food globalization essay

14.4 The Globalization of Food

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Describe the impacts of globalization on food and food diversity.
• Define food deserts and food oases.

Globalization of Food

Most people, when they think about food, consider it a local, individual choice based on personal preferences and economic possibilities. But food is a global commodity marketed by transnational corporations, health institutes, advertising campaigns, and subtle and not-so-subtle cultural messaging through global media such as movies, television, and online video. Most often, what people choose to eat is based on underlying structures that determine availability and cost. While there are now hothouse businesses growing year-round fruits and vegetables, affordability often prohibits everyone from having access to fresh, ripe foods. Instead, mainstream grocery stores most often stock foods imported across long distances. Most fruits and vegetables sold in the grocery store were harvested unripe (and often tasteless) so that they would last the days and weeks between harvesting and purchase.

In her work on food and globalization, anthropologist and food studies specialist Lynne Phillips points out the “crooked pathways” (2006, 38) that food takes to become a global commodity. Increasingly affected by transnational corporations, food today is marketed for endlessly higher profits. Food no longer goes simply from producer to consumer. There are many turns along the way.

Food globalization has numerous effects on our daily lives:

• The food chains from producers to consumers are increasingly fragile as a small number of transnational corporations provide the basic foods that we eat daily. Failures in this food chain might come from contamination during production or breaks in the supply chain due to climate crises, tariffs, or trade negotiations between countries. Our dependence on global food chains makes the food supply to our communities more vulnerable to disruption and scarcity.
• Our food cultures are less diverse and tend to revolve around a limited number of mass-produced meats or grains. With the loss of diversity, there is an accompanying loss not only of food knowledge but also of nutrition.
• As foods become more globalized, we are increasingly dependent on food additives to enhance the appearance and taste of foods and to ensure their preservation during the long journey from factory farm to table. We are also increasingly exposed to steroids, antibiotics, and other medicines in the meat we eat. This exposure poses health risks to large numbers of people.
• As plants and animals are subjected to ever more sophisticated forms of genetic engineering, there is an increasing monopoly on basic food items, allowing transnational companies to affect regulatory controls on food safety. As corporate laboratories develop patented seeds (such as the Monsanto Corporation’s genetically engineered corn) that are super-producers and able to withstand challenges such as harsh climate conditions and disease, growers become dependent on the seed sold by these corporations. No longer able to save seed from year to year, growers have little choice but to pay whatever price these corporations choose to charge for their genetic material.
• Factory farming of all types, but especially large-scale animal farms, are major contributors to global warming. Not only do they produce large amounts of water and air pollution and contribute to worldwide deforestation, but as more and more forest is turned into pasture, the sheer number of livestock contributes significant levels of greenhouse gases that lead to global warming. Worldwide, livestock account for around 14.5 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions (Quinton 2019).

Food has long been an international commodity, even during the 17th and 18th centuries, when traders sought spice and trade routes connecting Europe and Asia. Today, however, food has become transnational, with production sometimes spanning many different countries and fresh and processed foods moving long distances from their original harvest or production. Because these migrating foods must be harvested early or packaged with preservatives that we may not know or even be able to pronounce, there has been a parallel development in local food movements, organic food movements, and farm-to-table establishments as people see the dangers of food globalization. In the very popular The Omnivore’s Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals (2006), American author and food journalist Michael Pollan advocates that people should know the identity of the foods they eat and should make every effort to eat locally sourced products. Shortly after the book’s publication, chef and author Jessica Prentice coined the term locavore to refer to those who eat locally and know the origins of their foods. In 2007, locavore was chosen as the New Oxford American Dictionary word of the year.

Food Deserts and Oases

Worldwide, access to nutritious and affordable foods is growing increasingly unequal. Areas with inadequate or unreliable access to nutritious foods are sometimes called food deserts . Food deserts present serious challenges to health and wellness in multiple ways and have been linked to eating disorders, obesity, and malnutrition. In Western nations, food deserts frequently correspond to other areas of social inequality, such as low-income and minority communities. Reduced availability of healthy and economical food often exacerbates many of the challenges these communities face.

As the world population continues to grow ( currently at around 7.9 billion people ), climate change accelerates, and food production becomes more and more concentrated in the hands of a few corporations, access to food will become increasingly critical to our survival. The story of progress embraced by Western society tells us that globalization and agricultural developments have stabilized and secured our food chains, but anthropological studies of foragers suggest otherwise. Agricultural production is tied to access to arable land, clean water, stable climate, and a reliable workforce. Periodically, crops (and animals) fail due to disease, drought, and even disruption from warfare and extreme weather, leading to scarcity and famine in many parts of the world. In addition, as families and communities produce less and less of their own food and become more and more dependent on intermediaries to gain access to food, their vulnerabilities increase. While there are many differences between state societies and foragers, there are valuable lessons we can learn from them. Foragers, facing the same unstable conditions that we all face worldwide, have a more varied and flexible diet and are able to adjust their needs seasonally based on local availability. They eat locally, and they adjust their needs to what is available.

There are also food oases , areas that have high access to supermarkets and fresh foods, and these are growing in number. Some are in urban or suburban areas, and some are in rural areas where sustainable farming supports a local community or restaurant. In Harrodsburg, Kentucky, the Trustees’ Table serves food from the nearby Pleasant Hill Shaker gardens. Visitors to the Shaker site, a historic cloistered religious community, learn about the Shaker seed industry, plant varieties, and sustainable gardening techniques at Shaker Farm, then walk down to the Trustees’ Table to have a farm-to-table meal. The seasonal menu features local Kentucky dishes that would have been common fare during the period of Shaker occupation (1805–1910), such as garlic potatoes, warm or cold salads, vegetable pot pies, and apple pie. By utilizing the foods raised in the nearby gardens, the Trustees’ Table serves as a legacy restaurant that helps preserve and sustain Shaker research and farming on-site.

In Richmond, Virginia, an organization called Real Local RVA was founded in 2014 as a grassroots local food movement to support businesses and residential areas in the downtown area of the city. It expresses its core value as “collaboration over competition.” The group sponsors monthly meetings, local farm tours, and community events highlighting businesses and prominent figures in the local food movement. The participants are all farmers, independent grocers, or local restaurants that source local ingredients and products as part of their mission. Besides advocating for small farms and independent businesses, Real Local RVA also sponsors workshops and education on sustainable farming, does joint marketing and “storytelling” about its partnership and the values of local food networks, and provide a recognizable brand to identify participating members for the wider urban community.

Although local food movements are increasingly popular, most still primarily operate in more affluent areas. As we develop more of these healthy initiatives, we also must expand the zones in which they operate, especially in cities, to include all of our neighbors and neighborhoods. Food and sociality go hand in hand. As Michael Pollan writes, “The shared meal elevates eating from a mechanical process of fueling the body to a ritual of family and community, from mere animal biology to an act of culture” (2008, 192).

The study of food in anthropology is important for many reasons. Food reveals cultural identities and physical vulnerabilities, and it helps build social networks and mark important life events. How often eating is prescribed, what foods are considered appropriate, who cooks, who serves whom, and what foods are most and least valued all vary across cultures. As anthropologists seek to understand human cultures, food is often a centerpiece ingredient in knowing who we are.

Mini-Fieldwork Activity

Food memories.

Food plays an important role in long-term memory, as it is linked to smell, taste, and texture and often is a central feature of social functions, whether they be family dinners or holiday feasts. In this project, you will interview two individuals who are likely to have different food memories than you; they may be older, they may be living in a different part of the country (or world), or they may have lived part of their lives in a specific environment (rural or urban) that is different from yours. Ask each person to share with you stories about special holiday meals prepared and served as part of their family life, whether as a child or an adult. What foods do they most identify with specific holidays? How did they prepare and consume those foods? Were there specific gender roles during the preparation and holiday meals? After collecting and writing up what you have learned, what conclusions can you make about the role of food in human social and cultural life?

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How has cultural globalization influenced food over the years?

Cultural globalization, driven by advancements in technology and communication, has had a profound impact on the way we eat and experience food around the world. It has transformed culinary traditions, expanded our culinary horizons, and fostered a more diverse food culture. Let’s delve deeper into how cultural globalization has influenced food over the years.

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In this article:

The Influence of Cultural Globalization on Food

**Cultural Exchange:** Cultural globalization has facilitated the exchange of culinary traditions, ingredients, and cooking techniques among different cultures. Through migration, travel, and international trade, cultures have borrowed, incorporated, and blended ingredients and culinary practices from various regions.

**Fusion Cuisine:** Cultural globalization has given rise to a phenomenon known as fusion cuisine. Chefs and home cooks have begun fusing ingredients and cooking styles from different cultures, creating unique and exciting flavor combinations.

**Availability of International Ingredients:** Cultural globalization has expanded the availability of international ingredients. Supermarkets now stock a wide range of ingredients from different corners of the globe, allowing people to experiment with diverse flavors, spices, and ingredients that were previously difficult to access.

**Globalized Food Chains:** The rise of globalized fast-food chains has significantly influenced food consumption patterns. Their standardized menus have become a common sight in many countries, giving people a taste of international cuisine. This homogenization of food options has both positive and negative effects on local culinary traditions.

**Increased Cultural Awareness:** Cultural globalization has sparked curiosity and interest in different cultures’ cuisines. People are now more aware and appreciative of the culinary heritage of other nations, leading to the popularity of ethnic restaurants, food festivals, and food tourism.

**Health Implications:** The influence of cultural globalization on food is not solely limited to culinary traditions. It has also impacted food choices and dietary preferences. Shifts in eating patterns, influenced by global food trends, can have both positive and negative health implications.

**Cultural Preservation:** While cultural globalization can lead to the homogenization of food, it also emphasizes the importance of preserving traditional culinary practices. Many cultures actively strive to protect and promote their indigenous recipes, cooking techniques, and local ingredients in the face of globalization.

**Innovation:** Cultural globalization has given rise to culinary innovation as chefs and food enthusiasts experiment with ingredients and techniques from different cultures. This cross-pollination of culinary ideas has led to the creation of new dishes, flavors, and dining experiences.

**Food Democracy:** Cultural globalization empowers individuals to explore and appreciate food from different cultures. It breaks down cultural and geographical barriers, making it easier for people to access and learn about a diverse range of cuisines.

**Food Trends:** Cultural globalization has accelerated the spread of food trends, making them more global and accessible. Whether it’s avocado toast, sushi burritos, or matcha lattes, food trends can quickly cross borders and become popular worldwide.

**Sustainable Food Practices:** Cultural globalization has encouraged the adoption of sustainable food practices. As people become more informed about the impact of their food choices on the environment, they are embracing sustainable farming, farm-to-table movements, and reducing food waste on a global scale.

**Culinary Tourism:** Cultural globalization has given rise to culinary tourism. Increasingly, people travel to experience the vibrant food scenes of different countries, allowing them to immerse themselves in the local cuisine and create lasting food memories.

Frequently Asked Questions:

1. has cultural globalization led to the disappearance of traditional dishes.

Cultural globalization has both promoted the dissemination of traditional dishes and endangered some local cuisines due to the dominance of globalized food options.

2. How has cultural globalization affected food authenticity?

Cultural globalization has led to the blending of culinary traditions, challenging notions of food authenticity. While some purists argue that fusion cuisine dilutes authenticity, it also creates exciting new culinary experiences.

3. What challenges does cultural globalization pose for local farmers?

Cultural globalization introduces competition from imported ingredients, affecting local farmers’ livelihoods. However, it also provides opportunities for them to diversify their production and cater to new consumer demands.

4. Is cultural globalization responsible for the rise of food-related diseases?

Cultural globalization has influenced dietary choices, which can contribute to the rise of food-related diseases like obesity. However, it has also promoted the exchange of knowledge about healthy eating and alternative culinary practices.

5. How has cultural globalization impacted traditional cooking techniques?

Cultural globalization has introduced new cooking techniques from different cultures, expanding culinary repertoires and encouraging experimentation in traditional cooking methods.

6. What role does cultural globalization play in food innovations?

Cultural globalization encourages the exchange of culinary ideas, leading to innovative food creations and inspiring chefs to push culinary boundaries.

7. What are the positive impacts of cultural globalization on food diversity?

Cultural globalization has fostered food diversity by introducing a wide range of ingredients, flavors, and cooking styles, allowing people to explore and appreciate different culinary traditions.

8. How has cultural globalization affected traditional holiday and festive foods?

Cultural globalization has influenced traditional holiday and festive foods, with people incorporating new flavors and dishes from different cultures into their celebratory meals.

9. Has cultural globalization improved or harmed local food industries?

Cultural globalization can have mixed impacts on local food industries. While it can create new opportunities by tapping into global markets, it also poses challenges due to increased competition and the domination of multinational food companies.

10. How has cultural globalization affected the perception of exotic foods?

Cultural globalization has normalized the consumption of exotic foods, breaking down cultural barriers and leading to greater acceptance and appreciation of diverse culinary experiences.

11. What is the future of food in the era of cultural globalization?

The future of food in the era of cultural globalization is likely to be more interconnected and diverse. It will continue to evolve as people embrace new culinary influences and address the challenges of sustainability and cultural preservation.

12. Can cultural globalization contribute to fostering cultural understanding and empathy?

Cultural globalization has the potential to foster cultural understanding and empathy by promoting awareness and appreciation of different culinary traditions, encouraging dialogue, and breaking down cultural stereotypes

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About Melissa T. Jackson

Melissa loves nothing more than a good dinner party and spends weeks intricately planning her next 'event.' The food must be delicious, the wine and cocktails must be the perfect match, and the decor has to impress without being over the top. It's a wonder that she gets any time to write about her culinary adventures. She particularly loves all types of fusion cooking, mixing the best of different food cultures to make interesting and unique dishes. Melissa lives in New York with her boyfriend Joe and their poodle, Princess.

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2018-2019 Issues , 2018-2019 Issues , Move , Print

Globalization of American Fast-Food Chains: the Pinnacle of Effective Management and Adaptability

April 8, 2019

Featured image:  McDonald’s named one of its products after the Turkish population.

By Rada Pavlova

[dropcap]A[/dropcap]merica’s national cuisine has never been strictly defined. When we talk about American food, we talk about hamburgers, hotdogs, fries: foods that have been purposefully made to suit everyone’s taste. There are no exotic spices, risky recipes, or unconventional combinations of ingredients. American food does not have any exceptional characteristics, and still, it has managed to take over some of the most renowned cuisines in the food world. What drives Western food industry’s global success if not the uniqueness and quality of its products?

Most of us are already aware of the immense popularity that companies like McDonalds and KFC have gained over the past few decades. What is interesting, however, is how nonselective they are in their expansionist approaches. Such chains have found a way to thrive on any land they step on and in any culture they enter. From Western Europe through the Middle East and all the way to East Asia, fast-food companies have taken less than 30 years to establish themselves as the dominant power in the food market. The massive trend of globalization that the world has experienced in recent times is well reflected in the globalization of food, but what does it take for these globalizing economies to become so successful abroad?

The interior of the McDonald’s restaurant located on Champs-Élysées.

It takes “glocalization” – a process of adapting to local demands and preferences while also operating on the global scene. The term “glocalization” originated in Japan, where it was used to describe the agricultural practice of adapting to local conditions. However, it has recently been re-adopted by business people and has been used to challenge the simplicity of a simple globalization strategy. “Glocalization” brings the process of international expansion to a higher level. It encaptures the success of worldwide businesses who have managed to adapt to foreign cultures and societies; the most familiar example is the American fast-food industry.

