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Molecular Biosciences Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2024 2024.

Androgen Drives Melanoma Invasiveness and Metastatic Spread by Inducing Tumorigenic Fucosylation , Qian Liu

Theses/Dissertations from 2023 2023

Exploring strain variation and bacteriophage predation in the gut microbiome of Ciona robusta , Celine Grace F. Atkinson

Distinct Nrf2 Signaling Thresholds Mediate Lung Tumor Initiation and Progression , Janine M. DeBlasi

Thermodynamic frustration of TAD2 and PRR contribute to autoinhibition of p53 , Emily Gregory

Utilization of Detonation Nanodiamonds: Nanocarrier for Gene Therapy in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer , Allan E. Gutierrez

Role of HLA-DRB1 Fucosylation in Anti-Melanoma Immunity , Daniel K. Lester

Targeting BET Proteins Downregulates miR-33a To Promote Synergy with PIM Inhibitors in CMML , Christopher T. Letson

Regulated Intramembrane Proteolysis by M82 Peptidases: The Role of PrsS in the Staphylococcus aureus Stress Response , Baylie M. Schott

Histone Deacetylase 8 is a Novel Therapeutic Target for Mantle Cell Lymphoma and Preserves Natural Killer Cell Cytotoxic Function , January M. Watters

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

Regulation of the Heat Shock Response via Lysine Acetyltransferase CBP-1 and in Neurodegenerative Disease in Caenorhabditis elegans , Lindsey N. Barrett

Determining the Role of Dendritic Cells During Response to Treatment with Paclitaxel/Anti-TIM-3 , Alycia Gardner

Cell-free DNA Methylation Signatures in Cancer Detection and Classification , Jinyong Huang

The Role Of Eicosanoid Metabolism in Mammalian Wound Healing and Inflammation , Kenneth D. Maus

A Holistic Investigation of Acidosis in Breast Cancer , Bryce Ordway

Characterizing the Impact of Postharvest Temperature Stress on Polyphenol Profiles of Red and White-Fruited Strawberry Cultivars , Alyssa N. Smith

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

Multifaceted Approach to Understanding Acinetobacter baumannii Biofilm Formation and Drug Resistance , Jessie L. Allen

Cellular And Molecular Alterations Associated with Ovarian and Renal Cancer Pathophysiology , Ravneet Kaur Chhabra

Ecology and diversity of boletes of the southeastern United States , Arian Farid

CircREV1 Expression in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer , Meagan P. Horton

Microbial Dark Matter: Culturing the Uncultured in Search of Novel Chemotaxonomy , Sarah J. Kennedy

The Multifaceted Role of CCAR-1 in the Alternative Splicing and Germline Regulation in Caenorhabditis elegans , Doreen Ikhuva Lugano

Unraveling the Role of Novel G5 Peptidase Family Proteins in Virulence and Cell Envelope Biogenesis of Staphylococcus aureus , Stephanie M. Marroquin

Cytoplasmic Polyadenylation Element Binding Protein 2 Alternative Splicing Regulates HIF1α During Chronic Hypoxia , Emily M. Mayo

Transcriptomic and Functional Investigation of Bacterial Biofilm Formation , Brooke R. Nemec

A Functional Characterization of the Omega (ω) subunit of RNA Polymerase in Staphylococcus aureus , Shrushti B. Patil

The Role Of Cpeb2 Alternative Splicing In TNBC Metastasis , Shaun C. Stevens

Screening Next-generation Fluorine-19 Probe and Preparation of Yeast-derived G Proteins for GPCR Conformation and Dynamics Study , Wenjie Zhao

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

Understanding the Role of Cereblon in Hematopoiesis Through Structural and Functional Analyses , Afua Adutwumwa Akuffo

To Mid-cell and Beyond: Characterizing the Roles of GpsB and YpsA in Cell Division Regulation in Gram-positive Bacteria , Robert S. Brzozowski

Spatiotemporal Changes of Microbial Community Assemblages and Functions in the Subsurface , Madison C. Davis

New Mechanisms That Regulate DNA Double-Strand Break-Induced Gene Silencing and Genome Integrity , Dante Francis DeAscanis

Regulation of the Heat Shock Response and HSF-1 Nuclear Stress Bodies in C. elegans , Andrew Deonarine

New Mechanisms that Control FACT Histone Chaperone and Transcription-mediated Genome Stability , Angelo Vincenzo de Vivo Diaz

Targeting the ESKAPE Pathogens by Botanical and Microbial Approaches , Emily Dilandro

Succession in native groundwater microbial communities in response to effluent wastewater , Chelsea M. Dinon

Role of ceramide-1 phosphate in regulation of sphingolipid and eicosanoid metabolism in lung epithelial cells , Brittany A. Dudley

Allosteric Control of Proteins: New Methods and Mechanisms , Nalvi Duro

Microbial Community Structures in Three Bahamian Blue Holes , Meghan J. Gordon

A Novel Intramolecular Interaction in P53 , Fan He

The Impact of Myeloid-Mediated Co-Stimulation and Immunosuppression on the Anti-Tumor Efficacy of Adoptive T cell Therapy , Pasquale Patrick Innamarato

Investigating Mechanisms of Immune Suppression Secondary to an Inflammatory Microenvironment , Wendy Michelle Kandell

Posttranslational Modification and Protein Disorder Regulate Protein-Protein Interactions and DNA Binding Specificity of p53 , Robin Levy

Mechanistic and Translational Studies on Skeletal Malignancies , Jeremy McGuire

Novel Long Non-Coding RNA CDLINC Promotes NSCLC Progression , Christina J. Moss

Genome Maintenance Roles of Polycomb Transcriptional Repressors BMI1 and RNF2 , Anthony Richard Sanchez IV

The Ecology and Conservation of an Urban Karst Subterranean Estuary , Robert J. Scharping

Biological and Proteomic Characterization of Cornus officinalis on Human 1.1B4 Pancreatic β Cells: Exploring Use for T1D Interventional Application , Arielle E. Tawfik

Evaluation of Aging and Genetic Mutation Variants on Tauopathy , Amber M. Tetlow

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Investigating the Proteinaceous Regulome of the Acinetobacter baumannii , Leila G. Casella

Functional Characterization of the Ovarian Tumor Domain Deubiquitinating Enzyme 6B , Jasmin M. D'Andrea

Integrated Molecular Characterization of Lung Adenocarcinoma with Implications for Immunotherapy , Nicholas T. Gimbrone

The Role of Secreted Proteases in Regulating Disease Progression in Staphylococcus aureus , Brittney D. Gimza

Advanced Proteomic and Epigenetic Characterization of Ethanol-Induced Microglial Activation , Jennifer Guergues Guergues

Understanding immunometabolic and suppressive factors that impact cancer development , Rebecca Swearingen Hesterberg

Biochemical and Proteomic Approaches to Determine the Impact Level of Each Step of the Supply Chain on Tomato Fruit Quality , Robert T. Madden

Enhancing Immunotherapeutic Interventions for Treatment of Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia , Kamira K. Maharaj

Characterization of the Autophagic-Iron Axis in the Pathophysiology of Endometriosis and Epithelial Ovarian Cancers , Stephanie Rockfield

Understanding the Influence of the Cancer Microenvironment on Metabolism and Metastasis , Shonagh Russell

Modeling of Interaction of Ions with Ether- and Ester-linked Phospholipids , Matthew W. Saunders

Novel Insights into the Multifaceted Roles of BLM in the Maintenance of Genome Stability , Vivek M. Shastri

Conserved glycine residues control transient helicity and disorder in the cold regulated protein, Cor15a , Oluwakemi Sowemimo

A Novel Cytokine Response Modulatory Function of MEK Inhibitors Mediates Therapeutic Efficacy , Mengyu Xie

Novel Strategies on Characterizing Biologically Specific Protein-protein Interaction Networks , Bi Zhao

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

Characterization of the Transcriptional Elongation Factor ELL3 in B cells and Its Role in B-cell Lymphoma Proliferation and Survival , Lou-Ella M.m. Alexander

Identification of Regulatory miRNAs Associated with Ethanol-Induced Microglial Activation Using Integrated Proteomic and Transcriptomic Approaches , Brandi Jo Cook

Molecular Phylogenetics of Floridian Boletes , Arian Farid

MYC Distant Enhancers Underlie Ovarian Cancer Susceptibility at the 8q24.21 Locus , Anxhela Gjyshi Gustafson

Quantitative Proteomics to Support Translational Cancer Research , Melissa Hoffman

A Systems Chemical Biology Approach for Dissecting Differential Molecular Mechanisms of Action of Clinical Kinase Inhibitors in Lung Cancer , Natalia Junqueira Sumi

Investigating the Roles of Fucosylation and Calcium Signaling in Melanoma Invasion , Tyler S. Keeley

Synthesis, Oxidation, and Distribution of Polyphenols in Strawberry Fruit During Cold Storage , Katrina E. Kelly

Investigation of Alcohol-Induced Changes in Hepatic Histone Modifications Using Mass Spectrometry Based Proteomics , Crystina Leah Kriss

