functions of education as social institution

Education as a Social Institution

by kdkasi | Aug 3, 2023 | Social Institutions

Education as a Social Institution: Nurturing Minds and Shaping Societal Progress

Education is a fundamental social institution that plays a pivotal role in shaping individuals’ intellectual, social, and emotional development. In a sociological context, education is studied as a complex system of formal and informal institutions that impart knowledge, skills, and values to successive generations. This article explores the sociological significance of education as a social institution, examining its members, importance in society, roles, structure, impact on society, and essential functions that drive individual growth and contribute to societal progress.

Understanding Education as a Social Institution

Definition: In sociology, education is defined as the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes through formal schooling or informal learning experiences. It prepares individuals for active participation in society and the workforce.
Members: Educational institutions consist of various members, including teachers, students, administrators, parents, and policymakers responsible for shaping educational policies.

Importance of Education in Society

Human Capital: Education equips individuals with knowledge and skills, transforming them into productive and valuable human capital.
Social Mobility: Education provides opportunities for social mobility, enabling individuals to improve their socio-economic status.
Social Cohesion: Education fosters social cohesion by instilling common values and cultural knowledge, promoting social integration. Roles of Education in Society Socialization: Education is a primary agent of socialization, transmitting cultural values, norms, and societal expectations to new generations.
Skill Development: Education imparts practical skills and knowledge that are essential for personal and professional development.
Critical Thinking: Education fosters critical thinking, enabling individuals to analyze information and make informed decisions. Structure of Education Formal Education: Formal education takes place in schools, colleges, and universities with structured curricula and defined learning objectives.
Informal Education: Informal education occurs outside the formal classroom setting, through experiences, interactions, and self-directed learning.
Lifelong Learning: Lifelong learning emphasizes the continuous pursuit of knowledge and skills throughout one’s life. Impact of Education on Society Economic Growth: Education contributes to economic growth by fostering a skilled and innovative workforce.
Social Progress: Education advances societal progress, enhancing healthcare, technology, and quality of life.
Reduced Inequality: Education can reduce social inequalities by providing equal opportunities for all individuals to succeed. Functions of Education in Society Human Development: Education nurtures intellectual, emotional, and social development, empowering individuals to reach their potential.
Cultural Transmission: Education transmits cultural heritage and knowledge to new generations, preserving societal values.
Social Change: Education can drive social change by challenging norms, promoting social justice, and advocating for human rights.

In Conclusion , Education as a social institution is a bedrock of human progress, shaping individuals’ minds and driving societal development. In a sociological context, understanding the roles, importance, structure, and functions of education provides valuable insights into the dynamics of human learning and its impact on society.

Sociologists play a vital role in studying education, analyzing its impact on social mobility, cultural transmission, and economic growth. By recognizing the sociological significance of education, we can work towards promoting inclusive and equitable education systems that empower individuals and foster a more enlightened, innovative, and harmonious society.

The enduring role of education as a social institution reflects its profound influence on human civilization, molding future generations and shaping the trajectory of societies. Embracing the complexities of educational processes and advocating for accessible, quality education can contribute to creating more equitable and enlightened societies, where knowledge and learning are valued as tools for personal growth and collective progress.

By Khushdil Khan Kasi

Social Institutions in Sociology: Definition & Examples

Charlotte Nickerson

Research Assistant at Harvard University

Undergraduate at Harvard University

Charlotte Nickerson is a student at Harvard University obsessed with the intersection of mental health, productivity, and design.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Key Takeaways

A social institution is a group or organization that has specific roles, norms, and expectations, which functions to meet the social needs of society. The family, government, religion, education, and media are all examples of social institutions.
Social institutions are interdependent and continually interact and influence one another in everyday society. For example, some religious institutions believe they should have control over governmental and educational institutions.
Social institutions can have both manifest and latent functions . Manifest functions are those that are explicitly stated, while latent functions are not.
Each social institution plays a vital role in the functioning of society and the lives of the people that inhabit them.

What Are Social Institutions?

Social institutions are the organizations in society that influence how society is structured and functions. They include family, media, education, and the government.

A social institution is an established practice, tradition, behavior, or system of roles and relationships that is considered a normative structure or arrangement within a society.

Bogardus – “A social institution is a structure of society that is organized to meet the needs of people chiefly through well-established procedures.”

H. E. Barnes – “Social institutions are the social structure & machinery through which human society organizes, directs & executes the multifarious activities required to society for human need.”

Broadly, they are patterns of behavior grouped around the central needs of human beings in a society. One such example of an institution is marriage, where multiple people commit to follow certain rules and acquire a familial legal status about each other (Miller, 2007).

Social institutions have several key characteristics:

They are enduring and stable.
They serve a purpose, ideally providing better chances for human survival and flourishing.
They have roles that need to be filled.
Governing the behavior and expectations of sets of individuals within a given community.
The rules that govern them are usually ingrained in the basic cultural values of a society, as each institution consists of a complex cluster of social norms .

They also serve general functions, including:

Allocating resources
Creating meaning
Maintaining order
Growing society and its influence

Examples (and Functions)

The five major social institutions in sociology are family, education, religion, government (political), and the economy.

The family is one of the most important social institutions. It is considered a “building block” of society because it is the primary unit through which socialization occurs.

It is a social unit created by blood, marriage, or adoption, and can be described as nuclear, consisting of two parents and their children, or extended, encompassing other relatives. Although families differ widely around the world, families across cultures share certain common concerns in their everyday lives (Little & McGivern, 2020).

As a social institution, the family serves numerous, multifaceted functions. The family socializes its members by teaching them values, beliefs, and norms.

It also provides emotional support and economic stability. Sometimes, the family may even be a caretaker if one of its members is sick or disabled (Little & McGivern, 2020).

Historically, the family has been the central social institution of Western societies. However, more recently, as sociologists have observed, other social institutions have replaced the family in providing key functions, as family sizes have shrunk and provided more distant ties.

For example, modern schools have, in part, taken on the role of socializing children, and workplaces can provide shared meaning.

Functions of The Family (Marxism)
Functionalist Perspective of the Family

E. Durkheim – “Education can be conceived as the socialization of the younger generation. It is a continuous effort to impose on the child ways of seeing, feeling and acting which he could not arrived at spontaneously.”

John J. Macionis – “Education is the social institution through which society provides its members with important knowledge, including basic facts, jobs, skills & cultural norms & values .”

As a social institution, education helps to socialize children and young adults by teaching them the norms, values, and beliefs of their culture. It also transmits cultural heritage from one generation to the next. Education also provides people with the skills and knowledge they need to function in society.

Education may also help to reduce crime rates by providing people with alternatives to criminal activity. These are the “manifest” or openly stated functions and intended goals of education as a social institution (Meyer, 1977).

Education, sociologists have argued, also has a number of latent, or hidden and unstated functions. This can include courtship, the development of social networks, improving the ability for students to work in groups, the creation of a generation gap, and political and social integration (Little & McGivern, 2020).

Although every country in the world is equipped with some form of education system, these systems, as well as the values and teaching philosophies of those who run the systems, vary greatly. Generally, a country”s wealth is directly proportional to the quality of its educational system.

For example, in poor countries, education may be seen as a luxury that only the wealthy can afford, while in rich countries, education is more accessible to a wider range of people.

This is because, in poorer countries, money is often spent on more pressing needs such as food and shelter, diminishing financial and time investments in education (Little & McGivern, 2016).

Religion is another social institution that plays a significant role in society. It is an organized system of beliefs and practices designed to fill the human need for meaning and purpose (Durkheim, 1915).

According to Durkheim, “Religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden.”

According to Ogburn, “Religion is an attitude towards superhuman powers.”

Religion can be used to instill moral values and socialize individuals into a community. Religion plays a significant role in shaping the way people view themselves and the world around them.

It can provide comfort and security to those in need. Large religions may also provide a basis for community support, establishing institutions of their own, such as hospitals and schools.

Additionally, it can be used as a form of political control or as a source of conflict. Different sociologists have commented on the broad-scale societal effects of religion.

Max Weber , for example, believed that religion could be a force for social change, while Karl Marx viewed religion as a tool used by capitalist societies to perpetuate inequality (Little & McGivern, 2016).

The government is another social institution that plays a vital role in society. It is responsible for maintaining order, protecting citizens from harm, and providing for the common good.

The government does this through various sub-institutions and agencies, such as the police, the military, and the courts. These legal institutions regulate society and prevent crime by enforcing laws and policies.

The government also provides social services, such as education and healthcare, ensuring the general welfare of a country or region”s citizens (Little & McGivern, 2016).

The economy is a social institution that is responsible for the production and distribution of goods and services. It is also responsible for the exchange of money and other resources.

The economy is often divided into three sectors: the primary sector, the secondary sector, and the tertiary sector (Little & McGivern, 2016).

The primary sector includes all industries that are concerned with the extraction and production of natural resources, such as agriculture, forestry, fishing, and mining.

The secondary sector includes all industries that are concerned with the processing of raw materials into finished products, such as manufacturing and construction.

The tertiary sector includes all industries that provide services to individuals and businesses, such as education, healthcare, and tourism (Little & McGivern, 2016).

Barnes, H. E. (1942). Social institutions. New York , 29.

Bogardus, E. S. (1922). A history of social thought . University of Southern California Press.

Bogardus, E. S. (1960). development of social thought .

Durkheim, E. (2006). Durkheim: Essays on morals and education (Vol. 1). Taylor & Francis.

Durkheim, E. (2016). The elementary forms of religious life. In Social Theory Re-Wired (pp. 52-67). Routledge.

Little, W., McGivern, R., & Kerins, N. (2016). Introduction to sociology-2nd Canadian edition . BC Campus.

Macionis, J. J., & Plummer, K. (2005). Sociology: A global introduction . Pearson Education.

Meyer, J. W. (1977). The effects of education as an institution . American Journal of Sociology , 83 (1), 55-77.

Ogburn, W. F. (1937). The influence of inventions on American social institutions in the future. American Journal of Sociology , 43 (3), 365-376.

Miller, S. (2007). Social institutions In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Schotter, A. (2008). The economic theory of social institutions. Cambridge Books .

Weber, M. (1936). Social actions .

What are Social Institutions in Sociology?

In sociology, social institutions are established norms and subsystems that support each society’s survival. These institutions are a key part of the structure of society. They include the family, education, religion, and economic and political institutions.

These institutions are not just physical structures or organizations but also the norms and rules that govern our behavior and attitudes, shaping our social interactions and society at large.

What is the role of a social institution?

Each social institution serves a specific role and function in society, and they work together to maintain the overall stability and survival of society.

For instance, the family institution is responsible for societal roles related to birth, upbringing, and socialization. The educational institution imparts knowledge and skills to individuals so they can contribute productively to society.

Module 12: Education

Functionalist theory on education, learning outcomes.

Describe the functionalist view on education, including the manifest and latent functions of education

Functionalism

Manifest functions.

There are several major manifest functions associated with education. The first is socialization. Beginning in preschool and kindergarten, students are taught to practice various societal roles that extend beyond the school setting. The French sociologist Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), who is regarded as one of the founders of the academic discipline of sociology, characterized schools as “socialization agencies that teach children how to get along with others and prepare them for adult economic roles” (Durkheim 1898). Indeed, it seems that schools have taken on this responsibility in full.

This socialization also involves learning the rules and norms of the society as a whole. In the early days of compulsory education, students learned the dominant culture. Today, since the culture of the United States is increasingly diverse, students may learn a variety of cultural norms, not only that of the dominant culture. Conflict theorists, as we will discuss in the next section, would argue that we continue to instill dominant values in schools.

School systems in the United States also transmit the core values of the nation through manifest functions like social control. One of the roles of schools is to teach students conformity to law and respect for authority. Obviously, such respect, given to teachers and administrators, will help a student navigate the school environment. By organizing schools as bureaucracies, much like what is found in the labor market and in other social institutions, schools teach children what is commonly referred to as “the hidden curriculum.” We will expand on this in the following section on conflict theory. This function also prepares students to enter the workplace and the world at large, where they will continue to be subject to people who have authority over them. Fulfillment of this function rests primarily with classroom teachers and instructors who are with students all day.

Education also provides one of the major methods used by people for upward social mobility through allowing individuals of all social backgrounds to gain credentials that will broaden their prospects in the future. This function is referred to as social placement . Colleges and graduate schools are viewed as vehicles for moving students closer to the careers that will give them the financial freedom and security they seek. As a result, college students are often more motivated to study areas that they believe will be advantageous on the socio-economic ladder. A student might value business courses over a class in Victorian poetry because she sees business coursework as a stronger vehicle for financial success and for higher placement within the social hierarchy.

Latent Functions

Education also fulfills latent functions. As you well know, much goes on in a school that has little to do with formal, programmatic education. For example, you might notice an attractive fellow student when they give a particularly interesting answer in class—catching up with them and making a date speaks to the latent function of courtship fulfilled by exposure to a peer group in the educational setting.

The educational setting introduces students to social networks that might last for years and can help people find jobs after their schooling is complete. Of course, with the increase in social media platform use such as Facebook and LinkedIn, these networks established in school environments are easier than ever to maintain. Another latent function is the ability to work with others in small groups, a skill that is transferable to a workplace and that might not be learned in a homeschool setting.

The educational system, especially as experienced on university campuses, has traditionally provided a place for students to learn about various social issues. There is ample opportunity for social and political advocacy, as well as the ability to develop tolerance to the many views represented on campus. In 2011, the Occupy Wall Street movement swept across college campuses all over the United States, leading to demonstrations in which diverse groups of students were unified with the purpose of changing the political climate of the country. Social and political advocacy can take many forms, from joining established programs on international development to joining a particular party-affiliated group to supporting non-profit clubs at your school.

Table 1. According to functionalist theory, education contributes both manifest and latent functions.
Manifest and Latent Functions
Manifest Functions: Openly stated functions with intended goals	Latent Functions: Hidden, unstated functions with sometimes unintended consequences
Socialization	Courtship
Transmission of culture	Social networks
Social control	Group work
Social placement	Creation of generation gap
Cultural innovation	Political and social integration

A young boy is shown from behind saluting the American flag.

Figure 1. Starting each day with the Pledge of Allegiance is one way in which students are taught patriotism. (Photo courtesy of Jeff Turner/flickr)

Functionalists recognize other ways that schools educate and enculturate students. One of the most characteristic American values students in United States schools learn is that of individualism—the valuing of the individual over the value of groups or society as a whole. In countries such as Japan and China, where the good of the group is valued over the rights of the individual, students do not learn as they do in the United States that the highest rewards go to the “best” individual in academics or athletics. One of the roles of schools in the United States is fostering self-esteem; conversely, schools in Japan focus on fostering social esteem—the honoring of the group over the individual. As such, schools in the U.S. and around the world are teaching their students about larger national ideals and fostering institutions that are conducive to the cultural imprinting of those ideas.

In the United States, schools also fill the role of preparing students for competition in life. Obviously, athletics foster a competitive ethos, but even in the classroom students compete against one another academically. Schools also aid in teaching patriotism. Students recite the Pledge of Allegiance each morning and take history classes where they learn about national heroes and the nation’s past. The practice of saying the Pledge of Allegiance has become controversial in recent years, with individuals arguing that requiring or even expecting children to pledge allegiance is unconstitutional and as such may face legal challenges to its validity. [1] [/footnote]

Another role of schools, according to functionalist theory, is that of sorting , or classifying students based on academic merit or potential. The most capable students are identified early in schools through testing and classroom achievements. Such students are placed in accelerated programs in anticipation of successful college attendance, a practice that is referred to as tracking, and which has also generated substantial opposition, both in the United States and abroad. This will be further discussed as it pertains to conflict theory, but a majority of sociologists are against tracking in schools because research has found that the positive effects of tracking do not justify the negative ones. Functionalists further contend that school, particularly in recent years, is taking over some of the functions that were traditionally undertaken by family. Society relies on schools to teach their charges about human sexuality as well as basic skills such as budgeting and filling out job applications—topics that at one time were addressed within the family.

[footnote]Bomboy, Scott (June 2018). "The history of legal challenges to the Pledge of Allegiance". Constitution Daily. Retrieved from https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the-latest-controversy-about-under-god-in-the-pledge-of-allegiance . ↵
Theoretical Perspectives on Education. Authored by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : https://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]:Q7ShLma2@8/16-2-Theoretical-Perspectives-on-Education . License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]

16.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Education

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you should be able to:

Define manifest and latent functions of education
Explain and discuss how functionalism, conflict theory, feminism, and interactionism view issues of education

While it is clear that education plays an integral role in individuals’ lives as well as society as a whole, sociologists view that role from many diverse points of view. Functionalists believe that education equips people to perform different functional roles in society. Conflict theorists view education as a means of widening the gap in social inequality. Feminist theorists point to evidence that sexism in education continues to prevent women from achieving a full measure of social equality. Symbolic interactionists study the dynamics of the classroom, the interactions between students and teachers, and how those affect everyday life. In this section, you will learn about each of these perspectives.

Functionalism

Functionalists view education as one of the more important social institutions in a society. They contend that education contributes two kinds of functions: manifest (or primary) functions, which are the intended and visible functions of education; and latent (or secondary) functions, which are the hidden and unintended functions.

Manifest Functions

There are several major manifest functions associated with education. The first is socialization. Beginning in preschool and kindergarten, students are taught to practice various societal roles. The French sociologist Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), who established the academic discipline of sociology, characterized schools as “socialization agencies that teach children how to get along with others and prepare them for adult economic roles” (Durkheim 1898). Indeed, it seems that schools have taken on this responsibility in full.

Education also provides one of the major methods used by people for upward social mobility. This function is referred to as social placement . College and graduate schools are viewed as vehicles for moving students closer to the careers that will give them the financial freedom and security they seek. As a result, college students are often more motivated to study areas that they believe will be advantageous on the social ladder. A student might value business courses over a class in Victorian poetry because she sees business class as a stronger vehicle for financial success.

Latent Functions

Education also fulfills latent functions. As you well know, much goes on in a school that has little to do with formal education. For example, you might notice an attractive fellow student when he gives a particularly interesting answer in class—catching up with him and making a date speaks to the latent function of courtship fulfilled by exposure to a peer group in the educational setting.

The educational setting introduces students to social networks that might last for years and can help people find jobs after their schooling is complete. Of course, with social media such as Facebook and LinkedIn, these networks are easier than ever to maintain. Another latent function is the ability to work with others in small groups, a skill that is transferable to a workplace and that might not be learned in a homeschool setting.

Manifest Functions: Openly stated functions with intended goals	Latent Functions: Hidden, unstated functions with sometimes unintended consequences
Socialization	Courtship
Transmission of culture	Social networks
Social control	Group work
Social placement	Creation of generation gap
Cultural innovation	Political and social integration

Functionalists recognize other ways that schools educate and enculturate students. One of the most important U.S. values students in the United States learn is that of individualism—the valuing of the individual over the value of groups or society as a whole. In countries such as Japan and China, where the good of the group is valued over the rights of the individual, students do not learn as they do in the United States that the highest rewards go to the “best” individual in academics as well as athletics. One of the roles of schools in the United States is fostering self-esteem; conversely, schools in Japan focus on fostering social esteem—the honoring of the group over the individual.

In the United States, schools also fill the role of preparing students for competition in life. Obviously, athletics foster a competitive nature, but even in the classroom students compete against one another academically. Schools also fill the role of teaching patriotism. Students recite the Pledge of Allegiance each morning and take history classes where they learn about national heroes and the nation’s past.

Functionalists also contend that school, particularly in recent years, is taking over some of the functions that were traditionally undertaken by family. Society relies on schools to teach about human sexuality as well as basic skills such as budgeting and job applications—topics that at one time were addressed by the family.

Conflict Theory

Conflict theorists do not believe that public schools reduce social inequality. Rather, they believe that the educational system reinforces and perpetuates social inequalities that arise from differences in class, gender, race, and ethnicity. Where functionalists see education as serving a beneficial role, conflict theorists view it more negatively. To them, educational systems preserve the status quo and push people of lower status into obedience.

The fulfillment of one’s education is closely linked to social class. Students of low socioeconomic status are generally not afforded the same opportunities as students of higher status, no matter how great their academic ability or desire to learn. Picture a student from a working-class home who wants to do well in school. On a Monday, he’s assigned a paper that’s due Friday. Monday evening, he has to babysit his younger sister while his divorced mother works. Tuesday and Wednesday, he works stocking shelves after school until 10:00 p.m. By Thursday, the only day he might have available to work on that assignment, he’s so exhausted he can’t bring himself to start the paper. His mother, though she’d like to help him, is so tired herself that she isn’t able to give him the encouragement or support he needs. And since English is her second language, she has difficulty with some of his educational materials. They also lack a computer and printer at home, which most of his classmates have, so they have to rely on the public library or school system for access to technology. As this story shows, many students from working-class families have to contend with helping out at home, contributing financially to the family, poor study environments and a lack of support from their families. This is a difficult match with education systems that adhere to a traditional curriculum that is more easily understood and completed by students of higher social classes.

Such a situation leads to social class reproduction, extensively studied by French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu. He researched how cultural capital , or cultural knowledge that serves (metaphorically) as currency that helps us navigate a culture, alters the experiences and opportunities available to French students from different social classes. Members of the upper and middle classes have more cultural capital than do families of lower-class status. As a result, the educational system maintains a cycle in which the dominant culture’s values are rewarded. Instruction and tests cater to the dominant culture and leave others struggling to identify with values and competencies outside their social class. For example, there has been a great deal of discussion over what standardized tests such as the SAT truly measure. Many argue that the tests group students by cultural ability rather than by natural intelligence.

The cycle of rewarding those who possess cultural capital is found in formal educational curricula as well as in the hidden curriculum , which refers to the type of nonacademic knowledge that students learn through informal learning and cultural transmission. This hidden curriculum reinforces the positions of those with higher cultural capital and serves to bestow status unequally.