Western companies have taken pride in their ability to acclimate to distant parts of the world. Coca-Cola’s personal statement, “We are not multinational, we are multilocal,” is reflective of American fast-food chains’ pursuit of transnational integration. They portray their goal not to be introducing American food to the foreign cuisine, but rather introducing the foreign cuisine to American food. Products are designed specifically to appeal to local tastes by taking into account various cultural factors – religious beliefs, traditions, gender roles, folklore, etc. Companies wish to counteract people’s doubtful approach towards unfamiliar foods, practices and cultures by showing that they are there to adapt rather than enforce change. Such notions appear a bit idealistic, and fast-food chains’ presence in non-Western cultures in the past few decades has shown that adaptation is not one-sided but, instead, is working both ways.

Companies like McDonalds, KFC, and Dunkin Donuts have become an integral part of places with no previous exposure to the Western world. Such success stories require deep understanding of local tastes and preferences. Fast-food chains face the challenge of making hamburgers and french fries appear more attractive than the food people had been eating their whole life. Western food companies have now broken into the three most renowned cuisines in the world – Turkish, French and Chinese. A royal kitchen, long dynastical history, and access to fresh ingredients and various spices are among the reasons these countries turned into culinary giants. Their fame is built on their cuisine’s unique identity and the variety of cooking techniques – the complete opposite of what defines American fast-food. And still the merge of those two – a traditional, extraordinary flavor and a generic, all-appealing taste — seems to produce the biggest success.

Due to the country’s rich history and the various migrations of its people throughout the years, Turkish cuisine has become the epitome of multiculturalism. The combination of Turk, Ottoman, Arabic, Greek, and Persian influences has resulted in a diversity of ingredients and flavors which characterize the Turkish kebabs, meze, dolmas, and pastries. One of the most important reasons that Turkey is a world culinary giant is the country’s access to fresh fruits, vegetables, meats, and other foods. Thus, a game-changing glocalizing strategy for the McDonald’s restaurants, which started opening doors on Turkish territory in the 80s, has been the switch to purchasing products from local food suppliers. Between the years 2000 and 2016, the fast-food company’s profits in the country increased more than 10 times, along with a 25% increase in locally supplied ingredients. Moreover, in 2000 McDonald’s menu incorporated a only one Turkish dish; by 2016, there were eight dishes. Such change was triggered by the downfall of the chain’s business in the year 2002, when 60 of its restaurants were forced to shut down due to a major decrease in demand.

Mangal and Kofte Burger are among the most popular glocalized foods that McDonald’s has introduced on the Turkish market. The creation of those products portrays the globalization of the concept of an American burger and the localization of its individual components. A marketing strategy of this kind assures the consumer that Western chains can be a perfect fit for the local cuisine. According to Mehmed Can Olgac, a first-year student from Turkey, fast-food has even managed to escape restaurant places and enter one’s house. Turkish supermarkets started selling frozen burger patties for people to prepare at home. When asked whether American food suits the Turkish cuisine, only 20% of the participants in the survey conducted answered with a definite “No” compared to 56% who said “Yes.”

The integration of Western fast-food chains into the non-Western world has not been welcomed by all nations. Unlike the Turkish population, the majority of the French population perceives the immense popularity of American companies as a threat to the country’s identity. France has long taken pride in its cuisine; French dining memorializes specific recipes and dining habits that have been passed down from generation to generation. In France, children become the subject of “palate” training, an appreciation for high-quality food, as early as the age of three. Building proper eating habits is an integral part of one’s upbringing. Characteristic of French food etiquette is the tendency to set aside long periods of time for individual meals. Thus, the whole nature of French dining has been reformed by the newly arisen possibility of grabbing a quick, affordable, and very low-effort lunch from the nearest “viennoiserie” (bakery). The French created their own version of fast-food corners where one could either sit in or walk away with a baguette sandwich in hand. Such places set the scene for what was to be introduced by Western economies in the 80s.

With the appearance and growing abundance of American fast-food chains in Paris, the goal of marketing strategies was not only to integrate French products into the American menu, but also to make Western companies appear as the most local of all. French people express extreme pride in their heritage and rich culture. Thus, any foreign influence would generally be rejected. Taking this into account, advertising techniques of Western food chains were designed to appeal to as many characteristics of French cuisine as possible – from the love of salads to the resentment of genetically modified food. When asked about what lies behind the global success of fast-food chains, Professor Olav Sorenson from the School of Management acknowledged the industry’s effort to sell the image of America abroad. The way the American image was presented, however, was not as a distant unfamiliar concept but rather as a part of the local world. McDonald’s created the slogan “McDonald’s. Born in the USA. Made in France” to show the public that the two places can go hand in hand.

Introducing the McRoyale and Filet-o-Fish turned out to be insufficient, and new techniques were adopted to imitate the French atmosphere. Fast-food chains revolutionized the whole interior space of their restaurants, integrating works of art as wall decor and switching traditional pieces of furniture to unconventional ones. One of McDonald’s franchisees in Toulouse replaced the normal bar stools with bicycle seats to appeal to the French sense of aesthetics. Later on, the American chain went as far as to switch its most distinctive and representative figure, Ronald McDonald, to the French comic character “Asterix.” Such fundamental changes to the company’s character is proof of its determination to do whatever it takes to reach success on the global scene, putting no limits to its marketing enterprises.

The growth of Western companies in China is an example of the two-sided process of adaptation and localization when it comes to expansion abroad. On the one hand, a lot of McDonald’s and KFC’s marketing strategies aimed at addressing current trends in the Chinese society. The image of cleanliness and high levels of hygiene that such companies brought from the West was a major factor in their initial popularity. Domestic businesses in China did not pay attention to the experience they provide their customers. Hongxi Yang, a medical graduate exchange student from China, reports that the difference between the two is seen even in the packages which were used for takeout food. Moreover, Western fast-food restaurants were choosing much more strategic locations, and their close proximity to populated business areas made them more convenient for the white-collar worker.

The good service and friendly environment made Chinese families pick restaurants such as KFC when they went out. With the enforcement of the one-child policy, children became the focus of attention in Chinese society. Following this trend, Western fast-food chains redesigned their marketing strategies to target parents, and the youth became their highest priority customers. KFC restaurants renovated the space to include smaller chairs and lower counters; they introduced playground areas and started offering the option of birthday celebrations. The company also collaborated with schools to cater during sporting events and came up with the idea of using “Chicky” – a chicken kids character – as its Chinese mascot.

A birthday celebration with Chicky in a Chinese KFC restaurant.

Despite the various Chinese characteristics that fast-food chains adopted to succeed in the local environment, their image remained primarily Western, causing significant cultural changes among the population. Local customers lost a part of their Chinese identity as they experienced major shifts in dietary habits. Chopsticks were no longer the primary eating tool, snacks took over proper meals, and leaving right after one is finished eating slowly became the norm. The growth of Western economies homogenized Chinese culture to the extent that it introduced global dietary standards that have been unfamiliar before; at the same time, they heterogenized global products to fit Chinese preferences. Is food globalization a form of cultural imperialism?  It’s hard to say.

The success of fast-food chains abroad and the marketing techniques used to appeal to the local population show a great understanding of what customers desire. Companies created products that were the perfect mixture of the glamorous image of the Western world and the traditional cuisine. Restaurant spaces were designed to reflect the local taste and, at the same time, provide what local industries could not. Advertisements aimed at presenting global companies as fully suiting the local environments, and the immense fame they gained, proves the notion that one piece, with slight alterations, can fit all. Whether globalization of food industries brought cultures together or simply allowed America to enter all other cultures and leave a permanent mark is a difficult question. Homogenization of eating habits and cuisines has been the natural result of the emerging transnational business practices. It is plausible that years from now, there will not be any distinguished culinary giants, but rather one global cuisine – a melting pot of culinary influences from all across the Earth. Each country will then have to adapt to the global eating culture, instead of the other way around.

Rada Pavlola is a first-year in Pauli Murray. You can contact her at [email protected].

News from the Columbia Climate School

Future of Food: Exploring Challenges to Global Food Systems

Mahak Agrawal

Food is fuel to human existence, and in the evolution of human settlements, food— its production, availability, demand and supply — and food systems have steered the development, expansion and decline of human settlements.

In the 21st century, global food systems face dual challenges of increasing food demand while competing for resources — such as land, water, and energy — that affect food supply. In context of climate change and unpredictable shocks, such as a global pandemic, the need for resiliency in global food systems has become more pressing than ever.

With the globalization of food systems in 1950s, the global food production and associated trade has witnessed a sustained growth, and continues to be driven by advancements in transport and communications, reduction in trade barriers and agricultural tariffs. But, the effectiveness of global food system is undermined by two key challenges: waste and nutrition.

Food wastage is common across all stages of the food chain. Nearly 13.8% of food is lost in supply chains — from harvesting to transport to storage to processing. However, limited research and scientific understanding of price elasticity of food waste makes it tough to evaluate how food waste can be reduced with pricing strategy.

When food is wasted, so are the energy, land, and resources that were used to create it . Nearly 23% of total anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions between 2007-2016 were derived from agriculture, forestry and other land uses. Apart from cultivation and livestock rearing, agriculture also adds emissions through land clearance for cultivation. Overfishing, soil erosion, and depletion and deterioration of aquifers threaten food security. At the same time, food production faces increasing risks from climate change — particularly droughts, increasing frequency of storms, and other extreme weather events.

The world has made significant progress in reducing hunger in the past 50 years. Yet there are nearly 800 million people without access to adequate food. Additionally, two billion people are affected by hidden hunger wherein people lack key micronutrients such as iron, zinc, vitamin A and iodine. Apart from nutrient deficiency, approximately two billion people are overweight and affected by chronic conditions such as type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases.

In essence, the global food system is inadequate in delivering the changing and increasing demands of the human population. The system requires an upgrade that takes into account the social-cultural interactions, changing diets, increasing wealth and wealth gap, finite resources, challenges of inequitable access, and the needs of the disadvantaged who spend the greatest proportion of their income on food. To feed the projected 10 billion people by 2050, it is essential to increase and stabilize global food trade and simultaneously align the food demand and supply chains across different geographies and at various scales of space and time.

Back in 1798, Thomas Robert Malthus, in his essay on the principle of population, concluded that “ the power of population is so superior to the power of the earth to produce subsistence for man, that premature death must come in some shape or other visit the human race .” Malthus projected that short-term gains in living standards would eventually be undermined as human population growth outstripped food production, thereby pushing back living standards towards subsistence.

Malthus’ projections were based on a model where population grew geometrically, while food production increased arithmetically. While Malthus emphasized the importance of land in population-food production dynamics, he understated the role of technology in augmenting total production and family planning in reducing fertility rates. Nonetheless, one cannot banish the Malthusian specter; food production and population are closely intertwined. This close relationship, however, is also affected by changing and improving diets in developing countries and biofuel production — factors that increase the global demand for food and feed.

Around the world, enough food is produced to feed the planet and provide 3,000 calories of nutritious food to each human being every day. In the story of global food systems once defined by starvation and death to now feeding the world, there have been a few ratchets — technologies and innovations that helped the human species transition from hunters and gatherers to shoppers in a supermarket . While some of these ratchets have helped improve and expand the global food systems, some create new opportunities for environmental damage.

To sum it up, the future of global food systems is strongly interlinked to the planning, management and development of sustainable, equitable and healthy food systems delivering food and nutrition security for all. A bundle of interventions and stimulus packages are needed at both the supply and demand ends to feed the world in the present as well as the future — sustainably, within the planetary boundaries defining a safe operating space for humanity. It requires an intersectoral policy analysis, multi-stakeholder engagement — involving farms, retailers, food processors, technology providers, financial institutions, government agencies, consumers — and interdisciplinary actions.

This blog post is based on an independent study — Future of Food: Examining the supply-demand chains feeding the world — led by Mahak Agrawal in fall 2020 under the guidance of Steven Cohen.

Mahak Agrawal is a medical candidate turned urban planner, exploring innovative, implementable, impactful solutions for pressing urban-regional challenges in her diverse works. Presently, she is studying environmental science and policy at Columbia University as a Shardashish Interschool Fellow and SIPA Environmental Fellow. In different capacities, Mahak has worked with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Town and Country Planning Organization-Government of India, Institute of Transport Economics, Oslo. In 2019, she founded Spatial Perspectives as an initiative that uses the power of digital storytelling and open data to dismantle myths and faulty perspectives associated with spaces around the world. In her spare time, Mahak creates sustainable artwork to tell tales of environmental crisis.

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I’m doing an assignment on food production, ad I just happened to come across this article! Wow, what a lucky find! I’m going to use it for some information in my paragraphs.

it’s more better to have new fruits and reduce human and other thing more thing that you can do.

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The Globalization of Food Culture

The Academy of International Business brings together eminent educators and researchers from across the world, people who love engaging with cultures other than their own–to do business, to conduct research, or simply to enjoy the diversity of the world. A key means through which we explore cultures is food. Eating forms an essential part of many cultures, and sharing a meal with visitors from afar is an important ritual to lower the liability of foreignness, to facilitate business and the starting point for many wonderful friendships. ...

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• Published: 20 February 2019

Economic globalization, nutrition and health: a review of quantitative evidence

• Soledad Cuevas García-Dorado   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4897-5240 2 , 4 ,
• Laura Cornselsen 1 , 2 ,
• Richard Smith 3 &
• Helen Walls 1 , 2  

Globalization and Health volume  15 , Article number:  15 ( 2019 ) Cite this article

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Unhealthy dietary patterns have in recent decades contributed to an endemic-level burden from non-communicable disease (NCDs) in high-income countries. In low- and middle-income countries rapid changes in diets are also increasingly linked to malnutrition in all its forms as persistent undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies continue to coexist with a rising prevalence of obesity and associated NCDs. Economic globalization and trade liberalization have been identified as potentially important factors driving these trends, but the mechanisms, pathways and actual impact are subject to continued debate.

We use a ‘rigorous review’ to synthesize evidence from empirical quantitative studies analysing the links between economic globalization processes and nutritional outcomes, with a focus on impact as well as improving the understanding of the main underlying mechanisms and their interactions.

While the literature remains mixed regarding the impacts of overall globalization, trade liberalization or economic globalization on nutritional outcomes, it is possible to identify different patterns of association and impact across specific sub-components of globalization processes. Although results depend on the context and methods of analysis, foreign direct investment (FDI) appears to be more clearly associated with increases in overnutrition and NCD prevalence than to changes in undernutrition. Existing evidence does not clearly show associations between trade liberalization and NCD prevalence, but there is some evidence of a broad association with improved dietary quality and reductions in undernutrition. Socio-cultural aspects of globalization appear to play an important yet under-studied role, with potential associations with increased prevalence of overweight and obesity. The limited evidence available also suggests that the association between trade liberalization or globalization and nutritional outcomes might differ substantially across population sub-groups.

Overall, our findings suggest that policymakers do not necessarily face a trade-off when considering the implications of trade or economic liberalization for malnutrition in all its forms. On the contrary, a combination of nutrition-sensitive trade policy and adequate regulation of FDI could help reduce all forms of malnutrition. In the context of trade negotiations and agreements it is fundamental, therefore, to protect the policy space for governments to adopt nutrition-sensitive interventions.