Off-Target Based Drug Repurposing Using Systems Pharmacology , Brent M. Kuenzi

Investigation of Anemarrhena asphodeloides and its Constituent Timosaponin-AIII as Novel, Naturally Derived Adjunctive Therapeutics for the Treatment of Advanced Pancreatic Cancer , Catherine B. MarElia

The Role of Phosphohistidine Phosphatase 1 in Ethanol-induced Liver Injury , Daniel Richard Martin

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Changing the Pathobiological Paradigm in Myelodysplastic Syndromes: The NLRP3 Inflammasome Drives the MDS Phenotype , Ashley Basiorka

Modeling of Dynamic Allostery in Proteins Enabled by Machine Learning , Mohsen Botlani-Esfahani

Uncovering Transcriptional Activators and Targets of HSF-1 in Caenorhabditis elegans , Jessica Brunquell

The Role of Sgs1 and Exo1 in the Maintenance of Genome Stability. , Lillian Campos-Doerfler

Mechanisms of IKBKE Activation in Cancer , Sridevi Challa

Discovering Antibacterial and Anti-Resistance Agents Targeting Multi-Drug Resistant ESKAPE Pathogens , Renee Fleeman

Functional Roles of Matrix Metalloproteinases in Bone Metastatic Prostate Cancer , Jeremy S. Frieling

Disorder Levels of c-Myb Transactivation Domain Regulate its Binding Affinity to the KIX Domain of CREB Binding Protein , Anusha Poosapati

Role of Heat Shock Transcription Factor 1 in Ovarian Cancer Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition and Drug Sensitivity , Chase David Powell

Cell Division Regulation in Staphylococcus aureus , Catherine M. Spanoudis

A Novel Approach to the Discovery of Natural Products From Actinobacteria , Rahmy Tawfik

Non-classical regulators in Staphylococcus aureus , Andy Weiss

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

In Vitro and In Vivo Antioxidant Capacity of Synthetic and Natural Polyphenolic Compounds Identified from Strawberry and Fruit Juices , Marvin Abountiolas

Quantitative Proteomic Investigation of Disease Models of Type 2 Diabetes , Mark Gabriel Athanason

CMG Helicase Assembly and Activation: Regulation by c-Myc through Chromatin Decondensation and Novel Therapeutic Avenues for Cancer Treatment , Victoria Bryant

Computational Modeling of Allosteric Stimulation of Nipah Virus Host Binding Protein , Priyanka Dutta

Cell Cycle Arrest by TGFß1 is Dependent on the Inhibition of CMG Helicase Assembly and Activation , Brook Samuel Nepon-Sixt

Gene Expression Profiling and the Role of HSF1 in Ovarian Cancer in 3D Spheroid Models , Trillitye Paullin

VDR-RIPK1 Interaction and its Implications in Cell Death and Cancer Intervention , Waise Quarni

Regulation of nAChRs and Stemness by Nicotine and E-cigarettes in NSCLC , Courtney Schaal

Targeting Histone Deacetylases in Melanoma and T-cells to Improve Cancer Immunotherapy , Andressa Sodre De Castro Laino

Nonreplicative DNA Helicases Involved in Maintaining Genome Stability , Salahuddin Syed

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Functional Analysis of the Ovarian Cancer Susceptibility Locus at 9p22.2 Reveals a Transcription Regulatory Network Mediated by BNC2 in Ovarian Cells , Melissa Buckley

Exploring the Pathogenic and Drug Resistance Mechanisms of Staphylococcus aureus , Whittney Burda

Regulation and Targeting of the FANCD2 Activation in DNA Repair , Valentina Celeste Caceres

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Research Paper

Cell culture of taxus as a source of the antineoplastic drug taxol and related taxanes.

• Arthur G. Fett-Neto
• Frank DiCosmo

Biological Oxidation of Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) by a Methanotrophic Bacterium

• Mary F. DeFlaun
• Burt D. Ensley
• Robert J. Steffan

Solubilization and Activity of Proteins in Compressible-Fluid Based Microemulsions

• Guadalupe Ayala
• Sanjay V. Kamat
• Alan J. Russell

An Algorithmically Optimized Combinatorial Library Screened by Digital Imaging Spectroscopy

• Ellen R. Goldman
• Douglas C. Youvan

Hyperthermostable Variants of a Highly Thermostable Alpha-Amylase

• Philippe Joyet
• Nathalie Declerck
• Claude Gaillardin

Fertile, Transgenic Oat Plants

• David A. Somers
• Howard W. Rines
• William R. Bushnell

Comparison of Coat Protein-Mediated and Genetically-Derived Resistance in Cucumbers to Infection by Cucumber Mosaic Virus Under Field Conditions with Natural Challenge Inoculations by Vectors

• Dennis Gonsalves
• Jerry L. Slightom

Controlled Antibody Delivery Systems

• Jill K. Sherwood
• Richard B. Dause
• W. Mark Saltzman

Rescuing Transgene Expression by Co-Integration

• A. J. Clark
• J. P. Simons

Trypanosoma Cruzi Flagellar Repetitive Antigen Expression by Recombinant Baculovirus: Towards an Improved Diagnostics Reagent for Chagas' Disease

• Claudia N. Duarte dos Santos
• Marco A. Krieger
• Ricardo Galler

“Primatization” of Recombinant Antibodies for Immunotherapy of Human Diseases: A Macaque/Human Chimeric Antibody Against Human CD4

• Roland Newman
• James Alberts
• Nabil Hanna

The Two Major Xylanases from Trichoderma Reesei : Characterization of Both Enzymes and Genes

• Anneli Törrönen
• Robert L. Mach
• Christian P. Kubicek

Virus Resistant Papaya Plants Derived from Tissues Bombarded with the Coat Protein Gene of Papaya Ringspot Virus

• Maureen M. M. Fitch
• Richard M. Manshardt
• John C. Sanford

Effect of Glycosylation on Properties of Soluble Interferon Gamma Receptors Produced in Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Experession Systems

• Michael Fountoulakis
• Reiner Gentz

High Level Expression of Streptokinase in Escherichia Coli

• M. P. Estrada
• L. Hernandez

Baculovirus Expression of Alkaline Phosphatase as a Reporter Gene for Evaluation of Production, Glycosylation and Secretion

• T. R. Davis
• K. Munkenbeck Trotter

Characterization of RNA–Mediated Resistance to Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus in Transgenic Tobacco Plants

• Peter de Haan
• Jan J. L. Gielen
• Rob Goldbach

Non–Neutralizing Monoclonal Antibodies Against RAS GTPase–Activating Protein: Production, Characterization and Use in an Enzyme Immunometric Assay

• G. Y. Zhang
• M. N. Thang

Construction, Bacterial Expression and Characterization of a Bifunctional Single–Chain Antibody–Phosphatase Fusion Protein Targeted to the Human ERBB–2 Receptor

• Winfried Wels
• Ina-Maria Harwerth
• Nancy E. Hynes

High Level Expression of a Chimeric Anti–Ganglioside GD2 Antibody: Genomic Kappa Sequences Improve Expression in COS and CHO Cells

• Lynette A. Fouser
• Stephen L. Swanberg
• Gerard E. Riedel

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Biotechnology Research Paper Topics

This collection of biotechnology research paper topics provides the list of 10 potential topics for research papers and overviews the history of biotechnology.

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Get 10% off with 24start discount code, 1. animal breeding: genetic methods.

Modern animal breeding relies on scientific methods to control production of domesticated animals, both livestock and pets, which exhibit desired physical and behavioral traits. Genetic technology aids animal breeders to attain nutritional, medical, recreational, and fashion standards demanded by consumers for animal products including meat, milk, eggs, leather, wool, and pharmaceuticals. Animals are also genetically designed to meet labor and sporting requirements for speed and endurance, conformation and beauty ideals to win show competitions, and intelligence levels to perform obediently at tasks such as herding, hunting, and tracking. By the late twentieth century, genetics and mathematical models were appropriated to identify the potential of immature animals. DNA markers indicate how young animals will mature, saving breeders money by not investing in animals lacking genetic promise. Scientists also successfully transplanted sperm-producing stem cells with the goal of restoring fertility to barren breeding animals. At the National Animal Disease Center in Ames, Iowa, researchers created a gene-based test, which uses a cloned gene of the organism that causes Johne’s disease in cattle in order to detect that disease to avert epidemics. Researchers also began mapping the dog genome and developing molecular techniques to evaluate canine chromosomes in the Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL). Bioinformatics incorporates computers to analyze genetic material. Some tests were developed to diagnose many of several hundred genetic canine diseases including hip dysplasia and progressive retinal atrophy (PRA). A few breed organizations modified standards to discourage breeding of genetically flawed animals and promote heterozygosity.