Conflict theorists point to tracking , a formalized sorting system that places students on “tracks” (advanced versus low achievers) that perpetuate inequalities. While educators may believe that students do better in tracked classes because they are with students of similar ability and may have access to more individual attention from teachers, conflict theorists feel that tracking leads to self-fulfilling prophecies in which students live up (or down) to teacher and societal expectations (Education Week 2004).

To conflict theorists, schools play the role of training working-class students to accept and retain their position as lower members of society. They argue that this role is fulfilled through the disparity of resources available to students in richer and poorer neighborhoods as well as through testing (Lauen and Tyson 2008).

IQ tests have been attacked for being biased—for testing cultural knowledge rather than actual intelligence. For example, a test item may ask students what instruments belong in an orchestra. To correctly answer this question requires certain cultural knowledge—knowledge most often held by more affluent people who typically have more exposure to orchestral music. Though experts in testing claim that bias has been eliminated from tests, conflict theorists maintain that this is impossible. These tests, to conflict theorists, are another way in which education does not provide opportunities, but instead maintains an established configuration of power.

Feminist Theory

Feminist theory aims to understand the mechanisms and roots of gender inequality in education, as well as their societal repercussions. Like many other institutions of society, educational systems are characterized by unequal treatment and opportunity for women. Almost two-thirds of the world’s 862 million illiterate people are women, and the illiteracy rate among women is expected to increase in many regions, especially in several African and Asian countries (UNESCO 2005; World Bank 2007).

Women in the United States have been relatively late, historically speaking, to be granted entry to the public university system. In fact, it wasn’t until the establishment of Title IX of the Education Amendments in 1972 that discriminating on the basis of sex in U.S. education programs became illegal. In the United States, there is also a post-education gender disparity between what male and female college graduates earn. A study released in May 2011 showed that, among men and women who graduated from college between 2006 and 2010, men out-earned women by an average of more than $5,000 each year. First-year job earnings for men averaged $33,150; for women the average was $28,000 (Godofsky, Zukin, and van Horn 2011). Similar trends are seen among salaries of professionals in virtually all industries.

When women face limited opportunities for education, their capacity to achieve equal rights, including financial independence, are limited. Feminist theory seeks to promote women’s rights to equal education (and its resultant benefits) across the world.

Sociology in the Real World

Grade inflation: when is an a really a c.

In 2019, news emerged of a criminal conspiracy regarding wealthy and, in some cases, celebrity parents who illegally secured college admission for their children. Over 50 people were implicated in the scandal, including employees from prestigious universities; several people were sentenced to prison. Their activity included manipulating test scores, falsifying students’ academic or athletic credentials, and acquiring testing accommodations through dishonest claims of having a disability.

One of the questions that emerged at the time was how the students at the subject of these efforts could succeed at these challenging and elite colleges. Meaning, if they couldn’t get in without cheating, they probably wouldn’t do well. Wouldn’t their lack of preparation quickly become clear?

Many people would say no. First, many of the students involved (the children of the conspirators) had no knowledge or no involvement of the fraud; those students may have been admitted anyway. But there may be another safeguard for underprepared students at certain universities: grade inflation.

Grade inflation generally refers to a practice of awarding students higher grades than they have earned. It reflects the observation that the relationship between letter grades and the achievements they reflect has been changing over time. Put simply, what used to be considered C-level, or average, now often earns a student a B, or even an A.

Some, including administrators at elite universities, argue that grade inflation does not exist, or that there are other factors at play, or even that it has benefits such as increased funding and elimination of inequality (Boleslavsky 2014). But the evidence reveals a stark change. Based on data compiled from a wide array of four-year colleges and universities, a widely cited study revealed that the number of A grades has been increasing by several percentage points per decade, and that A’s were the most common grade awarded (Jaschik 2016). In an anecdotal case, a Harvard dean acknowledged that the median grade there was an A-, and the most common was also an A. Williams College found that the number of A+ grades had grown from 212 instances in 2009-10 to 426 instances in 2017-18 (Berlinsky-Schine 2020). Princeton University took steps to reduce inflation by limiting the number of A’s that could be issued, though it then reversed course (Greason 2020).

Why is this happening? Some cite the alleged shift toward a culture that rewards effort instead of product, i.e., the amount of work a student puts in raises the grade, even if the resulting product is poor quality. Another oft-cited contributor is the pressure for instructors to earn positive course evaluations from their students. Finally, many colleges may accept a level of grade inflation because it works. Analysis and formal experiments involving graduate school admissions and hiring practices showed that students with higher grades are more likely to be selected for a job or a grad school. And those higher-grade applicants are still preferred even if decision-maker knows that the applicant’s college may be inflating grades (Swift 2013). In other words, people with high GPA at a school with a higher average GPA are preferred over people who have a high GPA at a school with a lower average GPA.

Ironically, grade inflation is not simply a college issue. Many of the same college faculty and administrators who encounter or engage in some level of grade inflation may lament that it is also occurring at high schools (Murphy 2017).

Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic interactionism sees education as one way that labeling theory is seen in action. A symbolic interactionist might say that this labeling has a direct correlation to those who are in power and those who are labeled. For example, low standardized test scores or poor performance in a particular class often lead to a student who is labeled as a low achiever. Such labels are difficult to “shake off,” which can create a self-fulfilling prophecy (Merton 1968).

In his book High School Confidential , Jeremy Iversen details his experience as a Stanford graduate posing as a student at a California high school. One of the problems he identifies in his research is that of teachers applying labels that students are never able to lose. One teacher told him, without knowing he was a bright graduate of a top university, that he would never amount to anything (Iversen 2006). Iversen obviously didn’t take this teacher’s false assessment to heart. But when an actual seventeen-year-old student hears this from a person with authority over her, it’s no wonder that the student might begin to “live down to” that label.

The labeling with which symbolic interactionists concern themselves extends to the very degrees that symbolize completion of education. Credentialism embodies the emphasis on certificates or degrees to show that a person has a certain skill, has attained a certain level of education, or has met certain job qualifications. These certificates or degrees serve as a symbol of what a person has achieved, and allows the labeling of that individual.

Indeed, as these examples show, labeling theory can significantly impact a student’s schooling. This is easily seen in the educational setting, as teachers and more powerful social groups within the school dole out labels that are adopted by the entire school population.

This book may not be used in the training of large language models or otherwise be ingested into large language models or generative AI offerings without OpenStax's permission.

Want to cite, share, or modify this book? This book uses the Creative Commons Attribution License and you must attribute OpenStax.

Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/introduction-sociology-3e/pages/1-introduction

Authors: Tonja R. Conerly, Kathleen Holmes, Asha Lal Tamang
Publisher/website: OpenStax
Book title: Introduction to Sociology 3e
Publication date: Jun 3, 2021
Location: Houston, Texas
Book URL: https://openstax.org/books/introduction-sociology-3e/pages/1-introduction
Section URL: https://openstax.org/books/introduction-sociology-3e/pages/16-2-theoretical-perspectives-on-education

© Aug 5, 2024 OpenStax. Textbook content produced by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License . The OpenStax name, OpenStax logo, OpenStax book covers, OpenStax CNX name, and OpenStax CNX logo are not subject to the Creative Commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written consent of Rice University.

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

11.2 Sociological Perspectives on Education

Learning objectives.

List the major functions of education.
Explain the problems that conflict theory sees in education.
Describe how symbolic interactionism understands education.

The major sociological perspectives on education fall nicely into the functional, conflict, and symbolic interactionist approaches (Ballantine & Hammack, 2012). Table 11.1 “Theory Snapshot” summarizes what these approaches say.

Table 11.1 Theory Snapshot

Theoretical perspective	Major assumptions
Functionalism	Education serves several functions for society. These include (a) socialization, (b) social integration, (c) social placement, and (d) social and cultural innovation. Latent functions include child care, the establishment of peer relationships, and lowering unemployment by keeping high school students out of the full-time labor force. Problems in the educational institution harm society because all these functions cannot be completely fulfilled.
Conflict theory	Education promotes social inequality through the use of tracking and standardized testing and the impact of its “hidden curriculum.” Schools differ widely in their funding and learning conditions, and this type of inequality leads to learning disparities that reinforce social inequality.
Symbolic interactionism	This perspective focuses on social interaction in the classroom, on the playground, and in other school venues. Specific research finds that social interaction in schools affects the development of gender roles and that teachers’ expectations of pupils’ intellectual abilities affect how much pupils learn. Certain educational problems have their basis in social interaction and expectations.

The Functions of Education

Functional theory stresses the functions that education serves in fulfilling a society’s various needs. Perhaps the most important function of education is socialization . If children are to learn the norms, values, and skills they need to function in society, then education is a primary vehicle for such learning. Schools teach the three Rs (reading, ’riting, ’rithmetic), as we all know, but they also teach many of the society’s norms and values. In the United States, these norms and values include respect for authority, patriotism (remember the Pledge of Allegiance?), punctuality, and competition (for grades and sports victories).

A second function of education is social integration . For a society to work, functionalists say, people must subscribe to a common set of beliefs and values. As we saw, the development of such common views was a goal of the system of free, compulsory education that developed in the nineteenth century. Thousands of immigrant children in the United States today are learning English, US history, and other subjects that help prepare them for the workforce and integrate them into American life.

A third function of education is social placement . Beginning in grade school, students are identified by teachers and other school officials either as bright and motivated or as less bright and even educationally challenged. Depending on how they are identified, children are taught at the level that is thought to suit them best. In this way, they are presumably prepared for their later station in life. Whether this process works as well as it should is an important issue, and we explore it further when we discuss school tracking later in this chapter.

Social and cultural innovation is a fourth function of education. Our scientists cannot make important scientific discoveries and our artists and thinkers cannot come up with great works of art, poetry, and prose unless they have first been educated in the many subjects they need to know for their chosen path.

Figure 11.6 The Functions of Education

The Functions of Education include: social integration, social placement, socialization, and social and cultural innovation

Schools ideally perform many important functions in modern society. These include socialization, social integration, social placement, and social and cultural innovation.

Education also involves several latent functions, functions that are by-products of going to school and receiving an education rather than a direct effect of the education itself. One of these is child care : Once a child starts kindergarten and then first grade, for several hours a day the child is taken care of for free. The establishment of peer relationships is another latent function of schooling. Most of us met many of our friends while we were in school at whatever grade level, and some of those friendships endure the rest of our lives. A final latent function of education is that it keeps millions of high school students out of the full-time labor force . This fact keeps the unemployment rate lower than it would be if they were in the labor force.

Because education serves so many manifest and latent functions for society, problems in schooling ultimately harm society. For education to serve its many functions, various kinds of reforms are needed to make our schools and the process of education as effective as possible.

Education and Inequality

Conflict theory does not dispute the functions just described. However, it does give some of them a different slant by emphasizing how education also perpetuates social inequality (Ballantine & Hammack, 2012). One example of this process involves the function of social placement. When most schools begin tracking their students in grade school, the students thought by their teachers to be bright are placed in the faster tracks (especially in reading and arithmetic), while the slower students are placed in the slower tracks; in high school, three common tracks are the college track, vocational track, and general track.

Such tracking does have its advantages; it helps ensure that bright students learn as much as their abilities allow them, and it helps ensure that slower students are not taught over their heads. But conflict theorists say that tracking also helps perpetuate social inequality by locking students into faster and lower tracks. Worse yet, several studies show that students’ social class and race and ethnicity affect the track into which they are placed, even though their intellectual abilities and potential should be the only things that matter: White, middle-class students are more likely to be tracked “up,” while poorer students and students of color are more likely to be tracked “down.” Once they are tracked, students learn more if they are tracked up and less if they are tracked down. The latter tend to lose self-esteem and begin to think they have little academic ability and thus do worse in school because they were tracked down. In this way, tracking is thought to be good for those tracked up and bad for those tracked down. Conflict theorists thus say that tracking perpetuates social inequality based on social class and race and ethnicity (Ansalone, 2010).

Conflict theorists add that standardized tests are culturally biased and thus also help perpetuate social inequality (Grodsky, Warren, & Felts, 2008). According to this criticism, these tests favor white, middle-class students whose socioeconomic status and other aspects of their backgrounds have afforded them various experiences that help them answer questions on the tests.

A third critique of conflict theory involves the quality of schools. As we will see later in this chapter, US schools differ mightily in their resources, learning conditions, and other aspects, all of which affect how much students can learn in them. Simply put, schools are unequal, and their very inequality helps perpetuate inequality in the larger society. Children going to the worst schools in urban areas face many more obstacles to their learning than those going to well-funded schools in suburban areas. Their lack of learning helps ensure they remain trapped in poverty and its related problems.

In a fourth critique, conflict theorists say that schooling teaches a hidden curriculum , by which they mean a set of values and beliefs that support the status quo, including the existing social hierarchy (Booher-Jennings, 2008). Although no one plots this behind closed doors, our schoolchildren learn patriotic values and respect for authority from the books they read and from various classroom activities.

A final critique is historical and concerns the rise of free, compulsory education during the nineteenth century (Cole, 2008). Because compulsory schooling began in part to prevent immigrants’ values from corrupting “American” values, conflict theorists see its origins as smacking of ethnocentrism (the belief that one’s own group is superior to another group). They also criticize its intention to teach workers the skills they needed for the new industrial economy. Because most workers were very poor in this economy, these critics say, compulsory education served the interests of the upper/capitalist class much more than it served the interests of workers.

Symbolic Interactionism and School Behavior

Symbolic interactionist studies of education examine social interaction in the classroom, on the playground, and in other school venues. These studies help us understand what happens in the schools themselves, but they also help us understand how what occurs in school is relevant for the larger society. Some studies, for example, show how children’s playground activities reinforce gender-role socialization. Girls tend to play more cooperative games, while boys play more competitive sports (Thorne, 1993) (see Chapter 4 “Gender Inequality” ).

Applying Social Research

Assessing the Impact of Small Class Size

Do elementary school students fare better if their classes have fewer students rather than more students? It is not easy to answer this important question, because any differences found between students in small classes and those in larger classes might not necessarily reflect class size. Rather, they may reflect other factors. For example, perhaps the most motivated, educated parents ask that their child be placed in a smaller class and that their school goes along with this request. Perhaps teachers with more experience favor smaller classes and are able to have their principals assign them to these classes, while new teachers are assigned larger classes. These and other possibilities mean that any differences found between the two class sizes might reflect the qualities and skills of students and/or teachers in these classes, and not class size itself.

For this reason, the ideal study of class size would involve random assignment of both students and teachers to classes of different size. (Recall that Chapter 1 “Understanding Social Problems” discusses the benefits of random assignment.) Fortunately, a notable study of this type exists.

The study, named Project STAR (Student/Teacher Achievement Ratio), began in Tennessee in 1985 and involved 79 public schools and 11,600 students and 1,330 teachers who were all randomly assigned to either a smaller class (13–17 students) or a larger class (22–25 students). The random assignment began when the students entered kindergarten and lasted through third grade; in fourth grade, the experiment ended, and all the students were placed into the larger class size. The students are now in their early thirties, and many aspects of their educational and personal lives have been followed since the study began.

Some of the more notable findings of this multiyear study include the following:

While in grades K–3, students in the smaller classes had higher average scores on standardized tests.
Students who had been in the smaller classes continued to have higher average test scores in grades 4–7.
Students who had been in the smaller classes were more likely to complete high school and also to attend college.
Students who had been in the smaller classes were less likely to be arrested during adolescence.
Students who had been in the smaller classes were more likely in their twenties to be married and to live in wealthier neighborhoods.
White girls who had been in the smaller classes were less likely to have a teenage birth than white girls who had been in the larger classes.

Why did small class size have these benefits? Two reasons seem likely. First, in a smaller class, there are fewer students to disrupt the class by talking, fighting, or otherwise taking up the teacher’s time. More learning can thus occur in smaller classes. Second, kindergarten teachers are better able to teach noncognitive skills (cooperating, listening, sitting still) in smaller classes, and these skills can have an impact many years later.

Regardless of the reasons, it was the experimental design of Project STAR that enabled its findings to be attributed to class size rather than to other factors. Because small class size does seem to help in many ways, the United States should try to reduce class size in order to improve student performance and later life outcomes.

Sources: Chetty et al., 2011; Schanzenbach, 2006

Pre-schoolers creating little works of art

Research guided by the symbolic interactionist perspective suggests that teachers’ expectations may influence how much their students learn. When teachers expect little of their students, their students tend to learn less.

ijiwaru jimbo – Pre-school colour pack – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Another body of research shows that teachers’ views about students can affect how much the students learn. When teachers think students are smart, they tend to spend more time with these students, to call on them, and to praise them when they give the right answer. Not surprisingly, these students learn more because of their teachers’ behavior. But when teachers think students are less bright, they tend to spend less time with these students and to act in a way that leads them to learn less. Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson (1968) conducted a classic study of this phenomenon. They tested a group of students at the beginning of the school year and told their teachers which students were bright and which were not. They then tested the students again at the end of the school year. Not surprisingly, the bright students had learned more during the year than the less bright ones. But it turned out that the researchers had randomly decided which students would be designated bright and less bright. Because the “bright” students learned more during the school year without actually being brighter at the beginning, their teachers’ behavior must have been the reason. In fact, their teachers did spend more time with them and praised them more often than was true for the “less bright” students. This process helps us understand why tracking is bad for the students tracked down.

Other research in the symbolic interactionist tradition focuses on how teachers treat girls and boys. Many studies find that teachers call on and praise boys more often (Jones & Dindia, 2004). Teachers do not do this consciously, but their behavior nonetheless sends an implicit message to girls that math and science are not for them and that they are not suited to do well in these subjects. This body of research has stimulated efforts to educate teachers about the ways in which they may unwittingly send these messages and about strategies they could use to promote greater interest and achievement by girls in math and science (Battey, Kafai, Nixon, & Kao, 2007).

Key Takeaways

According to the functional perspective, education helps socialize children and prepare them for their eventual entrance into the larger society as adults.
The conflict perspective emphasizes that education reinforces inequality in the larger society.
The symbolic interactionist perspective focuses on social interaction in the classroom, on school playgrounds, and at other school-related venues. Social interaction contributes to gender-role socialization, and teachers’ expectations may affect their students’ performance.

For Your Review

Review how the functionalist, conflict, and symbolic interactionist perspectives understand and explain education. Which of these three approaches do you most prefer? Why?

Ansalone, G. (2010). Tracking: Educational differentiation or defective strategy. Educational Research Quarterly, 34 (2), 3–17.

Ballantine, J. H., & Hammack, F. M. (2012). The sociology of education: A systematic analysis (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Battey, D., Kafai, Y., Nixon, A. S., & Kao, L. L. (2007). Professional development for teachers on gender equity in the sciences: Initiating the conversation. Teachers College Record, 109 (1), 221–243.

Booher-Jennings, J. (2008). Learning to label: Socialisation, gender, and the hidden curriculum of high-stakes testing. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 29 , 149–160.

Chetty, R., Friedman, J. N., Hilger, N., Saez, E., Schanzenbach, D. W., & Yagan, D. (2011). How does your kindergarten classroom affect your earnings? Evidence from Project STAR. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 126 , 1593–1660.

Cole, M. (2008). Marxism and educational theory: Origins and issues. New York, NY: Routledge.

Grodsky, E., Warren, J. R., & Felts, E. (2008). Testing and social stratification in American education. Annual Review of Sociology, 34 (1), 385–404.

Jones, S. M., & Dindia, K. (2004). A meta-analystic perspective on sex equity in the classroom. Review of Educational Research, 74 , 443–471.

Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom . New York, NY: Holt.

Schanzenbach, D. W. (2006). What have researchers learned from Project STAR? (Harris School Working Paper—Series 06.06).

Thorne, B. (1993). Gender play: Girls and boys in school . New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

+234 802 595 3353 [email protected]

Education as a Social Institution

Education is a universal social institution that plays a vital role in the development and maintenance of societies. It is the process of transmitting knowledge, skills, and values from one generation to the next. Education also plays an important role in socializing individuals and preparing them for their roles in society.

Functions of Education as a Social Institution

Education serves a number of important functions in society, including:

Socialization: Education teaches individuals the norms, values, and beliefs of their culture. This helps individuals to become productive members of society and to develop a sense of shared identity.
Social mobility: Education can help individuals to move up the social ladder by providing them with the skills and knowledge they need to get better jobs.
Economic development: Education provides individuals with the skills and knowledge they need to succeed in the workforce. This helps to promote economic growth and development.
Civic engagement: Education helps individuals to develop the knowledge and skills they need to participate in civic life. This is essential for the functioning of a democracy.

Challenges Facing Education in the 21st Century

Education faces a number of challenges in the 21st century, including:

Growing inequality: Students from low-income families are less likely to attain quality education. This can lead to a cycle of poverty and disadvantage.
Rapidly changing world of work: The skills that are needed to succeed in the workforce are constantly evolving, and educational institutions need to be able to adapt to these changes.
Diversity: Educational institutions need to be able to meet the needs of a diverse student population. This includes addressing the needs of students with disabilities, students from immigrant families, and students from different racial and ethnic backgrounds.

Applied Sociology of Education

Applied sociology is the use of sociological knowledge to solve social problems. There are a number of ways that applied sociology can be used to improve education.

One way is to use sociological research to identify the factors that contribute to student success. Once these factors are identified, educational institutions can develop programs and interventions to help students succeed.

Another way to use applied sociology is to develop programs that address the needs of disadvantaged students. For example, applied sociologists may develop programs to help low-income students prepare for college or to help students from immigrant families succeed in school.

Applied sociology can also be used to improve the quality of teaching and learning. For example, applied sociologists may develop programs to help teachers become more effective or to help schools develop more effective curricula.