Introduction

International trade as a proportion of global GDP has almost doubled since the beginning of the 1970s, and now represents almost 60% of world GDP [ 1 ]. This increased exchange of goods and services has occurred as part of a wider process of globalization, encompassing inter-related economic, social and cultural components [ 2 ]. Trade policies and globalization processes are deeply transforming societies, shaping political institutions, economic and social relationships, modes of production, consumption patterns and lifestyles. These structural factors are increasingly recognized as important drivers of nutrition and health outcomes [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. In particular, trade reforms and liberalization have often been linked to both under-nutrition and the rapid rise in overweight and obesity and spread of diet-related non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) [ 6 , 7 ]. Traditionally considered a problem of high-income countries, the burden of overweight, obesity and diet-related NCDs has in recent years greatly increased in LMICs, which already account for more than 80% of deaths from NCDs worldwide [ 8 ]. Increased prevalence of overweight, obesity and NCDs, however, often coexists with persistent undernutrition and micronutrient deficiency, leading to what is known as a double (or triple) burden of malnutrition [ 9 ].

Debate on the links between trade liberalization and nutrition can be traced back to the controversial implementation of structural adjustment programmes by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) in the 1980s [ 10 , 11 ] . Following the international food crisis in 2008 and in the context of the growing obesity “epidemic”, however, this issue has gained renewed attention from researchers and policy-makers. This has led to the recent surge of publications that approach the issue, and increasingly so from different angles, providing new and updated evidence on the subject.

Several recent reviews have mapped the pathways between trade agreements and food-related aspects of public health, including related to food environments [ 12 ], and the nutrition transition [ 13 ]. Studies have synthesized existing evidence of the impacts of agricultural trade liberalization on food security in LMICs [ 14 ], and analysed the effect of trade and investment liberalization on prevalence of NCDs in Asia [ 15 ]. There is a wide variation in terms of quality and design of the studies included in these reviews, ranging from case-studies to quantitative multi-country and natural experimental designs. In addition, Barlow et al. [ 16 ] recently published a more general review of quantitative studies analysing the impact of regional trade agreements on major health risk factors and outcomes, including some evidence on nutrition-related outcomes.

To our knowledge, however, there has not been a systematic analysis and synthesis of the empirical evidence on the associations between economic globalization and liberalization processes and nutrition outcomes. This review complements the existing evidence, through the use of a ‘rigorous review’ methodology as described by Hagen-Zanker and Mallett [ 17 ] to undertake analysis of studies quantifying the relationship between economic globalization and nutritional outcomes including under and overnutrition and incorporating new, relevant evidence not covered by previous reviews. The specific focus on malnutrition in all its forms is in line with recent literature calling for integrated approaches to address the growing double (or triple) burden of malnutrition [ 18 , 19 ]. Malnutrition in all its forms is understood to include undernutrition, micronutrient deficiencies, overweight and obesity and related NCDs [ 20 ]. This approach allows us also to explore evidence of the overlapping processes of dietary convergence-divergence that take place as food systems become increasingly integrated.

Conceptual framework

Jenkins (2004) describes globalization as “a process of greater integration within the world economy, through movements of goods and services, capital, technology and (to a lesser extent) labour, which leads increasingly to economic decisions being influenced by global conditions” [ 21 ]. This definition focuses on economic globalization, concerned with changes taking place to world trade and investment, but adopting the view that economic forces underlie and shape the overall globalization process, connecting what are sometimes described as different aspects of globalization, including socio-cultural changes and information flows [ 2 ].

We have developed a framework, shown in Fig.  1 , to conceptualise the relationships between globalization, nutrition and related health outcomes. The framework, informed by existing theoretical works and published conceptual frameworks, ([ 2 , 4 , 6 , 12 , 22 ]) includes the main sub-components of globalization and the trade and investment policies underpinning the process. It depicts the impact of globalization processes on nutrition outcomes as linked through changes in food systems and food environments, as well as through impacts on national policy and regulatory space, and through the transformation of broader socio-economic factors. Socio-economic factors also play an important role as mediators of the effect of food environment changes, resulting in heterogeneous effects across population sub-groups. Before proceeding to a description of the method used and our study findings, we will briefly describe each of the domains in Fig. 1 , as they relate to the wider framework.

Conceptual framework of the relationship between globalization, nutrition and related health outcomes. Synthesised based on the frameworks of [ 2 , 12 , 14 ]

International trade and food environments

This pathway is shown at the top and to the right in our conceptual framework. International trade is generally understood to encompass the exchange of both goods and services across countries. Although most of the papers included in this review tend to focus their discussion on trade in goods rather than services, perhaps implicitly assuming more relevant linkages between trade in goods and dietary and nutrition outcomes, many use composite indices that include trade in services, such as the economic component of the KOF index for globalization or its sub-components. Footnote 1

The creation of a global market for food products has important effects on the availability and prices of food commodities. On the production side, global markets encourage specialization in export crops, which tends to create economies of scale in agricultural and food production, leading to increased global output, but also to homogenization in the availability of food products [ 7 , 23 , 24 ]. On the demand side, countries can increase their access to a variety of goods through imports, including essential foodstuffs [ 25 ] and healthy foods [ 26 ] as well as potentially unhealthy processed and ultra-processed products [ 27 , 28 ]. The relationship between international trade and food prices is complex. Access to international commodity markets can reduce food price volatility by diminishing the effect of local shocks. However, it increases the exposure to global demand instability, as well as to volatility in the “terms of trade” for highly specialized countries [ 29 ]. On average, trade openness has been found to lower the relative price of calorie-dense foods and animal feed [ 30 ].

Foreign direct investment

Foreign direct investment (FDI) is an investment by which a foreign company acquires control over a (new or pre-existing) business. This is to distinguish FDI from portfolio investments where investors are not involved in or have control over the day to day operations of a business [ 31 ] Like trade, FDI is also thought to play an important role in transforming food systems. It is FDI, rather than trade, that is considered to be the currently preferred method for Transnational Food Companies (TFC) to enter new markets for processed foods, allowing multinationals to advertise and market their products more efficiently, creating a demand while, simultaneously, adapting to consumer characteristics [ 32 ].

Both FDI and advertising are also thought to lead to indirect effects on nutrition; increasing competition among local firms and increasing the demand not only for the marketed brand, but for the whole category, be it snacks, ice-cream or “diet” and “wellness” products [ 6 ]. Additionally, retail and marketing strategies contribute to market segmentation, which is believed to lead to a divergence in dietary patterns within countries, even as diets converge across countries. [ 6 , 33 , 34 ].

Sociocultural aspects of globalization

Increased global flows of information (and people) can transform cultural norms, social relations, and consumption patterns. The spread of communication technology and infrastructure makes it possible for information to be shared more widely and faster, but it does not in itself explain the content, influence and directionality of the information exchange. These are thought to be driven by economic forces operating through the expansion of large multinationals in media, communications and marketing [ 35 ]. The globalization of marketing and promotion, aided by the expansion of TFC and global marketing companies, are thought to play an important role in the integration of food markets, changing consumption patterns, and creation of a demand for new products and brands [ 36 ].

Policy and regulatory space

The creation of progressively integrated global markets is underpinned by trade and investment agreements and policies. The World Trade Organization (WTO) remains the main international organization responsible for the global rules of trade between countries. Footnote 2 Since the early 1990s however, an increasing number of regional and bilateral trade agreements have been negotiated outside of the WTO system. Footnote 3 These agreements frequently reflect power imbalances between participating countries, can be heavily influenced by the interests of multinational companies and can have deep impacts on domestic policy [ 37 , 38 ]. The inclusion of mechanisms for investor-state dispute settlement, whereby companies can directly sue states, is an example of the new ways in which this “new generation” of agreements can reduce the capacity of governments to implement health-oriented regulation that might lead to reduced profits for foreign investors [ 15 , 39 , 40 ]. Some authors have specifically argued that trade and investment agreements can negatively affect nutritional outcomes by directly reducing the regulatory and policy space for health-promoting initiatives [ 40 , 41 ] . We have found a small number of studies that quantitatively analysed aspects of political globalization alongside measures of economic dimensions. However, these are very partial and non-specific measures of the potential impacts of trade agreements on the policy space. It is important to bear in mind that some of the most influential literature on this topic [ 39 , 41 ] is qualitative and was not included in this review as our focus is specifically on quantitative studies. This literature, however, does suggest that the impact of restrictions to the policy space, associated with trade liberalization processes, should not be underestimated, as it can curtail the capacity of governments to protect public health [ 42 ].

Interaction with socioeconomic drivers of nutrition

Market integration and trade and investment agreements not only affect nutrition outcomes through their impacts on the food sector. Globalization processes deeply transform all aspects of society, in ways which can indirectly affect nutrition outcomes. Globalization has been found to be associated with GDP and income growth [ 43 , 44 ], but also to increased income inequality [ 45 ], as well as to [ 46 ] urbanization [ 47 , 48 ]. According to some authors, globalization has also been associated with a deterioration in labour standards and conditions [ 49 ], coupled with a transition towards sedentary and “knowledge-based” work [ 50 ] while, for others, integration in the global economy increases the returns to labour, encouraging larger investments in health [ 51 ]. Although some mechanisms are better understood than others, all of these structural socioeconomic changes have been linked to changes in dietary patterns and should be taken into account when assessing the links between globalization and nutrition outcomes.

Methodological approach

Systematic review methods have recently been subject to criticism regarding their inflexible application to social sciences. Critics have pointed out the considerable degree of subjectivity in the interpretation, definition and use of concepts in social sciences, as well as the importance of context, which is often ignored in traditional systematic reviews [ 17 , 52 ]. Similar arguments have been made specifically concerning reviews in public health [ 53 , 54 ]. Considering this, we undertook a ‘rigorous review’, following the core principles listed in Hagen-Zanker and Mallet [ 17 ] as guidance on conducting rigorous, evidence-focused literature reviews in international development. Thus, we adhered to the principles of rigour, transparency and replicability at the core of the systematic literature review process, but followed a process that also allows for flexibility and reflexivity [ 17 ] . Importantly, in our analysis we acknowledge the subjectivity in interpretation of concepts and thus emphasise the importance of context in the interpretation of the studies and their significance for policy-making. Furthermore, our focus is on “how” social change works, rather than on “what” the impact of any policy or process is.

The rigorous review approach has also allowed us to classify the included articles according to relevant criteria (see Table  2 ), facilitating a structured analysis and discussion of the findings in the literature.

We searched for studies containing terms related to economic globalization, trade and investment liberalization, food and food environments, and nutrition and related health outcomes as well as terms related to quantitative research methods. We conducted this search in five databases (Web of Science, Scopus, Global Health, EconLit and MEDLINE) and several institutional websites, including WHO, WTO, UNCTAD, IFPRI and USAID. We complemented this with a general search on Google and Google Scholar. Searches were carried out in March-2017. We checked the reference lists of articles selected for full text review for further relevant publications.

The references were screened by two authors and any disagreements were resolved through discussion. In the first round of screening, potentially relevant articles were selected based on the general focus of the study as judged by the title and abstract. In the second round, relevant references were screened based on inclusion criteria, described in Table  1 . Figure  2 shows the document flow and the number of references retrieved in the different stages of the search and screening process [ 6 ]. An additional Contains assessment criteria provides further detail of the search strategy [see Additional file  1 ].

Document flow diagram

Inclusion criteria

Detailed explanation of inclusion criteria is provided in Table 1 . The criteria take into account the overall focus of the paper, methods, definition of globalization and nutrition outcomes, and the year and language of the publication.

Information extraction and analysis

Articles meeting the inclusion criteria were recorded in an Excel database including key information on context (country, time frame), globalization processes observed (including definitions of the processes), type and source of data analysed, statistical methods applied, and main findings and conclusions from the study. The analysis of the studies included examining findings against existing conceptual frameworks and theoretical evidence, as well as with the findings of previous reviews on similar topics.

Seven hundred fourteen articles were identified from five different databases, another 64 were retrieved from institutional websites, and 16 from additional searches on Google or Google scholar. The abstracts of all studies were screened and the full texts of 63 studies which were found to be relevant were downloaded for screening. 24 of these met our inclusion criteria. In addition, four relevant review studies were identified.

Of the 24 articles included, 11 look at diet-related health outcomes or biomarkers, including underweight, overweight, obesity, diabetes, CVD prevalence and BMI. A further 13 articles used context-relevant proxies of nutrition outcomes, including energy (kcal) intake per day, dietary diversity, and markers of dietary quality such as consumption of unhealthy food commodities, fat intake, consumption of protein and animal protein. Half of the studies (12 out of 24) focussed on LMICs. Most studies used country level data, while only three studies used multi-level models to account for effects occurring at different levels of aggregation. Natural experiments or difference-in-difference designs were used in three studies, and one study relied on single-country time series data. Two studies used less conventional approaches such as non-parametric correlation or structural equation modelling. Details of variables used, study design, data sources and main findings are provided in Table 2 .

Given the complex nature of the topic and the intrinsic impossibility in carrying out intervention studies, we found that rating the quality of studies was not only extremely difficult but also potentially risked over-simplification. For this reason, we have provided a methods assessment using five criteria (see Additional file 2 : Type of evidence). It should be noted, however, that in this context, different types of study can provide complementary evidence, and that this classification reflects different ‘types of evidence’, rather than overall quality.

We present the results following the structure of the framework (Fig. 1 ) concerning trade, investment, socioeconomic dimensions, such as global flows of information, and political aspects and their impacts on nutritional outcomes. We also comment on the differential results across population groups, defined by the main socioeconomic variables, which moderate the impacts of globalization.

Economic globalization: Trade and investment

Six of the studies reviewed used index measures of economic globalization [ 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 ] [ 51 , 59 ], which include flows of goods, services and investment as well as barriers to trade and investment. Three of these studies find that economic globalization tends to reduce obesity and overweight [ 51 , 55 , 56 ] as well as caloric and fat intakes [ 56 ] although the effects are small [ 55 ] or non-significant after controlling for additional variables such as urbanization, food prices, female participation in the workforce or number of McDonalds per capita [ 56 ], which can reflect potential confounding but might also be capturing partial impact mechanisms [ 55 ].

The remaining three studies find that economic globalization has a negative impact on nutrition-related health outcomes, leading to increased diabetes [ 57 ], overweight and obesity [ 59 ] and increased BMI [ 57 , 58 ]. Oberlander et al. [ 57 ], find that, despite associations with diabetes prevalence and BMI, there seems to be no significant impact of economic globalization on dietary patterns.

The apparently contradictory findings can most likely be attributed to a certain extent to differences in the data. Oberlander et al. [ 57 ] use the longest time series, including data on 70 countries for 40 years, while de Soysa et al. [ 51 ] use the largest number of countries, including data on 180 countries for 23 years while Costa-i-Font et al. [ 55 ] include only higher income countries.

Moreover, studies differ in terms of the approach to estimation and methods chosen to deal with potential confounding effects. Schram et al. [ 59 ] use System Equations Modelling (SEM) to carry out pathway analysis on cross-sectional data, Costa-i-Font et al. [ 55 ] and de Soysa et al. [ 51 ] use panel corrected standard errors, which is a method to account for heteroskedasticity in time-series-cross-section data. Oberlander et al. [ 57 ], meanwhile, use group standard errors and a five-year lag on the main explanatory variables. Finally, while some key control variables such as income, inequality and urbanization are included in all studies, there are differences in terms of additional control variables, which can modify the interpretation of results (for example, Schram et al. [ 59 ] account for tobacco consumption, while de Vogli et al. [ 58 ] control for poverty rates).