2. Antibacterial Chemotherapy

In the early years of the twentieth century, the search for agents that would be effective against internal infections proceeded along two main routes. The first was a search for naturally occurring substances that were effective against microorganisms (antibiosis). The second was a search for chemicals that would have the same effect (chemotherapy). Despite the success of penicillin in the 1940s, the major early advances in the treatment of infection occurred not through antibiosis but through chemotherapy. The principle behind chemotherapy was that there was a relationship between chemical structure and pharmacological action. The founder of this concept was Paul Erhlich (1854–1915). An early success came in 1905 when atoxyl (an organic arsenic compound) was shown to destroy trypanosomes, the microbes that caused sleeping sickness. Unfortunately, atoxyl also damaged the optic nerve. Subsequently, Erhlich and his co-workers synthesized and tested hundreds of related arsenic compounds. Ehrlich was a co-recipient (with Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov) of the Nobel Prize in medicine in 1908 for his work on immunity. Success in discovering a range of effective antibacterial drugs had three important consequences: it brought a range of important diseases under control for the first time; it provided a tremendous stimulus to research workers and opened up new avenues of research; and in the resulting commercial optimism, it led to heavy postwar investment in the pharmaceutical industry. The therapeutic revolution had begun.

3. Artificial Insemination and in Vitro Fertilization

Artificial insemination (AI) involves the extraction and collection of semen together with techniques for depositing semen in the uterus in order to achieve successful fertilization and pregnancy. Throughout the twentieth century, the approach has offered animal breeders the advantage of being able to utilize the best available breeding stock and at the correct time within the female reproductive cycle, but without the limitations of having the animals in the same location. AI has been applied most intensively within the dairy and beef cattle industries and to a lesser extent horse breeding and numerous other domesticated species.

Many of the techniques involved in artificial insemination would lay the foundation for in vitro fertilization (IVF) in the latter half of the twentieth century. IVF refers to the group of technologies that allow fertilization to take place outside the body involving the retrieval of ova or eggs from the female and sperm from the male, which are then combined in artificial, or ‘‘test tube,’’ conditions leading to fertilization. The fertilized eggs then continue to develop for several days ‘‘in culture’’ until being transferred to the female recipient to continue developing within the uterus.

4. Biopolymers

Biopolymers are natural polymers, long-chained molecules (macromolecules) consisting mostly of a repeated composition of building blocks or monomers that are formed and utilized by living organisms. Each group of biopolymers is composed of different building blocks, for example chains of sugar molecules form starch (a polysaccharide), chains of amino acids form proteins and peptides, and chains of nucleic acid form DNA and RNA (polynucleotides). Biopolymers can form gels, fibers, coatings, and films depending on the specific polymer, and serve a variety of critical functions for cells and organisms. Proteins including collagens, keratins, silks, tubulins, and actin usually form structural composites or scaffolding, or protective materials in biological systems (e.g., spider silk). Polysaccharides function in molecular recognition at cell membrane surfaces, form capsular barrier layers around cells, act as emulsifiers and adhesives, and serve as skeletal or architectural materials in plants. In many cases these polymers occur in combination with proteins to form novel composite structures such as invertebrate exoskeletons or microbial cell walls, or with lignin in the case of plant cell walls.

The use of the word ‘‘cloning’’ is fraught with confusion and inconsistency, and it is important at the outset of this discussion to offer definitional clarification. For instance, in the 1997 article by Ian Wilmut and colleagues announcing the birth of the first cloned adult vertebrate (a ewe, Dolly the sheep) from somatic cell nuclear transfer, the word clone or cloning was never used, and yet the announcement raised considerable disquiet about the prospect of cloned human beings. In a desire to avoid potentially negative forms of language, many prefer to substitute ‘‘cell expansion techniques’’ or ‘‘therapeutic cloning’’ for cloning. Cloning has been known for centuries as a horticultural propagation method: for example, plants multiplied by grafting, budding, or cuttings do not differ genetically from the original plant. The term clone entered more common usage as a result of a speech in 1963 by J.B.S. Haldane based on his paper, ‘‘Biological possibilities for the human species of the next ten-thousand years.’’ Notwithstanding these notes of caution, we can refer to a number of processes as cloning. At the close of the twentieth century, such techniques had not yet progressed to the ability to bring a cloned human to full development; however, the ability to clone cells from an adult human has potential to treat diseases. International policymaking in the late 1990s sought to distinguish between the different end uses for somatic cell nuclear transfer resulting in the widespread adoption of the distinction between ‘‘reproductive’’ and ‘‘therapeutic’’ cloning. The function of the distinction has been to permit the use (in some countries) of the technique to generate potentially beneficial therapeutic applications from embryonic stem cell technology whilst prohibiting its use in human reproduction. In therapeutic applications, nuclear transfer from a patient’s cells into an enucleated ovum is used to create genetically identical embryos that would be grown in vitro but not be allowed to continue developing to become a human being. The resulting cloned embryos could be used as a source from which to produce stem cells that can then be induced to specialize into the specific type of tissue required by the patient (such as skin for burns victims, brain neuron cells for Parkinson’s disease sufferers, or pancreatic cells for diabetics). The rationale is that because the original nuclear material is derived from a patient’s adult tissue, the risks of rejection of such cells by the immune system are reduced.

6. Gene Therapy

In 1971, Australian Nobel laureate Sir F. MacFarlane Burnet thought that gene therapy (introducing genes into body tissue, usually to treat an inherited genetic disorder) looked more and more like a case of the emperor’s new clothes. Ethical issues aside, he believed that practical considerations forestalled possibilities for any beneficial gene strategy, then or probably ever. Bluntly, he wrote: ‘‘little further advance can be expected from laboratory science in the handling of ‘intrinsic’ types of disability and disease.’’ Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum, 1958 Nobel laureates, theorized in the 1960s that genes might be altered or replaced using viral vectors to treat human diseases. Stanfield Rogers, working from the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in 1970, had tried but failed to cure argininemia (a genetic disorder of the urea cycle that causes neurological damage in the form of mental retardation, seizures, and eventually death) in two German girls using Swope papilloma virus. Martin Cline at the University of California in Los Angeles, made the second failed attempt a decade later. He tried to correct the bone marrow cells of two beta-thalassemia patients, one in Israel and the other in Italy. What Cline’s failure revealed, however, was that many researchers who condemned his trial as unethical were by then working toward similar goals and targeting different diseases with various delivery methods. While Burnet’s pessimism finally proved to be wrong, progress in gene therapy was much slower than antibiotic or anticancer chemotherapy developments over the same period of time. While gene therapy had limited success, it nevertheless remained an active area for research, particularly because the Human Genome Project, begun in 1990, had resulted in a ‘‘rough draft’’ of all human genes by 2001, and was completed in 2003. Gene mapping created the means for analyzing the expression patterns of hundreds of genes involved in biological pathways and for identifying single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that have diagnostic and therapeutic potential for treating specific diseases in individuals. In the future, gene therapies may prove effective at protecting patients from adverse drug reactions or changing the biochemical nature of a person’s disease. They may also target blood vessel formation in order to prevent heart disease or blindness due to macular degeneration or diabetic retinopathy. One of the oldest ideas for use of gene therapy is to produce anticancer vaccines. One method involves inserting a granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor gene into prostate tumor cells removed in surgery. The cells then are irradiated to prevent any further cancer and injected back into the same patient to initiate an immune response against any remaining metastases. Whether or not such developments become a major treatment modality, no one now believes, as MacFarland Burnet did in 1970, that gene therapy science has reached an end in its potential to advance health.

7. Genetic Engineering

The term ‘‘genetic engineering’’ describes molecular biology techniques that allow geneticists to analyze and manipulate deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). At the close of the twentieth century, genetic engineering promised to revolutionize many industries, including microbial biotechnology, agriculture, and medicine. It also sparked controversy over potential health and ecological hazards due to the unprecedented ability to bypass traditional biological reproduction.

For centuries, if not millennia, techniques have been employed to alter the genetic characteristics of animals and plants to enhance specifically desired traits. In a great many cases, breeds with which we are most familiar bear little resemblance to the wild varieties from which they are derived. Canine breeds, for instance, have been selectively tailored to changing esthetic tastes over many years, altering their appearance, behavior and temperament. Many of the species used in farming reflect long-term alterations to enhance meat, milk, and fleece yields. Likewise, in the case of agricultural varieties, hybridization and selective breeding have resulted in crops that are adapted to specific production conditions and regional demands. Genetic engineering differs from these traditional methods of plant and animal breeding in some very important respects. First, genes from one organism can be extracted and recombined with those of another (using recombinant DNA, or rDNA, technology) without either organism having to be of the same species. Second, removing the requirement for species reproductive compatibility, new genetic combinations can be produced in a much more highly accelerated way than before. Since the development of the first rDNA organism by Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer in 1973, a number of techniques have been found to produce highly novel products derived from transgenic plants and animals.

At the same time, there has been an ongoing and ferocious political debate over the environmental and health risks to humans of genetically altered species. The rise of genetic engineering may be characterized by developments during the last three decades of the twentieth century.