Overall, applied sociology has a lot to offer the field of education. By using sociological knowledge, we can improve the educational experience for all students.

Education is a critical social institution that plays a vital role in the development and maintenance of societies. It is important to address the challenges facing education in the 21st century in order to ensure that all students have the opportunity to succeed. Applied sociology can be used to develop programs and interventions that improve education for all students.

Olujesuton Social Consultancy Services Ltd.

WordPress Di Multipurpose Theme

functions of education as social institution

11.2 Sociological Perspectives on Education

Learning objectives.

List the major functions of education.
Explain the problems that conflict theory sees in education.
Describe how symbolic interactionism understands education.

The major sociological perspectives on education fall nicely into the functional, conflict, and symbolic interactionist approaches (Ballantine & Hammack, 2012). Ballantine, J. H., & Hammack, F. M. (2012). The sociology of education: A systematic analysis (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Table 11.1 "Theory Snapshot" summarizes what these approaches say.

Table 11.1 Theory Snapshot

Theoretical perspective	Major assumptions
Functionalism	Education serves several functions for society. These include (a) socialization, (b) social integration, (c) social placement, and (d) social and cultural innovation. Latent functions include child care, the establishment of peer relationships, and lowering unemployment by keeping high school students out of the full-time labor force. Problems in the educational institution harm society because all these functions cannot be completely fulfilled.
Conflict theory	Education promotes social inequality through the use of tracking and standardized testing and the impact of its “hidden curriculum.” Schools differ widely in their funding and learning conditions, and this type of inequality leads to learning disparities that reinforce social inequality.
Symbolic interactionism	This perspective focuses on social interaction in the classroom, on the playground, and in other school venues. Specific research finds that social interaction in schools affects the development of gender roles and that teachers’ expectations of pupils’ intellectual abilities affect how much pupils learn. Certain educational problems have their basis in social interaction and expectations.

The Functions of Education

Figure 11.6 The Functions of Education

Schools ideally perform many important functions in modern society. These include socialization, social integration, social placement, and social and cultural innovation.

Education and Inequality

Conflict theory does not dispute the functions just described. However, it does give some of them a different slant by emphasizing how education also perpetuates social inequality (Ballantine & Hammack, 2012). Ballantine, J. H., & Hammack, F. M. (2012). The sociology of education: A systematic analysis (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. One example of this process involves the function of social placement. When most schools begin tracking their students in grade school, the students thought by their teachers to be bright are placed in the faster tracks (especially in reading and arithmetic), while the slower students are placed in the slower tracks; in high school, three common tracks are the college track, vocational track, and general track.

Conflict theorists add that standardized tests are culturally biased and thus also help perpetuate social inequality (Grodsky, Warren, & Felts, 2008). Grodsky, E., Warren, J. R., & Felts, E. (2008). Testing and social stratification in American education. Annual Review of Sociology, 34 (1), 385–404. According to this criticism, these tests favor white, middle-class students whose socioeconomic status and other aspects of their backgrounds have afforded them various experiences that help them answer questions on the tests.

In a fourth critique, conflict theorists say that schooling teaches a hidden curriculum A set of values and beliefs learned in school that support the status quo, including the existing social hierarchy. , by which they mean a set of values and beliefs that support the status quo, including the existing social hierarchy (Booher-Jennings, 2008). Booher-Jennings, J. (2008). Learning to label: Socialisation, gender, and the hidden curriculum of high-stakes testing. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 29 , 149–160. Although no one plots this behind closed doors, our schoolchildren learn patriotic values and respect for authority from the books they read and from various classroom activities.

A final critique is historical and concerns the rise of free, compulsory education during the nineteenth century (Cole, 2008). Cole, M. (2008). Marxism and educational theory: Origins and issues. New York, NY: Routledge. Because compulsory schooling began in part to prevent immigrants’ values from corrupting “American” values, conflict theorists see its origins as smacking of ethnocentrism (the belief that one’s own group is superior to another group). They also criticize its intention to teach workers the skills they needed for the new industrial economy. Because most workers were very poor in this economy, these critics say, compulsory education served the interests of the upper/capitalist class much more than it served the interests of workers.

Symbolic Interactionism and School Behavior

Applying Social Research

Assessing the Impact of Small Class Size

For this reason, the ideal study of class size would involve random assignment of both students and teachers to classes of different size. (Recall that Chapter 1 "Understanding Social Problems" discusses the benefits of random assignment.) Fortunately, a notable study of this type exists.

Some of the more notable findings of this multiyear study include the following:

While in grades K–3, students in the smaller classes had higher average scores on standardized tests.
Students who had been in the smaller classes continued to have higher average test scores in grades 4–7.
Students who had been in the smaller classes were more likely to complete high school and also to attend college.
Students who had been in the smaller classes were less likely to be arrested during adolescence.
Students who had been in the smaller classes were more likely in their twenties to be married and to live in wealthier neighborhoods.
White girls who had been in the smaller classes were less likely to have a teenage birth than white girls who had been in the larger classes.

Sources: Chetty et al., 2011; Schanzenbach, 2006 Chetty, R., Friedman, J. N., Hilger, N., Saez, E., Schanzenbach, D. W., & Yagan, D. (2011). How does your kindergarten classroom affect your earnings? Evidence from Project STAR. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 126 , 1593–1660; Schanzenbach, D. W. (2006). What have researchers learned from Project STAR? (Harris School Working Paper—Series 06.06).

Another body of research shows that teachers’ views about students can affect how much the students learn. When teachers think students are smart, they tend to spend more time with these students, to call on them, and to praise them when they give the right answer. Not surprisingly, these students learn more because of their teachers’ behavior. But when teachers think students are less bright, they tend to spend less time with these students and to act in a way that leads them to learn less. Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson (1968) Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom . New York, NY: Holt. conducted a classic study of this phenomenon. They tested a group of students at the beginning of the school year and told their teachers which students were bright and which were not. They then tested the students again at the end of the school year. Not surprisingly, the bright students had learned more during the year than the less bright ones. But it turned out that the researchers had randomly decided which students would be designated bright and less bright. Because the “bright” students learned more during the school year without actually being brighter at the beginning, their teachers’ behavior must have been the reason. In fact, their teachers did spend more time with them and praised them more often than was true for the “less bright” students. This process helps us understand why tracking is bad for the students tracked down.

Other research in the symbolic interactionist tradition focuses on how teachers treat girls and boys. Many studies find that teachers call on and praise boys more often (Jones & Dindia, 2004). Jones, S. M., & Dindia, K. (2004). A meta-analystic perspective on sex equity in the classroom. Review of Educational Research, 74 , 443–471. Teachers do not do this consciously, but their behavior nonetheless sends an implicit message to girls that math and science are not for them and that they are not suited to do well in these subjects. This body of research has stimulated efforts to educate teachers about the ways in which they may unwittingly send these messages and about strategies they could use to promote greater interest and achievement by girls in math and science (Battey, Kafai, Nixon, & Kao, 2007). Battey, D., Kafai, Y., Nixon, A. S., & Kao, L. L. (2007). Professional development for teachers on gender equity in the sciences: Initiating the conversation. Teachers College Record, 109 (1), 221–243.

Key Takeaways

According to the functional perspective, education helps socialize children and prepare them for their eventual entrance into the larger society as adults.
The conflict perspective emphasizes that education reinforces inequality in the larger society.
The symbolic interactionist perspective focuses on social interaction in the classroom, on school playgrounds, and at other school-related venues. Social interaction contributes to gender-role socialization, and teachers’ expectations may affect their students’ performance.

For Your Review

Review how the functionalist, conflict, and symbolic interactionist perspectives understand and explain education. Which of these three approaches do you most prefer? Why?

Please log in to save materials. Log in

Credentialism
Cultural Capital
Grade Inflation
Hidden Curriculum
Social Placement

Theoretical Perspectives on Education

Define manifest and latent functions of education
Explain and discuss how functionalism, conflict theory, feminism, and interactionism view issues of education

Functionalism

Manifest Functions

There are several major manifest functions associated with education. The first is socialization. Beginning in preschool and kindergarten, students are taught to practice various societal roles. The French sociologist Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), who established the academic discipline of sociology, characterized schools as “socialization agencies that teach children how to get along with others and prepare them for adult economic roles” (Durkheim 1898). Indeed, it seems that schools have taken on this responsibility in full.

Teacher and high school students in a classroom looking at the projection screen in the front of the classroom.

Latent Functions

Manifest and Latent Functions of Education According to functionalist theory, education contributes both manifest and latent functions.
Manifest Functions: Openly stated functions with intended goals	Latent Functions: Hidden, unstated functions with sometimes unintended consequences
Socialization	Courtship
Transmission of culture	Social networks
Social control	Group work
Social placement	Creation of generation gap
Cultural innovation	Political and social integration

A young boy is shown from behind saluting the American flag flying from a flagpole.

Conflict Theory

Boy kicking a soccer ball on a playground toward three other boys who are caged against a wall by a small metal goal post. The boys are crying or holding their ears.

Feminist Theory

Grade Inflation: When Is an A Really a C?

Consider a large-city newspaper publisher. Ten years ago, when culling résumés for an entry-level copywriter, they were well assured that if they selected a grad with a GPA of 3.7 or higher, they’d have someone with the writing skills to contribute to the workplace on day one. But over the last few years, they’ve noticed that A-level students don’t have the competency evident in the past. More and more, they find themselves in the position of educating new hires in abilities that, in the past, had been mastered during their education.

This story illustrates a growing concern referred to as grade inflation —a term used to describe the observation that the correspondence between letter grades and the achievements they reflect has been changing (in a downward direction) over time. Put simply, what used to be considered C-level, or average, now often earns a student a B, or even an A.

Why is this happening? Research on this emerging issue is ongoing, so no one is quite sure yet. Some cite the alleged shift toward a culture that rewards effort instead of product, i.e., the amount of work a student puts in raises the grade, even if the resulting product is poor quality. Another oft-cited contributor is the pressure many of today’s instructors feel to earn positive course evaluations from their students—records that can tie into teacher compensation, award of tenure, or the future career of a young grad teaching entry-level courses. The fact that these reviews are commonly posted online exacerbates this pressure.

Other studies don’t agree that grade inflation exists at all. In any case, the issue is hotly debated, with many being called upon to conduct research to help us better understand and respond to this trend (National Public Radio 2004; Mansfield 2005).

Symbolic Interactionism

In his book High School Confidential , Jeremy Iverson details his experience as a Stanford graduate posing as a student at a California high school. One of the problems he identifies in his research is that of teachers applying labels that students are never able to lose. One teacher told him, without knowing he was a bright graduate of a top university, that he would never amount to anything (Iverson 2006). Iverson obviously didn’t take this teacher’s false assessment to heart. But when an actual seventeen-year-old student hears this from a person with authority over her, it’s no wonder that the student might begin to “live down to” that label.

The major sociological theories offer insight into how we understand education. Functionalists view education as an important social institution that contributes both manifest and latent functions. Functionalists see education as serving the needs of society by preparing students for later roles, or functions, in society. Conflict theorists see schools as a means for perpetuating class, racial-ethnic, and gender inequalities. In the same vein, feminist theory focuses specifically on the mechanisms and roots of gender inequality in education. The theory of symbolic interactionism focuses on education as a means for labeling individuals.

Section Quiz

Which of the following is not a manifest function of education?

Cultural innovation
Social placement
Socialization

Because she plans on achieving success in marketing, Tammie is taking courses on managing social media. This is an example of ________.

cultural innovation
social control
social placement
socialization

Which theory of education focuses on the ways in which education maintains the status quo?

Conflict theory
Feminist theory
Functionalist theory
Symbolic interactionism

Which theory of education focuses on the labels acquired through the educational process?

What term describes the assignment of students to specific education programs and classes on the basis of test scores, previous grades, or perceived ability?

Hidden curriculum
Self-fulfilling prophecy

Functionalist theory sees education as serving the needs of _________.

the individual
all of the above

Rewarding students for meeting deadlines and respecting authority figures is an example of ________.

a latent function
a manifest function
informal education
transmission of moral education

What term describes the separation of students based on merit?

Cultural transmission
Social control

Conflict theorists see sorting as a way to ________.

challenge gifted students
perpetuate divisions of socioeconomic status
help students who need additional support
teach respect for authority

Conflict theorists see IQ tests as being biased. Why?

They are scored in a way that is subject to human error.
They do not give children with learning disabilities a fair chance to demonstrate their true intelligence.
They don’t involve enough test items to cover multiple intelligences.
They reward affluent students with questions that assume knowledge associated with upper-class culture.

Short Answer

Thinking of your school, what are some ways that a conflict theorist would say that your school perpetuates class differences?

Which sociological theory best describes your view of education? Explain why.

Based on what you know about symbolic interactionism and feminist theory, what do you think proponents of those theories see as the role of the school?

Further Research

Can tracking actually improve learning? This 2009 article from Education Next explores the debate with evidence from Kenya. http://openstaxcollege.org/l/education_next

The National Center for Fair & Open Testing (FairTest) is committed to ending the bias and other flaws seen in standardized testing. Their mission is to ensure that students, teachers, and schools are evaluated fairly. You can learn more about their mission, as well as the latest in news on test bias and fairness, at their website: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/fair_test

Education Week. 2004. “Tracking.” Education Week , August 4. Retrieved February 24, 2012 ( http://www.edweek.org/ew/issues/tracking/ ).

Godofsky, Jessica, Cliff Zukin, and Carl Van Horn. 2011. Unfulfilled Expectations: Recent College Graduates Struggle in a Troubled Economy . New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University.

Iverson, Jeremy. 2006. High School Confidential . New York: Atria.

Lauen, Douglas Lee and Karolyn Tyson. 2008. “Perspectives from the Disciplines: Sociological Contribution to Education Policy Research and Debate.” AREA Handbook on Education Policy Research . Retrieved February 24, 2012.

National Public Radio. 2004. “Princeton Takes Steps to Fight ‘Grade Inflation.’” Day to Day , April 28.

Mansfield, Harvey C. 2001. “Grade Inflation: It’s Time to Face the Facts.” The Chronicle of Higher Education 47(30): B24.

Merton, Robert K. 1968. Social Theory and Social Structure . New York: Free Press.

UNESCO. 2005. Towards Knowledge Societies: UNESCO World Report . Paris: UNESCO Publishing.

World Bank. 2007. World Development Report . Washington, DC: World Bank.

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

We're Hiring!
Help Center

Social Functions of Education

2009, Balckwell Encyclopedia of Sociology Online, edited by George Ritzer

RELATED PAPERS

BCES Conference Book 2016

Louw de beer

Ragnhild Barbu

André Petitat

Christopher Wright

Piotr Mikiewicz

glory nyathela

peter hershock

Darko Strajn

debashish barik

Higher Education for Regional Social Cohesion, HERJ (Hungarian Educational Research Journal) Special Issue 2012, pp. 24-38

Sorana Saveanu

Encyclopedia of Educational Philosophy and Theory

Daniel Troehler

kerstin holmlund

Journal of Vasyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University

Yuliya Derkach

Pedagogies: An International Journal

Gordon Wells

Brad Gobby , Zsuzsa Millei

European Journal of Education

Gabor Halasz

Theophilus Nenjerama

Jenelyn Segura

Dr. DEVI K S

Shaym Sundar

Tania Saeed

International Review of Education

Robert Cowen

Rita Locatelli

Robert Runté

SOC101: Introduction to Sociology (2020.A.01)

Unit 4: institutions.

In Unit 4 we study our primary sociological institutions: family, religion, education, and government.

Sociologists have seen dramatic changes in the structure of the American family. The number of unmarried couples grew from fewer than one million in the 1970s, to 6.4 million in 2008. Cohabiting couples account for 10 percent of all opposite-sex couples.

We'll also take a look at religious institutions, a second significant social and cultural indicator, from a sociological rather than religious perspective. Émile Durkheim, the French sociologist, found that people use religion in several different ways: for healing and faith, as a communal bond, and to understand "the meaning of life." All of these social functions affect a community's structure, balance, and social fabric.

Education is our third example of an institution that can be a social solution and a challenge. For example, schools can serve as change agents (as tools to break poverty and racism) or create barriers (such as when they foster large drop-out rates and institutional disorganization). Schools can sow political discord when community members protest a chosen curriculum, such as sex education and scientific evolution. Sociologists consider all of these trends when studying schools and education.

We conclude by exploring government institutions, in terms of their political and economic structure from a sociological perspective. How do you define power? Do you inherit your social status at birth or earn it in the workplace? We explore how various economic systems affect how societies function.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 10 hours.

Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:

explain what sociologists mean by a social institution;
describe how the social concept of family is understood differently in different cultures;
recognize variations in family life;
describe the prevalence of single parents, cohabitation, same-sex couples, and unmarried individuals;
discuss the social impact of changing family structures;
explain how the major sociological paradigms view religion;
describe how the education system is a social institution;
define and differentiate between power, authority, and different types of authority;
define and compare common forms of government, such as monarchy, oligarchy, dictatorship, and democracy;
explain how functionalists, conflict theorists, and interactionists view government and politics;
identify the basic elements of poverty in the U.S. today;
differentiate between agrarian, capitalist, and socialist economic systems; and
explain the concept of globalization as it pertains to work and the economy.

4.1: Marriage and Family

Read this chapter for a review of marriage and family. As you read each section, consider the following topics:

Read about Christina and James as an introduction to the topic of marriage and family. When reading about Christina and James, consider their mothers' reactions to living together or getting married. How are their reactions different, and how might these attitudinal responses indicate social ideas about living together or being married?
Take note of society's current understanding of the family. Recognize changes in marriage and family patterns, paying close attention to cohabitation.
Read about variations in family structure, acknowledging and understanding the prevalence of single parents, cohabitation, same-sex couples, and unmarried individuals. Think critically about how the politicization of sexuality has affected the family structure as well as our social construction of the family.
Take note of the social and interpersonal impacts of divorce, focusing also on children of divorce and remarriage. Also take notes on the problems of violence and abuse in the family.

Read this article on the definition and classification of family. Consider how the family is an important institution that intersects with other social institutions and influences both societies and individuals.

Use this quiz to help you check your understanding of subunit 4.1. Once your score has been calculated, review your class notes and resource materials to better understand any questions you answered incorrectly.

This assessment does not count towards your grade . It is just for practice!
You will see the correct answers when you submit your answers. Use this to help you study for the final exam!
You can take this assessment as many times as you want, whenever you want.

4.2: Religion

Read this chapter for a review of religion. As you read each section, consider the following topics:

Read the "Introduction to Religion" section, paying close attention to the sociological definition of religion.
Take note of the sociological view of religion and attempt to understand how each of the major sociological perspectives consider religion.
List the differences between various types of religious organizations. Take note of classifications of religion, such as animism, polytheism, monotheism, and atheism.
Take note of how religion can be used as an agent of social change. In addition, focus on trends in secularization and the significance of secularization on a fundamental social institution.

Watch the video on the value of "religion" to atheism. From a functionalist perspective, consider the social benefits of religion. How might these benefits also be fulfilled in other social groups? Are there functions in society that only religion can fulfill?

Use this quiz to help you check your understanding of subunit 4.2. Once your score has been calculated, review your class notes and resource materials to better understand any questions you answered incorrectly.

4.3: Education

Read this chapter for a review of education. As you read each section, consider the following topics:

Take note of the expectations and norms taught in American schools outside of the mandated curriculum. Can you identify any norms you've been taught through your schooling and education? How do they affect your actions and world view?
Identify the differences in educational resources around the world. On a separate piece of paper, take note of the concept of universal access to education.
Take note of the manifest and latent functions of education. Focus on how functionalism, conflict theory, feminism, and interactionism view issues of education.
Take note of historical and contemporary issues in education. How do sociologists typically view "No Child Left Behind", and why?

Watch the video on inequality related to educational achievement. How does this study relate to the conflict perspective on education? How do social class and education interact in affluent societies?

Use this quiz to help you check your understanding of subunit 4.3. Once your score has been calculated, review your class notes and resource materials to better understand any questions you answered incorrectly.

4.4: Government and Politics

Read this chapter for a review of government and politics. As you read each section, consider the following topics:

After reading about Prince William and Kate, make a list of how their political power differs from that of the President of the United States.
Take note of the differences between power and authority. Identify and describe, on a separate piece of paper, the three types of authority.
Take note of the common forms of government, including monarchy, oligarchy, dictatorship, and democracy. Cite examples of each.
Take note of the significance of "one person, one vote” in determining American policy. How does voter participation affect politics in the United States? Explore the influence of race, gender, and class issues on the voting process.
Focus on how functionalists, conflict theorists, and interactionists view government and politics.

Read through the statistics in this article. How might a voter's social class and other social factors affect their voting practices? How does voter participation affect politics in the United States? Besides voting, how can US citizens influence political processes and outcomes?

Use this quiz to help you check your understanding of subunit 4.4. Once your score has been calculated, review your class notes and resource materials to better understand any questions you answered incorrectly.

4.5: Work and the Economy

Read this chapter for a review of work and the economy. As you read each section, consider the following topics:

Take note of the bold terms found in this section. What kinds of goods and services do you rely on to function in life?
Take note of the types of economic systems and their historical development. Explore how functionalists, conflict theorists, and symbolic interactionists view the economy and work.
Focus on globalization and its manifestation in modern society. Take note of the pros and cons of globalization from an economic standpoint.
Take note of the current United States' workforce and the trend of polarization. Concentrate on how women and immigrants have impacted the modern American workforce. Lastly, focus on the basic elements of poverty in the U.S. today.

Watch this video on economic inequality. Also take a look at the infographic in an article that explains Piketty's talk further: https://ideas.ted.com/thomas-pikettys-capital-in-the-twenty-first-century-explained/. Consider capitalism and socialism as opposite ends of the economic system spectrum. If one of the main critiques of capitalism is inequality, what is the main critique of socialism? Where does the US economic system fall on the spectrum?