Overall, the results regarding economic globalization as a whole are inconclusive. The inconsistencies both across and within studies suggest that the association between economic globalization indices and nutritional outcomes is complex and easily confounded or captured by simpler variables. Studies looking at aggregate indices are relevant, however, in highlighting the importance of aspects of globalization not captured by the economic component of the index, including flows of information or political, policy and regulatory space, which we discuss in Section “ Policy and regulatory space ”.

We identified 11 studies analysing the nutritional impacts of trade openness or reduction of trade barriers. Controlling for a wide range of variables including GDP, income levels, urbanization and other socioeconomic variables such as occupation and household structure, these studies find mixed results concerning undernutrition, with some recent evidence suggesting that trade openness might be associated with reductions in underweight and increases in nutrient supply and intake and various proxies for dietary quality. There is no convincing evidence linking trade openness to increased overweight, obesity or other measures of diet-related NCDs.

Three early studies based on country-level data found a negative association between dependence on non-service or primary exports and average per capita availability of calories and especially proteins in the Latin-American context [ 60 ] and for developing countries in general [ 61 , 62 ]. This negative relationship was attributed partly to the restrictions to imports including quotas and other non-tariff barriers that frequently accompanied export-promotion policies [ 60 ]. These studies, however, found the impacts to be small compared to the effects of foreign investment [ 61 ] or insignificant after controlling for investment and other economic variables [ 62 ]. Moreover, Jenkins and Scanlan [ 62 ] found that dependence on primary exports had no impact on child underweight.

Six studies analysed the relationship between overall trade openness and dietary patterns, underweight or BMI. Bezuneh and Yiheyis [ 63 ] found that the removal of trade barriers was associated with short-term falls in nutrient availability per capita, with positive longer-term effects and insignificant “net” impacts. However, this study, is based on a relatively small sample, compared to more recent studies [ 64 ].

Del Ninno, Dorosh, and Smith [ 65 ] used a quasi-experimental approach, comparing three episodes of severe floods in Bangladesh. They found that, in the absence of private imports, per capita calorie intake of the rural poor would, measured at the household level, have decreased significantly due to scarcity and increased prices of rice. The authors find, however, that public interventions in price regulation and transfers also played an important role in mitigating hunger following natural disaster episodes.

Based on more recent data, three studies have found that trade openness and tariff reduction are associated with increased calorie availability per capita [ 66 ], improved aggregate indicators of dietary diversity and quality [ 64 ], and decreased odds of being underweight for both rural and urban men and women [ 67 ]. The latter study, however, is based on cross-sectional household-level data, so further research would be needed in order to determine whether this association might be causal. Neuman et al. [ 68 ], meanwhile, found no evidence of a significant association between mean tariff rates and mean BMI or underweight in a multi-level multi-country analysis of 30 LMIC, although they found that higher tariff rates were associated with lower BMI for poorer, rural populations.

Overall, neither trade as a proportion of GDP or tariff levels seem to be directly associated with increased prevalence of overweight, obesity or NCDs. In the study by Nandi et al. [ 67 ] the association between trade openness measured through tariff levels and overweight, unlike the association with underweight, was found to be insignificant. Miljkovic [ 69 ] report positive impacts of trade on obesity rates in a fixed-effects model controlling for country heterogeneity but not income, urbanization or inequality. The same study reports non-significant effects of trade openness on adult obesity rates at a country level using a quantile regression model. Perhaps more surprisingly, de Soysa and de Soysa [ 51 ] report a negative association between trade openness and rates of overweight for children and adolescents. The authors argue that if globalization increases the returns to labour this could increase the incentives to invest in children’s health, leading to healthier diets and reduced levels of obesity and overweight.

Overall, studies analysing the role of FDI suggest that FDI might be associated with an increased consumption of sugary and highly processed foods and increases in overweight and obesity in LMICs in particular. Four studies found positive associations with obesity, overweight or related dietary indicators, one found a positive association which was nevertheless not robust to changes in model specification [ 69 ], and three studies found non-significant associations.

Schram [ 70 ], using a natural experiment design, found a significant increase in sugar-sweetened beverages sales per capita, attributable to the removal of restrictions to FDI in Vietnam. Baker et al. [ 28 ] used a similar approach in Peru and found that following trade and investment liberalization that significantly increased FDI inflows, sales of carbonated drinks stagnated, while sales of juice, energy and sports drinks, as well as bottled water, increased. These more nuanced results emphasise the role of branding, diversification of branding and preference change, which can lead to changes in demand towards juice and sports drinks, which are often high in sugar and energy content, but marketed as healthy, potentially reaching a wider consumer base [ 71 ]. These findings corroborate previous research by Stuckler et al. [ 72 ] who showed that levels of FDI moderate the impact of GDP on consumption of unhealthy food products, including soft drinks, ice-cream, and confectionery, ultra-processed and packaged foods.

Miljkovic et al. [ 69 ] used a quantile regression specification with country-level panel data, finding that FDI was associated to increase obesity rates only in LMICs, although the association was insignificant in their fixed effects specification including all countries. In a multi-level analysis of adults in LMICs, Nandi et al. [ 67 ] found that FDI was associated to increased prevalence of overweight for rural men only. The same study found no association with prevalence of underweight.

However, Neuman et al. [ 68 ] and de Soysa and de Soysa [ 51 ] find no significant associations of FDI with overweight and obesity, while Sudharsanan et al. [ 73 ] find that the impact of FDI on the prevalence of diabetes is insignificant after controlling for population ageing.

The discrepancies regarding the significance of effects might be due to the differences in the data coverage (Miljkovic et al. [ 69 ] use a smaller number of countries than de Soysa and de Soysa [ 51 ] or Sudharsanan et al. [ 73 ], for example, but a longer time period) and study design (Miljkovic et al. [ 69 ], for example only find significant associations when using a quantile regression design, which is not implemented in other studies).

Although there appears to be some evidence of an association between FDI and some indicators of dietary quality, we have found no evidence linking it to underweight or undernutrition. The earlier literature analysed this issue within the debate on the “dependency versus modernization” impacts of foreign investment and Trans-national Company (TNC) penetration in developing countries. Two studies [ 61 , 74 ] found strong negative impacts of TNC investment on per capita availability of calories and proteins in LMICs, while Jenkins and Scanlan [ 62 ] find a positive association which is small compared to the effects of domestic investment. More recent studies [ 75 , 76 ] added some nuance to this debate, showing that the impact of FDI on nutritional indicators seems to vary depending on the sector. The former study concluded that FDI in the primary sector has tended to harm food security in LMICs through a combination of resource exploitation, labour market effects and negative environmental and demographic externalities. However, FDI in the manufacturing sector leads to modernization, technological and human capital spill-overs and increased wages, improving nutritional outcomes. The negative impact of agricultural FDI on calorie and protein intakes is corroborated by Djokoto [ 76 ] in the case of Ghana. Three studies were identified that examined explicitly the relationship between FDI and underweight, all of which failed to find any significant association for either adults [ 67 , 68 ] or children [ 62 ].

Five studies analysed the impact of social components of globalization alongside economic components [ 51 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 69 ]. Social components include flows of information via television (TV), internet and telephone, interpersonal contact and cultural aspects. The first two of these studies [ 55 , 56 ] find that globalization as a whole tends to be associated with an increase in obesity rates, and this effect is driven largely by the social component. This is consistent with findings by Miljkovic et al. [ 69 ] who find that social globalization leads to higher prevalence of obesity. Oberlander et al. [ 57 ] find that, while economic globalization is associated with a higher prevalence of diabetes and higher BMI, only social globalization is associated with increased supply of sugar and animal protein, with the results being primarily driven by increased flows of information (e.g. through internet and TV). de Soysa et al. find non-significant impacts of social globalization on the prevalence of obesity [ 51 ], in a model that controls for the economic globalization component of KOF index and the standard control variables, as well as including country and time fixed-effects.

Further research is needed in order to interpret these findings in the context of food systems and nutrition outcomes, examining the impacts of specific variables within these indices. Although these studies did not report strong multi-collinearity across the control variables, the complexity of the mechanisms involved and the potential inter-relations between the variables and indices included should be taken into account when interpreting these results.

Three studies analyse the nutritional impacts of political and policy changes underlying globalization processes, comparing these to the effects of economic integration processes using the political component of KOF index, as well as an Index of Economic Freedom [ 51 ]. Goryakin et al. [ 55 ] suggest that there is a positive and convex relationship between political globalization, measured by the KOF index, and overweight. This implies that the association is not proportional and does not tend to plateau as integration increases, but tends to be larger at higher levels of political integration. De Soysa et al. [ 51 ], on the other hand, using a larger sample, find that both political globalization measured through KOF index, and the degree of free-market capitalism, measured through the Economic Freedom Index, seem to be associated with reduced rates of child and youth obesity. Costa-i-Font et al. [ 56 ] check for the effects of political globalization as part of their sensitivity analysis, finding no significant impacts on obesity or calorie intake, although there seems to be an association with higher fat intakes.

The quantitative studies in this review offer limited evidence on the direct impact of policy and regulatory changes associated with trade and investment liberalization, suggesting some potential associations that deserve further analysis, but overall leading to mixed and inconclusive findings. The differences in results, as in other cases, can be attributed both to data coverage as well as potentially to the study design and choice of control variables. de Soysa et al. [ 51 ] use the largest country sample, while Goryakin et al. [ 55 ] include additional controls such as the Human Development Index (HDI) in all of their fixed-effects specifications, where country heterogeneity is controlled for.

Socioeconomic and demographic factors as moderators of impact

Only four articles were found to control for individual level factors [ 55 , 65 , 67 , 68 ]. Of these, only three estimate differential associations of globalization or macroeconomic variables with nutrition outcomes in different subgroups. Two of these studies found significant differential effects across sub-groups. Nandi et al. [ 67 ], for example, find that increased FDI is associated with a 17% increase in the odds of overweight for rural men only. Neuman et al. [ 68 ] find that, although FDI is positively associated with overweight in most sub-groups, the association is negative for the wealthiest urban category, which is consistent with market segmentation practices whereby healthier products are targeted at high income consumers. de Soysa and de Soysa [ 51 ] is the only study focussing on children and youth. The authors comment that impacts on adults, included as part of their sensitivity analysis but not reported, are very similar to those obtained for individuals under the age of 19.

Discussion and interpretation

The empirical evidence analysed in this review highlights the important role of globalization processes as drivers of dietary change and nutrition-related health outcomes. There is no agreement, however, with respect to the overall impacts of economic globalization and its components, or even the sign of these impacts, as discussed in Section Economic globalization: trade and investment . Results can be affected by the type of countries included (LMIC only [ 67 ], versus panels including both high and low income countries [ 69 ]), the population studied (children and youth [ 51 ], women only [ 55 ], adults only [ 56 ], or the overall population [ 73 ]), the choice of control variables (for example, whether the study controls for inequality, HDI or female labour participation), as well as the method chosen to control for heterogeneity (both time invariant and dynamic, [ 57 ]) and to capture non-linearities [ 55 ] and interactions across factors [ 72 ].

The studies reviewed have some limitations which should be considered when interpreting our results. Seven of the articles identified rely on average nutrient per capita availability at a country level, which has been found to be a weak indicator of important nutritional outcomes such as child underweight [ 62 ]. More generally, the use of aggregate indicators of nutrition can mask the uneven distribution of the gains of liberalization, or hide important sectoral differences, which deserve further investigation. The use of quantitative, a posteriori statistical analysis, moreover, precludes the analysis of some country-specific mechanisms and their interactions. Furthermore, we should be cautious when drawing conclusions on causality, given that these studies are based on observational data (often highly aggregated), and some of the methods used might be better suited for the analysis of broad trends and associations. Although these limitations can be addressed to a certain extent through careful study design, the results from the studies in this review should be interpreted with caution and should be understood as complementary to other types of evidence, both quantitative and qualitative.

Evidence on the associations between globalization processes on undernutrition and underweight is limited, particularly compared to the number of studies analysing overweight and obesity. There is a scarcity, of empirical studies, based on cross-country or natural experiment designs which control for confounding factors and which use individual or household level measures of dietary adequacy and nutritional status including nutrient deficiencies, underweight and stunting.

Despite these limitations, the studies reviewed, particularly when analysed together, provide relevant insights regarding different mechanisms and sub-components, their relative importance, distinctive roles and potential interactions. First, the suggestion that trade openness and FDI is likely to have played distinct roles so far in the nutrition transition. There is some recent evidence linking traded openness to reductions in underweight, [ 65 , 67 ] and improvements in dietary adequacy and diversity [ 64 ] but not to increased prevalence of overweight or obesity [ 51 , 67 , 69 ]. FDI, meanwhile, has been found to be associated with increased prevalence of obesity and overweight in LMICs [ 28 , 67 , 69 , 70 ], (although not diabetes, according to the study by Sudharsanan et al. [ 73 ]) but there is no clear evidence that it is associated with reductions in undernutrition. Mihalache et al. [ 75 ] and Djokoto [ 76 ] find that the impacts can depend on sectoral composition and context-specific mechanisms relating to migratory and labour market dynamics.

This pattern of association could reflect a trend towards FDI as the main vehicle for food system integration, which has been identified and described in the literature [ 28 , 77 ]. FDI can provide greater opportunities for market penetration of TFC through vertical and horizontal integration, transformation of the distribution and retail segments, effective advertisement and adaptation to local consumer tastes or ‘glocalization’ [ 78 ].

The lack of association between trade openness and over-nutrition could also suggest that availability and affordability of food products, per se, are not enough to lead to the changes in lifestyle and consumption patterns associated to NCDs prevalence. Direct investment, on the other hand, has the capacity to deeply transform the food sector and the wider economic system, altering consumer behaviour as part of this process (see Section Foreign direct investment ).

Additionally, the (relatively scarce) evidence linking trade openness to reduced under-weight or improved dietary quality should be interpreted with caution. It is important to bear in mind that in this review we do not include outcome measures related to food prices or relative food expenditure which might be affected by trade liberalization. Short-term relative price fluctuations, however, can have important impacts on food security which might not be captured by the studies reviewed.

The apparent association between trade openness and improved nutrition outcomes, however, could reflect the impact of trade policies explicitly aimed at improving food security and mitigating the impact of international price spikes on domestic prices of staple foods. These measures include selective reductions in import protection of essential foods, sometimes coupled to public stockpiling and distribution programs [ 79 ]. Despite the controversy around the effectiveness of some of these interventions and their impacts on global price volatility [ 80 ], measures aimed at selectively lowering import barriers for food staples have been found to be successful in several LMICs [ 25 , 79 , 80 ].

Policy makers can also exert control over FDI and transnational food companies, setting standards for processing, labelling, packaging and retail. Once large investors enter the market, however, food systems are rapidly and deeply transformed in ways that can be hard to control, requiring regulation at many segments along the value chain, from processing to packaging, advertising and distribution [ 81 ]. Moreover, some have argued that, as large companies become established nationally, they can constrain the space for nutrition oriented policy through lobbying and re-location threats [ 82 ].

The lack of apparent overall association between FDI and under-nutrition can be interpreted as evidence that the most disadvantaged segments of society are excluded from the potential benefits of economic growth in general, and of more efficient and modernized food systems in particular. In addition to their low purchasing power, these populations often live either in poor quality housing or slums which have little infrastructure [ 83 ], or in remote rural areas, providing few economic incentives for the establishment of supermarkets and the delivery of a variety of fresh produce.