8. Genetic Screening and Testing

The menu of genetic screening and testing technologies now available in most developed countries increased rapidly in the closing years of the twentieth century. These technologies emerged within the context of rapidly changing social and legal contexts with regard to the medicalization of pregnancy and birth and the legalization of abortion. The earliest genetic screening tests detected inborn errors of metabolism and sex-linked disorders. Technological innovations in genomic mapping and DNA sequencing, together with an explosion in research on the genetic basis of disease which culminated in the Human Genome Project (HGP), led to a range of genetic screening and testing for diseases traditionally recognized as genetic in origin and for susceptibility to more common diseases such as certain types of familial cancer, cardiac conditions, and neurological disorders among others. Tests were also useful for forensic, or nonmedical, purposes. Genetic screening techniques are now available in conjunction with in vitro fertilization and other types of reproductive technologies, allowing the screening of fertilized embryos for certain genetic mutations before selection for implantation. At present selection is purely on disease grounds and selection for other traits (e.g., for eye or hair color, intelligence, height) cannot yet be done, though there are concerns for eugenics and ‘‘designer babies.’’ Screening is available for an increasing number of metabolic diseases through tandem mass spectrometry, which uses less blood per test, allows testing for many conditions simultaneously, and has a very low false-positive rate as compared to conventional Guthrie testing. Finally, genetic technologies are being used in the judicial domain for determination of paternity, often associated with child support claims, and for forensic purposes in cases where DNA material is available for testing.

9. Plant Breeding: Genetic Methods

The cultivation of plants is the world’s oldest biotechnology. We have continually tried to produce improved varieties while increasing yield, features to aid cultivation and harvesting, disease, and pest resistance, or crop qualities such as longer postharvest storage life and improved taste or nutritional value. Early changes resulted from random crosspollination, rudimentary grafting, or spontaneous genetic change. For centuries, man kept the seed from the plants with improved characteristics to plant the following season’s crop. The pioneering work of Gregor Mendel and his development of the basic laws of heredity showed for other first time that some of the processes of heredity could be altered by experimental means. The genetic analysis of bacterial (prokaryote) genes and techniques for analysis of the higher (eukaryotic) organisms such as plants developed in parallel streams, but the rediscovery of Mendel’s work in 1900 fueled a burst of activity on understanding the role of genes in inheritance. The knowledge that genes are linked along the chromosome thereby allowed mapping of genes (transduction analysis, conjugation analysis, and transformation analysis). The power of genetics to produce a desirable plant was established, and it was appreciated that controlled breeding (test crosses and back crosses) and careful analysis of the progeny could distinguish traits that were dominant or recessive, and establish pure breeding lines. Traditional horticultural techniques of artificial self-pollination and cross-pollination were also used to produce hybrids. In the 1930s the Russian Nikolai Vavilov recognized the value of genetic diversity in domesticated crop plants and their wild relatives to crop improvement, and collected seeds from the wild to study total genetic diversity and use these in breeding programs. The impact of scientific crop breeding was established by the ‘‘Green revolution’’ of the 1960s, when new wheat varieties with higher yields were developed by careful crop breeding. ‘‘Mutation breeding’’— inducing mutations by exposing seeds to x-rays or chemicals such as sodium azide, accelerated after World War II. It was also discovered that plant cells and tissues grown in tissue culture would mutate rapidly. In the 1970s, haploid breeding, which involves producing plants from two identical sets of chromosomes, was extensively used to create new cultivars. In the twenty-first century, haploid breeding could speed up plant breeding by shortening the breeding cycle.

10. Tissue Culturing

The technique of tissue or cell culture, which relates to the growth of tissue or cells within a laboratory setting, underlies a phenomenal proportion of biomedical research. Though it has roots in the late nineteenth century, when numerous scientists tried to grow samples in alien environments, cell culture is credited as truly beginning with the first concrete evidence of successful growth in vitro, demonstrated by Johns Hopkins University embryologist Ross Harrison in 1907. Harrison took sections of spinal cord from a frog embryo, placed them on a glass cover slip and bathed the tissue in a nutrient media. The results of the experiment were startling—for the first time scientists visualized actual nerve growth as it would happen in a living organism—and many other scientists across the U.S. and Europe took up culture techniques. Rather unwittingly, for he was merely trying to settle a professional dispute regarding the origin of nerve fibers, Harrison fashioned a research tool that has since been designated by many as the greatest advance in medical science since the invention of the microscope.

From the 1980s, cell culture has once again been brought to the forefront of cancer research in the isolation and identification of numerous cancer causing oncogenes. In addition, cell culturing continues to play a crucial role in fields such as cytology, embryology, radiology, and molecular genetics. In the future, its relevance to direct clinical treatment might be further increased by the growth in culture of stem cells and tissue replacement therapies that can be tailored for a particular individual. Indeed, as cell culture approaches its centenary, it appears that its importance to scientific, medical, and commercial research the world over will only increase in the twenty-first century.

History of Biotechnology

Biotechnology grew out of the technology of fermentation, which was called zymotechnology. This was different from the ancient craft of brewing because of its thought-out relationships to science. These were most famously conceptualized by the Prussian chemist Georg Ernst Stahl (1659–1734) in his 1697 treatise Zymotechnia Fundamentalis, in which he introduced the term zymotechnology. Carl Balling, long-serving professor in Prague, the world center of brewing, drew on the work of Stahl when he published his Bericht uber die Fortschritte der zymotechnische Wissenschaften und Gewerbe (Account of the Progress of the Zymotechnic Sciences and Arts) in the mid-nineteenth century. He used the idea of zymotechnics to compete with his German contemporary Justus Liebig for whom chemistry was the underpinning of all processes.

By the end of the nineteenth century, there were attempts to develop a new scientific study of fermentation. It was an aspect of the ‘‘second’’ Industrial Revolution during the period from 1870 to 1914. The emergence of the chemical industry is widely taken as emblematic of the formal research and development taking place at the time. The development of microbiological industries is another example. For the first time, Louis Pasteur’s germ theory made it possible to provide convincing explanations of brewing and other fermentation processes.

Pasteur had published on brewing in the wake of France’s humiliation in the Franco–Prussian war (1870–1871) to assert his country’s superiority in an industry traditionally associated with Germany. Yet the science and technology of fermentation had a wide range of applications including the manufacture of foods (cheese, yogurt, wine, vinegar, and tea), of commodities (tobacco and leather), and of chemicals (lactic acid, citric acid, and the enzyme takaminase). The concept of zymotechnology associated principally with the brewing of beer began to appear too limited to its principal exponents. At the time, Denmark was the world leader in creating high-value agricultural produce. Cooperative farms pioneered intensive pig fattening as well as the mass production of bacon, butter, and beer. It was here that the systems of science and technology were integrated and reintegrated, conceptualized and reconceptualized.

The Dane Emil Christian Hansen discovered that infection from wild yeasts was responsible for numerous failed brews. His contemporary Alfred Jørgensen, a Copenhagen consultant closely associated with the Tuborg brewery, published a widely used textbook on zymotechnology. Microorganisms and Fermentation first appeared in Danish 1889 and would be translated, reedited, and reissued for the next 60 years.

The scarcity of resources on both sides during World War I brought together science and technology, further development of zymotechnology, and formulation of the concept of biotechnology. Impending and then actual war accelerated the use of fermentation technologies to make strategic materials. In Britain a variant of a process to ferment starch to make butadiene for synthetic rubber production was adapted to make acetone needed in the manufacture of explosives. The process was technically important as the first industrial sterile fermentation and was strategically important for munitions supplies. The developer, chemist Chaim Weizmann, later became well known as the first president of Israel in 1949.

In Germany scarce oil-based lubricants were replaced by glycerol made by fermentation. Animal feed was derived from yeast grown with the aid of the new synthetic ammonia in another wartime development that inspired the coining of the word biotechnology. Hungary was the agricultural base of the Austro–Hungarian empire and aspired to Danish levels of efficiency. The economist Karl Ereky (1878–1952) planned to go further and build the largest industrial pig-processing factory. He envisioned a site that would fatten 50,000 swine at a time while railroad cars of sugar beet arrived and fat, hides, and meat departed. In this forerunner of the Soviet collective farm, peasants (in any case now falling prey to the temptations of urban society) would be completely superseded by the industrialization of the biological process in large factory-like animal processing units. Ereky went further in his ruminations over the meaning of his innovation. He suggested that it presaged an industrial revolution that would follow the transformation of chemical technology. In his book entitled Biotechnologie, he linked specific technical injunctions to wide-ranging philosophy. Ereky was neither isolated nor obscure. He had been trained in the mainstream of reflection on the meaning of the applied sciences in Hungary, which would be remarkably productive across the sciences. After World War I, Ereky served as Hungary’s minister of food in the short-lived right wing regime that succeeded the fall of the communist government of Bela Kun.

Nonetheless it was not through Ereky’s direct action that his ideas seem to have spread. Rather, his book was reviewed by the influential Paul Lindner, head of botany at the Institut fu¨ r Ga¨ rungsgewerbe in Berlin, who suggested that microorganisms could also be seen as biotechnological machines. This concept was already found in the production of yeast and in Weizmann’s work with strategic materials, which was widely publicized at that very time. It was with this meaning that the word ‘‘Biotechnologie’’ entered German dictionaries in the 1920s.

Biotechnology represented more than the manipulation of existing organisms. From the beginning it was concerned with their improvement as well, and this meant the enhancement of all living creatures. Most dramatically this would include humanity itself; more mundanely it would include plants and animals of agricultural importance. The enhancement of people was called eugenics by the Victorian polymath and cousin of Charles Darwin, Francis Galton. Two strains of eugenics emerged: negative eugenics associated with weeding out the weak and positive eugenics associated with enhancing strength. In the early twentieth century, many eugenics proponents believed that the weak could be made strong. People had after all progressed beyond their biological limits by means of technology.