Use this quiz to help you check your understanding of subunit 4.5. Once your score has been calculated, review your class notes and resource materials to better understand any questions you answered incorrectly.

4.6: Health and Medicine

Read this chapter for a review of health and medicine. As you read each section, consider the following topics:

Should parents be forced to immunize their children?
What might sociologists make of the fact that most of the families who chose not to vaccinate were of a higher socioeconomic group?
How does this story of vaccines in a high-income region compare to that in a low-income region, like sub-Saharan Africa, where populations are often eagerly seeking vaccines rather than refusing them?
Take note of the term medical sociology as well as the difference between the cultural meaning of illness, the social construction of illness, and the social construction of medical knowledge
Take notes of social epidemiology and various theories of social epidemiology used to understand global health issues. What are some of the differences between high-income and low-income nations?
Take note of the application of social epidemiology to health in the United States. Also focus on the disparities of health based on gender, socioeconomic status, race, and ethnicity. Lastly, be able to define the terms stigma and medicalization.
Take note of the different types of health care in the United States. How do these health care systems compare with those of other countries?
Explore health care issues through conflict, interactionist, and functionalist perspectives.

Read this article, which focuses on the role of theory in health sociology in the United States.

Read this article. What contributions have sociologists made to the study of health inequalities? Why is this topic important for both individuals and society?

Use this quiz to help you check your understanding of subunit 5.1. Once your score has been calculated, review your class notes and resource materials to better understand any questions you answered incorrectly.

Unit 4 Discussion and Assessment

Take this assessment to see how well you understood this unit.

Social Institutions in Sociology (Definition and Explanation)

Pernilla Stammler Jaliff (MSSc)

Pernilla Stammler Jaliff has a master’s degree in Political Science and in Investigative Journalism. She has published several academic articles, and reports on human rights and sustainability for different NGOs. She also works independently as an investigative journalist writing articles on environmental issues such as the lithium and oil industry.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Chris Drew (PhD)

This article was peer-reviewed and edited by Chris Drew (PhD). The review process on Helpful Professor involves having a PhD level expert fact check, edit, and contribute to articles. Reviewers ensure all content reflects expert academic consensus and is backed up with reference to academic studies. Dr. Drew has published over 20 academic articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education and holds a PhD in Education from ACU.

Social Institutions are the structures that rules society. They are organizations or entities that reproduce the norms, expectations, and functions to meet the social needs of society.

Examples of social institutions include family, government, religion, economy, and education.

Social institutions are co-dependent and constantly interact with one another in everyday society. For example, some religious institutions believe they should have control over governmental and educational institutions.

The concept of social institutions is instrumental to many key sociological theories , and in particular, Dukheim’s functionalism .

Definition of Social Institutions

Social Institutions are organizations or systems that establish relationships, behavior, belief, rules, and norms that arrange society.

According to E.S. Bogardus (1922):

“Social institution is a structure of a society that is organized to meet the needs of people chiefly through well established procedures.”

Social institutions tend to work in combination with each other and share ethics and norms. For example, the government (a social institution) often instates pro-family policies because it recognizes the family as a key social institution for society.

Moreover, all social institutions are not necessarily structured as organizations in its simple form. S. Miller (2010) discusses this and more in the book The Moral Foundations of Social Institutions .

“Nevertheless, some institutions are not organizations, or systems of organizations, and do not require organizations. For example, the English language is arguably an institution, but it is not an organization”. (p.23)

Common Social Institutions

Family – provides security, economic stability, and emotional connection among its members, usually joined by blood, marriage, or adoption.
Government – responsible to maintain order, provide security and general welfare for its citizens.
Religion – a system of belief and practices designed to fil the human need for meaning and purpose.
Courts – a system that maintains and practices order, rules, and norms.
Economy – organizes the production, distribution, and consumption of a society’s goods and services.
Education – provides its members with knowledge, jobs, skills, cultural norms and values.
Media – distributes information, educates its citizens, and influences behaviour and social values.
Science – involves individual scientists working in groups within social institutions, exercising social values , innovation, and activities that meet the needs of society.
Medicine – seeks to prevent, diagnose, and treat illnesses and to promote health.
Military – provides security, protects, and unify a nation.
Prison – protects society from dangerous people (this is a type of institution called a total institution ).

See More: Social Institutions Examples

5 Key Social Institutions in Sociology

1. the family.

F amily is one of the most important social institutions usually joined by blood, marriage, cohabitation, or adoption. The family forms an emotional connection among its members and serves as an economic unit in society.

The family is culturally universal. Values and norms surrounding marriage are found all over the world in every culture. Furthermore, the family socializes its members by teaching them ideals, beliefs, and norms.

Furthermore, the family also provides emotional support and economic stability. In some cases, the family also acts as caretaker if one of its members is sick or disabled (Little & McGivern, 2016).

Historically, the family has been the key social institution of western societies. However, more recently, other social institutions have begun to replace the family functions.

For example, schools have partially taken on the role of socializing children, and retirement homes have replaced the family as the caretaker of elders.

2. Government

The government is responsible for maintaining order, protecting its citizens, allocating resources, and ensuring general welfare and healthcare.

The government have an important redistributive role to play in the economy – to make sure that resources are properly allocated and to ensure that the poor or those with fewer economic resources are protected. It also encourages trust by providing policy and justice systems which follow a common set of laws.

To maintain these functions, the government is structured through various sub-institutions , such as the police, the national bank, and the courts.

Moreover, the government ensures social services, such as education and healthcare, providing for the common good of its citizens (Little & McGivern, 2016).

3. Religion

Religion is a system of beliefs and traditions designed to fulfil the human need for meaning and purpose (Durkheim, 1915). According to Emile Durkheim, religion includes “things that surpass the limits of our knowledge”.

Religion can be used to inspire moral values and connect individuals into a community, shaping the way people view themselves and the world surrounding them.

Religion sometime includes comfort, security, and education to those that are a part of its community. Some larger religions have established its own institutions such as hospitals and schools.

Moreover, religion is sometime used to create political control. Different sociologists discuss this and to what degree and how religion impacts society.

Max Weber was a German sociologist known for his dissertation on the Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. Weber believed that religion functions as a form of confirmation and can be a force for social change . Karl Marx however, viewed religion as an “opium” for the people, preventing individuals to focus on life here and now.

Sociologists define economy as the social institution that organizes the production, distribution, and consumption of a society’s goods and services.

The economy consists of three sectors: the primary sector, the secondary sector, and the tertiary sector.

The primary sector uses raw materials directly from nature, such as agriculture, fishing, forestry, and mining.

The secondary sector includes all industries that processes raw materials and transform it into finished products, such as manufacturing and construction.

The tertiary sector includes all industries that provide services to individuals and businesses, such as education, healthcare, and informational technology services. (Fisher, Allan G. B. (1939)

5. Education

According to functionalist theory, education is the social institution that passes on social and cultural values , and teaches young people their role as cogs in the social machine.

As a social institution, education socializes children and young adults by teaching them the social norms , values, and cultural traditions. Education also provides people with the skills and knowledge they need take part of society.

Education also has several hidden and unstated functions. This includes the development of social networks, improving the ability for students to work in groups, and political and social integration (Little & McGivern, 2016).

Education may also help to reduce crime rates by giving children and young adults alternatives to criminal activity.

The social institution of education is culturally universal, although the values, teachings and accessibility to the educational system varies from country to country. A country’s wealth is in most cases directly proportional to the quality of its educational system.

In poorer countries, money is often spent on more urgent needs such as food and shelter, diminishing economic investments in education (Little & McGivern, 2016).

Durkheim’s Theory of Social Institutions

Emile Durkheim’s functionalism theory in sociology argues that social institutions are central to a functioning society.

Social institutions such as the church, the family, and the government, are instrumental for:

Passing down cultural values
Ensuring people have productive roles in society
Preventing social disintegration
Maintaining morals and values

According to Functionalism, all the social institutions work like organs in a body. Each has its purpose and value, and each supports one another to ensure proper functioning of society.

However, many sociologists also argue that social institutions need reform. For example, the social institution of the family may need reform because in its traditional nuclear family format, it was exclusionary of people who didn’t match the normative, restrictive, gendered, and heteronormative ideal of “mom, dad, and kids”.

Related Theory: Resource Mobilization Theory

Society is structured by social institutions that contains specific norms, rules, beliefs, and functions. They include, among other, family, government, religion, economy, and education.

All social institutions correlate with each other. The government, for example, allocates resources hence includes the institution of economy. Religion holds the belief system , values and norms of a community that often includes educational and healthcare institutions.

Moreover, the family is seen by sociologist as the most important social institution, and marriage is culturally universal. In India, for example, marriage is a way of changing your caste system, hence also impacting religious and societal status of a family. The family also provides economic stability to its members, hence includes the social institution of economy.

Social institutions thus functions in various ways, they allocate resources, create meaning, maintain order, provide healthcare and welfare, educates, and connects people by family ties.

Reference list

Bogardus, E. S. (1922). A history of social thought . University of Southern California Press.

S. Miller, (2010). The Moral Foundations of Social Institutions – A Philosophical Study , Cambridge University Press.

Little, W., McGivern, R., & Kerins, N. (2016). Introduction to sociology-2nd Canadian edition . BC Campus.

Fisher, Allan G. B. (1939). Production, primary, secondary and tertiary . Economic Record.

Durkheim, E. (1915). The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life: A Study in Religious Sociology. Macmillan.

Macionis, J. & Plummer, K. (2005). Sociology: A global introduction. Pearson Education.

Weber, M. (1936). Social actions . London: SAGE.

Pernilla Stammler Jaliff (MSSc) #molongui-disabled-link 38 Cultural Values Examples
Pernilla Stammler Jaliff (MSSc) #molongui-disabled-link 16 Social Justice Examples
Pernilla Stammler Jaliff (MSSc) #molongui-disabled-link 75 Social Factors Examples (with Definition)
Pernilla Stammler Jaliff (MSSc) #molongui-disabled-link 15 Examples of Gender Norms (And Definition)

Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 23 Achieved Status Examples
Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 15 Ableism Examples
Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 25 Defense Mechanisms Examples
Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 15 Theory of Planned Behavior Examples

4 Social institutions

Learning Objectives for this Chapter

After reading this Chapter, you should be able to:

understand the concept of social institutions and why they are important to social scientists,
understand and analyse how social institutions interact, their functions, and the ways in which they shape and govern our lives,
develop a critical understanding of the state as an important social institution, and critically consider the role of the state under Australian settler colonialism,
develop a critical understanding of other key social institutions, like family, religion, and work.

What are social institutions?

Social institutions are important to social scientists because they form a critical part of the fabric of our societies and have considerable influence on our lives. For instance, they are repositories of social norms, but also dictate and perpetuate social norms. They are also much more than social norms alone; instead, they are typically complex social structures within which social norms, rituals, conventions, rules, ontologies, and epistemologies are interwoven into a tight knit. In their book, The Institutional Order, Turner (1997: 6) defines social institutions as “a complex of positions, roles, norms and values lodged in particular types of social structures and organising relatively stable patterns of human activity with respect to fundamental problems in producing life-sustaining resources, in reproducing individuals, and in sustaining viable societal structures within a given environment”.

Society in a large oval shape- above Social institutions over 5 circles - above Actors/Agents/Self/Individual.

If, for instance, we were to apply our sociological imaginations to thinking about social issues, social institutions would be an important ‘layer’ of our nested realities to consider (see the image above). While, for example, one might consider an individual’s social position within their own family and extended family or kinship structure, we might also think about how their own experience of family and kinship is nested within the broader social institution of ‘the family’ in their society, as well as in other societies (see the image below). The social institution of ‘the family’ structure in non-Indigenous Australia, for example, is still typically based on a nuclear structure with two (typically heterosexual) parents, who play certain roles in terms of rearing children. Within this conceptualisation, we can see how an individual has a certain level of agency, but also how that agency is affected by the structure of their own family/kinship unit/s, as well as by the broader social institution of the family unit. There are, of course, many alternative family structures that do not necessarily ‘fit’ in this model set by the social institution of the family, which leads us to consider the important power of social institutions in upholding certain (political and ever-changing) social norms, while delegitimising others.

Oval shapes showing one person in the first inner oval, then groups of 2 and 3 (families) in the next, then larger groups in the next and then a large group in the outer oval.

Social institutions play important and central roles, in terms of how our societies are organised and operate. In particular:

social institutions stem from a need in society;
based on that need, a fixed set of social relationships to fulfil it;
those relationships then organise into more formal structure/s or mechanism/s; and
those organised relationships gain significance in society, ensuring they are maintained and endure over time.

Indeed, social institutions are typically long lasting, though their shape and structure often change incrementally over time, and they sometimes also experience significant changes in response to particularly revolutionary moments (e.g. second-wave feminism of the 1960s-80s had considerable and relatively quick-paced impacts on the social institution of the family). Key social institutions include (but are not limited to):

The economy
Health care
Criminal justice system

These social institutions are also interrelated in different ways: something we touched on in Chapter 2 when we discussed structural functionalism (recall social institutions working as a ‘well-oiled societal machinery). In this Chapter, we focus on the social institutions of the family, the state, religion, education, and work (past, present and future). In particular, we examine how these institutions have changed over time, the roles they play, and how they influence our lives. We also discuss how social institutions are intimately interrelated; just as they influence us, they are also influenced by one another.

Reflection exercise

Earlier in the book, we introduced the concept of social institutions in relation to structural functionalism. Drawing on these earlier materials, consider:

1) How do social institutions feature in a structural functionalist view of the world, and what role (‘function/s’) do they play?

2) How might a conflict or critical theorist see social institutions differently?

The family unit has changed dramatically over time but remains a critically important social institution. Changes to the family unit have often occurred along gender lines; because (after the industrial revolution) men have typically earned higher wages in the formal economy, they are the ones who have most often undertaken waged labour while women have generally tended to work in the domestic realm (the informal economy). The changing nature of work has, thus, had a significant impact on women’s role in the family, as shown in the figure below.

Pre-industrial revolution - Separation between work and home was not as clear...Industrial revolution - Men, women & children worked; men earned more... Post-industrial revolution - Women & children exited workforce; men earned higher wages and thus, continued... women resigned to domestic duties. Early 20th Century - Men went to war; women entered workforce... Enter the 'second shift' - While women are now in the workforce at much higher rates, they still undertake the bulk of unpaid domestic and caring duties - what Hochschild termed the 'second shift'. To handle this, women are overrepresented in part-time and casual work; they still earn less than their male colleagues. Post-World Wars - Women return to domestic duties... Second-wave feminism calls for women to re-enter the workforce; women re- enter at higher rates...

Second-wave feminism saw the re-entry of large numbers of women into the workforce and significant changes to the family unit as a result. The paid childcare sector stepped into fill the gap and, as contraception became more readily available, women gained greater control over planning their families, or choosing not to have children at all (though social norms differ across geography and culture). However, even though women now participate in the formal economy at much higher rates, the playing field is far from even.

Arlie Hochschild shed light on what one of her research participants called the ‘second shift’. Women would go off to work in the formal economy, do their ‘day shift’, and then come home and do a second shift that consisted of unpaid work: cooking dinner, preparing children for bed, doing the washing, cleaning and other domestic duties. Women also tend to absorb these duties by taking on less work in the formal economy — e.g., through part-time and casual positions. As a result, women – and particularly women of colour and First Nations women – are far more likely across the globe to earn less and experience poverty. We discuss this further in Chapter 9 when we talk about ‘Work’, reproductive labour, and the ‘free riding’ nature of capitalism (to quote Nancy Fraser).

Watch the below video, where Airlie Hochschild describes the concept of the ‘second shift’ and a ‘stalled revolution’.

Arlie Hochschild on the Second Shift and a stalled revolution (YouTube, 5:57) :

After watching the video, consider the following:

1) Is the feminist revolution ‘stalled’?

2) What implications does our typically narrow framing of ‘work’ as that which occurs in the formal economy have for women in particular?

3) What flow-on effects might this narrow framing of work have across a woman’s life?

The nation state

The state might be considered a ‘meta-institution’, insofar as it is a social institution that — to an extent — has an overarching role in organising other social institutions. For example, governments typically have primary purview over the organisation and administration of education, the economy, the criminal justice system, and more. According to international law, nation states have sovereignty over their territories. They govern citizens of their territory in accordance with an invisible ‘social contract’. A social contract is theorised as a sort of agreement between the state and its citizens that sees citizens agreeing to abide by the laws and rulings of the state in return for being able to live peaceably within the nation state’s bounds and receive other benefits from the state, such as citizenship rights (e.g. access to welfare, health care and more). For social contract theorists, this provides an underpinning analogy for the way in which states operate today, which plays into a structural functionalist perspective of the role of the state as enabling the harmonious functioning of a society. However, drawing on conflict or critical theory perspectives, we can also consider how the state can also operate as a key site of power and oppression, including in Australia.

“A l w a y s w a s , a l w a y s w i l l b e A b o r i g i n a l l a n d .” As a settler colony , Australia as we know it today was erected on the stolen lands of Indigenous peoples who lived here for 65,000+ years prior. It was stolen on the basis that it was erroneously understood to be terra nullius — ‘no man’s land’; that is, uncivilised and uncultivated. While the doctrine of terra nullius was overturned in Mabo v Queensland (No. 2) (1992), it has cast a long shadow. There is, today, still no formal recognition of the unceded sovereignty of Indigenous Australians, nor any reckoning for the theft of Indigenous lands, including the violent genocide that has accompanied and enabled colonisation.

Moreton-Robinson (2009: 63) points out that “The white patriarchs who theorised about the social contract were primarily concerned with it being a means of agreement between white men to live together, make laws and govern, incorporating white women into the polity as their subordinates through a marriage contract.” In thinking through how the social contract operates in Australia, however, Moreton-Robinson (2009) points out that there is, and has never been, agreement by Indigenous Australians to be governed by the settler state (e.g., no treaty). In this context, instead of the state protecting Indigenous Australians, “citizenship rights [which were only afforded very recently] are a means by which subjugation operates as a weapon of race war that can be used strategically to circumscribe and enable the biopower of patriarchal white sovereignty… [thus] rights can be enabling and constraining” (Moreton-Robinson 2009: 64-65).

Think about the quote above by Professor Moreton-Robinson (2009). What does she mean when she says citizenship rights can be a means of subjugating Indigenous Australians? Can you think of an example?

Political sovereignty has been perceived differently by different scholars; for instance, as being “able to coexist with and/or be enfolded into the (fabricated) sovereignty of the Australian settler state, or as being intrinsic, embodied and therefore not in need of substantiation by or through colonial governance structures” (Staines and Smith 2021: 17). The first view is one adopted by Indigenous law Professor and Cobble Cobble woman, Megan Davis (2017), while the latter view is one adopted by Professor and Quandamooka woman, Aileen Moreton-Robinson (2007). Nevertheless, there have been strong and ongoing proposals by Indigenous Australians for a stronger voice in governance and policymaking, including through the Yirrkala bark petitions in 1963 and, most recently, via the Uluru Statement from the Heart in 2017 . The Uluru Statement , and its call for a recognition of the unceded sovereignty of Indigenous peoples, as well as a call for three structural reforms (a ‘voice’ in the Australian constitution, treaty, and truth-telling via a Makkarata Commission), was rejected by the Turnbull LNP Government in 2017. Despite committing to further negotiation around the Uluru Statement proposals as a key election platform, the Morrison Government has also done little to progress these proposals and has also outwardly said it disagrees with the notion of a constitutionally-enshrined First Nations voice. You can read a short analysis of this rejection by Staines and Gordon (2019): A road to reconciliation – The case for a voice to parliament .

More recently, in the lead up to the May 2022 federal election, First Nations leaders once again called for urgent action on the Uluru Statement From the Heart (you can read about this in The Guardian – ‘The time is now right’: parties urged to make Indigenous voice an election issue and set referendum date ). In this election, the Australian Labor Party was elected to government on a platform that it would take the Uluru Statement proposals to referendum; so far, it is tracking in this direction and a referendum on the ‘Voice’ component of the proposals is expected in 2023.

The Uluru Statement from the Heart

Watch Professor Megan Davis read aloud the words of the Uluru Statement from the Heart (YouTube, 3:44) :

The Uluru Statement from the Heart (which you can read ), refers to the need to recognise that the sovereignty of Indigenous Australians has “never been ceded or extinguished, and co-exists with the sovereignty of the Crown”. It also speaks to the social disadvantage that is disproportionately experienced by Indigenous Australians today, stating “These dimensions of our crisis tell plainly the structural nature of our problem. This is the torment of our powerlessness.”

Think about this last statement. How might you link this back to some of the key concepts we have touched on in the book so far?

When we take a critical perspective to thinking about the state as a key social institution, we can also delve more deeply into how it can operate as a source of stability for some, while simultaneously operating as a site of instability and oppression for others. We will continue to take a critical perspective over the coming weeks, as we think more deeply about other social institutions as well, like work, the family, and education.

Religion plays an important role in life around the world. It is an umbrella term to describe a range of systems of belief and practice. There are many definitions of religion with most focusing on the supernatural. Broadly, religion is a system of beliefs in supernatural forces with symbols and rituals or performances that provide meaning to life. Early social science definitions of religion, such as by anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor (1832–1917) who saw belief in spirits and supernatural beings as central, claimed that religion offered ‘primitive answers’ to what happens when we die and gave explanations for all the unknowns.

Reflective exercise

Before reading on, think about religion as a social institution.

What are the main functions of the dominant religion(s) where you are? Think about what roles the dominant religion(s) plays in everyday life and the structure of society.

Write down some answers and see how it fits with the social scientific approaches below.