The multi-country studies in this review generally measure aggregate flows of FDI at a national level. In terms of its association with overweight and obesity, after controlling for a range of socio-economic variables, this aggregate FDI is generally interpreted as a proxy for greater integration of food systems, and the entry of TFCs into the market [ 72 ]. While this might be a reasonable assumption in most cases, FDI has deep impacts on the productive and social structure of receiving countries that go well beyond food systems, affecting income distribution, migration patterns and lifestyles, all of which can have important implications for nutrition outcomes [ 75 ]. The detailed sectoral analysis of the impacts of FDI on nutrition deserves more attention. A combination of case studies and cross-country analysis might shed more light over complex context-specific mechanisms concerning FDI in the primary, secondary and tertiary sectors.

Another relevant finding in the literature concerns the potentially crucial role of sociocultural aspects and in particular global flows of information in explaining dietary changes. The empirical literature uses the social component of the KOF index of globalization which, among others, includes variables reflecting TV ownership, internet access, foreign films viewing, use of phones and number of McDonalds per capita. Two studies find relevant positive associations with overweight, calorie and fat consumption, which seem to dominate the effects of economic flows [ 55 , 56 ]. These results offer more than one interpretation, however. On the one hand, the access to communication technologies and foreign entertainment products can lead to increased exposure to globalized food marketing, which has been identified as a key component of food system integration. Marketing includes not only conventional advertising but also sports sponsorship and product placement in films, videos and other forms of entertainment [ 36 , 84 ]. Moreover, advertising can have indirect effects on diets, as it increases the demand not only for the marketed brand but for the category as a whole, be it snacks, bakery products, fries or hamburgers. The variable reflecting number of McDonalds per capita is part of the “cultural proximity” sub-component of the index. In this context, this variable could potentially be interpreted as a food-specific proxy for FDI influx, and one which epitomises the subordination of the exchange of information and cultural values to economic forces. On the other hand, increased access to technology could be correlated to other changes in lifestyle, social-relational characteristics of labour and socialization, which could lead to changes in dietary patterns, as discussed in Section Interaction with socioeconomic drivers of nutrition . This is a relatively under-studied mechanism, however, and further research will be necessary in order to disentangle the potentially overlapping mechanisms connecting increased interconnectivity and information flows to changes in nutrition outcomes.

Finally, the evidence suggests that globalization processes have different impacts across sub-groups, without necessarily exhibiting a continuous gradient. This is consistent with the dynamics of market segmentation, which tends to create divergent dietary patterns within countries, with healthier products being targeted towards wealthy urban consumers, while lower income groups become the target consumers for calorie dense “junk foods” [ 6 ].

The existence of important differences in impact across groups can also be a product of interactions between mechanisms, which either compensate or enhance each other’s effects. For example, FDI might increase the access to unhealthy food commodities, but associated income growth and increased access to information might compensate by promoting health-seeking behaviour. Conversely, longer working hours or reduced time available for cooking might exacerbate the impacts of changes in food environments. Further analysis of group-specific impacts of trade and investment policies can be useful when it comes to developing more effective policy interventions.

Conclusion and implications for policy and research

Our results indicate that, overall, globalization processes and the trade and investment policies underpinning them have so far played an important role in driving changes in the nutrition status of populations in high, middle and low-income countries. Empirical literature provides, however, a nuanced view of the impact of globalization on nutrition, indicating that different processes and sub-components have different effects. In particular, trade openness contributes to shifts in dietary patterns, increasing dietary diversity and availability of cheap calories and fats and, on average, reducing under-nutrition. However, trade openness is not sufficient, per se, to explain the increases in obesity and overweight. These seem to be more associated to FDI and global flows of information in LMIC, including food marketing and advertisement.

Moreover, sociocultural aspects and particularly information flows seem to have an important impact on dietary patterns, overweight, obesity and consumption of calories and fats, even dominating the effect of trade and investment flows. This could reflect the impacts of exposure to globalized marketing, or it could reflect other lifestyle changes associated with the use of new communications technologies.

The studies reviewed support the view, suggested by others [ 12 , 56 ] that neither overall protectionism nor unregulated liberalization are likely to reduce malnutrition, making adequate monitoring and intervention a necessity to avoid negative impacts of globalization processes on nutrition. In addition, our results suggest that governments do not necessarily face a trade-off in dealing with the double-burden of malnutrition (liberalize, and reduce under-nutrition, but face increases in over-nutrition and chronic disease, or protect against the latter, at the risk of increasing food insecurity). Rather, governments can in principle play an important role in prioritising food security through nutrition-sensitive trade policy, while simultaneously controlling and regulating foreign investment and marketing in the food sector, in order to avoid the creation of obesogenic environments. In this sense, the potentially constraining impacts of trade agreements on the policy space to pursue public health objectives have been identified as an important pathway for trade liberalization impacts on nutrition, which remains relatively unexplored in the quantitative literature [ 12 ]. Furthermore, the existence of significant differences in impacts across population sub-groups, where the most vulnerable populations tend to be affected disproportionately, highlight the need to reduce inequalities in access to food, and to develop targeted policies which can address the needs of those groups which might be most vulnerable to the impacts of globalization.

Given the complexity of the topic and the high susceptibility to bias, thorough and transparent sensitivity analysis regarding outcome measures, control variables and study design is important in order to advance the debate and improve comparability across studies. Although different approaches can provide complementary evidence, more studies are needed that use natural experiments or other methods to control for confounding and reduce bias. The roles of sociocultural, lifestyle and political aspects of globalization in the nutrition transition are relatively understudied in the quantitative literature and might be fruitful areas of research. Analyses based on overall indices of globalization can provide relevant insights but are often hard to interpret [ 85 ]. As suggested in recent studies [ 51 ], more evidence is needed on the impact of specific sub-components of wider processes of liberalization, including sector-specific FDI flows or different types of trade barrier. Further research on this topic should also attempt to incorporate measures of stunting, wasting and micronutrient malnutrition. Perhaps more importantly, research is needed to improve the current understanding of differential impacts of globalization and liberalization processes across sub-groups of population, in order to identify potentially vulnerable groups.

See Dreher et al. (2006) [ 43 ] for a detailed description of KOF index of globalization. The economic component includes flows of international goods, services, investment and capital, as well as restrictions, such as tariffs or other taxes on international trade as well as hidden import barriers (in the form or regulations and standards, for example). The political component includes number of embassies, membership in international organizations and participation in “UN security council” meetings. The social component includes measures of flows of information (through internet, television, newspaper and other channels), cultural proximity and personal contact (including measures such as number of foreign residents, tourism or costs of a call to the US). The different components and sub-components of the index and their potential interpretation in the context of our study will be further discussed in the Results section.

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Cuevas García-Dorado, S., Cornselsen, L., Smith, R. et al. Economic globalization, nutrition and health: a review of quantitative evidence. Global Health 15 , 15 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-019-0456-z

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Globalizing asian cuisines: from eating for strength to culinary cosmopolitanism —a long history of culinary globalization.

Visit a restaurant or home kitchen in America or Europe today, and you inevitably find a salt and pepper shaker on the table or by the stove. While salt is a physiological necessity for human beings, pepper is a culinary necessity with negligible nutritional value. Its origins as a cultural necessity for Western peoples lie in very ancient patterns of culinary globalization. In 30 BCE Rome, under Octavian, conquered the Ptolemaic kingdom of Egypt. For the next five centuries, annual fleets of over 100 merchant ships would ride the monsoon winds across the Indian Ocean to transport pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon, and other spices to Egypt’s ports on the Red Sea, eventually arriving at the central spice market in Rome. Asian spices became an essential part of the aristocratic Roman diet, especially Indian black pepper. In what can be described as the first wave of culinary globalization, even ordinary middle class Romans became addicted to these fiery seeds from southern India.

With the collapse of the Roman Empire, the volume of European trade in Asian spices dwindled, and prices of rare spices such as cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg soared to fabulous heights, but Europeans never lost their taste for the rare exotic flavors of Asia. Indeed, the banquets of medieval European nobles were heavily spiced, not, as later generations claimed, in order to disguise food spoilage but because of the high status associated with consuming expensive Asian spices. Black pepper, above all, remained central to European cuisines, and wresting control of the spice trade from Arab traders was a primary impetus for the early voyages of discovery and conquest by Portuguese and Spanish explorers. 1

Globalization can be defined as the complex process in which distant and distinct societies have become connected and blended through ties of trade, cultural exchange, flows of people, and ideas. This is often described as a distinct feature of the twentieth century. Through the study of food, however, we can see that in a broader sense, globalization is a very ancient process of historical exchanges between distant regions with profound and persistent consequences. The ancient trade in luxury goods such as spices might be described as the first wave of culinary globalization. A millennium after the fall of the Roman Empire, Europeans looking for the spice islands of Asia headed West across the Atlantic and inadvertently reached the Americas. In doing so, they opened a second and much more significant chapter of culinary globalization, known as the Columbian exchange. Referring to Christopher Columbus, this exchange involved the transfer of New World crops to the Old Worlds of Europe, Asia, and Africa and the massive colonization of the Americas by not only Europeans but also European foods and food-related cultural practices.2 Tied closely to the history of European colonization, the Columbian exchange revolutionized both European and Asian diets, introducing New World crops such as corn, potatoes, and chilies into Asian diets. Colonial cultural influences also resulted in a variety of hybrid or mixed food permutations, some of which are now enshrined as “regional” or “national” cuisines in Asian countries. With the rise of global capitalism and multinational corporations in the twentieth century, culinary exchanges between Asia and the rest of the world have both intensified and scaled up, ushering in a third wave of culinary globalization based on the industrialization of food production and the globalization of retail trade in food. This phase has sometimes been characterized as “McDonaldization,” implying a wholesale Americanization and homogenization of the global diet, though studies of McDonald’s operations in Asia show that even this iconic fast food chain must adapt to local conditions.3 This third wave of culinary globalization also has included the “Asianization” of the American and European diets, including the presence of ready-made Asian foodstuffs in almost any American supermarket.

Asian spices became an essential part of the aristocratic Roman diet, especially Indian black pepper

This essay uses the examples of four cities in Asia to highlight the history of culinary globalization in Asia and its implications, not only for understanding how Asian people eat, but also the changing nature of Asia’s culinary en- gagement with other parts of the world. Through the lens of food, we cannot only observe processes of globalization or the growing connections and exchanges between distant places, but also processes of localization, that is, the ways in which imported foods and cuisines are incorporated into local cultures. Sociologists use the term “glocalization” to describe these simultaneous processes of globalization and localization.4 Through food, we can see how the global has become the local in Asian food cultures.

450 years of Portuguese rule left an indelible mark on the contemporary culture of Goa, influences that are most evident in its cuisine.

Goa—An Early Example of  Culinary Glocalization

An impressive cluster of large European churches ranging above the ancient and verdant shade trees greets tourists visiting the town of old Goa on India’s east coast. The most famous is the Basilica of Bom Jesus, where one can view the partially transparent coffin of St. Francis Xavier, the Jesuit father who ventured through Goa on his way to Japan and China. The incongruous visage of the ornate Portuguese-style church façade towering above the quiet Indian countryside is explained when one knows that in the sixteenth century, Goa was a bustling city of 300,000 and the center of the first European empire in Asia. Larger than either London or Lisbon at the time, Goa’s wealth was based on the booming spice trade. The Portuguese explorer Vasco de Gama, after a perilous journey around the tip of Africa, arrived in Goa in 1498 looking for spices, which he found in abundance. A subsequent expedition in 1503 established a permanent Portuguese base in Goa, the first of the European colonies in India and also the last to be incorporated into the independent nation of India in 1961.5

Those 450 years of Portuguese rule left an indelible mark on the contemporary culture of Goa, influences that are most evident in its cuisine. The most famous of Goa’s hybrid dishes is undoubtedly vindalho, a spicy stew, usually of pork, that derives its name from the Portuguese vinho (wine vinegar) and ahlo (garlic). Modern Goan cuisine is now recognized as a sophisticated regional cuisine of India, famous for blending East and West, including the ubiquitous Portuguese white bread, or pao, which alternates with white rice as a staple in the region.6 For example, an elegant lunch served to the author on the veranda of the Palacio do Deao, a meticulously restored eighteenth-century Indo-Portuguese mansion in South Goa, featured both Portuguese appetizers of fried cheese with olives and Goan-style fish curry, a daily dish for most ordinary Goans. The Goan owners serve Indian white wine and tasty Goan pastries for dessert, featuring the inescapable Goan ingredient of coconut.7 Not far from the Palacio de Deao, a working spice plantation attracts both foreign and Indian tourists, where they enjoy a view of the tropical plant species that brought European explorers to this region. These now include many imported species. In- deed, the most famous souvenir product for the many northern Indian tourists visiting Goa are cashew nuts and a fiery liquor called feni , distilled from the fermented juice of the waxy cashew fruit. However, the cashew, whose name acaju comes from the Tipu language of Brazil, was brought to Goa from Brazil by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century. It is but one example of the vast number of new world fruits and plants that Europeans introduced into Asia, including maize (corn), potatoes, tomatoes, red peppers, peanuts, pineapples, passion fruit, squashes, and cocoa.8 Like the cashew, these products have not only become integral to local eating habits but even symbols of regional identity—examples of culinary glocalization, making global culture into local culture.

Manila—Hybrid Cuisine as National Symbol

At the far other end of tropical Asia lies the bustling modern metropolis of Manila, once the center of Spain’s empire in Asia and one of the world’s first truly global cities, connecting the seventeenth-century economies and cultures of Asia, America, and Europe. Like Goa, Manila was a major conduit for the introduction of Central American foodstuffs into Asia and also a major center for the transmission of Asian foods into Mexico and the Americas. Just as it would be hard to imagine the Philippines without the pineapple, originally from South America, it would be difficult to imagine Mexico today without the mango, a native of South Asia brought to Mexico through Manila. The US replaced Spain as the colonial power after the Spanish- American War in 1898 (after putting down fierce resistance from Filipino nationalists), also profoundly influencing the foodways of Filipinos. Moreover, since the sixteenth century, large numbers of Chinese immigrants have contributed to Filipino cuisine.9

As in Goa, the meeting of Spanish and native food cultures has resulted in a sophisticated hybrid cuisine with ties not only to Europe but also to other Asian regions, particularly China. Increasingly, this hybrid mix of Western and Asian influences is identified as a modern Philippine high cuisine . For example, as one of the most celebrated chefs in Manila, Gene Gonzales has defined a new Filipino high cuisine that avidly borrows from Europe, the US, and Asia, while confidently reclaiming distinctive local culinary traditions. Dishes served at his fine dining restaurant Café Ysabel in suburban Manila include a Chinese-influenced Pancit Molo (Ilonggo chicken and shrimp broth with dumplings) and American influences such as vanilla ice cream with mango syrup, Manila style. And, of course, it includes Gonzales’s version of the Philippine classic adobo (meats stewed in vinegar).

For poorer and lower middle class Filipinos, a dinner out is much more likely to take place in one of the ubiquitous fast food restaurants in the city, rather than the pricey Café Ysabel. Manila commuters run a daily gauntlet of American quick service eateries, from McDonald’s and KFC to Starbucks and Baskin Robbins. However, the undisputed star of Manila’s burgeoning fast food scene is not one of these American corporate giants but a local Filipino chain called Jollibee. Founded by Chinese-Filipino Tony Tan Caktiong as an ice cream parlor in Cubao City in 1975, Jollibee grew to be the number-one fast food restaurant in the     Philippines,     consistently     beating     out     McDonald’s     and KFC    with    its    variegated     offerings,     ranging     from     hamburgers and fried chicken to spaghetti and ice cream.10 It would not be an exaggeration to say that Jollibee has become a symbol of Filipino cultural identity as much as home cooked adobo . In different ways, both the mass-market Jollibee and the high-end Café Ysabel celebrate the cosmopolitan origins of Filipino national culture and foodways.