Jean-Jacques Virey, a follower of the French naturalist Jean-Baptiste de Monet de Lamarck, had coined the term ‘‘biotechnie’’ in 1828 to describe man’s ability to make technology do the work of biology, but it was not till a century later that the term entered widespread use. The Scottish biologist and town planner Patrick Geddes made biotechnics popular in the English-speaking world. Geddes, too, sought to link life and technology. Before World War I he had characterized the technological evolution of mankind as a move from the paleotechnic era of coal and iron to the neotechnic era of chemicals, electricity, and steel. After the war, he detected a new era based on biology—the biotechnic era. Through his friend, writer Lewis Mumford, Geddes would have great influence. Mumford’s book Technics and Civilization, itself a founding volume of the modern historiography of technology, promoted his vision of the Geddesian evolution.

A younger generation of English experimental biologists with a special interest in genetics, including J. B. S. Haldane, Julian Huxley, and Lancelot Hogben, also promoted a concept of biotechnology in the period between the world wars. Because they wrote popular works, they were among Britain’s best-known scientists. Haldane wrote about biological invention in his far-seeing work Daedalus. Huxley looked forward to a blend of social and eugenics-based biological engineering. Hogben, following Geddes, was more interested in engineering plants through breeding. He tied the progressivism of biology to the advance of socialism.

The improvement of the human race, genetic manipulation of bacteria, and the development of fermentation technology were brought together by the development of penicillin during World War II. This drug was successfully extracted from the juice exuded by a strain of the Penicillium fungus. Although discovered by accident and then developed further for purely scientific reasons, the scarce and unstable ‘‘antibiotic’’ called penicillin was transformed during World War II into a powerful and widely used drug. Large networks of academic and government laboratories and pharmaceutical manufacturers in Britain and the U.S. were coordinated by agencies of the two governments. An unanticipated combination of genetics, biochemistry, chemistry, and chemical engineering skills had been required. When the natural mold was bombarded with high-frequency radiation, far more productive mutants were produced, and subsequently all the medicine was made using the product of these man-made cells. By the 1950s penicillin was cheap to produce and globally available.

The new technology of cultivating and processing large quantities of microorganisms led to calls for a new scientific discipline. Biochemical engineering was one term, and applied microbiology another. The Swedish biologist, Carl-Goran Heden, possibly influenced by German precedents, favored the term ‘‘Biotechnologi’’ and persuaded his friend Elmer Gaden to relabel his new journal Biotechnology and Biochemical Engineering. From 1962 major international conferences were held under the banner of the Global Impact of Applied Microbiology. During the 1960s food based on single-cell protein grown in fermenters on oil or glucose seemed, to visionary engineers and microbiologists and to major companies, to offer an immediate solution to world hunger. Tropical countries rich in biomass that could be used as raw material for fermentation were also the world’s poorest. Alcohol could be manufactured by fermenting such starch or sugar rich crops as sugar cane and corn. Brazil introduced a national program of replacing oil-based petrol with alcohol in the 1970s.

It was not, however, just the developing countries that hoped to benefit. The Soviet Union developed fermentation-based protein as a major source of animal feed through the 1980s. In the U.S. it seemed that oil from surplus corn would solve the problem of low farm prices aggravated by the country’s boycott of the USSR in1979, and the term ‘‘gasohol‘‘ came into currency. Above all, the decline of established industries made the discovery of a new wealth maker an urgent priority for Western governments. Policy makers in both Germany and Japan during the 1970s were driven by a sense of the inadequacy of the last generation of technologies. These were apparently maturing, and the succession was far from clear. Even if electronics or space travel offered routes to the bright industrial future, these fields seemed to be dominated by the U.S. Seeing incipient crisis, the Green, or environmental, movement promoted a technology that would depend on renewable resources and on low-energy processes that would produce biodegradable products, recycle waste, and address problems of the health and nutrition of the world.

In 1973 the German government, seeking a new and ‘‘greener’’ industrial policy, commissioned a report entitled Biotechnologie that identified ways in which biological processing was key to modern developments in technology. Even though the report was published at the time that recombinant DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) was becoming possible, it did not refer to this new technique and instead focused on the use and combination of existing technologies to make novel products.

Nonetheless the hitherto esoteric science of molecular biology was making considerable progress, although its practice in the early 1970s was rather distant from the world of industrial production. The phrase ‘‘genetic engineering’’ entered common parlance in the 1960s to describe human genetic modification. Medicine, however, put a premium on the use of proteins that were difficult to extract from people: insulin for diabetics and interferon for cancer sufferers. During the early 1970s what had been science fiction became fact as the use of DNA synthesis, restriction enzymes, and plasmids were integrated. In 1973 Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer successfully transferred a section of DNA from one E. coli bacterium to another. A few prophets such as Joshua Lederberg and Walter Gilbert argued that the new biological techniques of recombinant DNA might be ideal for making synthetic versions of expensive proteins such as insulin and interferon through their expression in bacterial cells. Small companies, such as Cetus and Genentech in California and Biogen in Cambridge, Massachusetts, were established to develop the techniques. In many cases discoveries made by small ‘‘boutique’’ companies were developed for the market by large, more established, pharmaceutical organizations.

Many governments were impressed by these advances in molecular genetics, which seemed to make biotechnology a potential counterpart to information technology in a third industrial revolution. These inspired hopes of industrial production of proteins identical to those produced in the human body that could be used to treat genetic diseases. There was also hope that industrially useful materials such as alcohol, plastics (biopolymers), or ready-colored fibers might be made in plants, and thus the attractions of a potentially new agricultural era might be as great as the implications for medicine. At a time of concern over low agricultural prices, such hopes were doubly welcome. Indeed, the agricultural benefits sometimes overshadowed the medical implications.

The mechanism for the transfer of enthusiasm from engineering fermenters to engineering genes was the New York Stock Exchange. At the end of the 1970s, new tax laws encouraged already adventurous U.S. investors to put money into small companies whose stock value might grow faster than their profits. The brokerage firm E. F. Hutton saw the potential for the new molecular biology companies such as Biogen and Cetus. Stock market interest in companies promising to make new biological entities was spurred by the 1980 decision of the U.S. Supreme Court to permit the patenting of a new organism. The patent was awarded to the Exxon researcher Ananda Chakrabarty for an organism that metabolized hydrocarbon waste. This event signaled the commercial potential of biotechnology to business and governments around the world. By the early 1980s there were widespread hopes that the protein interferon, made with some novel organism, would provide a cure for cancer. The development of monoclonal antibody technology that grew out of the work of Georges J. F. Kohler and Cesar Milstein in Cambridge (co-recipients with Niels K. Jerne of the Nobel Prize in medicine in 1986) seemed to offer new prospects for precise attacks on particular cells.

The fear of excessive regulatory controls encouraged business and scientific leaders to express optimistic projections about the potential of biotechnology. The early days of biotechnology were fired by hopes of medical products and high-value pharmaceuticals. Human insulin and interferon were early products, and a second generation included the anti-blood clotting agent tPA and the antianemia drug erythropoietin. Biotechnology was also used to help identify potential new drugs that might be made chemically, or synthetically.

At the same time agricultural products were also being developed. Three early products that each raised substantial problems were bacteria which inhibited the formation of frost on the leaves of strawberry plants (ice-minus bacteria), genetically modified plants including tomatoes and rapeseed, and the hormone bovine somatrotropin (BST) produced in genetically modified bacteria and administered to cattle in the U.S. to increase milk yields. By 1999 half the soy beans and one third of the corn grown in the U.S. were modified. Although the global spread of such products would arouse the best known concern at the end of the century, the use of the ice-minus bacteria— the first authorized release of a genetically engineered organism into the environment—had previously raised anxiety in the U.S. in the 1980s.

In 1997 Dolly the sheep was cloned from an adult mother in the Roslin agricultural research institute outside Edinburgh, Scotland. This work was inspired by the need to find a way of reproducing sheep engineered to express human proteins in their milk. However, the public interest was not so much in the cloning of sheep that had just been achieved as in the cloning of people, which had not. As in the Middle Ages when deformed creatures had been seen as monsters and portents of natural disasters, Dolly was similarly seen as monster and as a portent of human cloning.

The name Frankenstein, recalled from the story written by Mary Shelley at the beginning of the nineteenth century and from the movies of the 1930s, was once again familiar at the end of the twentieth century. Shelley had written in the shadow of Stahl’s theories. The continued appeal of this book embodies the continuity of the fears of artificial life and the anxiety over hubris. To this has been linked a more mundane suspicion of the blending of commerce and the exploitation of life. Discussion of biotechnology at the end of the twentieth century was therefore colored by questions of whose assurances of good intent and reassurance of safety could be trusted.

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200+ Biotechnology Research Topics: Let’s Shape the Future

In the dynamic landscape of scientific exploration, biotechnology stands at the forefront, revolutionizing the way we approach healthcare, agriculture, and environmental sustainability. This interdisciplinary field encompasses a vast array of research topics that hold the potential to reshape our world. 

In this blog post, we will delve into the realm of biotechnology research topics, understanding their significance and exploring the diverse avenues that researchers are actively investigating.