Religion as the ‘opium of the people’ (Marx)

In Marx’s 1843 work Contribution to Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right he makes the famous assertion that religion is the ‘opium of the people’. The book was written at the height of English industrialisation, where people moved to the city, entered wage work in factories marked by what he calls alienation . For Marx, then, organised religion provides a way to dull the pain of these processes of unsettling people, communities and our creative connections to the product of our labour.

In this longer quote it becomes clear that Marx follows structural functionalism here and argues that religion serves a similar purpose or function as opium does to a person: they make one feel better for a while, or reduce the suffering, shroud the realities, and can offer illusions.

“The foundation of irreligious criticism is: Man makes religion, religion does not make man. Religion is, indeed, the self-consciousness and self-esteem of man who has either not yet won through to himself, or has already lost himself again. But man is no abstract being squatting outside the world. Man is the world of man – state, society. This state and this society produce religion, which is an inverted consciousness of the world, because they are an inverted world. Religion is the general theory of this world, its encyclopaedic compendium, its logic in popular form, its spiritual point d’honneur, its enthusiasm, its moral sanction, its solemn complement, and its universal basis of consolation and justification. It is the fantastic realization of the human essence since the human essence has not acquired any true reality. The struggle against religion is, therefore, indirectly the struggle against that world whose spiritual aroma is religion. Religious suffering is, at one and the same time, the expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people.”

Before reading on, consider the following:

1) Taking a structural functionalist perspective, what kinds of functions does education serve in society?

2) How might a conflict theorist see education differently?

Education as we know it today was borne of the industrial revolution; it is intimately linked to and still reflects the conceptualisations of ‘work’ that arose from the 1700s and 1800s. Indeed, Education was and still is a process of socialisation whereby children become exposed to the social, cultural and political conventions of larger society and are taught how to perform skills and tasks that may be later required of them in the workplace. While education serves a variety of important social functions, it is also a site within which power imbalances are reflected and reinforced.

Initially, boys were typically sent to school while girls stayed home; the gender pay gap meant (and in lots of cases, still means ) boys and men were the ones who would later be able to bring in a larger income. Early feminist writers, such as Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) argued that girls and women should also have equal rights to education and work. However, it wasn’t until the late 1800s that schools were made compulsory for both boys and girls; even then, girls were directed towards subjects that taught domestic duties (e.g., home economics) and guided into what were considered ‘feminine’ professions (e.g., administration, nursing, teaching), the latter of which continue to be paid less, overall, than other professions.

Access to and engagement with education remains a site for the perpetuation of power imbalances. For instance, Australian curricula overwhelmingly reflect dominant social norms that exclude minorities. An obvious example is the exclusion of First Nations histories, cultures and ontologies. This sends strong signals about what types of knowledge are valued and devalued, and it also indicates who has a place (and who doesn’t) in educational institutions. This is changing, but very slowly. Beyond the types of knowledges covered, a main motivation to access education today is the qualification credential (degree, diploma or certificate) that one attains at the end. This has created a tendency to value education mainly based on the eventual credential one attains and not the learning that happens in between.

Education as a social equaliser?

We often hear that education is a social equaliser. However, many also challenge this myth. Consider the following excerpt from Down, Smyth and Robinson’s (2018: 89) study of Australian university students:

Stephanie and Janet shared similar ambitions. They wanted to go to university, pursue their passions and get ahead. Yet, their experience was markedly different in terms of the kinds of resources available to them. Stephanie was able to draw on a range of family assets, knowledge and dispositions… Her parents are more well educated, financially secure and socially connected than Janet’s. This allowed Stephanie to read the script more effectively than Janet and, at the same time, not have to worry too much about money (Down, Smyth and Robinson 2018, 89).

French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu (1930-2002) would argue that Stephanie has access to cultural and social capital that Janet doesn’t, which influences her ability to achieve at university. Thus, class has important implications for educational engagement and outcomes, as do other aspects of social identity (e.g., gender, race, sexuality and more). This is particularly because educational institutions tend to reflect and reinforce dominant social norms; they also tend to judge students’ abilities and behaviours against these benchmarks, which can serve to perpetuate rather than alleviate inequality.

Watch ‘Changing educational paradigms’ (YouTube, 11:40) :

1) In what ways do educational institutions still reflect the ‘factory school’ model that arose from the industrial revolution? In what ways is this model potentially helpful and/or harmful?

2) What other values / skills / knowledge should we focus on instead?

Work/The economy

We typically think about ‘work’ through a very narrow frame — that is, work in the formal economy. However, this narrow framing tends to exclude lots of different forms of work, including:

work in the grey (informal) and black (illegal) economies
work in the informal economy (e.g. care work, volunteer work)
work inside versus outside the home.

Work hasn’t always been conceptualised in the way it is today; understanding this helps us critique current conceptualisations of work and the impact these narrow frames have on our lives.

What we consider to be ‘work’ has changed over time. In pre-industrial societies, families tended to work on the land (e.g., subsistence farming) and/or in craft-like trades. Work was typically undertaken at home (e.g., tending the land), or very close to home; the distinction between work and home was not as strong as it is today (though COVID-19 has continued to challenge this!). Domestic responsibilities, including caring for children, were more evenly shared amongst families and communities. People also tended to be more self-sufficient and independent (e.g., growing their food locally and perhaps also participating in local bartering).

These workers often owned and had a stake in the product of their labour. For instance, if a family managed to grow 2kg of tomatoes, but only needed 1kg to sustain themselves, they could sell the extra tomatoes and directly reap the benefit of their labour — that is, they would be paid directly for the tomatoes they produced. Nevertheless, as technological advances led to the industrial revolution, more people began to work in mills and factories, which started to pop up as mass-manufacture of goods became more commonplace. Families also moved en masse away from the land and into cities to take up work in these new industries.

Illustration of a circle with one hand giving a coin to another hand. A dollar sign is also shown.

People started working for wages — a key moment in the birth of capitalism, where the extra benefit that might be accumulated through an individual’s hard work was redirected away from workers and to employers . This severed the relationship between workers (or as Karl Marx called the working classes, the proletariat) and the product of their labour; something Marx called ‘ alienation’ . Returning to the example of tomatoes used earlier, while pre-industrial workers would directly reap the rewards of producing an extra kilo of tomatoes, workers during the industrial revolution were instead paid the same wage regardless of how many tomatoes they produced. Any extra capital from surplus tomatoes instead went to the employer (in Marxist terms, the bourgeoisie, or owners of the means of production). Karl Marx was particularly critical of this key change and saw this shift in the way we work as being symptomatic of class conflict and the associated exploitation of workers.

Conditions were terrible in early industrial workplaces; horrific workplace accidents and deaths were commonplace. However, because families began to move into (emerging) industrial cities at extremely high rates (‘urbanisation’), employers had a surplus workforce to choose from. This meant that employees had very little power. If they demanded better working conditions or higher wages, they could be fired and easily replaced. Workers began to realise that they had greater power in numbers and, so, began to see value in unionising as a means of pooling their collective bargaining power. It was more difficult to sack and replace an entire workforce than it was when dealing with just one or two people.

Workers’ unions made some great gains, such as demanding higher wages and time off (e.g., we owe the concept of the weekend to unions). However, union membership has decreased dramatically in previous decades for a variety of reasons. For instance, the percentage of all employees who were also members of a union (‘union density’) in Australia dropped from 51% to 14% of the workforce between 1976 and 2016 ( Gilfillan and McGann 2018 ). As we discuss further in Chapter 8 , many have argued that this is related to the erosion of workers’ rights and concomitant rise in ‘precarious work’. Work in the formal economy has also changed in other important ways, including with regard to what has been called the ‘feminisation’ of the workforce. This has had significant implications for the social institution of the family, as we discussed earlier in this Chapter , and also elaborate on further in Chapter 8 .

Work and religion?

Max Weber (1864-1920) argued that the growth of the capitalist ‘work ethic’ arose from Protestantism, which espoused that those who work hard will have a place in heaven. This demonstrates how other social institutions, such as religion, have also significantly influenced work and the economy.

To learn more about this, you might want to watch ‘ An Introduction to Max Weber’s The Protestant Ethic – A Macat Sociology Analysis’ (YouTube, 3:14) :

Watch ‘Karl Marx on Alienation’ (YouTube, 1:57) and then write down your understanding of Marx’s concept of alienation.

Marx argued that the only way out of the drudgery of alienation caused by the capitalist system was by ‘breaking their chains’ and seizing the means of production. That is, revolting against the system. Are there other ways of overcoming the issue of alienation?

Thinking about the interdependency of social institutions

The materials in this Chapter have introduced some key social institutions: work, family, religion, and education. While we have addressed these individually, they are deeply interrelated. Changes in one social institution (for example, work) can lead to changes in other social institutions (for example, family and education) over time. Similarly, changes in broader social norms (e.g., understandings of ‘femininity’ and ‘womanhood’) are typically echoed in changes to key social institutions. In this way, as we outlined at the start of this week’s materials, social institutions can reinforce social norms, but also be repositories of changing social norms. A theoretical example of the interdependency of social institutions is the work of Althusser, who describes two forms of institutions that maintain the dominance of ideology.

Althusser, institutions, ideology

French philosopher Louis Althusser (1918-1990) argues that two kinds of institutions serve to maintain the dominance of capitalist ideology: Repressive State Apparatuses and Ideological State Apparatuses.

Following from a classical Marxist perspective, Repressive State Apparatuses are the formal institutions of a state: government administration, armed forces, police, the legal system, and the prison system. These institutions serve to maintain the system of capitalism through force. RSAs define “the State as a force of repressive execution and intervention ‘in the interests of the ruling classes’ in the class struggle conducted by the bourgeoisie and its allies against the proletariat” (Althusser 1971: 137). For example, the police enforce the laws of a particular society, often through public displays of power. In doing so, they can be said to uphold the beliefs and values of the ruling class (the bourgeoisie) who write the laws.

Althusser identifies Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs) as another form of institutions that work to maintain the ruling capitalist ideology. If RSAs operate through repressive violence, ISAs are understood to function by producing and reproducing this ruling ideology. ISAs serve to maintain the dominance of the ruling bourgeoisie class by institutionalising their ideology within the private sphere. Examples of ISAs include religious establishments, education institutions, the family, media, communications, trade unions, cultural organisations, and political parties (Althusser 1971: 143).

Althusser argues that the power of a ruling class does not solely consist of their monopoly on overt repression but also implicit coercion. Together, these two kinds of institutions work to situate the individual within ideology. Althusser (1971: 162) defines ideology as “the imaginary relationship of individuals to their real conditions of existence”. The individual, influenced by different structures, absorbs the values, behaviours, and ideals of the ruling class. By ‘voluntarily’ submitting to the social system, the individual acts against the values of the working class, maintaining the status quo.

Where the individual is concerned, “the existence of the ideas of his belief is material in that his ideas are his material actions inserted into material practices governed by material rituals which are themselves defined by the material ideological apparatus from which derive the ideas of that subject.” (Althusser 1971: 166-169) It is in this way that Althusser’s notion of ISAs facilitates the reproduction and maintenance of the dominant ideology, not in a purely ideological fashion, but in a material through the practices of the individuals themselves, resulting in their interpellation. It is through our daily participation in ISAs, such as the family or the university, “that we come to ‘live’ our relation to our conditions of existence under the symbolic and conceptual forms provided by ideology, as it ‘materialised’ in these practices.” (Benton 1984: 105) This process of interpellation ultimately promotes the continuation and reproduction of the dominant ideology, through the ISAs, by reproducing our false belief that capitalism is a natural social structure.

Reflecting on the content of this Chapter, take a pen and paper and write down your answers to the following:

What type of work would you like to pursue in the future?
What kinds of factors have influenced your thinking? (Do social institutions like family play a role? What about the ways that different forms of work are viewed in society? Or perhaps cultural capital?)
How does your educational pathway prepare you for this work? Where might it fall short?

Resources for further learning

Durkheim, E. (1912/1954). The Elementary Forms of Religious Life . (J. Swain, Trans.) New York: The Free Press.
Moreton-Robinson, A. 2009. Imagining the good Indigenous citizen: race war and the pathology of patriarchal white sovereignty . Cultural Studies Review, 15(2): 61-79.
Taflaga, M. 2019. ‘A short political history of Australia.’ In. Chen, P. et al. (Eds.) Australian politics and policy, senior edition, Chapter 2. Sydney University Press: Sydney.
Hochschild, A. 2003. A speed-up in the family , In. The second shift: Working families and the revolution at home. Penguin.
Pedulla, D. and Thebaud, S. 2015. Can we finish the revolution? Gender, work-family ideals and institutional constraint . American Sociological Review, 80(1): 116-139.
Bowden, B. 2017. Three charts on: the changing face of Australian union members . The Conversation, July 5
Campbell, I. 2010. ‘ The rise in precarious employment and union responses in Australia .’ In. Thornley, C., Jefferys, S. and Appay, B. (Eds.) Globalization and Precarious Forms of Production and Employment: Challenges for Workers and Unions. Edward Elgar: Cheltenham.
Turner, J. 1997. The Institutional Order. New York: Longman.
Althusser, L. 1970. Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses .

Other resources:

Miller, S. 2007. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry: social institutions .
‘What is Ideology? Louis Althusser’ (YouTube, 10:30) .

Share This Book

Your Article Library

Educational system: the meaning, aspects and social functions of education.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Read this article to learn about Educational System: It’s meaning, aspects and social functions!

Education is indispensable to individual and society, for without it there would be loss of all the accumulated knowledge of the ages and all the standard of conduct. An individual must learn the culture of the society or the accepted ways of doing things. He must be socialized into the prevailing culture and must learn the rules of conduct and expectations about future behaviour.

Society therefore, consciously devices its instructional programmes to fulfill personal and social needs rather than leaving the learning to change. Education provides a conscious teaching programme that helps to inculcate values, norms and social skills that will enable the individual to develop his personality and sustain the social system.

Meaning of Education:

The term education has different meanings. Each person interprets the word in terms of his past experience, his needs and purposes. The parents, the teachers, administrators, religious leaders, politicians and artists interpret the term education in their own ways. For example, to a student, education means acquisition of knowledge, receiving a degree or diploma. A statesman may claim that it means to train individuals as ideal citizens. A teacher may interpret education as means for creation a new man and new society.

The meaning of education differs from place to place and from time to time. It has passed through many ages and stages of evolution. At every stage it has had a different meaning according to existing social conditions.

The term education is derived from the Latin word ‘educate’ which means to ‘educate’, to ‘bring up’ or to ‘draw out’ the latent powers of child. Confirming to this meaning Durkheim defined education as “the action exercised by the older generations upon those who are not yet ready for social life. Its object is to awaken and develop in the child those physical, intellectual and moral states which are required of him both by his society as a whole and by the milieu for which he is specially designed”.

He conceives of education as “the socialisation of the younger generation”. Hence, education may be broadly regarded as the way in which people learn to take part in the life of society in which they live. Education is the social process by which individual learns the things necessary to fit him to the social life of his society.

Education is primarily deliberate learning which fits the individual for his adult role in society. As Counts and Mead phrase it, education is an induction into the learner’s culture. It is a deliberate instruction throughout which we acquire a large part of our social and technical skills. Accordingly says Lowie, “it is as old as organised social life. Schooling is merely a highly specialised form of education.

According to Samuel Koenig, Education may also be defined as the process whereby the social heritage of a group is passed on from one generation to another as well as the process whereby the child becomes socialised, i.e. learns the rules of behaviour of the group into which he is born.

It is again believed that the term education is derived from the Latin word ‘educatum’ which means the act of teaching or training. Thus, education is both acquisition of knowledge or art of teaching and learning of values, norms and skills.

The education a system, first of all, may be viewed as a part of the total social system. It both reflects and influences the social and cultural order of which it is a part. However, in modern society, education is viewed as formal training. As A.W. Green writes, Historically, it (education) has meant the conscious training of the young for the later adoption of adult roles.

By modern convention, however, education has come to mean formal training by specialists within the formal organisation of the school”. Education, according Western scholars, is deliberate and organised activity through which the physical, intellectual, moral and spiritual potentialities of the child are developed, both in individual as an individual and also as a member of society.

So that he may lead the fullest and richest life possible in this world. All practical aims such as the development of character, the attainment of knowledge both for use and enjoyment, the acquisition of skills, the making of worthy citizen and others that have been proposed from time to time are subordinate to the ultimate aim in life.

The educational system may be viewed as subsystem within social organisation of its own. It has a system of status and roles, a body of skills, values and traditions. Each schools and each classroom within the school forms an interacting group.

Aspects of Education:

Now, we can indicate several sociological aspects of education. First, learning is a creative experience. When a man responds to stimuli, he acts in a creative manner. In other words, education is a creative act for the learner. Second, education is of two ways of learning such as informal education and formal education.

The first serves continuously through life, as mechanism for learning as well as for reinforcing previous learning. Third, formal education is a socially devised technique, a highly elaborated procedure for creating situations in which the pupil may learn. Individuals go through formal education only a Short period of their life.

Forth, education is both the living of life (in the network of social relationships, in the classroom and outside) and a preparation for life. Preparation for life involves (a) capacity to earn a livelihood, (b) capacity to enrich one’s life through enjoyment of the cultural heritage and of one’s inner resources, (c) capacity to function efficiently and constructively as a member of society, as a citizen of the State. Fifth, education involves (a) mastery of the tools of learning, such as reading, writing arithmetic and (b) mastery of our relations to our inner self, to our neighbour, to the universe.

Education is interpreted in two senses, “narrow’ and ‘broader’ sense. Education, in narrow sense, is a planned, organised and formalised process. It is imparted at a particular place (School, College, and University) and at a definite time. Its curriculum is also formal. In narrow sense education is limited to classroom. In broader sense education is not related to schooling or teaching.

Each and every individual acquires some sort of education, even he has never spent a day in a school,. because his acquired characteristics are the products of experiences and activities which are the products of experiences and activities which are educational in nature. Education, in wider sense, is used for the purpose of teaching people all characteristics which will enable them to live in the society.

Education is a continuous ‘process’. Education of human being begins at birth and it ends with his death. He leans throughout his life. There is no end to it. Education is much more than schooling. The child goes on reconstructing his experiences throughout the whole life. Instruction ends in the classroom, but education ends only with life.

Social Functions of Education:

Education as social institution, plays a vital role in our society. The function of education is multidimensional within the school system and outside it. It performs the function of socialising the individual for a variety of social roles and development of personality. It is also an important part of the control mechanisms of society. Education is a necessity right from the simple society to modern complex industrial society.

1. Socialisation:

The most important function of education is socialisation. The people have no knowledge about the culture of their society. They must learn them and they must learn the way which their society is functioning. Hence, the children as they grow up must be introduced into the culture which they are going to face.

Society, therefore, provides a conscious teaching programme to inculcate values, norms and social skills that will fit the individuals for their adult role in society. Society creates educational institutions such as school and colleges to perform certain functions in accomplishing this general end.

Besides, providing the children with tools of knowledge – how to write, spell and master arithmetic, the school also exposes them to social norms and values beyond those which are available for learning in the family and other groups.

The learners acquire academic knowledge through schools and college which they will need latter on and some will be practical or technical to fit him for some sort of job. At the same time the schools and colleges inculcate social values and norms among them.

Though people learn a great deal from their parents or in clubs and among groups of friends, they learn more of the culture of their society though educational system. For it is in the educational institutions that the young are exposed to social norms and values beyond those which are available for learning in the family and other social groups. History books tend to be written from an ethnocentric viewpoint and to inculcate nationalistic; attitudes.

Through education, the child is able to develop reasoning in social relations, cultivates social virtues and thus becomes socially efficient as says Deway. When he speaks about social efficiency, he refers to economic and cultural efficiency, and he calls it ‘socialisation of individual’. Thus, education, may be only part of the process of socialisation, but it is a very important part.

2. Development of Personality:

Education plays an important role in the development of personality. The object of education, as said Durkheim “is to awaken and develop in the child those physical, intellectual and moral states which are required of him both by his society as a whole and by the milieu for which he is specially designed”. Education helps the development of the qualities of an individual, such as physical, mental and emotional make-up as well as his temperament and character.

The self, the core of personality, develops out of the child’s interaction with other. Subsequently, the habits, traits, attitudes and ideals of an individual is patterned by the process of education. A learner’s personality is also developed indirectly when he is encouraged to form his own attitudes and values by studying outstanding people in history and literature. Moreover, a learner is also influenced by the outlook and attitudes of fellow students and teachers.

3. Social Control:

Education plays a vital role in regulating individual behaviour through transmitting a way of life and communicating ideas and values to the new generations.

One way that education contributes to the regulations of social conduct, says Bottomore, “is in the early socialistion of the child”. In order to transmit its social heritage and survive as a social order all societies develop educational systems to train its younger generations. The young must be consciously trained for their adult roles to maintain the society. Through the process of education society regulates the behaviour of its members and enforces conformity to its norms.

“Education in a broad sense”, as says Bottomore, “From infancy to adulthood, is thus a vital means of social control”. Formal education in modern societies communicate ideas and values which play a part in regulating behaviour. The new generations are instructed to observe the social norms, the violation of which may invite punishment.

4. Social Integration:

Education, by imparting values, also integrates people into the broader society. The curriculum of the school, its ‘extra-curricular’ activities and the informal relationship among students and teachers communicate certain values and social skills such as cooperation or team-spirit, obedience, fair play.

5. Determination of Sfatus:

Determination of status of an individual is an important function of education. Amount of education is a good indicator of socio-economic status, from lower working class to upper class, education leads to economic opportunity. It is through education young people secure higher status jobs than their parents. With higher incomes they come to associate with the persons of higher status. Thus, education provides the channel to better socio-economic status.