Shanghai – Food  for a Global City          

While Manila and Goa represent the Asian global cities of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Shanghai is a relative latecomer as a world-class metropolis and a center of globalizing cuisine. Like Manila and Goa, Shanghai opened up to Western culinary culture under the impact of colonialism. Shanghai’s rise as an international city was a direct consequence of the first Opium War (1841–1842) between Britain, the rising global power of the nineteenth century, and Qing dynasty China, a languishing empire. In the Treaty of Nanjing, the Chinese government agreed to open up ports along the coast to foreign trade and settlement. Shanghai, at the mouth of the Yangtze River, was ideally suited for development as an international port. During the subsequent century, until World War II, Shanghai was the largest and most international city in China with a steadily growing population of resident foreigners, living in foreign concessions that were effectively colonies operating outside the control of the Chinese government.

At first, the Shanghainese were not particularly impressed with the tastes of Western food, but they were impressed with Western military and economic power, and one way of appropriating Western power was through the consumption of Western foods. In the late nineteenth century, Cantonese entrepreneurs who capitalized on early associations with the West through the ports of Canton and Macau often ran Shanghai’s numerous Western restaurants, known as fancaiguan (foreign food restaurants). Fuzhou Road in the International Concession became a fashion- able center of Western food consumption, also associated with nightlife and the culture of courtesans. The focus was on the “glittering décor,” “ornate,” and “elegance and cleanliness” of Western restaurants rather than the exotic and perhaps unpleasant tastes.11 Like dance halls and department stores, Western restaurants also became an important feature of 1920s and 30s Shanghai’s jazz- age consumer culture, including Western restaurants run by émigrés as well as Chinese. Some Western cooking items even penetrated into everyday house- hold cuisine, including luosongtang (Russian soup), a greatly modified borscht made with cabbage, tomatoes, and dapai (Shanghai big pork chops), a modified version of a European pork chop served over rice or noodles.

With the 1949 Communist revolution, consumption of Western cuisine, like Western nightlife and fashion, came to be regarded as capitalist bourgeois culture.

With the 1949 Communist revolution, consumption of Western cuisine, like Western nightlife and fashion, came to be regarded as capitalist bourgeois culture incompatible with the working class and nationalist spirit of the new People’s Republic of China (PRC). Little of Shanghai’s thriving Western restaurant culture survived 1960s and 70s repression. By the 1980s, Shanghai featured a few old names that were a shadow of their former glory, including the famous Deda Western Restaurant, in operation since 1897. Still operating as a state-owned enterprise in 2011 (though in new premises), Deda retained some of the recipes of a bygone era, including puguoji (Portuguese-style chicken), a baked curried chicken casserole in cream developed in the Portuguese colony of Macau with influences from Goa. Broad elements of Western culinary influence survived in everyday practices such as having milk and bread for breakfast, uncommon products in much of China but plentiful in Shanghai.

By the 1980s, Shanghai featured a few old names that were a shadow of their former glory, including the famous Deda Western Restaurant, in operation since 1897.

Shanghai’s rebirth as an international cuisine center began in the late 1980s. As in Manila, American fast food restaurants filled the low end of the market, with KFC emerging on top. In the late 1990s, foreign chefs and entrepreneurs also began opening high-end restaurants in the city to appeal to the growing populations of expatriate families as well as to Shanghai’s growing white-collar professionals. By 2010, Shanghai boasted over 100 Italian and 500 Japanese restaurants. Shanghainese who had studied in Japan during the previous decade and often worked in Japanese restaurants to pay their tuition opened most of the latter.12 Although socialist policies temporarily eradicated signs of colonial influences in Shanghai, by 2010, the city was on its way to reclaiming bragging rights as the most cosmopolitan food center of China (with the exception of autonomous Hong Kong). Like a century earlier, consuming Western cuisine was associated with modernity and fashion more than simply with tastes. Many young Shanghainese embraced culinary cosmopolitanism as an expression of their identity as residents of China’s most international city.13

Tokyo—Eating the Other for Strength

On January 24, 1872, the Meiji emperor sat down to a dinner that included meat. Henceforth, meat would be served regularly in the imperial household, and French fare would be served on all official ceremonies. For centuries, Buddhist Japanese had considered eating meat a barbaric and unclean practice; the sudden adaptation of a diet was based on a desire for self-strengthening and the belief that meat-eating was one reason for the strength of Westerners.14 Eating Western style foods and adopting Western dress were seen as ways of impressing powerful foreigners with Japan’s modernity and avoiding the fate of colonization and Western domination Japanese observed in nearby Asian countries. Starting in 1871, foreign dignitaries were invited annually to banquets at Tokyo’s first Western-style hotel in Tsukiji to celebrate the emperor’s birthday. In addition to its political and symbolic uses, the adoption of Western food items such as meat, potatoes, and bread was also a practical step to- ward increasing daily caloric intake, thus improving the stamina of both the military and civilian populations.15

Japan’s new modern national cuisine had a strong Anglo-Saxon flavor. Al- though French cuisine was served at the finest hotels in Yokohama, Tokyo, and Kobe, British residents and their Chinese and Japanese household servants had the greatest impact on the development of Western cuisine in Japan. Japanese modified these Western foods in many cases, creating hybrid classics such as nikujaga , or beef and potatoes cooked in soy-sauce-flavored broth. By the early twentieth century, Western-style food, or yōshoku , had permeated all social classes, and versions could be found at all prices, ranging from the finest French restaurants serving set menus to more modest yōshokuya (Western-style restaurants) serving modified British fare such as fried fish and beef cutlets a la carte. By the 1930s, yōshoku restaurants in department stores attracted the increasingly affluent urban masses who were introduced not only to new styles of food but also to sitting at tables, eating with silverware, and Western styles of restaurant service.16 Japan’s militarization and colonial expansion accelerated the Westernizing Japanese cuisine. Military planners and researchers strove to in- crease Japanese soldiers’ and sailors’ caloric intakes as well as introduce dishes that could be easily prepared in modern military kitchens. These included dishes such as curry rice and yakisoba (Chinese fried noodles) that would become post- war staples in household meals.17 The US Occupation furthered the development of a national cuisine with strong Western (and Chinese) influences. US food aid focused on delivering wheat, which became the daily bread in school lunches, and ramen (Chinese style noodles) sold by street vendors. Eventually, this surplus wheat inspired the invention of instant noodles by Taiwanese-Japanese entrepreneur Ando Momofuku, founder of Nissin Foods Corporation.18

For centuries, Buddhist Japanese had considered eating meat a barbaric and unclean practice; the sudden adaptation of a diet was based on a desire for self-strengthening and the belief that meat-eating was one reason for the strength of Westerners.

The early Westernization of Japanese cuisine has also contributed to the growth of a sophisticated and complex appreciation of Western food in Tokyo. The prestigious Michelin Red Guide for 2009 awarded city restaurants a total of 227 stars, compared with fifty-nine awarded to New York and forty to Hong Kong. Journalists rushed to proclaim Tokyo the “focus of the culinary world” or “the undisputed world leader in fine dining.”19 Beginning with state-led policies of self-strengthening, Tokyo is now fully integrated into global flows of foods, chefs, and entrepreneurial capital. Consumption of Western and Chinese foods began as a politicized practice of national strengthening and has now created a hybridized dining scene in which Tokyo residents regularly consume Italian and French high cuisine, American fast food, and authentic Indian and Thai dishes. At the same time, early foreign adoptions such as Japanese curry rice, nikujaga, and ramen now top the lists of common household dishes. In- deed, these dishes have become so much associated with Japan that Japanese entrepreneurs now operate Japanese-branded ramen chains in China and even export Japanese curry to India. The process of glocalization reaches full circle as Shanghainese include consuming Japanese ramen as part of the city’s reputation for urban sophistication, while Tokyoites consume authentic Shanghainese xiaolongbao (steamed, meat-filled dumplings) as a sign of their own established cosmopolitanism.

Glocalized Asian Cuisines as Representations of Modern Asian Identities

Asia’s global urban hybrid cuisines of Asia’s global cities are now symbols of a confident cosmopolitan modernity. This was not always the case. As described earlier, colonialism was central to the history of culinary globalization in East Asian cities. Centuries of colonialism (Goa, Manila), a century of partial colonialism (Shanghai), and the threat of Western colonization (Tokyo) led Asian people to adopt Western foodways as a method of coping with and slowly absorbing the foreign interlopers’ cultures. Asians also adopted some Western foodstuffs because of the taste or sometimes in order to absorb perceived Western power. Japan’s own colonization policies in Taiwan and Korea also expanded the empire’s food possibilities.

After World War II ended colonial rule in most of Asia, most people in former colonies had generally negative views of the cultural legacies of colonialism, including that of imperial Japan. Asians began looking to define their own regional and national cuisines, often rejecting foreign imports or even denying foreign influences. In the most extreme example, all Shanghai Western restaurants began serving simple Chinese fare during the 1960s Cultural Revolution. But more subtle examples abound. Filipino nationalists insist, for example, that adobo is a local invention with no Spanish influences. The Tokyo ramen museum fails to acknowledge the contributions of Chinese and Korean entrepreneurs to the development of postwar urban ramen shops.20 By the 1990s, however, resentment over Western and Japanese colonialism in Asia began receding, and both food producers and consumers were freer to celebrate the cross-bred roots of local culinary favorites. Mumbai middle class Indians enjoy dining on Goan food, now considered one of India’s cuisines, and Filipinos treat the Americanized offerings of Jollibee as a national success story. Residents of Tokyo and Shanghai take pride in the cosmopolitan offerings of their own cities, seeing the number of high class foreign restaurants as a symbol of globalization and urban prestige.

Romans and medieval Europeans consumed Asian spices as a display of sophistication and wealth. Centuries later, under the threat of Western domination, Asian people consumed foreign food for self-strengthening. In the current wave of globalization, association of foreign cuisines with status and power continues, but for new reasons. Consumers around the world choose from a globalized menu of dining and home cooking choices. Local, regional, and national cuisines are still important, but increasingly are seen as one among many choices. In Asian cities, as in the West, international culinary cultures are new expressions of a worldly outlook and cosmopolitan sophistication.

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• Jack Turner, Spice: The History of a Temptation (New York: Vintage, 2005).
• Raymond Grew, “Food and Global History” , R. Grew, Food in Global History (Boulder: Westview Press, 1999), 1–32.
• George Ritzer, The McDonaldization of Society: An Investigation into the Changing Character of Contemporary Social Life (Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press, 1995); see also, James Watson, Golden Arches East: McDonald’s in East Asia (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006).
• Roland Robertson, “Glocalization: Time-space and Homogeneity-heterogeneity,” eds., M. Featherstone, et al., Global Modernities (London: Sage, 1995), 25–44.
• Michael Pearson, The Portugese in India (The New Cambridge History of India) (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
• Chitrita Banerji, Eating India: An Odyssey into the Food and Culture of the Land of Spices (New York: Bloomsbury, 2007), 29–44.
• See the Palácio do Deão website at http://www.palaciododeao.com.
• Sucheta Mazumbar, “The Impact of New World Food Crops on the Diet and Economy of China and India, 1600–1900,” Raymond Grew, ed., Food in Global History (Boulder: West- view Press, 1999), 58–78.
• Doreen Fernandez, Tikim: Essays on Philippine Food and Culture (Manila: Anvil Pub- lishing, 1994).
• Keiichi Yamada, “Overcoming Global Giants in the Local Markets: Jollibee’s Competitive Strategy against McDonald’s” Working Paper, Faculty of Business, Marketing, and Distribution, Nakamura Gakuen University, 2009, accessed July 19, 2011, http://bai2009.org/ file/Papers/1628.doc.
• Mark Swislocki, Culinary Nostalgia: Regional Food Culture and the Urban Experience in Shanghai (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2009), 133.
• Gracia Liu-Farrer, Labor Migration from China to Japan: International Students, Transnational Migrants (London: Routledge, 2011).
• James Farrer, , “Eating the West and Beating the Rest: Culinary Occidentalism and Urban Soft Power in Asia’s Global Food Cities.” J. Farrer, Globalization, Food and Social Identities in the Pacific Region (Tokyo: Sophia University Institute of Comparative Culture, 2010).
• Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney, “We Eat the Other’s Food to Nourish our Body: The Global and the Local as Mutually Constitutive Forces” ed., Raymond Grew, Food in Global History (Boulder: Westview Press, 1999), 240–272.
• Katarzyna Cwiertka, Modern Japanese Cuisine: Food, Power and National Identity (London: Reaktion Books, 2007).
• George Solt, “Ramen and S. Occupation Policy” eds., Eric C. Rath and Stephanie Assmann, Japanese Foodways: Past and Present (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2010), 186–200.
• Melinda Joe, “Tokyo Taste Summit Provides Food for Thought: Top Chefs Stimulated by Fresh Ingredients, Health Consciousness and Rich Culture,” Japan Times , February 19, 2009, accessed June 23, 2009, http://bit.ly/q9dBuE; see also Leo Lewis, “Tokyo is Michelin’s Biggest Star” The Times (London), November 20, 2007, accessed June 23, 2009, http://thetim.es/3uQiQy.
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The Globalization of Food (review)

• Raymond Grew
• Johns Hopkins University Press
• Volume 52, Number 1, January 2011
• pp. 210-211
• 10.1353/tech.2011.0013
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620 Inspiring Globalization Essay Topics & Examples