Overview of Biotechnology Research

Table of Contents

Biotechnology, at its core, involves the application of biological systems, organisms, or derivatives to develop technologies and products for the benefit of humanity. 

The scope of biotechnology research is broad, covering areas such as genetic engineering, biomedical engineering, environmental biotechnology, and industrial biotechnology. Its interdisciplinary nature makes it a melting pot of ideas and innovations, pushing the boundaries of what is possible.

How to Select The Best Biotechnology Research Topics?

• Identify Your Interests

Start by reflecting on your own interests within the broad field of biotechnology. What aspects of biotechnology excite you the most? Identifying your passion will make the research process more engaging.

• Stay Informed About Current Trends

Keep up with the latest developments and trends in biotechnology. Subscribe to scientific journals, attend conferences, and follow reputable websites to stay informed about cutting-edge research. This will help you identify gaps in knowledge or areas where advancements are needed.

• Consider Societal Impact

Evaluate the potential societal impact of your chosen research topic. How does it contribute to solving real-world problems? Biotechnology has applications in healthcare, agriculture, environmental conservation, and more. Choose a topic that aligns with the broader goal of improving quality of life or addressing global challenges.

• Assess Feasibility and Resources

Evaluate the feasibility of your research topic. Consider the availability of resources, including laboratory equipment, funding, and expertise. A well-defined and achievable research plan will increase the likelihood of successful outcomes.

• Explore Innovation Opportunities

Look for opportunities to contribute to innovation within the field. Consider topics that push the boundaries of current knowledge, introduce novel methodologies, or explore interdisciplinary approaches. Innovation often leads to groundbreaking discoveries.

• Consult with Mentors and Peers

Seek guidance from mentors, professors, or colleagues who have expertise in biotechnology. Discuss your research interests with them and gather insights. They can provide valuable advice on the feasibility and significance of your chosen topic.

• Balance Specificity and Breadth

Strike a balance between biotechnology research topics that are specific enough to address a particular aspect of biotechnology and broad enough to allow for meaningful research. A topic that is too narrow may limit your research scope, while one that is too broad may lack focus.

• Consider Ethical Implications

Be mindful of the ethical implications of your research. Biotechnology, especially areas like genetic engineering, can raise ethical concerns. Ensure that your chosen topic aligns with ethical standards and consider how your research may impact society.

• Evaluate Industry Relevance

Consider the relevance of your research topic to the biotechnology industry. Industry-relevant research has the potential for practical applications and may attract funding and collaboration opportunities.

• Stay Flexible and Open-Minded

Be open to refining or adjusting your research topic as you delve deeper into the literature and gather more information. Flexibility is key to adapting to new insights and developments in the field.

200+ Biotechnology Research Topics: Category-Wise

Genetic engineering.

• CRISPR-Cas9: Recent Advances and Applications
• Gene Editing for Therapeutic Purposes: Opportunities and Challenges
• Precision Medicine and Personalized Genomic Therapies
• Genome Sequencing Technologies: Current State and Future Prospects
• Synthetic Biology: Engineering New Life Forms
• Genetic Modification of Crops for Improved Yield and Resistance
• Ethical Considerations in Human Genetic Engineering
• Gene Therapy for Neurological Disorders
• Epigenetics: Understanding the Role of Gene Regulation
• CRISPR in Agriculture: Enhancing Crop Traits

Biomedical Engineering

• Tissue Engineering: Creating Organs in the Lab
• 3D Printing in Biomedical Applications
• Advances in Drug Delivery Systems
• Nanotechnology in Medicine: Theranostic Approaches
• Bioinformatics and Computational Biology in Biomedicine
• Wearable Biomedical Devices for Health Monitoring
• Stem Cell Research and Regenerative Medicine
• Precision Oncology: Tailoring Cancer Treatments
• Biomaterials for Biomedical Applications
• Biomechanics in Biomedical Engineering

Environmental Biotechnology

• Bioremediation of Polluted Environments
• Waste-to-Energy Technologies: Turning Trash into Power
• Sustainable Agriculture Practices Using Biotechnology
• Bioaugmentation in Wastewater Treatment
• Microbial Fuel Cells: Harnessing Microorganisms for Energy
• Biotechnology in Conservation Biology
• Phytoremediation: Plants as Environmental Cleanup Agents
• Aquaponics: Integration of Aquaculture and Hydroponics
• Biodiversity Monitoring Using DNA Barcoding
• Algal Biofuels: A Sustainable Energy Source

Industrial Biotechnology

• Enzyme Engineering for Industrial Applications
• Bioprocessing and Bio-manufacturing Innovations
• Industrial Applications of Microbial Biotechnology
• Bio-based Materials: Eco-friendly Alternatives
• Synthetic Biology for Industrial Processes
• Metabolic Engineering for Chemical Production
• Industrial Fermentation: Optimization and Scale-up
• Biocatalysis in Pharmaceutical Industry
• Advanced Bioprocess Monitoring and Control
• Green Chemistry: Sustainable Practices in Industry

Emerging Trends in Biotechnology

• CRISPR-Based Diagnostics: A New Era in Disease Detection
• Neurobiotechnology: Advancements in Brain-Computer Interfaces
• Advances in Nanotechnology for Healthcare
• Computational Biology: Modeling Biological Systems
• Organoids: Miniature Organs for Drug Testing
• Genome Editing in Non-Human Organisms
• Biotechnology and the Internet of Things (IoT)
• Exosome-based Therapeutics: Potential Applications
• Biohybrid Systems: Integrating Living and Artificial Components
• Metagenomics: Exploring Microbial Communities

Ethical and Social Implications

• Ethical Considerations in CRISPR-Based Gene Editing
• Privacy Concerns in Personal Genomic Data Sharing
• Biotechnology and Social Equity: Bridging the Gap
• Dual-Use Dilemmas in Biotechnological Research
• Informed Consent in Genetic Testing and Research
• Accessibility of Biotechnological Therapies: Global Perspectives
• Human Enhancement Technologies: Ethical Perspectives
• Biotechnology and Cultural Perspectives on Genetic Modification
• Social Impact Assessment of Biotechnological Interventions
• Intellectual Property Rights in Biotechnology

Computational Biology and Bioinformatics

• Machine Learning in Biomedical Data Analysis
• Network Biology: Understanding Biological Systems
• Structural Bioinformatics: Predicting Protein Structures
• Data Mining in Genomics and Proteomics
• Systems Biology Approaches in Biotechnology
• Comparative Genomics: Evolutionary Insights
• Bioinformatics Tools for Drug Discovery
• Cloud Computing in Biomedical Research
• Artificial Intelligence in Diagnostics and Treatment
• Computational Approaches to Vaccine Design

Health and Medicine

• Vaccines and Immunotherapy: Advancements in Disease Prevention
• CRISPR-Based Therapies for Genetic Disorders
• Infectious Disease Diagnostics Using Biotechnology
• Telemedicine and Biotechnology Integration
• Biotechnology in Rare Disease Research
• Gut Microbiome and Human Health
• Precision Nutrition: Personalized Diets Using Biotechnology
• Biotechnology Approaches to Combat Antibiotic Resistance
• Point-of-Care Diagnostics for Global Health
• Biotechnology in Aging Research and Longevity

Agricultural Biotechnology

• CRISPR and Gene Editing in Crop Improvement
• Precision Agriculture: Integrating Technology for Crop Management
• Biotechnology Solutions for Food Security
• RNA Interference in Pest Control
• Vertical Farming and Biotechnology
• Plant-Microbe Interactions for Sustainable Agriculture
• Biofortification: Enhancing Nutritional Content in Crops
• Smart Farming Technologies and Biotechnology
• Precision Livestock Farming Using Biotechnological Tools
• Drought-Tolerant Crops: Biotechnological Approaches

Biotechnology and Education

• Integrating Biotechnology into STEM Education
• Virtual Labs in Biotechnology Teaching
• Biotechnology Outreach Programs for Schools
• Online Courses in Biotechnology: Accessibility and Quality
• Hands-on Biotechnology Experiments for Students
• Bioethics Education in Biotechnology Programs
• Role of Internships in Biotechnology Education
• Collaborative Learning in Biotechnology Classrooms
• Biotechnology Education for Non-Science Majors
• Addressing Gender Disparities in Biotechnology Education

Funding and Policy

• Government Funding Initiatives for Biotechnology Research
• Private Sector Investment in Biotechnology Ventures
• Impact of Intellectual Property Policies on Biotechnology
• Ethical Guidelines for Biotechnological Research
• Public-Private Partnerships in Biotechnology
• Regulatory Frameworks for Gene Editing Technologies
• Biotechnology and Global Health Policy
• Biotechnology Diplomacy: International Collaboration
• Funding Challenges in Biotechnology Startups
• Role of Nonprofit Organizations in Biotechnological Research

Biotechnology and the Environment

• Biotechnology for Air Pollution Control
• Microbial Sensors for Environmental Monitoring
• Remote Sensing in Environmental Biotechnology
• Climate Change Mitigation Using Biotechnology
• Circular Economy and Biotechnological Innovations
• Marine Biotechnology for Ocean Conservation
• Bio-inspired Design for Environmental Solutions
• Ecological Restoration Using Biotechnological Approaches
• Impact of Biotechnology on Biodiversity
• Biotechnology and Sustainable Urban Development