6. Provides Route for Social Mobility:

Educational qualifications increasingly form the basis for the allocation of individuals to social statuses and social mobility. There has been steady move from one status to other due to educational attainment. An industrial society like United States or Great Britain places increasing emphasis on the attainment of both of the skills acquired in elementary, secondary and higher education and of the educational credentials that a person has acquired the skills for a job.

The educational system is expected to provide opportunity for social and economic mobility by selecting and training the most able and industrious youth for higher-status position in society.

The educational system places those with the greater abilities and training in higher positions and those with the lesser abilities and training in lower ones. Thus, education tends to generate vertical social mobility by increasing their earning power and by preparing them for higher-status occupation than that of their parents.

The educational system whether industrial societies or in developing societies like India tend to create and maintain a broad division between elites and masses, between education for intellectual and for manual occupations. Such differentiation within the educational system is closely linked to the system of social stratification and mobility.

7. Social Development:

Skills and values learned in education are directly related to the way to which the economy and the occupational structure operate. Education trains the individuals in skills that are required by the economy. In modern planned economy the output of skilled people must be consciously geared to the economic and social priorities of the society. That explains the vital role of education in social development. Literacy, for example, stimulates economic and social de development and that is why all developing countries have undertaken large-scale literacy programmes.

Literacy increases political consciousness among poor people who now organize themselves into various forms of organization.

An Useful Paragraph on Education
Rural Education in India: Meaning, Definition and Goals of Education

No comments yet.

Leave a reply click here to cancel reply..

You must be logged in to post a comment.

Ethics & Leadership
Fact-Checking
Media Literacy
The Craig Newmark Center
Reporting & Editing
Ethics & Trust
Tech & Tools
Business & Work
Educators & Students
Training Catalog
Custom Teaching
For ACES Members
All Categories
Broadcast & Visual Journalism
Fact-Checking & Media Literacy
In-newsroom
Memphis, Tenn.
Minneapolis, Minn.
St. Petersburg, Fla.
Washington, D.C.
Poynter ACES Introductory Certificate in Editing
Poynter ACES Intermediate Certificate in Editing
Ethics Training
Ethics Articles
Get Ethics Advice
Fact-Checking Articles
IFCN Grants
International Fact-Checking Day
Teen Fact-Checking Network
International
Media Literacy Training
MediaWise Resources
Ambassadors
MediaWise in the News

Support responsible news and fact-based information today!

Fact check: What the Obamas and other Democratic speakers got right, wrong on Day 2 of the DNC

Former president barack obama and former first lady michelle obama energized convention attendees. here are some fact checks of their claims..

CHICAGO — Two decades after exploding onto the political scene at a different Democratic convention, former President Barack Obama, along with former first lady Michelle Obama, energized convention attendees here. The Obamas bestowed their support on nominee Kamala Harris, who aims to follow Obama as the nation’s second Black president.

Barack Obama began his address by praising outgoing President Joe Biden. “I am proud to call him my president, but I am even prouder to call him my friend,” Obama said of Biden, his former vice president.

Obama attacked Harris’ opponent, former President Donald Trump with zingers, once needling Trump for a “ weird obsession with crowd sizes ” (which also involved a suggestive hand gesture).

Barack Obama offered a few notes that rhymed with his career-making 2004 keynote address at the Democratic convention in Boston, in which he argued against the idea that there is a blue America and a red America.

Michelle Obama’s speech also offered some optimistic notes, including the notion that “hope is making a comeback” with Harris’ late entry into the presidential race as Biden’s would-be successor. But the former first lady’s remarks were sometimes even more acerbic than her husband’s.

She said, for example, that Trump had benefited from the “affirmative action of generational wealth” yet still managed to get “a second, third or fourth chance” while regularly “whining” or “cheating.” She also criticized Trump — an early spreader of the “birther” conspiracy theory that doubted that Obama was born in the U.S. — for having made Americans “fear us” as an educated, high-achieving couple who “happen to be Black.”

PolitiFact fact-checks politicians across the political spectrum. We also fact-checked the Republican National Convention in July. Read more about our process.

Here are some fact-checks of claims made during the convention’s second night.

Barack Obama: Under Joe Biden, the U.S. produced “15 million jobs, higher wages, lower health care costs.”

He’s right about jobs: The U.S. has added 15.8 million jobs since January 2021, when Biden was sworn in, though some of those represented the workforce return of workers the pandemic had sidelined.

Wages are up under Biden without factoring in inflation. But for his full tenure, wages have trailed inflation , which hit a four-decade high under Biden. Nevertheless, wages have outpaced inflation over the past two years, the past year and compared with before the pandemic.

Whether health care costs were lower overall is a trickier question, because there’s great variation from family to family and person to person. However, U.S. health care expenditures as a percentage of gross domestic product peaked during the pandemic in 2020 and have since fallen roughly to prepandemic levels. This represented the biggest sustained decline in decades.

Sen. Bernie Sanders, I-Vt.: “Unemployment was soaring” when Biden and Harris took office in January 2021.

Mostly False.

Sanders overstated the unemployment situation when Biden and Harris were inaugurated.

In April 2020, at the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, the unemployment rate surged to 14.8% as millions of Americans lost their jobs.

But by the time Biden took office in January 2021, the rate had fallen to 6.4%, and it continued to fall that year.

So it wasn’t “soaring” any longer, though the rate was still high by historical standards. It was lower than 6.4% for about six years prepandemic.

July’s unemployment rate is 4.3%.

Project 2025

Pennsylvania state Rep. Malcolm Kenyatta, D-Philadelphia: “And on Page 587, Project 2025 would cut overtime pay for hardworking Americans.”

Labor law experts have told PolitiFact that the Project 2025 plan would not eliminate overtime pay, but some workers could lose overtime protections if the plan’s proposals are enacted. It’s hard to say how many; it would depend on what’s enacted.

The document proposes that the Labor Department maintain an overtime threshold “that does not punish businesses in lower-cost regions (e.g., the southeast United States).” This threshold is the amount of money executive, administrative or professional employees need to make for an employer to exempt them from overtime pay under the Fair Labor Standards Act.

In 2019, the Trump administration finalized a rule that expanded overtime pay eligibility to most salaried workers earning less than about $35,568. The Biden administration raised that threshold to $43,888 beginning July 1, and that will rise to $58,656 on Jan. 1, 2025.

Project 2025’s proposal would return to the Trump-era threshold in some parts of the country. It’s unclear how many workers that would affect, but experts said some would presumably lose the right to overtime wages.

Other proposals in the plan include allowing some workers to choose to accumulate paid time off instead of overtime pay, to work more hours in one week and fewer in the next rather than receive overtime,,and require employers to pay overtime for working on the Sabbath.

Former first lady Michelle Obama: One of Trump’s proposals is “shutting down the Department of Education.”

Trump has said he would abolish the Education Department , a proposal he shares with Project 2025 , an agenda independently produced by some Trump allies.

It’s also something conservative groups have pushed for decades. The idea is to save a few essential functions and hand them to other agencies.

Trump’s education agenda also includes universal school choice, not spending federal dollars on schools that have vaccine mandates, allowing prayer in school, making principals directly elected by voters, subsidizing homeschooling and abolishing tenure for K-12 teachers.

Health Care

Sen. Chuck Schumer, D-N.Y.: “Democrats lowered prescription drug prices.”

Mostly True.

The Democrats did take historic steps to lower prices for Medicare recipients, but that’s a limited group of people and for many drugs that will take time.

In August 2022, Biden signed the Inflation Reduction Act, which allows the federal government to negotiate prices with drugmakers for Medicare. It passed without Republican support. The same law capped the monthly price of insulin at $35 for Medicare enrollees starting in 2023.

The Biden-Harris administration announced Aug. 15 that the federal government had reached agreements with all participating manufacturers on new negotiated drug prices for the first 10 drugs selected under the new law.

That will define the prices to be paid for prescriptions starting in 2026. For 2027 and 2028, 15 more drugs per year will be chosen for price negotiations. Starting in 2029, 20 more will be chosen a year.

New Mexico Gov. Michelle Lujan Grisham: Donald Trump and J.D. Vance want to “repeal the Affordable Care Act.”

Half True .

Trump’s new position doesn’t match his old one, but more details are needed.

In 2016, Trump campaigned on a promise to repeal and replace the Affordable Care Act. As president, Trump supported a failed effort to do just that. In the years since, he has repeatedly stated his intent to dismantle the health care law, including in campaign stops and social media posts throughout 2023.

In March, however, Trump walked back this stance. He wrote on Truth Social that he “isn’t running to terminate” the ACA but to make it “better” and “less expensive.”

Trump hasn’t said how he would do this, and health care policy experts said it’s difficult to know where he stands without a detailed plan. Experts identified an array of possible changes that could be executed under another Trump administration but said a sweeping repeal likely isn’t in the cards given a lack of political support.

Childhood Poverty

Sanders: “We cut childhood poverty by over 40% through an expanded child tax credit.”

Biden’s American Rescue Plan increased the child tax credit from $2,000 to $3,600 for children younger than 6 and to $3,000 for children 6 to 17.

We previously reported that supplemental poverty numbers showed poverty among all U.S. children dropped from 9.7% in 2020 to 5.2% in 2021, the Census Bureau said — a decline of 46%. About 5.3 million people were lifted out of poverty, including 2.9 million children.

The provision lapsed after December 2021, facing opposition from Republicans and Sen. Joe Manchin, now an independent, who argued that expanding the credit would worsen inflation.

When the expanded tax credit expired, supplemental child poverty spiked , rising from 12.1% in December 2021 to 17% in January 2022 — a 41% change.

Kamala Harris in a DNC video: Trump “wants to impose what is in effect a national sales tax on everyday products and basic necessities that we import from other countries. … (it) would cost a typical family $3,900 a year.”

Trump has said that he would propose a 10% tariff on all nondomestic goods sold in the U.S. Although tariffs are levied separately from taxes, economists say that much of their impact would be passed along to consumers, making them analogous to a tax.

The video’s figure about how much it will cost families is higher than current estimates.

The American Action Forum, a center-right think tank, has projected additional costs per household of $1,700 to $2,350 annually.

The Peterson Institute of International Economics, another Washington, D.C.-based think tank, projected that such tariffs would cost a middle-income household about $1,700 extra each year.

PolitiFact chief correspondent Louis Jacobson, senior correspondent Amy Sherman, staff writers Samantha Putterman, Sara Swann, Loreben Tuquero and Maria Ramirez Uribe contributed to this story.

Our convention fact-checks rely on both new and previously reported work. We link to past work whenever possible. In some cases, a fact-check rating may be different tonight than in past versions. In those cases, either details of what the candidate said, or how the candidate said it, differed enough that we evaluated it anew.

This fact check was originally published by PolitiFact , which is part of the Poynter Institute.

Opinion | The wild and wacky media reaction to RFK Jr.’s endorsement of Donald Trump

The people closest to Kennedy are madly fleeing in the other direction, multiple outlets have reported. It’s utterly bizarre.

Introducing the members of this year’s Leadership Academy for Diversity in Media

These 22 journalists will learn about the power of human-centered journalism skills, from leadership to delegation to negotiations

RFK Jr. suspended his 2024 presidential bid. Here are 6 fact checks from his campaign

Kennedy’s campaign was unconventional and made for unconventional headlines

Opinion | Media reaction to Kamala Harris’ acceptance speech

It was a speech that wowed not only the obviously partisan crowd in Chicago, but many of the media commentators covering it.

Fact check: How accurate was Kamala Harris’ 2024 DNC speech in Chicago?

Harris leaned into several key policy themes: abortion rights, voting rights and support for Ukraine as it fights a continuing Russian invasion

You must be logged in to post a comment.

This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. Learn how your comment data is processed .

Start your day informed and inspired.

Get the Poynter newsletter that's right for you.

H.R. 9158: To require an institution of higher education that becomes aware that a student having nonimmigrant status under subparagraph (F)(i) or (J) of section 101(a)(15) of the Immigration and Nationality Act (8 U.S.C. 1101(a)(15)) has endorsed or supported a foreign terrorist organization to notify the SEVIS, and for other purposes.

React to this bill with an emoji, save your opinion on this bill on a six-point scale from strongly oppose to strongly support.

(Shared on panel .)

Primary Source

Government Publishing Office

Widget for your website

Get a bill status widget »

Follow GovTrack on social media for more updates:

Visit us on Mastodon

Study Guide

Add a note about this bill. Your note is for you and will not be shared with anyone.

Because you are a member of panel , your positions on legislation and notes below will be shared with the panel administrators. ( More Info )

The text of the bill below is as of Jul 25, 2024 (Introduced).

118th CONGRESS

IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

July 25, 2024

Mr. Langworthy (for himself, Mr. Buchanan , Mr. Mills , and Mr. Weber of Texas ) introduced the following bill; which was referred to the Committee on the Judiciary , and in addition to the Committee on Education and the Workforce , for a period to be subsequently determined by the Speaker, in each case for consideration of such provisions as fall within the jurisdiction of the committee concerned

To require an institution of higher education that becomes aware that a student having nonimmigrant status under subparagraph (F)(i) or (J) of section 101(a)(15) of the Immigration and Nationality Act ( 8 U.S.C. 1101(a)(15) ) has endorsed or supported a foreign terrorist organization to notify the SEVIS, and for other purposes.

Notification by institutions of higher education

An institution of higher education shall immediately report to the SEVIS when a student holding a J–1 or F–1 nonimmigrant visa has participated in activity in support of, or as an endorsement of, a foreign terrorist organization. The Secretary of State shall revoke such visa if the Secretary determines that such participation is established. In the case of a student whose visa is revoked under this section, the Secretary of Homeland Security shall initiate removal proceedings with respect to the student under the Immigration and Nationality Act ( 8 U.S.C. 1101 et seq. ).

Definitions

In this section:

The term foreign terrorist organization means an organization designated as a foreign terrorist organization pursuant to section 219 of the Immigration and Nationality Act ( 8 U.S.C. 1189 ).

The term institution of higher education means an approved institution of higher education that is subject to section 641 of the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 ( 8 U.S.C. 1372 ).

The term SEVIS means the Student and Exchange Visitor Information System of the Department of Homeland Security.

[error message]

Text comparison.

Exploring the impact of generative AI-based technologies on learning performance through self-efficacy, fairness & ethics, creativity, and trust in higher education

Published: 24 August 2024

Cite this article

Muhammad Farrukh Shahzad ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6578-4139 1 ,
Shuo Xu ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8602-1819 1 &
Hira Zahid ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0008-9650-2537 2

14 Accesses

Explore all metrics

Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies have rapidly transformed the education sector and affect student learning performance, particularly in China, a burgeoning educational landscape. The development of generative artificial intelligence (AI) based technologies, such as chatbots and large language models (LLMs) like ChatGPT, has completely changed the educational environment by providing individualized and engaging programs. This study brings forward a model and hypothesis based on social cognitive theory and appropriate research. This investigation centers on how generative AI-based technologies influence students’ learning performance in higher education (HE) institutions and the function of self-efficacy, fairness & ethics, creativity, and trust in promoting these connections. Data is collected from 362 students at Chinese universities using purposive sampling. The proposed structural model was evaluated using partial least squares–structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The findings reveal that generative AI technologies such as LLM models exemplified by ChatGPT and chatbots significantly influence students’ learning performance through self-efficacy, fairness & ethics, and creativity. Furthermore, trust significantly moderates the relationship between fairness & ethics, creativity, and learning performance but negatively moderates the relationship between self-efficacy and learning performance. This study supports the new explanatory potential of social cognitive theory in technological practices. Additionally, this research suggests using generative AI technologies to enhance students’ digital learning and boost academic achievement.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Subscribe and save.

Get 10 units per month
Download Article/Chapter or eBook
1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
Cancel anytime

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Comparative impact of Whatsapp chatbot technology and Glaser's teaching approaches on the academic performance of education economics students in tertiary institutions in Nigeria

Students’ voices on generative AI: perceptions, benefits, and challenges in higher education

Examining the moderating effect of motivation on technology acceptance of generative AI for English as a foreign language learning

Explore related subjects.

Artificial Intelligence
Medical Ethics
Digital Education and Educational Technology

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

Abuselidze, G., & Mamaladze, L. (2021). The impact of artificial intelligence on employment before and during pandemic: A comparative analysis. Journal of Physics: Conference Series , 1840 (1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1840/1/012040

Ajzen, I. (2002). Perceived behavioral control, self-efficacy, locus of control, and the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 32 (4), 665–683. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2002.tb00236.x

Article Google Scholar

Almulla, M. A., & Al-Rahmi, W. M. (2023). Integrated Social Cognitive Theory with Learning Input factors: The effects of Problem-solving skills and critical thinking skills on learning performance sustainability. Sustainability (Switzerland) , 15 (5). https://doi.org/10.3390/su15053978

Artificial Intelligence in Education Market (2023). Artificial Intelligence in Education Market Size, Share, Growth and Report 2023 .

Ashok, M., Madan, R., Joha, A., & Sivarajah, U. (2022). Ethical framework for Artificial Intelligence and Digital technologies. International Journal of Information Management , 62 (October 2021), 102433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2021.102433

Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (1989). The degree of intention formation as a moderator of the attitude-behavior relationship. Social Psychology Quarterly , 266–279.

Baidoo-Anu, D., & Owusu Ansah, L. (2023). Education in the era of Generative Artificial Intelligence (AI): Understanding the potential benefits of ChatGPT in promoting teaching and learning. Journal of AI , 7 (1), 52–62. https://doi.org/10.61969/jai.1337500

Bernabei, M., Colabianchi, S., Falegnami, A., & Costantino, F. (2023). Students’ use of large language models in engineering education: A case study on technology acceptance, perceptions, efficacy, and detection chances. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence , 5 (October), 100172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100172

Bilquise, G., Ibrahim, S., & Salhieh, S. E. M. (2023). Investigating student acceptance of an academic advising chatbot in higher education institutions. Education and Information Technologies . https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-12076-x

Brem, A., Member, S., Giones, F., & Werle, M. (2023). The AI Digital Revolution in Innovation: A conceptual Framework of Artificial Intelligence Technologies for the management of Innovation. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management , 70 (2), 770–776. https://doi.org/10.1109/TEM.2021.3109983

Cai, Y., & Tang, R. (2021). School support for teacher innovation: Mediating effects of teacher self-efficacy and moderating effects of trust. Thinking Skills and Creativity , 41 (May), 100854. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100854

Celik, V., & Yesilyurt, E. (2013). Attitudes to technology, perceived computer self-efficacy and computer anxiety as predictors of computer supported education. Computers and Education , 60 (1), 148–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.06.008

Chang, W., & Park, J. (2024). A comparative study on the effect of ChatGPT recommendation and AI recommender systems on the formation of a consideration set. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services , 78 (February), 103743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2024.103743

Charlwood, A., & Guenole, N. (2022). Can HR adapt to the paradoxes of artificial intelligence? Human Resource Management Journal , 32 (4), 729–742. https://doi.org/10.1111/1748-8583.12433

Chen, L., Da, & Tan, J. (2004). Technology adaptation in E-commerce: Key determinants of virtual stores acceptance. European Management Journal , 22 (1), 74–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2003.11.014

Chen, Xie, H., Zou, D., & Hwang, G. J. (2020). Application and theory gaps during the rise of Artificial Intelligence in Education. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence , 1 (July), 100002. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2020.100002

Cheng, X., Zhang, X., Cohen, J., & Mou, J. (2022). Human vs. AI: Understanding the impact of anthropomorphism on consumer response to chatbots from the perspective of trust and relationship norms. Information Processing and Management , 59 (3), 102940. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ipm.2022.102940

College of Economics and Management Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, PR China; Email: [email protected]; [email protected] ; Contact# +8618890042552; ORCID iD: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6578-4139

Compeau, D. R., & Higgins, C. A. (2017). Computer Self-Efficacy: Measure and initial development of a test. MIS Quarterly , 19 (2), 189–211. https://www.astm.org/Standards/E2368.htm

Correia, A. B., Shahzad, M. F., Martins, J. M., & Baheer, R. (2024). Impact of green human resource management towards sustainable performance in the healthcare sector: role of green innovation and risk management. Cogent Business & Management , 11 (1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2024.2374625

Dwivedi, Y. K. (2023). Opinion Paper: So what if ChatGPT wrote it? Multidisciplinary perspectives on opportunities, challenges and implications of generative conversational AI for research, practice and policy. International Journal of Information Management , 71 (March). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2023.102642

Ellen, P. S., Bearden, W. O., & Sharma, S. (1991). Resistance to technological innovations: An examination of the role of self-efficacy and performance satisfaction. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science , 19 (4), 297–307. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02726504

Essel, H. B., Vlachopoulos, D., Essuman, A. B., & Amankwa, J. O. (2024). ChatGPT effects on cognitive skills of undergraduate students: Receiving instant responses from AI-based conversational large language models (LLMs). Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence , 6 (July 2023)), 100198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100198

Exploring the impact of generative AI-based technologies on learning performance through self-efficacy, fairness & ethics, creativity, and trust in higher education.

