativity and Gravitation
• Semiconductor and Mesoscopic Physics
• Browse content in Psychology
• Affective Sciences
• Clinical Psychology
• Cognitive Neuroscience
• Cognitive Psychology
• Criminal and Forensic Psychology
• Developmental Psychology
• Educational Psychology
• Evolutionary Psychology
• Health Psychology
• History and Systems in Psychology
• Music Psychology
• Neuropsychology
• Organizational Psychology
• Psychological Assessment and Testing
• Psychology of Human-Technology Interaction
• Psychology Professional Development and Training
• Research Methods in Psychology
• Social Psychology
• Browse content in Social Sciences
• Browse content in Anthropology
• Anthropology of Religion
• Human Evolution
• Medical Anthropology
• Physical Anthropology
• Regional Anthropology
• Social and Cultural Anthropology
• Theory and Practice of Anthropology
• Browse content in Business and Management
• Business History
• Business Ethics
• Business Strategy
• Business and Technology
• Business and Government
• Business and the Environment
• Comparative Management
• Corporate Governance
• Corporate Social Responsibility
• Entrepreneurship
• Health Management
• Human Resource Management
• Industrial and Employment Relations
• Industry Studies
• Information and Communication Technologies
• International Business
• Knowledge Management
• Management and Management Techniques
• Operations Management
• Organizational Theory and Behaviour
• Pensions and Pension Management
• Public and Nonprofit Management
• Social Issues in Business and Management
• Strategic Management
• Supply Chain Management
• Browse content in Criminology and Criminal Justice
• Criminal Justice
• Criminology
• Forms of Crime
• International and Comparative Criminology
• Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice
• Development Studies
• Browse content in Economics
• Agricultural, Environmental, and Natural Resource Economics
• Asian Economics
• Behavioural Finance
• Behavioural Economics and Neuroeconomics
• Econometrics and Mathematical Economics
• Economic Methodology
• Economic History
• Economic Systems
• Economic Development and Growth
• Financial Markets
• Financial Institutions and Services
• General Economics and Teaching
• Health, Education, and Welfare
• History of Economic Thought
• International Economics
• Labour and Demographic Economics
• Law and Economics
• Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics
• Microeconomics
• Public Economics
• Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics
• Welfare Economics
• Browse content in Education
• Adult Education and Continuous Learning
• Care and Counselling of Students
• Early Childhood and Elementary Education
• Educational Equipment and Technology
• Educational Strategies and Policy
• Higher and Further Education
• Organization and Management of Education
• Philosophy and Theory of Education
• Schools Studies
• Secondary Education
• Teaching of a Specific Subject
• Teaching of Specific Groups and Special Educational Needs
• Teaching Skills and Techniques
• Browse content in Environment
• Applied Ecology (Social Science)
• Climate Change
• Conservation of the Environment (Social Science)
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Social Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Social Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environment)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Social Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Social Science)
• Sustainability
• Browse content in Human Geography
• Cultural Geography
• Economic Geography
• Political Geography
• Browse content in Interdisciplinary Studies
• Communication Studies
• Museums, Libraries, and Information Sciences
• Browse content in Politics
• African Politics
• Asian Politics
• Chinese Politics
• Comparative Politics
• Conflict Politics
• Elections and Electoral Studies
• Environmental Politics
• Ethnic Politics
• European Union
• Foreign Policy
• Gender and Politics
• Human Rights and Politics
• Indian Politics
• International Relations
• International Organization (Politics)
• Irish Politics
• Latin American Politics
• Middle Eastern Politics
• Political Theory
• Political Behaviour
• Political Economy
• Political Institutions
• Political Methodology
• Political Communication
• Political Philosophy
• Political Sociology
• Politics and Law
• Politics of Development
• Public Policy
• Public Administration
• Qualitative Political Methodology
• Quantitative Political Methodology
• Regional Political Studies
• Russian Politics
• Security Studies
• State and Local Government
• UK Politics
• US Politics
• Browse content in Regional and Area Studies
• African Studies
• Asian Studies
• East Asian Studies
• Japanese Studies
• Latin American Studies
• Middle Eastern Studies
• Native American Studies
• Scottish Studies
• Browse content in Research and Information
• Research Methods
• Browse content in Social Work
• Addictions and Substance Misuse
• Adoption and Fostering
• Care of the Elderly
• Child and Adolescent Social Work
• Couple and Family Social Work
• Direct Practice and Clinical Social Work
• Emergency Services
• Human Behaviour and the Social Environment
• International and Global Issues in Social Work
• Mental and Behavioural Health
• Social Justice and Human Rights
• Social Policy and Advocacy
• Social Work and Crime and Justice
• Social Work Macro Practice
• Social Work Practice Settings
• Social Work Research and Evidence-based Practice
• Welfare and Benefit Systems
• Browse content in Sociology
• Childhood Studies
• Community Development
• Comparative and Historical Sociology
• Disability Studies
• Economic Sociology
• Gender and Sexuality
• Gerontology and Ageing
• Health, Illness, and Medicine
• Marriage and the Family
• Migration Studies
• Occupations, Professions, and Work
• Organizations
• Population and Demography
• Race and Ethnicity
• Social Theory
• Social Movements and Social Change
• Social Research and Statistics
• Social Stratification, Inequality, and Mobility
• Sociology of Religion
• Sociology of Education
• Sport and Leisure
• Urban and Rural Studies
• Browse content in Warfare and Defence
• Defence Strategy, Planning, and Research
• Land Forces and Warfare
• Military Administration
• Military Life and Institutions
• Naval Forces and Warfare
• Other Warfare and Defence Issues
• Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution
• Weapons and Equipment