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• Four Perspectives on Globalization This essay will explore four perspectives of globalization: the transformationalist perspective, the skeptical perspective, the hyperglobalist perspective, and the constructivist perspective. The perspectives on globalization include the transformationalist perspective, the skeptical perspective, the hyperglobalist perspective, […]
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• Effects of Globalization The second positive effect of globalization is that it promotes international trade and growth of wealth as a result of economic integration and free trade among countries.
• Toyota Motor Corporation: Impacts of Globalization The impact of globalization, as a result of injection of foreign direct investment, on low-income countries has some benefits, for instance, there has been vivid economic growth in host counties as experienced in Mauritius and […]
• Concept of the Globalization’ Ideology The basic ideology of globalization is liberalization of trade and integration of free markets to enhance social, economic, and political stability across the world.
• Samsung: Globalization Effects on Growth and Performance Samsung Electronics is such a giant electronics technology conglomeration that has taken advantage of globalisation and the dynamic advancement of technology to expand its business internationally. The pursuit of technology and globalisation has influenced various […]
• The Negative Impacts of Globalization Noteworthy, environmental pollution, social and moral degradation, political manipulation, and exploitation of the poor population by the wealthy nations are some of the most evident impacts of globalization in the modern world.
• Thomas Friedman’s Three Eras of Globalization The discovery of new forms of communication led to the information revolution in the second era of globalization. According to Friedman, the world has become flat in the new era of globalization.
• Globalization as a positive factor The essay therefore explains the importance of globalization, the economic impact on individuals and countries and how the international security system has been affected as well as the factors that have supported the growth of […]
• Effects of Globalization in the UAE In this section, the positive and negative impacts of globalization in the UAE are discussed with examples mainly from the City of Dubai.
• IKEA Globalization Strategy Benefits and Limits Case Study This paper will cover the benefits of globalization that IKEA experienced, the importance of cross-cultural understanding, and the limits of the global market.
• Globalization in Caribbean Countries: Advantages and Disadvantages While globalization has had an asymmetrical effect on the Caribbean’s economy, the detrimental influence of global integration on Caribbean culture is evident. In addition, the enhanced connection and collaboration with the world propelled the development […]
• McDonald’s Globalization Process and Its Brief History Paper The following year, 1968, saw the introduction of the Big Mac hamburger that would become the signature fast food meal of all McDonald restaurants around the world as well as the opening of the 1,000th […]
• Social Media and Globalization: Positive and Negative Effects Essay It will look at the advantages and disadvantages of globalization and the response of social media to the global phenomena. This paper sets out to expound on the many positive and negative impacts of the […]
• Tesla Globalization: A Strategic Marketing Plan + Expansion Strategy First, it is worth mentioning that, according to the company’s website, the mission of the business is to manufacture and promote a product that would allow for a more sustainable use of the natural environment.
• Globalization and Environment Essay While this is the case, citizens equally have a role to play in addressing the issue of globalization and climate change.
• Globalization of the English Language: One of the Most Widely Used Languages in the World English language is one of the most widely used languages in the whole world in spite of the fact that there are many languages.
• The Impact of Globalization on the International Hotel Industry International hotel industry can be discusses from the angle of domestic hotels that have the capacity of serving international customers or those multinational companies in the hotel industry which ever the approach, the effects of […]
• Globalization: Positive and Negative Effects On the one hand, globalization contributes to strengthening the world economy, appropriate resources allocation, the interaction between different countries, and the development of lagging countries due to access to up-to-date technology.
• “The Globalization of Markets” by Theodore Levitt The shifting understanding of trade in the 1980s affected the way companies approached the market: previously, the concept had been that companies should supply to customers what customers think they want and need; at the […]
• Tesco’s Globalisation Case Study Strengths Brand Awareness is the key strength of Tesco; The efficient and dynamic human resources are the key assets for the company; According to the annual report 2011, Tesco offers large product lines and services […]
• Financial Globalization Advantages & Disadvantages According to Bhagwati, globalization is the integration of countries’ economies, people, societies and their culture across the world through the spread of technology, networks of communication, trade and transportation.
• The Effect of Globalization on a World Culture The net result is a global culture; the effect and extent that global culture has gone in the world varied among nations and continents; developed countries have their culture more diffused and uniformity can be […]
• How Changes in Technology Has Contributed Towards the Globalization of Markets and of Production The new developments have lead to a scenario of a free market where there are may buyers and sellers, complete knowledge of the products produced, and entry or exit of the market is on the […]
• British Trading Giant Tesco: Impact of Globalization That is why the research work presented to your attention is the study of one of the greatest companies dealing with the retail trade in the world British trading giant Tesco.
• Problems of Globalization Process Many problems of the contemporary world, from poverty to environmental degradation, are casually linked to the process of globalization Globalisation refers to the increased awareness among nations of the world.
• Globalization and Food Culture Essay The interviewee gave the examples of France, America, and China in her description of how food can affect the culture of a place and vice versa.
• “Globalization: A Very Short Introduction” by Manfred B. Steger: Chapter Review The demand for goods in the world market have positive and negative gains, it has lead to more customer sovereignty since a customer has a large access to goods and services from different parts of […]
• Globalization and Development Some of the environmental aspects that will determine the growth rate of globalization include the development of economic output, not forgetting encouragement of technological development. It is now clear that for development to take place […]
• Globalization and Organizational Behavior in Company It is also challenging to regulate the ethical behavior of a culturally diverse organization and different government and legal systems in different countries to be in line with the corporate culture.
• Globalization Opportunities and Challenges The focus of the world culture theories is on the constriction of the world and increases the knowledge that depicts the world as a whole.
• Globalization Impact on Starbucks Company The biggest challenge facing multinational companies in the contemporary times is the ability to respond to rapid changes in the market.
• Globalization Is Inevitable or Not? Living in a World With No Defined Borders According to an article that appeared in Globaleducation.com, although this international reliance and exchange has been there for quite some time now, the recent past has seen the escalation of these aspects, a phenomenon that […]
• Globalization Effects on Ford Motor Company This organization defines globalization as the process in which financial and investment markets of different counties become interconnected and interdependent due to the deregulation and erasure of national borders. In itself, the process of globalization […]
• Do the Benefits of Globalization Outweigh the Costs? Critics also argue that globalization has led to the spread of sweatshops and exploitation of workers from third world countries. However, critics of globalization argue that it has led to the erosion of national borders […]
• Samsung Company’s Extent of Globalization In 1980, the organization invested in a research and development center that allowed it to diversify its products and explore foreign markets.
• Critical Review of Chapter 1 and 2 of the book Globalization: A Very Short Introduction, by Manfred B. Steger The uneven distribution of natural and human resources is the major source of forces of trade, some countries can produce a certain commodity that is required in another country and export the commodity: in return […]
• International Cooperation: Globalization and Its Impacts on China This scenario results in the abuse of the physical environment and the overuse of natural resources, especially in the manufacturing industry.
• How Globalization has affected Managerial Decision-making With globalization, a problem should be looked from the global perspective; that is how it has affected the current business in the domestic country and how it is likely to affect the company in other […]
• Globalization: Theory and Practice Although the word global has been in existence for the last four hundred years, the term globalization is believed to have been coined in the early 1960s. In the late 19th century, advancements in freight […]
• Globalization Positive and Negative Impacts People could not learn the subject of globalization the easy way until the outbreak of the World War I and II in the twentieth century.
• Globalization and its Effect on Different Generations In the documentary film, Globalization is Good, directed by Charlotte Metcalf, the author argues the negativity of global capitalism’s impact on the world.
• Reflection on Global Issues: Globalization of the Environment The global conflicts, managing the post-pandemic world, and the need to navigate the social injustices to ensure equality for all are among the most pressing ones.
• Globalization and Food in Japan We have the McDonalds in the developed countries and it has influenced food market in Japan, so continued globalization will affect cultures in all countries in the world, including developing countries.
• Flattening of the World: Globalization and Outsourcing The rate of affordability of the IT hardware and software on the other hand pushed the need for its adoption of the process and hence the realization of the economic gains that had become elusive.
• Impact of Globalization on the Maasai Peoples` Culture This essay will therefore focus on the roles the aforementioned forces have played in changing the culture of the Maasai. Moreover, tourism has resulted in environmental degradation which is putting the Maasai on the brink […]
• Globalization and Technological Advancements Globalization has accelerated technology dispersion and helped to reshape the innovation environment in various ways, including transportation issues. The internet, for instance, has lowered the boundaries of time and location in economic transactions.
• Threats of Globalization on Culture of Individual Countries The world has become a “global village” this is due to the expansion of communication networks, the rapid information exchange and the lifting of barriers of visas and passports.
• Japan After Globalization: Culture and Ethnocentrism The isolated territorial position of the country, geographical and climatic features, frequent earthquakes, and typhoons had a significant influence on the culture and mentality of the Japanese people.
• Positive and Negative Impacts of Globalization in Britain Britain has from time immemorial been the pacesetter for globalization due to the fact that it was among the first countries to achieve economic and political stability and was in a position to colonize other […]
• Contemporary Globalization Issues on Hospitality The concept of globalization has been going on since the transformation that came with the introduction of the Internet in the early 1980s, with some of its elements being cross boarder transfer of capital, management, […]
• The Globalization of Markets The main theme identified in the article “The Globalization of Markets” is that business organizations should learn to operate as if the whole world was a single market.
• Hyundai Motor Company: Globalization and Environmental Impacts Another driving force behind globalization has been the liberalization of international flow of capital in different countries and markets. This has been seen in the deterioration of wages and employment prospects.
• Globalization and Its Impact on Healthcare The solution to the problem is to rethink health service delivery policies and funding sectors. Globalization affects life expectancy; therefore, the healthcare system needs to be revised.
• Importance and Role of Leadership in Globalization Leadership can be considered to be the provision of a vision to the people whom one has authority over and pushing through the understanding of the vision and the achievement of its goals for the […]
• Globalization in business Thanks to globalization, there has been improvements in employee training and education in the fast food industry, as a result of the stiff competition in the industry.
• Youth Culture and Globalization The focus is also on the relations that exist between the youth and the society, as well as the factors that shape youths identity in terms of culture.
• Lifelong Learning is Necessarily Essential to Globalization A good example of this form of upgrading is learning computer related skills to integrate well with the current dynamic technological platforms.
• The Main Drivers of Globalization: The Economic Scope In conclusion, it seems reasonable to claim that there are three primary drivers of the process of globalization that were discussed demography, technology, and political decisions.
• Theodore Levitt: The Globalization of Markets The article written by Theodore Levitt on the globalization of the market mainly focuses on the difference between amultinational’ and ‘global’ corporations operating throughout the world today.
• Globalization and Outsourcing The buyer organizations are seeking to obtain lower rates of legal impositions from the host governments and conditions of doing business in such countries.
• Globalization: Deeply Rooted in The Present by Kenny The influence of globalization on culture and the problem of preserving cultural diversity is a phenomenon due to which the experience of everyday life, affecting the dissemination of goods and ideas, reflects the standardization of […]
• Globalization and International Trade In this case, the country that has the advantage produces and sells more of this good, and another country has the opportunity of buying it at a cost that is lower than the cost of […]
• Globalization’s Benefits in Kazakhstan Kazakhstan contributes to the global economy, mainly through the oil industry; it is one of the tenth largest oil exporters in the world.
• Globalization and Its Challenges Many companies located in the developed countries shifted their facilities to developing countries. Thus, Rattner states that many people in developed countries lose as availability of workforce across the globe contributes greatly to the increase […]
• Political Globalization in India India became part of globalization after the economy of the country opened up to the rest of the world in the early 90s as a result of the financial crisis.
• P&G Company and Globalization Issues These issues are mainly concerned with the leadership of the company, the culture and the rationality of the decisions made by the company’s management.
• Political Consequences of Globalization Through the process of globalization, the integrity of the national territorial state as a more or less coherent political economy is eroded, and the functions of the state become reorganized to adjust domestic economic and […]
• Globalization Impact on Modern World In turn, the American youth is becoming more inclined to emulating the leading proponents of the culture. Moreover, this has started manifesting in the adoption of a single pop culture in the entertainment industry.
• Fashion and Gender: Globalization, Nation and Ethnicity Today, fashion is changing drastically to compose fashion trends, which is very relevant in the contemporary society as it’s reflected in the new colorful and stylish designs.
• Delta Airlines Affected by Globalization and Technological Changes The rapid growth of national markets has increased the interest of many corporations to venture and offer their services in such places.
• Can We Lose Our Identity Because of Globalization? To sum up, there are numerous benefits of globalization for the modern world, and I believe that people are flexible enough to allow for cultural exchange and cooperation without damaging their own cultural identity.
• Capitalism and Globalization Effects However, according to an article by Anderson, in free market capitalism, initial wealth is created, which then spreads; it then leads to the social and political change due to the increase of power in the […]
• The Dissemination of Knowledge: Globalization The aim of the course work is to gather theoretical data on the topic of dissemination of knowledge and analyze the links between globalization, free trade and dissemination of knowledge.
• State Sovereignty in the Globalization Process Globalisation has become the most overused and under the specified term in the international scene since the end of the Cold War.
• Joseph Stiglitz’s Making Globalization Work Joseph Stiglitz’s book Making Globalization Work is the representation of the author’s opinion on the question of globalization in the context of the economic and political development of countries with determining globalization’s main challenges and […]
• HRM Globalization’ Cause and Effects The transformation witnessed in the hospitality industry aims at boosting the tourism business to benefit from the resulting competitiveness by capitalizing on human resource perspective.
• International Trade and Its Effects on Globalization The internet, with the help of advanced software enables the international managers to monitor and manage the progress of all the activities of all the company’s firms.
• Isoftstone: the Globalization of a Chinese IT sourcing and Services Powerhouse The company has managed to partner with various other companies such as SunGard in order to offer IT services to clients in the finance and insurance industries in China and across the Asia Pacific region.
• Globalization and sustainable development A good scenario would be the one that the resources are used optimally for the benefit of the current generation, leaving some of the resources to be exploited in the future by the future generations.
• Globalization and Workforce Diversity A community should recognize diversity, ensure the accessibility of resources and uphold equity in the treatment of its constituent individuals with complete disregard of race, ethnicity, abilities and even sexual alignments.
• Globalization Effect on Mechanical Engineering in the U.S This paper will look at the reasons why the United States of America has been outsourcing mechanical engineering services and how this has changed the outlook of the Engineering degrees awarded in the state.
• Globalization Effects on Food Industry, Trading, Education The major benefit enjoyed by the developing nations is the capability to import the raw materials from the industrially developed countries, to facilitate the production of goods required in the country.
• The Impact of Globalization in Malaysia The negative impact of the globalization process in 1997 was vocally criticized by Malaysia and marked it as a ‘betrayal’ by the western economies through the forces of the global market.
• Globalization: Concept, Advantages and Disadvantages The lecture provokes the interest to the evaluation of the consequences of globalization. The accumulation of the first experience has started with watching the different documentary and feature movies about the global and cultural integration […]
• Convergent and Divergent Impacts of Globalization on the World Globalization has resulted in the establishment of a new world order, which functions mutually, irrespective of the barriers of culture, race or nationality, resulting in the convergence of the entire world into a single global […]
• Globalization and Increasing Competition in the World When we look at some of the businesses in the world that are on the forefront in the world of successful business, we find businesses such as the banking institutes, medical providing institutions, academic institutions, […]
• Effects of Internet and World Wide Web on Globalization Before trying to understand the effects of the World Wide Web and the Internet on globalization, it is worth explaining the meaning of the term globalization in order to get the clear picture of the […]
• Globalization of the Local Globalization of the local is a concept developed by Thomas Friedman in his book “The World is Flat”. In conclusion, the cases of Dell’s supply chain and European Union are only two of many examples […]
• Significance of Globalization to Human Resource Management For businesses to survive in the present environment, they must put more emphasis on their competitive strengths and ensure development of long-term strategies.
• The Criminal Justice Funnel and Globalization There are several cases in the initial stages of the criminal process which are then eliminated as the process continues to the top.
• The Coca-Cola Management in the Technological Advances and Globalization In the Coca-Cola Company, the employees are entrusted with various roles to ensure the success of the company and the achievement of its goals and objectives.
• History of Globalization: Past and Present When discussing the critique of globalization, literature tends to analyze its perceived consequences.the emergence of a so-called ‘global culture’ is simply a process that marks the transformation to a culture of consumption and linked to […]
• How Is Globalization Impacting Citizenship? Thus, the concept of citizenship under the new trend of globalization has led to a change in the concept of citizenship. Globalization has led to the decline of citizenship and the authority of the nation-state.
• Will Globalization Help Thailand Improve Its Economy? In this respect, the idea of globalization in a particular nation must be looked at from its broad perspective, taking into consideration the merits and demerits and its impact on the economy of a country.
• The Book “Globalization” by Manfred B. Steger Scientific inventions in technology and communication networks have facilitated international trade and movement of people from one region to another, the result of the trade is economic, social, and political gains.
• The Concept of Globalization To begin with, the inception of globalization in a given country is perhaps thought to be costly economically as well as socially.
• Science and Technology Impact on Globalization Globalization has by now laid down the phase for this epoch through making the world interrelated further and the tools of empowerment available to all.”To start with, Globalization refers to the trend toward countries joining […]
• Reaction Paper in Globalization and Its Discontents: Face the Heat While Sassen delivers his argument concerning the new centrality of the economic operations in a clear and very straight-forward fashion, by focusing on primarily large cities and disregarding the effect that the globalization process will […]
• Globalization, Its Effects and Theories Because of this division, capitalism is seen as contradicting in that understanding the two groups by determining the position and role of each of them play in the society led to class struggle theory.
• Costs and Benefits of Free Trade and Globalization One of the benefits of free trade and globalization to participating countries is that it helps producers have access to international market. It is hard to discern the numerous benefits associated with free trade and […]
• The Impact of Globalization on Indigenous People One of the effects of globalization on indigenous peoples of Canada could be identified as signing of land surrender treaties. British government dispossessed most First Nations of their land and heritage during war invasions and […]
• Globalization: a Blessing in Disguise The World Bank in relations with the IMF is always generous to give loans to the developing countries which are alternatively taken by the vultures companies during high interest pay outs. The reason for this […]
• Globalization and Digitalization The tools that are necessary in the technological exodus from the traditional mode to higher fashions have posed a challenge in the labor force in relation to the level of expertise.
• Effects of Globalization on Native Non-Western Cultural Practices In non-western cultures, the new products and ideas are seen as a welcome since they are promising to the future of the people.
• How Globalization Influence Health and Lifestyle As the processes of globalization are taking place they bring effects to the health and lifestyle around the world; this is because the processes have an impact on the health and lifestyle determinants.
• Globalization Argument of Anna Tsing On the other hand, the impacts of globalization are widely felt on the environment, cultural practices, political aspects, and in the advancements of the economies globally.
• Globalization and Its Key Drivers The news articles examine the issue of globalization drivers through the lens of the recent shock to the global economy with Russia’s invasion of Ukraine and the subsequent political, economic, and social consequences from global […]
• Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions: Internationalization and Globalization For a high UAI, It means that communication and preparation in the company is in time. An example is a company that wants to invest or intends to start a business in the United Kingdom […]
• The Role of Globalization in Education and Knowledge The article is focused on the problem of the failure to distinguish between the notions globalization, globalism and cosmopolitanism that leads to the failure to consider the place of the current education in the modern […]
• Impacts of Globalization on Labor The globalization of labor leads to the availability of much-needed expert workers in an economy. The UAE is one of the best case studies of the positive and negative effects of labor globalization.
• The Meaning of Sustainability and Globalization Sustainability refers to meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, while globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness of the world’s economies, cultures, and populations.
• Humanity’s Collective Health Impacted by Globalization The strict control of borders and a self-centered foreign policy are outdated methods of dealing with global health disasters such as an epidemic or a pandemic.
• Protectionism in the Age of Globalization On the one hand, globalization erases many international boundaries to stabilize fair trade and cooperation, and protectionism is necessary to maintain the national identity and economic prosperity of each country separately.
• Globalization Impact on Energy Consumption: Article Critique Energy consumption will increase until a particular level of globalization is achieved and then starts to fall, according to the link between globalization and energy consumption over the long term. The inverted U-shaped link between […]
• How Globalization Forces Affect Quality of Life For example, globalization can boost the economy and raise living standards while posing risks to the economy’s health and the welfare of workers.
• Background About Globalization and Apple Products The fact that these children are supposed to be in school further highlights the gravity of the situation, as it endangers their health and prospects.
• Globalization in the Environmental Sphere To date, the problem of globalization is relevant, and with it the question of the impact of globalization on the environmental sphere is also of great interest.
• Globalization: London as a Global City Globalization, as a set of processes through which the incorporation of the planet’s population into a single world community, the global community, gives a significant impetus to the development of the knowledge economy and the […]
• Globalization or the Age of Transition However, when people understand globalization in the political and economic developments within the last century, it becomes clear that it has contributed to the spread of the long history of the capitalist world economy. On […]
• Globalization Influence on Australia’s Policies Australia’s economy is thriving, and people’s standard of living is higher since the country has the policy settings to benefit from the advantages of food security, human rights, and skilled migration.
• Globalization and the Dominance of Market-Centered Economic Strategies The main differences between liberal and coordinated market economies can be summed up as follows: in liberal market economies, hierarchies and competitive market structures coordinate the activities of businesses, whereas, in coordinated market economies, the […]
• Globalization in Education: The Gap in the Accessibility Globalization has significantly improved the quality of education: the exchange of knowledge between the countries has led to the teaching of empathy through the interpenetration of cultures.
• Impact of Globalization on the Bankruptcy in Detroit The rise and fall of Detroit are considered to be the rise and fall of the US auto industry. In any case, the current positive impact of globalization on the city is beyond discussion.
• For the Advantages of Globalization, the Pandemic Has Highlighted Its Drawbacks Thus, for instance, among the prominent negative aspects of globalization in the context of the international situation, it is essential to highlight the increase in unemployment and the decline of several industries, the monopolization of […]
• Globalization in Education Through Social Sciences Lens In this case, globalization in education will be analyzed using the lens of the social sciences, which focuses on how people act in their social environment, such as schools and universities.
• Globalization: Benefits and Challenges On the other hand, the netizens’ society also needs to understand globalization and how to interact respectfully. Therefore, it is vital to analyze and understand globalization to enhance the social interactions of people with varied […]
• The Globalization Influence on Dubai The three facets of globalization taken into account in this report are trade, movement of people, and capital movements and their effects on the people of Dubai because they often impact a region’s economy and […]
• The Globalization Impact on the European Region The increase in migration flows to Europe is one of the two most important demographic trends on par with the aging nation in the region. Thus, aspects of globalization such as migration, trade, and the […]
• Globalization and Development of Contemporary Cities The emphasis on sustainability and the associated changes, including the increased mobility of the city and the update of the infrastructure of the urban landscape, can also be considered some of the central elements of […]
• Globalization and Japanese Cultures This map is in that book and this course because of demonstrating the movement of goods and people across the world from Afrique to Patagonia and Nouvelle-Guinee.
• Transportation and Globalization in North America and Europe: Comparison In the United States, transportation is presently the second biggest energy consumer, and in Canada, it is major. It should also be noted that supply chain management in the United States has changed into a […]
• Globalization Debates and Pressures on Companies A global organisation that may have a significant impact on the economy and the administration of a state has also been effectively developed as a result of the growth of the MNC.
• Outsourcing and Globalization in Indian Society The bottom line of the video is that globalization took advantage of Indian labor market and created thousands of high-tech and call center jobs that contributed to the economic development of India.
• Globalization and Organizational Communication As such, the firms reduce the promotion and sales of ‘green’ products and address environmental issues on a larger scale that is related to the fuel use of planes. Situational leadership aims to modify a […]
• Globalization: Benefits and Drawbacks As the exchange of goods and services speeds around the world, globalization brings more innovations to our daily lives. The primary function of layout planning is to fill the space within a facility efficiently, considering […]
• Globalization in Business and SWOT Analysis In modern studies, SWOT analysis is a helpful tool to evaluate the main idea of the offered business and examine organizational internal strengths and weaknesses and external opportunities and threats.
• Anti-Globalization Movement’s Goals and Power The movement works with the destruction of the legal status of “legal entities,” the disappearance of commercial fundamentalism liberated, and the necessary actions of economic privatization by the World Bank, the Foundation International Monetary Fund, […]
• Zapatismo, Globalization, and Neoliberalism The Zapatismo movement fights for the distribution of power within the public sector. The spreading of the ideas of power distribution and equality, the representatives of the movement, try to minimize the impact of neoliberalism […]
• Globalization from Theoretical Perspectives One of the major theories on perspectives of globalization is presented by Held and McGrew it is called “the theory of trans-formationalism”.
• Globalization, Politics, and Economic Reforms The history of globalization dates back to the 1960s during the revolution period. The idea of nationalism in the 19th century led to present-day politics defined by the legitimacy of a country.
• Women’s Work and Impact of Globalization Both the article on sex tourism and the film on Maquilapolis deal with the problem of women having to harm their health, bodies, and reputation for escaping poverty and providing better lives for their families.
• Current Trends in Globalization of Crime Hence, the major cause of the drugs smuggling routes over the U.S.-Mexico border is still the discrepancies between the U.S.and Mexican drug enforcing legislation as well as the lack of cross-border cooperation.
• Globalization, Immigration, and Class Division It includes the widespread globalization of countries, diverse economic perception of each, and the acute ethical and legal side of the immigration issue.
• Globalization as Growth Driver for Society and Economy From the start, Levitt argues that the globalization of markets is a phenomenon like never seen before, where the international market becomes one whole and there is a demand for modern, popular, standardized products which […]
• Modern Globalization in Business In particular, people from different countries and cultures have become more integrated into a common, emerging culture in which there is room for the traditions of all peoples. Globalization does have advantages and disadvantages, but […]
• Nationalism in the Context of Globalization It is important to understand the idea of nationalism through the relationship between the concepts of state and nation. In other words, the crisis of citizenship is rooted in the notion of the disappearance of […]
• Aspects of Globalization Concept Exporting is an entry strategy in which the company’s production facilities remain in the home country, while produced goods are transferred to other countries for sale.
• Is Globalization Reducing Poverty and Inequality? & How to Judge Globalism The article Is Globalization Reducing Poverty and Inequality by Robert Hunter Wade explores the phenomenon of globalization and its influence on the poverty and inequality ratios all over the world.
• Economic Globalization: Positive and Negative Sides First, it is essential to understand the benefits of economic globalization to embrace it rather than try to oppose it. It is argued that globalization is a manifestation of western imperialism as rich countries exploit […]
• Globalization and Its Impact on Culture In such a manner, with the ease of transportation and communication enabled by globalization, there is a merge of cultures around the world.
• Blockchain Decentralized Systems and Intellectual Property Globalization In terms of technology, a blockchain is a list of records, each of which is formed into a block and contains information, a cryptographic hash, about the previous block.
• Christianity and Globalization – Relationship By demonstrating the values behind each religion, globalization leads to greater understanding and tolerance of humanity’s leading religious traditions, one of which is Christianity.
• Globalization in Latin America This regional model assumes the preservation of the role of Latin American countries as suppliers of raw materials, recipients of the capital of foreign companies seeking to occupy commanding heights in the Latin American economy.
• Social Inequality, Capitalism, and Globalization It replaces slavery of antiquity and negatively affects almost all aspects of society, from the inequality of men and women to the sphere of science and education.
• Climate Change as Systemic Risk of Globalization However, the integration became more complex and rapid over the years, making it systemic due to the higher number of internal connections.
• West African Maritime Trade and Globalization Namely, the first half of the book comments on the language and vocabulary development, the reclaiming of myths in the post-colonial society and the Nigerian ethnicity.
• Analysis of Globalization and Inequality in “For Sama” Movie Waab Al-Kateab, one of the directors and the producer of the film, is a journalist who had been documenting her life in Aleppo for a total of five years.
• The Roman Empire: Globalization and Religious Power The Roman Empire is the first-ever experience of world globalization, the creation of a universal multinational society, in which the main directions of historical development with its ups and downs, unprecedented progress, and wild barbarism […]
• How Is Globalization Affecting Rates of Disease
• The Economic Aspects of Globalization
• Internet and Globalization Effects on Marketing
• Future of Globalization From Economic & Political Perspectives
• Multinational Corporations and Globalization
• Is Globalization Responsible for Shaping the Global Crisis?
• Globalization and Humanitarian Development Across the Globe
• The First Wave of Globalization
• The University of West Indies, the Caribbean Identity, and the Globalization Agenda
• Sociology and Globalization or Modernity
• Globalization and Its Effect on Minority Cultures in Tom O’Neill’s “Heart of Helambu”
• Market Globalization and Technological Advances
• Analysis of the Globalization of Cemex
• Globalization. World Trade Organization
• Effect of Globalization on Businesses
• Strategic Marketing Plan for Globalization Move
• Globalization and Inequity in Global Maternal Mortality
• Tendencies That Were Caused by Globalization
• Globalization Influence on Career and Cultural Competence
• Globalization: Non-Western Countries; Nigeria and India
• Globalization: Good, Bad, and Ugly
• Educational Preparation of Nurses in the Globalization of Healthcare
• The Global Challenges for Ongko Furniture Brought Up by Globalization
• Globalization: The Case of Ongko Furniture
• Impact of Globalization and Neoliberalism on Crime and Criminal Justice
• The Era of Globalization in Canada: Employment Standards
• Nature of Health and Illness: Social Determinants and Globalization
• Globalization and Foreign Direct Investment: The A.T. Kearney Study
• Healthcare System: Future Prospects in the Era of Globalization
• The Future of Global Crime: Globalization and Integration
• Globalization and the Internet: Change of Organized Crime
• Technological Progress, Globalization, Feminism Roots
• Analysis of Globalization and Its Impact on Life: Medicine, Economics, Politics, Science
• The Impact of Globalization Today and Polarization of the World Economy
• Globalization’s Impact on Women in South Africa and Peru
• Consequences of Globalization on Society: Culture, Norms, and Moral Values
• Globalization: What Globalization Is and Its Impact
• World History: Globalization in the 1970s-2000s
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Globalization And Food Essay