Farrukh, M., Xu, S., An, X., & Javed, I. (2024). Assessing the impact of AI-chatbot service quality on user e-brand loyalty through chatbot user trust, experience and electronic word of mouth. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services , 79 (March), 103867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2024.103867

Farrukh, M., Xu, S., Marc, W., & Yang, X. (2024b). Artificial intelligence and social media on academic performance and mental well-being: Student perceptions of positive impact in the age of smart learning. Heliyon , 10 (8), e29523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e29523

Ferrara, S. (2022). Validity arguments for AI-Based Automated scores: Essay Scoring as an illustration . 59 (3), 288–313. https://doi.org/10.1111/jedm.12333

Floridi, L., & Chiriatti, M. (2020). GPT-3: Its nature, scope, limits, and consequences. Minds and Machines , 30 (4), 681–694. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11023-020-09548-1

Fornell, C., & Bookstein, F. L. (1982). Two structural equation models: LISREL and PLS Applied to Consumer Exit-Voice Theory. Journal of Marketing Research , 19 (4), 440. https://doi.org/10.2307/3151718

Hailey College of Commerce University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan; Email: [email protected]; Contact# +923015261616; ORCID ID; https://orcid.org/0009-0008-9650-2537

Hair, J. F., Howard, M. C., & Nitzl, C. (2020). Assessing measurement model quality in PLS-SEM using confirmatory composite analysis. Journal of Business Research , 109 , 101–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.11.069

Haluza, D., & Jungwirth, D. (2023). Artificial Intelligence and Ten Societal megatrends: An exploratory study using GPT-3. Systems , 11 (3). https://doi.org/10.3390/systems11030120

Hao, Q., Zhang, B., Shi, Y., & Yang, Q. (2022). How trust in coworkers fosters knowledge sharing in virtual teams? A multilevel moderated mediation model of psychological safety, team virtuality, and self-efficacy. Frontiers in Psychology , 13 (September), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.899142

Hartati, R., & Manullang, E. B. (2024). Implementation of Telegram Chatbot AI with Natural Language Processing (NLP) in learning creative entrepreneurship to develop students’ creative and innovative competence. TALENTA Conference Series , 7 (2654–7066), 73–79. https://doi.org/10.32734/lwsa.v7i2.2055

Helen, Z., Lee, I., Ali, S., DiPaola3, D., Cheng, Y., & Breazeal (2023). Integrating Ethics and Career Futures with Technical Learning to Promote AI Literacy for Middle School students: An exploratory study. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education , 33(2) (3), 290–324. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-022-00293-3

Hill, J. R., Song, L., & West, R. E. (2009). Social learning theory and web-based learning environments: A review of research and discussion of implications. International Journal of Phytoremediation , 21 (1), 88–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/08923640902857713

Hussain, K., Khan, M. L., & Malik, A. (2024). Exploring audience engagement with ChatGPT-related content on YouTube: Implications for content creators and AI tool developers. Digital Business , 4 (1), 100071. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.digbus.2023.100071

Hyeon Jo. (2023). Understanding AI tool engagement: A study of ChatGPT usage and word-of-mouth among university students and office workers. Telematics and Informatics , 85 (June), 102067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2023.102067

I-shuo Chen (2017). Computer self-efficacy, learning performance, and the mediating role of learning engagement. Computers in Human Behavior , 72 , 362–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.02.059

Jeon, J., & Lee, S. (2023). Large language models in education: A focus on the complementary relationship between human teachers and ChatGPT. Education and Information Technologies , 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-11834-1

Kim, J., Lee, A., & Ryu, H. (2013). Personality and its effects on learning performance: Design guidelines for an adaptive e-learning system based on a user model. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics , 43 (5), 450–461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ergon.2013.03.001

Kim, J., Chua, M., Rickard, M., & Lorenzo, A. (2023). ChatGPT and large language model (LLM) chatbots: The current state of acceptability and a proposal for guidelines on utilization in academic medicine. Journal of Pediatric Urology , 19 (5), 598–604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpurol.2023.05.018

Kurniawan, I. A., Mugiono, M., & Wijayanti, R. (2022). The effect of Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and social influence toward intention to use mediated by Trust. Jurnal Aplikasi Manajemen , 20 (1), 117–127. https://doi.org/10.21776/ub.jam.2022.020.01.12

Lee, Y. F., Hwang, G. J., & Chen, P. Y. (2022). Impacts of an AI-based chabot on college students’ after-class review, academic performance, self-efficacy, learning attitude, and motivation. Educational Technology Research and Development , 70 (5), 1843–1865. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-022-10142-8

Lekwa, A. J., Reddy, L. A., & Shernoff, E. S. (2019). Measuring teacher practices and student academic engagement: A convergent validity study. School Psychology Quarterly , 34 (1), 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000268

Lim, W. M., Gunasekara, A., Pallant, J. L., Pallant, J. I., & Pechenkina, E. (2023). Generative AI and the future of education: Ragnarök or reformation? A paradoxical perspective from management educators. International Journal of Management Education , 21 (2), 100790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2023.100790

Luthans, F., & Stajkovic, A. D. (1998). Going beyond traditional motivational and behavioral approaches. Organizational Dynamics , Spring , 62–74.

Maheshwari, G. (2023). Factors influencing students’ intention to adopt and use ChatGPT in higher education: A study in the Vietnamese context. Education and Information Technologies , 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-12333-z

McGill, T. J., & Klobas, J. E. (2009). A task-technology fit view of learning management system impact. Computers and Education , 52 (2), 496–508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2008.10.002

Meinel, M., Wagner, T. F., Baccarella, C. V., & Voigt, K. I. (2019). Exploring the effects of Creativity Training on Creative Performance and Creative Self-Efficacy: Evidence from a longitudinal study. Journal of Creative Behavior , 53 (4), 546–558. https://doi.org/10.1002/jocb.234

Memarian, B., & Doleck, T. (2023). Fairness, accountability, transparency, and Ethics (FATE) in Artificial Intelligence (AI) and higher education: A systematic review. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence , 5 (May), 100152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100152

Mensah, C., Azila-Gbettor, E. M., Nunyonameh, C. R., Appietu, M. E., & Amedome, S. N. (2023). Research methods anxiety, attitude, self-efficacy and academic effort: A social cognitive theory perspective. Cogent Psychology , 10 (1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2023.2167503

Michel-Villarreal, R., Vilalta-Perdomo, E., Salinas-Navarro, D. E., Thierry-Aguilera, R., & Gerardou, F. S. (2023). Challenges and opportunities of generative AI for higher education as explained by ChatGPT. Education Sciences , 13 (9), 856.

Mikalef, P., & Gupta, M. (2021). Artificial intelligence capability: Conceptualization, measurement calibration, and empirical study on its impact on organizational creativity and firm performance. Information and Management , 58 (3), 103434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2021.103434

Munir, Y., Khan, S. U. R., Sadiq, M., Ali, I., Hamdan, Y., & Munir, E. (2016). Workplace isolation in Pharmaceutical companies: Moderating role of self-efficacy. Social Indicators Research , 126 (3), 1157–1174. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-015-0940-7

Ouyang, F., Zheng, L., & Jiao, P. (2022). Artificial intelligence in online higher education: A systematic review of empirical research from 2011 to 2020. In Education and Information Technologies . Issue 6) Springer US , 27 . https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-10925-9

Oviedo-Trespalacios, O., Peden, A. E., Cole-Hunter, T., Costantini, A., Haghani, M., Rod, J. E., Kelly, S., Torkamaan, H., Tariq, A., Albert Newton, D., Gallagher, J., Steinert, T., Filtness, S., A. J., & Reniers, G. (2023). The risks of using ChatGPT to obtain common safety-related information and advice. Safety Science , 167 (April), 106244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2023.106244

Paul, J., Macedo-Rouet, M., Rouet, J. F., & Stadtler, M. (2017). Why attend to source information when reading online? The perspective of ninth grade students from two different countries. Computers and Education , 113 , 339–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.05.020

Pereira, T., Limberger, D. P. F., & Ardigó, D. C. M. (2021). The moderating effect of the need for interaction with a service employee on purchase intention in chatbots. Telematics and Informatics Reports , 1 – 4 (December 2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.teler.2022.100003

Pham, H. C., Duong, C. D., & Nguyen, G. K. H. (2024). What drives tourists’ continuance intention to use ChatGPT for travel services? A stimulus-organism-response perspective. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services , 78 (February), 103758. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2024.103758

Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology , 88 (5), 879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879

Qadir, J. (2023). Engineering Education in the Era of ChatGPT: Promise and Pitfalls of Generative AI for Education. IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference, EDUCON , 2023 - May , 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1109/EDUCON54358.2023.10125121

Rahman, S. (2023). Examining students ’ intention to use ChatGPT: Does trust matter? 39 (6), 51–71. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.8956

Ranoliya, B. R., Raghuwanshi, N., & Singh, S. (2017). Chatbot for university related FAQs. 2017 International Conference on Advances in Computing Communications and Informatics ICACCI 2017 , 2017-Janua , 1525–1530. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICACCI.2017.8126057

Roscoe, A. M., Lang, D., & Sheth, J. N. (1975). Follow-Up methods, questionnaire length, and Market differences in mail surveys. Journal of Marketing , 39 (2), 20. https://doi.org/10.2307/1250111

Rouis, S., Limayem, M., & Salehi-Sangari, E. (2011). Impact of Facebook usage on students’ academic achievement: Role of self-regulation and trust. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology , 9 (3), 961–994. https://doi.org/10.25115/ejrep.v9i25.1465

Salloum, S. A., Mohammad Alhamad, Q., Al-Emran, A., Monem, M. A., A., & Shaalan, K. (2019). Exploring students’ acceptance of e-learning through the development of a comprehensive technology acceptance model. Ieee Access : Practical Innovations, Open Solutions , 7 , 128445–128462. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2939467

Sandu, N., & Gide, E. (2019). Adoption of AI-chatbots to enhance student learning experience in higher education in india. 2019 18th International Conference on Information Technology Based Higher Education and Training, ITHET 2019 , 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1109/ITHET46829.2019.8937382

Sarstedt, M., Ringle, C. M., & Hair, J. F. (2022). Partial least squares structural equation modeling. Handbook of Market Research (pp. 587–632). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57413-4_15

Sellami, A. L., Al-Ali, A., Allouh, A., & Alhazbi, S. (2023). Student attitudes and interests in STEM in Qatar through the Lens of the Social Cognitive Theory. Sustainability (Switzerland) , 15 (9). https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097504

Shahzad, M. F., Xu, S., Khan, K. I., & Hasnain, M. F. (2023). Effect of social influence, environmental awareness, and safety affordance on actual use of 5G technologies among Chinese students. Scientific Reports , 0123456789 , 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-50078-4

Shahzad, M. F., Xu, S., & Baheer, R. (2024). Assessing the factors influencing the intention to use information and communication technology implementation and acceptance in China’s education sector . 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02777-0

Shahzad, M. F., Xu, S., & Javed, I. (2024). ChatGPT awareness, acceptance, and adoption in higher education: the role of trust as a cornerstone. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education , 21 (1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-024-00478-x

Shaofeng, Sun, Z., & Chen, Y. (2023). Effects of higher education institutes’ artificial intelligence capability on students’ self-efficacy, creativity and learning performance. Education and Information Technologies , 28 (5), 4919–4939. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11338-4

Sharma, G. (2017). Pros and cons of different sampling techniques. International journal of applied research. International Journal of Applied Research , 3 (7), 749–752. www.allresearchjournal.com.

Google Scholar

Singh, S. V., & Hiran, K. K. (2022). The impact of AI on Teaching and Learning in Higher Education Technology. Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice , 22 (13), 135–148. https://doi.org/10.33423/jhetp.v22i13.5514

Sohail, S. S., Farhat, F., Himeur, Y., Nadeem, M., Madsen, D. Ø., Singh, Y., Atalla, S., & Mansoor, W. (2023). Decoding ChatGPT: A taxonomy of existing research, current challenges, and possible future directions. Journal of King Saud University - Computer and Information Sciences , 35 (8), 101675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksuci.2023.101675

Strzelecki, A. (2024). Students’ Acceptance of ChatGPT in Higher Education: An extended Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology. Innovative Higher Education , 49 (2), 223–245. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-023-09686-1

Tarhini, A., Deh, R. M., Al-Busaidi, K. A., Mohammed, A. B., & Maqableh, M. (2017). Factors influencing students’ adoption of e-learning: A structural equation modeling approach. Journal of International Education in Business , 10 (2), 164–182. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIEB-09-2016-0032

Tsz, D., Ng, K., Qiao, M. S., Wah, K., & Chu, S. (2021). AI Literacy: Definition, Teaching, Evaluation and Ethical Issues . 504–509. https://doi.org/10.1002/pra2.487

Uzir, M. U. H., Halbusi, A., Lim, H., Jerin, R., Abdul Hamid, I., Ramayah, A. B., T., & Haque, A. (2021). Applied Artificial Intelligence and user satisfaction: Smartwatch usage for healthcare in Bangladesh during COVID-19. Technology in Society , 67 (July), 101780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.101780

Wang, & Chuang (2024). Artificial intelligence self-efficacy: Scale development and validation. Education and Information Technologies , 29 (4), 4785–4808. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-12015-w

Wang, J., & Zhan, Q. (2019). Visualization Analysis of Artificial Intelligence Technology in Higher Education Based on SSCI and SCI Journals from 2009 to 2019 . 20–33. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v16i08.18447 Ji.

Wang, Shi, G., Lu, M., Lin, R., & Yang, J. (2021). Determinants of active online learning in the smart learning environment: An empirical study with PLS-SEM. Sustainability (Switzerland) , 13 (17), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13179923

Weizenbaum, J. (1966). ELIZA-A computer program for the study of natural language communication between man and machine. Communications of the ACM , 9 (1), 36–45. https://doi.org/10.1145/365153.365168

Article MathSciNet Google Scholar

Widiana, P., & Budiono, B. (2021). Pengaruh sexual harassment terhadap turnover intention melalui job satisfaction pada Karyawan Perhotelan Di Surabaya. Jurnal Ilmu Manajemen , 9 (3), 1113–1123. https://doi.org/10.26740/jim.v9n3.p1113-1123

Woschank, M., & Rauch, E. (2020). A Review of Further Directions for Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and Deep Learning in Smart Logistics .

Xu, S., Khan, K. I., & Shahzad, M. F. (2024). Examining the influence of technological self‑efficacy, perceived trust, security, and electronic word of mouth on ICT usage in the education sector. Scientific Reports , 14 , 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-66689-4

Yilmaz, R., & Karaoglan Yilmaz, F. G. (2023). The effect of generative artificial intelligence (AI)-based tool use on students’ computational thinking skills, programming self-efficacy and motivation. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence , 4 (June). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100147

Zhang, & Aslan, A. B. (2021). AI technologies for education: Recent research & future directions. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence , 2 , 100025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2021.100025

Zhang, Li, G., Hashimoto, H., & Zhang, Z. (2022). Digital Transformation (DX) for Skill Learners: The Design Methodology and Implementation of Educational Chatbot using Knowledge Connection and Emotional Expression. IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference, EDUCON , 2022 - March (Dx), 998–1003. https://doi.org/10.1109/EDUCON52537.2022.9766384

Zhang, X., Abbas, J., Shahzad, M. F., Shankar, A., Ercisli, S., & Dobhal, D. C. (2024). Association between social media use and students ’ academic performance through family bonding and collective learning: The moderating role of mental well-being. Education and Information Technologies , 0123456789. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-12407-y

Download references

Acknowledgements

All authors contributed equally and acknowledged this work.

Funding acknowledgment: This work received financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China under grant number 72074014.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

College of Economics and Management, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, 100124, PR China

Muhammad Farrukh Shahzad & Shuo Xu

Hailey College of Commerce, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Muhammad Farrukh Shahzad .

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Shahzad, M.F., Xu, S. & Zahid, H. Exploring the impact of generative AI-based technologies on learning performance through self-efficacy, fairness & ethics, creativity, and trust in higher education. Educ Inf Technol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12949-9

Download citation

Received : 16 May 2024

Accepted : 28 July 2024

Published : 24 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12949-9

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Generative AI-based technologies
Higher education
Learning performance
Self-efficacy
Fairness & ethics
Find a journal
Publish with us
Track your research

Search the site GO Please fill out this field.
Newsletters
Mental Health
Social and Public Health

Examples of Institutional Racism: What It Is and What You Can Do

Institutional racism is everywhere, from healthcare to housing to education to employment. Examples of institutional racism include instances of police brutality, reduced funding for predominantly Black schools, as well as racial gerrymandering.

The impact of institutional racism is far-reaching and a vicious cycle that takes a toll on people and society. Here's an overview of the historically prevalent discrimination that affects the Black community.

What Is Institutional Racism?

Policies and power structures rooted in White privilege maintain institutional racism, or systemic racism. Interpersonal racism shows up in biases for and against others based on race. Institutional racism, in contrast, is embedded into the structures of society. It leads people of different races to have different outcomes regarding housing , employment, health, finance, and education.

"Institutional racism is different and more implicit than interpersonal racism. It's come to the forefront of the national conversation after the murder of George Floyd and the protests for racial equity across the country [in 2020]," Beth Beatriz, PhD , a researcher specializing in health equity, told Health .

Legal segregation and Jim Crow laws previously publicly encoded institutional racism across the country. Modern policies and signage don't frequently identify institutional racism, but biases in favor of White people still exist in coded forms. These restrictions often have an unfair outcome in Black communities.

"Declaring certain hairstyles 'unprofessional' historically restricted qualified Black candidates from gainful employment," Nance Schick , an attorney and mediator based in New York, told Health . "Despite the CROWN Act of 2020 [which prohibits discrimination based on hair texture or style], there are still employers who have restrictions on hair, particularly dreadlocks and natural hair."

Examples of Institutional Racism in the U.S.

Institutional racism is prevalent in the United States across just about every sector. You may see examples of institutional racism in education, health, policing, and more.

School funding based on property values and residential taxes, combined with racial segregation in housing, has led to systemic underfunding of predominantly Black schools. Low-poverty districts that are primarily White spend almost $2,000 more per student than low-poverty districts where most students are people of color. This often results in poorer test scores and learning outcomes for Black students at underfunded schools.

The U.S. healthcare system has historically discriminated against non-White populations. Many healthcare facilities that predominately serve Black communities lack the funding, resources, and staff to deliver adequate healthcare. Poor healthcare services lead to adverse health outcomes.

Black women are as much as four times more likely than White women to experience a pregnancy-related death in the United States. Research has found that inadequate access to prenatal healthcare raises the risk of maternal mortality, in addition to healthcare providers' racial biases.

The COVID-19 pandemic also highlighted inequities in the U.S. healthcare system. Lack of access to healthcare services, such as COVID testing , led to a disproportionate number of infections and deaths among minority groups. Research has shown that COVID outcomes among non-White populations directly result from racist U.S. healthcare policies.

Where a person lives and the conditions of their neighborhood greatly impact their health outcomes. Residents of impoverished neighborhoods demonstrate a high risk of poor physical and mental health outcomes, such as:

Depression or anxiety
Heart problems

"The historical practice of 'redlining' is an example of a racist institutional policy still felt today," said Beatriz. Redlining happened when banks refused to lend money for mortgages in communities with large proportions of people of color. The banks considered these communities to be "hazardous."

The effects of redlining have persisted, despite it being outlawed in 1968. The Urban Institute reported in 2017 that the homeownership rate for White households was 71.9%. The rate for Black households, in contrast, was 41.8%.

This racial residential segregation is the cornerstone of Black and White disparities. "The inequities built into low-income housing is a fundamental cause of health disparities between [Black and White people]," Marsha Parham-Green, the executive director of the Baltimore County Office of Housing, told Health .

"Concentrated poverty, safety, and segregation, as well as other social and community attributes, further contribute to stress and deterioration of health," said Parham-Green. "Those who are most vulnerable—children and the elderly—are most adversely affected by unstable housing conditions."

Law and Policing

Black people are roughly five times as likely as White people to report being unfairly stopped by the police. Black Americans are also more likely to suffer the ill effects of racial profiling. Racial profiling is stereotyping a person based on assumed characteristics of a racial or ethnic group rather than the individual.

Police brutality is an ongoing problem in the United States, disproportionally affecting Black communities. Black people face an adverse risk of poor health outcomes as a result, such as:

Death from injuries sustained by the police
Health complications that increase the risk of death
Unfair arrest and incarceration

Economically-based discrimination goes hand-in-hand with interpersonal racism. Business loan officers may require Black applicants to have higher credit scores and income levels than White applicants. This discrimination may become an example of institutional racism if it's widespread.

An investigation in 2018 by the National Fair Housing Alliance found economic discrimination regarding car loans. Non-White applicants who experienced discrimination would have paid an average of $2,662.56 more over the life of the loan than less-qualified White applicants. The investigators also found that White applicants were offered more financing options than non-White applicants 75% of the time.

Some state elected officials denied early and mail-in voting for non-White voters. Black voters' ballots in North Carolina were rejected at more than three times the rate of White voters during the 2020 U.S. general election.

The U.S. Postal Service also removed hundreds of sorting machines, a form of institutional racism. "Mail delivery was slowed down, and residents over-indexing with a Black population couldn't get their mail," Lauren Raysor , an attorney and founder of the Mount Vernon Coalition for Police Reform, told Health .

Another form of institutional racism in politics is gerrymandering. Gerrymandering determines electoral districts, which decide the outcomes of state and federal elections. There's one U.S. representative from each district. Census data, which the U.S. government collects every 10 years, influences redistricting.

Racial gerrymandering happens when people in positions of power redraw district lines to suppress minority voices. Take, for example, a community largely made up of Black voters. The likelihood of Black voters being accurately represented decreases if lawmakers gerrymander that community into several districts.

How To Be an Ally

Institutional racism hurts society, squashing innovation and creating an environment that breeds unhealthy stress and burnout. Those affected will continue to be a part of a cycle of despair and disenfranchisement if institutional racism continues as the status quo.

"Black Americans who call out institutional racism are often gaslighted," La Shawn Paul , mental health expert and diversity and inclusion strategist, told Health . "To address any problem, you must first acknowledge its existence. Silence is complacency."

According to Schick, people can combat institutional racism by making the following changes:

Don't stop with one Black friend and think you know enough about the Black experience. One person does not represent an entire group of people.
Go to town halls, school board meetings, and other places where people are discussing solutions. Protests and books are great for creating awareness. But then, it's time for solutions at every level.
Speak up when you see changes that can be made. Sometimes, the change is in a policy. Other times, change is as small as an individual's behavior.