Biosecurity and Biosafety

• Biosecurity Measures in Biotechnology Laboratories
• Dual-Use Research and Ethical Considerations
• Global Collaboration for Biosafety in Biotechnology
• Security Risks in Gene Editing Technologies
• Surveillance Technologies in Biotechnological Research
• Biosecurity Education for Biotechnology Professionals
• Risk Assessment in Biotechnology Research
• Bioethics in Biodefense Research
• Biotechnology and National Security
• Public Awareness and Biosecurity in Biotechnology

Industry Applications

• Biotechnology in the Pharmaceutical Industry
• Bioprocessing Innovations for Drug Production
• Industrial Enzymes and Their Applications
• Biotechnology in Food and Beverage Production
• Applications of Synthetic Biology in Industry
• Biotechnology in Textile Manufacturing
• Cosmetic and Personal Care Biotechnology
• Biotechnological Approaches in Renewable Energy
• Advanced Materials Production Using Biotechnology
• Biotechnology in the Automotive Industry

Miscellaneous Topics

• DNA Barcoding in Species Identification
• Bioart: The Intersection of Biology and Art
• Biotechnology in Forensic Science
• Using Biotechnology to Preserve Cultural Heritage
• Biohacking: DIY Biology and Citizen Science
• Microbiome Engineering for Human Health
• Environmental DNA (eDNA) for Biodiversity Monitoring
• Biotechnology and Astrobiology: Searching for Life Beyond Earth
• Biotechnology and Sports Science
• Biotechnology and the Future of Space Exploration

Challenges and Ethical Considerations in Biotechnology Research

As biotechnology continues to advance, it brings forth a set of challenges and ethical considerations. Biosecurity concerns, especially in the context of gene editing technologies, raise questions about the responsible use of powerful tools like CRISPR. 

Ethical implications of genetic manipulation, such as the creation of designer babies, demand careful consideration and international collaboration to establish guidelines and regulations. 

Moreover, the environmental and social impact of biotechnological interventions must be thoroughly assessed to ensure responsible and sustainable practices.

Funding and Resources for Biotechnology Research

The pursuit of biotechnology research topics requires substantial funding and resources. Government grants and funding agencies play a pivotal role in supporting research initiatives. 

Simultaneously, the private sector, including biotechnology companies and venture capitalists, invest in promising projects. Collaboration and partnerships between academia, industry, and nonprofit organizations further amplify the impact of biotechnological research.

Future Prospects of Biotechnology Research

As we look to the future, the integration of biotechnology with other scientific disciplines holds immense potential. Collaborations with fields like artificial intelligence, materials science, and robotics may lead to unprecedented breakthroughs. 

The development of innovative technologies and their application to global health and sustainability challenges will likely shape the future of biotechnology.

In conclusion, biotechnology research is a dynamic and transformative force with the potential to revolutionize multiple facets of our lives. The exploration of diverse biotechnology research topics, from genetic engineering to emerging trends like synthetic biology and nanobiotechnology, highlights the breadth of possibilities within this field. 

However, researchers must navigate challenges and ethical considerations to ensure that biotechnological advancements are used responsibly for the betterment of society. 

With continued funding, collaboration, and a commitment to ethical practices, the future of biotechnology research holds exciting promise, propelling us towards a more sustainable and technologically advanced world.

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Biotechnological Perspectives to Combat the COVID-19 Pandemic: Precise Diagnostics and Inevitable Vaccine Paradigms

Mahender aileni.

1 Department of Biotechnology, Telangana University, Dichpally, Nizamabad 503322, India

Gulab Khan Rohela

2 Central Sericultural Research & Training Institute, Central Silk Board, Pampore 192121, India; ni.oc.oohay@hcetoib_balug

Phanikanth Jogam

3 Department of Biotechnology, Kakatiya University, Warangal 506009, India; [email protected]

Shakuntala Soujanya

4 Department of Oral Medicine and Radiology, Meghna Institute of Dental Sciences, Nizamabad 503003, India; moc.liamg@aynajuosalatnukahs

Baohong Zhang

5 Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA

Associated Data

Not applicable.

The outbreak of the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the cause for the ongoing global public health emergency. It is more commonly known as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19); the pandemic threat continues to spread aroundthe world with the fluctuating emergence of its new variants. The severity of COVID-19 ranges from asymptomatic to serious acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), which has led to a high human mortality rate and disruption of socioeconomic well-being. For the restoration of pre-pandemic normalcy, the international scientific community has been conducting research on a war footing to limit extremely pathogenic COVID-19 through diagnosis, treatment, and immunization. Since the first report of COVID-19 viral infection, an array of laboratory-based and point-of-care (POC) approaches have emerged for diagnosing and understanding its status of outbreak. The RT-PCR-based viral nucleic acid test (NAT) is one of the rapidly developed and most used COVID-19 detection approaches. Notably, the current forbidding status of COVID-19 requires the development of safe, targeted vaccines/vaccine injections (shots) that can reduce its associated morbidity and mortality. Massive and accelerated vaccination campaigns would be the most effective and ultimate hope to end the COVID-19 pandemic. Since the SARS-CoV-2 virus outbreak, emerging biotechnologies and their multidisciplinary approaches have accelerated the understanding of molecular details as well as the development of a wide range of diagnostics and potential vaccine candidates, which are indispensable to combating the highly contagious COVID-19. Several vaccine candidates have completed phase III clinical studies and are reported to be effective in immunizing against COVID-19 after their rollout via emergency use authorization (EUA). However, optimizing the type of vaccine candidates and its route of delivery that works best to control viral spread is crucial to face the threatening variants expected to emerge over time. In conclusion, the insights of this review would facilitate the development of more likely diagnostics and ideal vaccines for the global control of COVID-19.

1. Introduction

The current viral outbreak of the SARS-CoV-2 infection spreading COVID-19 was originally reported in Wuhan, China (December 2019). The life-threatening acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a prominent symptom of COVID-19 [ 1 ].This is a pandemic that is threatening public health and has spread over the globe very quickly [ 2 , 3 ]. In view of SARS-CoV-2’s contagious and fast-spreading tendency, its outbreak has been detected in over 220 countries. Owing to this, 6.00 million people have died, and 442.33 million people have tested positive for the virus as on 4 March 2022 [ 4 ]. In the process of preventing SARS-CoV-2outbreaks, quarantine protocols, which have been imposed from time to time, have drastically affected socio economic well-being [ 5 ]. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is known to be the world’s first severe, highly contagious, and deadly pandemic of the twenty-first century [ 6 , 7 ].

Coronaviruses (CoVs) have a positive-sense single-stranded (ss) RNA genome (size: ~29.9 KB) enclosed in a capsid protein that is comparatively larger than other viruses. When seen under an electronic microscope, projections of glycoproteins appear as spikes on the envelope, giving it a crown-like appearance [ 8 , 9 ]. Coronaviruses (CoVs) are divided into four genera, namely, AlphaCoV, BetaCoV, DeltaCoV, and GammaCoV. The class of beta coronavirus includes the Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) virus, severe acute respiratory syndrome virus (SARS-CoV), and the SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent of COVID-19. Similar to SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, the SARS-CoV-2 virus infects by binding to angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) receptors [ 8 , 10 ] present on the gastrointestinal system, lower respiratory system, liver, central nervous system, kidney, and heart. Initially, virus-infected cells can readily escape the host’s interferon, which results in greater virus replication in the lungs and leads to the release large levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines. This is known as a “cytokine storm”, which causes inflammation-related lung injury. Death is caused by the failure of multiple organs, which is most common in elderly persons with co-morbidities [ 11 ]. The current grim situation is shaking the global healthcare system due to the elevated SARS-CoV-2 infectious nature and mortality rate in humans [ 4 ].

In view of the trend in the rapid spread of SARS-CoV-2, it is crucial to break the human-to-human viral chain of transmission under containment and management strategies of COVID-19 [ 12 ]. Corona infection spreads directly via larger respiratory droplets to small aerosols or indirectly through contaminated surfaces, which is quite similar to how common cold and influenza viruses spread. The COVID-19 virus has a basic reproductive potential (RO) of 3.8, which is defined as the number of cases directly transmitted by one infected person in a population. This value is known to be much higher than estimates by the WHO, with an RO value of 1.3 to 2.5 [ 13 ]. The rate of transmission of MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV are relatively lower as indicated by their lower RO values (i.e., <1.0) [ 14 ]. SARS-CoV-2 infections, with an RO value indicating a higher infection rate (i.e., 3.28), have increased due to the fact of asymptomatic transmission and longer incubation periods [ 15 ]. This implies that preventing and controlling SARS-CoV-2 infection will be challenging [ 16 , 17 ]. Thus, the major challenge for preventing the spread of the COVID-19 virus is identifying and isolating asymptomatic people as they are the unknown source of transmission [ 18 ]. Undiagnosed and asymptomatic cases continuously increase the risk of spreading COVID-19 infection [ 19 , 20 ]. Further, half of the COVID-19 cases are asymptomatic, as they do not show signs of severe illness before admission to hospitals [ 21 ].