• < Previous chapter
• Next chapter >

8 Poverty in South Africa

Vusi Gumede is Dean of the Faculty of Economics, Development and Business Sciences at the University of Mpumalanga. Prior to that he was a professor at the University of South Africa and director at Thabo Mbeki African Leadership Institute. Before that he was an associate professor at the University of Johannesburg. He occupied various positions in the South African government before joining academia. He is widely published, including fourteen books and over forty journal articles and book chapters. He holds a PhD in economics from the University of KwaZulu-Natal. Before joining government he worked as a researcher for various institutions.

• Published: 08 December 2021
• Cite Icon Cite
• Permissions Icon Permissions

The chapter examines poverty in the post-apartheid dispensation (in South Africa), taking into account the various studies that have been undertaken regarding poverty since 1994. Because the South African statistical agency—Statistics South Africa—has not collected poverty data since 2015, the chapter uses the National Income Dynamics Study (NIDS) dataset to estimate poverty for the 2008–17 period while analysing existing data and estimates prior to 2017. An attempt to cover the period after 2017 is done using the NIDS-Coronavirus Rapid Mobile Survey (NIDS-CRAM) which is the mobile survey that was undertaken using the NIDS respondents to gauge the impact of the coronavirus pandemic. The analysis focuses on income poverty although other measures such as the multidimensional poverty index are also estimated and analysed. Relative to expenditure, the income approach in measuring poverty provides descriptive information on household welfare and it is useful for policy analysis and programme evaluation as the literature explains. The chapter concludes that although it appears that income poverty has been declining, it remains very high and it is higher for women, for those living in rural areas, and for the African/black population group. In addition, the severity and intensity of poverty has not changed much since 1994.

Personal account

• Sign in with email/username & password
• Get email alerts
• Save searches
• Purchase content
• Activate your purchase/trial code
• Add your ORCID iD

Institutional access

Sign in with a library card.

• Sign in with username/password
• Recommend to your librarian
• Institutional account management
• Get help with access

Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:

IP based access

Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account.

Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Shibboleth/Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institution’s website and Oxford Academic.

• Click Sign in through your institution.
• Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in.
• When on the institution site, please use the credentials provided by your institution. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.
• Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.

If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institution’s website, please contact your librarian or administrator.

Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian.

Society Members

Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways:

Sign in through society site

Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. If you see ‘Sign in through society site’ in the sign in pane within a journal:

• Click Sign in through society site.
• When on the society site, please use the credentials provided by that society. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.

If you do not have a society account or have forgotten your username or password, please contact your society.

Sign in using a personal account

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. See below.

A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions.

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members.

Viewing your signed in accounts

Click the account icon in the top right to:

• View your signed in personal account and access account management features.
• View the institutional accounts that are providing access.

Signed in but can't access content

Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian.

For librarians and administrators, your personal account also provides access to institutional account management. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more.

Our books are available by subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions.

• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Rights and permissions
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.