"It's getting harder for all of us to claim ignorance. It's time to make a change," said Schick. "Perhaps that is where it begins, with pure intention. Adding courage and action, big changes can occur. We likely have to do some deep soul-searching first and accept that it will be uncomfortable. Nevertheless, this is where we must begin. Again."

A Quick Review

It's not as obvious as in previous generations, but institutional racism affects people of color profoundly. Examples can be as subtle as a lack of spending on public schools in economically disadvantaged areas serving minorities.

Institutional racism is pervasive and can affect every aspect of peoples' lives, from their finances to their education and physical and mental health. The best way to fight institutional racism is to become aware and active in changing the policies and behaviors perpetuating it.

EdBuild. Nonwhite school districts get $23 billion less than white districts despite serving the same number of students .

American Academy of Family Physicians. Institutional racism in the health care system .

Howell EA. Reducing disparities in severe maternal morbidity and mortality . Clin Obstet Gynecol . 2018;61(2):387-399. doi:10.1097/GRF.0000000000000349

Gadson A, Akpovi E, Mehta PK. Exploring the social determinants of racial/ethnic disparities in prenatal care utilization and maternal outcome . Semin Perinatol . 2017;41(5):308-317. doi:10.1053/j.semperi.2017.04.008

Yearby R, Clark B, Figueroa JF. Structural racism In historical and modern US health care policy . Health Aff (Millwood) . 2022;41(2):187-194. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2021.01466

Pacheco CM, Ciaccio CE, Nazir N, et al. Homes of low-income minority families with asthmatic children have increased condition issues . Allergy Asthma Proc . 2014;35(6):467-474. doi:10.2500/aap.2014.35.3792

Urban Institute. Breaking down the Black-White home ownership gap .

Pew Research Center. 10 things we know about race and policing in the U.S. .

Alang S, McAlpine D, McCreedy E, et al. Police brutality and Black health: Setting the agenda for public health scholars . Am J Public Health . 2017;107(5):662-665. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2017.303691

Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. Availability of credit to small businesses .

National Fair Housing Alliance. Discrimination when buying a car .

ProPublica. In North Carolina, Black voters mail-in ballots much more likely to be rejected than those from any other race .

NAACP Legal Defense Fund. How redistricting works — and how you can get involved .

BREAKING: Special counsel Jack Smith appeals decision by Florida judge to dismiss Trump's classified documents case

RFK Jr. as Trump’s health secretary? Here’s what he wants to do

Robert F. Kennedy Jr. is setting aside one ambition and making room for another.

Kennedy ended his independent presidential campaign Friday and endorsed former President Donald Trump. While announcing his decision, Kennedy said Trump had “asked to enlist me in his administration,” though Kennedy did not specify a role.

On Tuesday, Kennedy’s running mate, Nicole Shanahan, told an interviewer the campaign was weighing whether to “join forces” with Trump and suggested that Kennedy would do an “incredible job” as secretary of health and human services. Trump later told CNN that he “probably would” appoint Kennedy to some role.

“I didn’t know he was thinking about getting out, but if he is thinking about getting out, certainly I’d be open to it,” Trump said.

(Sen. JD Vance, R-Ohio, Trump’s vice presidential nominee, said Wednesday that there was no quid pro quo deal to offer Kennedy a Cabinet post in exchange for his endorsement and that any conversations about a future role would be separate.)

Neither Kennedy nor his campaign responded to requests for comment on just what he would do if he were nominated and approved by the Senate to serve in a position former HHS Secretary Alex Azar described as having “a shocking amount of power by the stroke of a pen,” at the head of a department with a more than $1.5 trillion budget .

By historical comparisons, Kennedy, a famous anti-vaccine advocate and conspiracy theorist, would be an odd pick for HHS secretary. Previous appointees have had varied backgrounds in medicine, government, law and public health. The current secretary, Xavier Becerra, served as attorney general of California.

Kennedy, also an attorney, practiced environmental law and founded Children’s Health Defense, which is now the most well-funded anti-vaccine organization in the country. During the pandemic, he became the purveyor of wild conspiracy theories , often aimed at public health officials in the agencies he now seeks to lead. Kennedy has criticized Dr. Anthony Fauci, former director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, for Covid’s death toll and said Fauci should be prosecuted if he committed a crime. He has also said the attorney general should force editors of medical journals to publish retracted studies.

HHS oversees 13 agencies , including the Food and Drug Administration, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the National Institutes of Health. On the campaign trail, in podcasts and in news interviews, Kennedy has described wanting to dismantle those offices and rebuild them with like-minded fringe figures.

The agencies have become “sock puppets” for the industries they regulate, Kennedy told NBC News in an interview last year, in which he laid out his plans for public health if he were elected president. Faced with another pandemic, Kennedy said, he wouldn’t prioritize the research, manufacture or distribution of vaccines.

“The priority should be finding treatments that work and building people’s immune systems,” he said, falsely adding that “vaccines have probably caused more deaths than they’ve averted.” He mentioned ivermectin and hydroxychloroquine as treatments — which he says worked against Covid, even though numerous studies say they didn’t.

Kennedy’s campaign has been supported and led by the anti-vaccine movement he helped build. In November, he credited activists at Children’s Health Defense, which he chaired until he took leave to run for president, for boosting his campaign. Accepting an award at the group’s annual conference, he said he would stop the National Institutes of Health from studying infectious diseases, like Covid and measles, and pivot it to studying chronic diseases, like diabetes and obesity. Kennedy believes environmental toxins, a category in which he places childhood vaccines, to be the major threat to public health, rather than infectious disease.

“I’m going to say to NIH scientists, God bless you all,” Kennedy said at the time. “Thank you for public service. We’re going to give infectious disease a break for about eight years.”

Dr. Paul Offit, the director of the Vaccine Education Center at Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia and a longtime target of the anti-vaccine movement, said a Kennedy reign over HHS — a department tasked with overseeing health policy, providing and regulating care, sponsoring medical research and training, and communicating with the public during emergencies — would be disastrous.

“He no doubt will try to perform studies that prove his views and thus further weaken America’s trust in vaccines and, no doubt, try to eliminate all mandates,” Offit said. “He said he doesn’t want to study infectious diseases. He would eliminate studies around real problems and gear them toward what he thinks the problems are, independent of what good data show.

“It doesn’t matter whether the data show that he’s wrong; he’s still going to be convinced that he’s right,” Offit continued, referring to Kennedy’s focus on proving the harms of vaccines that have repeatedly been proven to be safe. “In no way would this advance human health.”

In Kennedy’s interview with NBC News last year, he sharply criticized the FDA, the NIH and the CDC and said he would “unravel the corrupt corporate capture of these agencies that turned them predatory, against the American public.” He said he would boot the officials in charge and appoint people who would “turn them back into healing and public health agencies.”

He declined to name names, but he has surrounded himself with those on the fringe of public health. He has praised “brave dissidents,” including discredited vaccine scientist Robert Malone , and Dr. Pierre Kory, who was stripped of his certification by the American Board of Internal Medicine this month for promoting and peddling false cures for Covid. Kennedy posted that doctors like Kory “help clear away the smoke of corporate profiteering so that we can see clearly the causes and solutions to the chronic disease epidemic.”

Last year, candidate Kennedy told a group of anti-vaccine doctors and influencers assembled for a health policy roundtable that he would surround himself with “dissidents.”

“Have faith and watch what we do,” he said. “I think you’ll be pleased.”

Brandy Zadrozny is a senior reporter for NBC News. She covers misinformation, extremism and the internet.

Share on twitter
Share on facebook

Impact Rankings 2024: methodology

The times higher education impact rankings measure global universities’ success in delivering the united nations’ sustainable development goals. here, we explain how we arrived at the results.

Share on linkedin
Share on mail

Browse the full results of the Impact Rankings 2024

Participate in next year’s impact rankings.

The Times Higher Education Impact Rankings are the only global performance tables that assess universities against the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals. We use carefully calibrated indicators to provide comprehensive and balanced comparisons across four broad areas: research , stewardship , outreach and teaching .

Definitions of areas

Research: the most obvious and traditional way that a university might help deliver the SDGs is by creating research in relevant topics.

Stewardship: universities are custodians of significant resources; not just physical resources, but also their employees, faculty and students. How they act as stewards is one of the key factors in delivering the SDGs.

Outreach: place is critical in higher education, and the work that universities do with their local, regional, national and international communities is another key way that they can have an impact on sustainability.

Teaching: teaching plays a critical role, both in ensuring that there are enough skilled practitioners to deliver on the SDGs, and in making sure that all alumni take forward the key lessons of sustainability into their future careers.

Which SDGs are included?

There are 17 UN SDGs, and we are evaluating university performance on all of them.

SDG 1 – no poverty
SDG 2 – zero hunger
SDG 3 – good health and well-being
SDG 4 – quality education
SDG 5 – gender equality
SDG 6 – clean water and sanitation
SDG 7 – affordable and clean energy
SDG 8 – decent work and economic growth
SDG 9 – industry, innovation and infrastructure
SDG 10 – reduced inequalities
SDG 11 – sustainable cities and communities
SDG 12 – responsible consumption and production
SDG 13 – climate action
SDG 14 – life below water
SDG 15 – life on land
SDG 16 – peace, justice and strong institutions
SDG 17 – partnerships for the goals

Universities can submit data on as many of these SDGs as they are able. Each SDG has a series of metrics that are used to evaluate the performance of the university in that SDG.

Any university that provides data on SDG 17 and at least three other SDGs is included in the overall ranking.

As well as the overall ranking, we also publish the results of each individual SDG in 17 separate tables.

How is the ranking created?

A university’s total score in a given year is calculated by combining its score in SDG 17 with its best three results on the remaining 16 SDGs. SDG 17 accounts for 22 per cent of the total score, while the other SDGs each carry a weighting of 26 per cent. This means that different universities are scored based on a different set of SDGs, depending on their focus. The score for the overall ranking is an average of the last two years’ total scores.

The score from each SDG is scaled so that the highest score in each SDG in the overall calculation is 100 and the lowest score is 0. This is to adjust for minor differences in the scoring range in each SDG and to ensure that universities are treated equitably whichever SDGs they have provided data for. It is these scaled scores that we use to determine which SDGs a university has performed in most strongly; they may not be the SDGs in which the university is ranked highest or has scored highest based on unscaled scores.

The metrics for the 17 SDGs are included on their individual methodology pages.

Scoring within an SDG

There are three categories of metrics within each SDG:

Continuous metrics measure contributions to impact that vary continually across a range – for example, the number of graduates with a health-related degree. These are usually normalised to the size of the institution.

When we ask about policies and initiatives – for example, the existence of mentoring programmes – our metrics require universities to provide the evidence to support their claims. In these cases, we give credit for the evidence, and for the evidence being public. These metrics are not usually size-normalised.

Evidence is evaluated against a set of criteria, and decisions are cross-validated where there is uncertainty. Evidence need not be exhaustive – we are looking for examples that demonstrate best practice at the institutions concerned.

In general, the data used refer to the closest academic year to January to December 2022. The date range for each metric is specified in the full methodology document.

The ranking is open to any university that teaches at undergraduate or postgraduate level. Although research activities form part of the methodology, there is no minimum research requirement for participation.

THE reserves the right to exclude universities that it believes have falsified data, or are no longer in good standing.

Data collection

Institutions provide and sign off their institutional data for use in the rankings. On the rare occasions when a particular data point is not provided, we enter a value of zero.

The methodology was developed in conjunction with our partners Vertigo Ventures and Elsevier, and after consultation and input from individual universities, academics and sector groups.

View the full methodology for the Impact Rankings 2024.

Register to continue

Why register?

Registration is free and only takes a moment
Once registered, you can read 3 articles a month
Sign up for our newsletter

Or subscribe for unlimited access to:

Unlimited access to news, views, insights & reviews
Digital editions
Digital access to THE’s university and college rankings analysis

Already registered or a current subscriber? Login

Impact Rankings 2025: time to register

Universities can now sign up to participate ahead of data collection opening in the autumn

Record number of universities submit data for World University Rankings

African participation surpasses North America for the first time

Boat with flock of birds around it to suggest stewardship

Impact Rankings 2024: universities make trustworthy stewards

Locale determines the mission of many universities, and the Impact Rankings recognise how such diversity and community-mindedness helps to further progress towards the SDGs

Boccia World Cup - Preview Day - University of Ulster

Impact Rankings 2024: who is excelling at stewardship and outreach?

New thematic analysis reveals the countries and institutions that are walking the talk on sustainability

Featured jobs

IMAGES

Sociological Perspectives on Education
PPT
PPT
Functions of Education I Education as Social Institution I Content Generate
Social Institutions of Education and Religion Social
Social Institutions in Sociology (Definition and Explanation)

COMMENTS

16.2 Sociological Perspectives on Education
Table 16.1 Theory Snapshot. Education serves several functions for society. These include (a) socialization, (b) social integration, (c) social placement, and (d) social and cultural innovation. Latent functions include child care, the establishment of peer relationships, and lowering unemployment by keeping high school students out of the full ...
Education as a Social Institution
In Conclusion, Education as a social institution is a bedrock of human progress, shaping individuals' minds and driving societal development. In a sociological context, understanding the roles, importance, structure, and functions of education provides valuable insights into the dynamics of human learning and its impact on society.
Social Institutions in Sociology: Definition & Examples
A social institution is a group or organization that has specific roles, norms, and expectations, which functions to meet the social needs of society. The family, government, religion, education, and media are all examples of social institutions. Social institutions are interdependent and continually interact and influence one another in ...
Functionalist Theory on Education
Functionalism. Functionalists view education as one of the more important social institutions in a society. They contend that education contributes two kinds of functions: manifest (or primary) functions, which are the intended and visible functions of education; and latent (or secondary) functions, which are the hidden and unintended functions.
16.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Education
Functionalists view education as one of the more important social institutions in a society. They contend that education contributes two kinds of functi...
11.2 Sociological Perspectives on Education
Education serves several functions for society. These include (a) socialization, (b) social integration, (c) social placement, and (d) social and cultural innovation. Latent functions include child care, the establishment of peer relationships, and lowering unemployment by keeping high school students out of the full-time labor force.
Education as a Social Institution
Functions of Education as a Social Institution Education serves a number of important functions in society, including: Socialization: Education teaches individuals the norms, values, and beliefs of their culture. This helps individuals to become productive members of society and to develop a sense of shared identity.
Chapter 8: Sociology of Education: A Focus on Education as an Institution
Borman KM. Kerckhoff AC Series Ed and Corwin R Volume Ed. Review of recent case studies on equity and schooling. Research in sociology of education and socialization 1981;2 Greenwich, CT JAI Press, Inc 35-76 Google Scholar Boudon R. Education, opportunity and social inequality: Changing prospects in western society 1974 New York John Wiley & Sons
Sociological Perspectives on Education
Education serves several functions for society. These include (a) socialization, (b) social integration, (c) social placement, and (d) social and cultural innovation. Latent functions include child care, the establishment of peer relationships, and lowering unemployment by keeping high school students out of the full-time labor force.
Émile Durkheim: Father of the Sociology of Education
Abstract. The establishment of the sociology of education is attributed to Émile Durkheim, one of the founding fathers of sociology. Durkheim's fervent commitment to the sociological foundations of research methods and the inherent nature of education distinguish the sociological perspective on education from its counterparts in other social ...
PDF Education as a Social System: Present and Future Challenges
Abstract Education is usually considered as one of the most important social institutions. Since it builds the present and the future of each and every society, all the other institutions such as, family, politics, health, religion and economics would be meaningless and incomplete without it. As being the foremost instrument and power for creating the preferred and desired future, it is ...
Theoretical Perspectives on Education
Functionalists view education as an important social institution that contributes both manifest and latent functions. Functionalists see education as serving the needs of society by preparing students for later roles, or functions, in society.
Social Functions of Education
Social functions of Education refer to way in which education as one of the institutions of a society help the rest of the society. The social functions of education are discussed under four sub- headings namely; identity functions, economic functions, political functions and developmental functions. Download Free PDF.
The Effects of Education as an Institution
Education is usually seen as affecting society by socializing individuals. Recently this view has been attacked with the argument that education is a system of allocation, conferring success on some and failure on others. The polemic has obscured some of the interesing implications of allocation theory for socialization theory and for research on the effects of education. But allocation theory ...
Sociology of Education: A Focus on Education as an Institution
The distinction here is between education as "adaptive" agency, dependent upon other institutions and social forces society for its shape and form, and education as an "allocative" institution, acting independently to contribute to the structure of society.
SOC101: Introduction to Sociology (2020.A.01)
All of these social functions affect a community's structure, balance, and social fabric. Education is our third example of an institution that can be a social solution and a challenge.
Social Institutions in Sociology (Definition and Explanation)
Social Institutions are the structures that rules society. They are organizations or entities that reproduce the norms, expectations, and functions to meet the social needs of society. Examples of social institutions include family, government, religion, economy, and education. Social institutions are co-dependent and constantly interact with ...
Social institutions
After reading this Chapter, you should be able to: understand the concept of social institutions and why they are important to social scientists, understand and analyse how social institutions interact, their functions, and the ways in which they shape and govern our lives, develop a critical understanding of the state as an important social institution, and critically consider the role of the ...
An Overview of Education, Its Sociological Functions and The
In the historical process, education has been the constant focus of philosophical, sociological, political and economic debates. In this context, the main discussion area is how the objectives of ...
Exploring the Prominent Role of Social Institutions in Society
Family, religion, education, media and government in this article are considered major social institutions that play imperative roles in shaping social norms and values.
Educational System: The Meaning, Aspects and Social Functions of Education
ADVERTISEMENTS: Read this article to learn about Educational System: It's meaning, aspects and social functions! Education is indispensable to individual and society, for without it there would be loss of all the accumulated knowledge of the ages and all the standard of conduct. An individual must learn the culture of the society or the accepted […]
Fact check: What the Obamas and other Democratic speakers got right
Trump's education agenda also includes universal school choice, not spending federal dollars on schools that have vaccine mandates, allowing prayer in school, making principals directly elected ...
Designing learning with digital technologies: perspectives from
People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read.. Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine.. Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations. Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab.
Text of H.R. 9158: To require an institution of higher education that
To require an institution of higher education that becomes aware that a student having nonimmigrant status under subparagraph (F)(i) or (J) of section 101(a)(15) of the Immigration and Nationality Act (8 U.S.C. 1101(a)(15)) has endorsed or supported a foreign terrorist organization to notify the SEVIS, and for other purposes. 1.
Exploring the impact of generative AI-based technologies on ...
This study brings forward a model and hypothesis based on social cognitive theory and appropriate research. This investigation centers on how generative AI-based technologies influence students' learning performance in higher education (HE) institutions and the function of self-efficacy, fairness & ethics, creativity, and trust in promoting ...
That's My Opinion with Nana Ansah Kwao IV
That's My Opinion is live with Nana Ansah Kwao IV on Joy 99.7 FM. Now Discussing: Resetting Or Upgrading Kindly follow our Instagram page...
What Are Examples of Institutional Racism?
Institutional racism is everywhere, from healthcare to housing to education to employment. Examples of institutional racism include instances of police brutality, reduced funding for predominantly ...
RFK Jr. as Trump's health secretary? Here's what he wants to do
Robert F. Kennedy Jr., an anti-vaccine activist, appears to be angling for a Cabinet role. He has advocated dismantling core functions of federal health agencies.
UT System bars schools from making political, social issue statements
The UT System change comes at a time when higher education institutions are under scrutiny for if and how they should weigh in on international and national affairs after contentious debates over ...
Impact Rankings 2024: methodology
The Times Higher Education Impact Rankings are the only global performance tables that assess universities against the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals.We use carefully calibrated indicators to provide comprehensive and balanced comparisons across four broad areas: research, stewardship, outreach and teaching. Definitions of areas

Education as a Social Institution

Share this:

Recent Posts

Social Institutions in Sociology: Definition & Examples

Key Takeaways

What Are Social Institutions?

Social institutions have several key characteristics:

They also serve general functions, including:

Examples (and Functions)

What are Social Institutions in Sociology?

What is the role of a social institution?

Module 12: Education

Functionalism

Latent Functions

16.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Education

Functionalism

Manifest Functions

Latent Functions

Conflict Theory

Feminist Theory

Sociology in the Real World

Symbolic Interactionism

11.2 Sociological Perspectives on Education

The Functions of Education

Education and Inequality

Symbolic Interactionism and School Behavior

Applying Social Research

Key Takeaways

For Your Review

Education as a Social Institution

Functions of Education as a Social Institution

Challenges Facing Education in the 21st Century

Applied Sociology of Education

11.2 Sociological Perspectives on Education

The Functions of Education

Education and Inequality

Symbolic Interactionism and School Behavior

Applying Social Research

Key Takeaways

For Your Review

Theoretical Perspectives on Education

Functionalism

Manifest Functions

Latent Functions

Conflict Theory

Feminist Theory

Grade Inflation: When Is an A Really a C?

Symbolic Interactionism

Section Quiz

Short Answer

Further Research

Social Functions of Education

RELATED PAPERS

RELATED TOPICS

SOC101: Introduction to Sociology (2020.A.01)

4.1: Marriage and Family

4.2: Religion

4.3: Education

4.4: Government and Politics

4.5: Work and the Economy

4.6: Health and Medicine

Unit 4 Discussion and Assessment

Social Institutions in Sociology (Definition and Explanation)

Definition of Social Institutions

Common Social Institutions

5 Key Social Institutions in Sociology

2. Government

3. Religion

5. Education

Durkheim’s Theory of Social Institutions

Reference list

Leave a Comment Cancel Reply

4 Social institutions

What are social institutions?

Reflection exercise

The nation state

The Uluru Statement from the Heart

Religion as the ‘opium of the people’ (Marx)

Education as a social equaliser?

Work/The economy