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Food , Culture , People , China , Globalization , Diet , Development , World

Published: 2020/11/18

<Student Name> <Name and Section # of course> <Instructor Name> Seldom do we take notice of the value and importance of food when we order it from some restaurant or a café. Most people believe that food trade plays an important role in the generation of the economy of a country. In addition, when people enjoy a delicious meal from a non-native menu, they are enjoying a different culture. However, under the effect of food globalization, food style can be changed a lot whether in the culture or society. Therefore, some of the local food cultures need to be preserved and kept going, and food safety should be given attention to be the people of a specific culture. As we know, Chinese foods are a global delicacy. Even in America, we can see Chinese restaurants almost everywhere. In some major cities, there is China Town on the streets. However, not only Chinese food but also American food has created a significant change in the taste and food habits of the world. Due to the trend of fast food developing quickly, people have had some positive effects by consuming a quick meal. For example, McDonald’s gives people the benefit of quick service for who are in a hurry. In addition, foods from other countries advocate people sharing dainty meals such as Sushi, rice and coffee that are famous enough all over the world. In general, globalization has affected food trade positively. While the globalization food has some positive effects, it also causes negative effects as well. “Globalization may accelerate culture change” (The Levin Institute, p.179). It is true that with the course of history so changed, local eating habits and customs are also changing a lot. On one hand, social diversity and world cultures are shrinking to interact with the local culture. For example, in China, the traditional tools of consuming food have changed; although most restaurants still use chopsticks, but in western restaurants, forks and knives have replaced the use of chopsticks. Moreover, fast food instead of conventional food, like McDonald's and KFC are popular amongst young people. On the other hand, diet over time has been altered from what it was in the past. In China, people had breakfast with soymilk, but now milk has become a new favorite. Moreover, bread and biscuits are also replacing some foods such as steamed buns and dumplings. More and more bakeries have French, British, American delights. Elderly people often do not agree with the change in diet culture phenomenon since they feel that the diet changes to satisfy their tastes. For traditional Chinese, continental catering is not acceptable. This shows that not all can agree on the impact of globalization on food culture.

Michael H, Stefan T and Dana T (2003). The Deadly Noodle. Retrieved from Newsweek, Vol. 141, Issue3. The Levin Institute (n.d.), Globalization and Local Culture. Retrieved from HTTP:// www.globalization101.org .

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