Moreover, due to the fact of its high prevalence, wider distribution, profound genetic diversity, higher potential of genomic recombination, and reported human–animal transmission cases, the COVID-19 pandemic is considered a health threat at present and in the future [ 17 ].Thus, the more the virus is allowed to spread (i.e., leap species to species), the more opportunity the virus accumulates to mutate during its multiplication, which facilitates the virus to become more or less deadly or change its receptor-binding domain, which would potentially interfere with therapeutic or vaccine development. There is an urgent need to monitor more fit variants of disease transmission across populations and geography in a quick and real-time manner, since they pose a potential public health threat [ 22 ]. The fatal 2nd and 3rd surge of COVID-19 spread in highly populous countries, including India, Brazil, and the United States, signifying a prevailing uncontrolled disaster trend [ 23 , 24 , 25 ].

The development of precise and rapid detection tests plays a crucial role in containing the spread of highly contagious diseases. Currently, SARS-CoV-2 virus-based COVID-19 detection in humans is being tested in a variety of methods in different countries [ 26 , 27 ]. Due to the urgent public health emergency, unprecedented efforts were made around the globe for the ready diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 at the individual level and its outbreak status at the community level [ 28 , 29 , 30 ]. Cost-effective and POC-based diagnostic methods are the critical need of the hour to understand COVID-19 epidemiology, contact tracing, and case management [ 31 ]. Thus, wide-spread deployment of accurate and early diagnostic tests of viral-specific antigen, antibody titers, and nucleic acids will help to identify the SARS-CoV-2 stage of infection, immediate isolation, and its containment strategies [ 32 , 33 ]. Quantitative real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) assays remain a prime molecular test and cornerstone of COVID-19 testing [ 33 , 34 ]. In addition, various approaches are being used to diagnose COVID-19 including isothermal nucleic acid amplification assays, CRISPR-based analysis, and hybridization microarray assays [ 30 , 35 , 36 ]. Development of plug-and-play diagnostic methods aid in timely disease control by screening emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants; thus, such detection methods play pivotal role in averting future pandemics.

Given the unavailability of a successful antiviral drugs for COVID-19 treatment [ 31 , 37 ], current case management comprises early and rapid detection, urgent isolation of positive cases, general supportive care, respiratory support, and nutritional support. Vaccine development represents a human adaptive strategy used to prevent and control viral outbreaks (measles, virus hepatitis A, poliomyelitis, mumps, and rubella); thus, vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 are considered the ultimate intervention to contain the COVID-19 pandemic [ 38 ]. Vaccines train and prepare the body’s natural defenses to identify and destroy disease-causing foreign agents. If vaccinated people are later exposed to the same disease-causing agents, their body system induces effective immunity (secondary immune response) against the pathogens through activation of cellular (T cell) and humoral (antibody) immune responses. Thus, vaccines are prophylactic in nature and develop adaptive immunity; therefore, they save millions of lives every year through immunization campaigns. In the process of preparedness efforts, several nations are racing to deploy safe and efficient vaccines to combat the SARS-CoV-2virus and its associated morbidity and mortality [ 39 ]. In order to combat COVID-19 disease, several vaccine candidates are in the development pipeline using a variety of platforms including some based on viral vectors (non-replicating and replicating viral), recombinant peptide/protein subunit/virus-like particles (VLPs), nucleic acid (RNA and DNA), and whole virus (inactivated or attenuated) [ 40 , 41 ]. Safe and effective vaccines will be a game-changer: vaccine-induced immunity is a more potent public tool for preventing virus reproduction and transmission [ 22 ]. Several vaccine candidates have completed phase III clinical trials and have been given EUA for massive and accelerated vaccination campaigns. As a result, the vaccination process covers the population’s protective proportion—herd immunity—which is instrumental for COVID-19 disease prevention [ 42 , 43 ]. However, choosing the type of vaccine and the most appropriate delivery strategy (vaccination route) would be decisive for improving vaccine efficacy against current or emerging new variants of the coronavirus.

In this COVID-19 pandemic scenario several studies have been performed to immediately control and prevent virus infection and outbreak [ 44 ]. In this context, a review paper with current findings on diagnostic tests and vaccine paradigms could speed up future COVID-19 infection containment and prevention studies. Emerging biotechnologies largely contribute to fighting this invisible enemy, COVID-19, and more importantly on fronts of its diagnosis and vaccine development. Accordingly, this review aims to present an overview of recently developed diagnostic tests for SARS-CoV-2 and vaccination candidates that have been rolled out to immunize human’s against COVID-19.

2. Diagnostics

Diagnostic tests that are both robust and precise are pivotal for determining the infectious state of an illness. Tests of diagnosis are essential for identifying disease severity, and the prognosis is what follows the course of that disease and its treatment. Diagnostics with improved sensitivity and specificity at the individual to community levels would prevent false-positive or false-negative testing of COVID-19 infection. This is the need of hour, as this precision testing not only facilitates to reveal the status SARS-CoV-2 outbreak but also aid in its rapid containment and management.

Since the first cases of COVID-19 pandemic reported, due to more suitable mutational changes in the genome of SARS-CoV-2, there has been an escalating rate of its potential virulent strains. It emphasizes the importance of accurate and rapid diagnosis of asymptomatic cases, immediate symptomatic treatment, large-scale immunization campaigns, and practicing of COVID-19 appropriate protocols. These measures would only be the keys to successful management of the COVID-19 disease. The current contest to develop low-cost point-of-care (POC)-based diagnostic kits and laboratory-based methods for precise and/or early confirmation of SARS-CoV-2 virus infection has sparked a new wave of diagnostic development ( Table 1 ). POC assays are those detection methods that enable the processing of patients’ clinical samples without the use of centralized laboratory equipment. Such assays give a COVID-19 positive or negative test result for the patient in less than one hour and even in minutes.

Characteristic Features of Various Diagnostic Tests used for Detection of SARS-CoV-2-Based COVID-19.

Basically, the COVID-19 diagnostic methods fall into two major categories: Molecular tests (direct methods) are used to detect viral genetic material (RNA) of SARS-CoV-2 using nucleic acid hybridization methods or by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques. Immunological and serological assays (indirect methods) are the second category, which are used to evaluate antibody titers or detect viral antigenic proteins in individuals. Direct methods, detecting SARS-CoV-2 viral RNAs, are used to identify virus-infected people who are either asymptomatic or at the severe phase of COVID-19 infection. These methods are applied not only for contact tracing studiesbut also help to detect time-to-time emergenceof SARS-CoV-2 variants [ 54 ]. When methodically applied, contact tracing aidsintracing the chain of contagious disease transmission and is considered as anessential tool to control disease outbreaks. In contrast, indirect methods check the immunity status of individuals and communities over a period of time [ 52 , 56 , 57 ]. As a part of this review article, we reported current SARS-CoV-2 detection trends based on conventional and existing methodologies, which may assist innovations in the field of disease diagnostics.

2.1. Reverse Transcription-Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-qPCR)

RT-PCR is one of the foremost developed gold-standard tests used to detect viral loads of SARS-CoV-2 virus in COVID-19 pandemic [ 58 ]. It works on the basis of reverse transcriptase (RT) generating complementary DNA (cDNA) from the viral RNA template, followed by 40 cycles of exponential amplification of cDNA to double-stranded (ds) DNA. Clinical samples’ RNA levels are amplified using primer-probes designed for the targeted regions of SARS-CoV-2, including ORF1ab , OR1a , envelope (E) genes, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP), spike (S) protein, and the nucleocapsid (N) [ 29 , 58 ]. It is a quantitative (qPCR)-based amplification method that monitors viral load in clinical samples using fluorescent or electrical signals [ 59 ]. As a result, the viral load in the form of cyclic threshold (Ct) values are determined by quantifying SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA in clinical samples(swabs) collected (under bio-safety protection 3 level) generally from individuals’ upper respiratory tract. Clinical samples with a higher viral load indicate a low Ctvalue. The cut-off Ct value is 35, below which COVID-19 positivity is considered, and the above which COVID-19 is considered negative, while Ct values ≤ 25 indicate a higher viral load [ 60 ]. These values are used to evaluate whether a person is positive for COVID-19 and to establish the status of COVID-19 patients’ isolation periods [ 34 ]. Aflow chart of RT-PCR is depicted in Figure 1 . RT-PCR kits are currently manufactured by a number of companies, allowing researchers to deal with a variety of clinical samples such as respiratory swabs, serum, saliva, stool, and ocular secretions ( Table 1 ).For COVID-19 diagnosis, customized cartridge-based amplification of nucleic acid tests (CB-NATs) and chip-based NATs have also been used. Other advancements inmolecular diagnosis of COVID-19 include nested RT-PCR and droplet digital PCR. Nested RT-PCR is an altered RT-PCR, having the merit of increased amplification specificity by reducing altered products generation due to the fact of non-specific primer binding. This technique has a testing sensitivity of 95% using low viral load samples [ 58 ]. However, this new PCR method also hassome disadvantages including being costlier than qPCR and cross-contamination-caused false-positive results [ 54 ].

Flow chart of RT-PCR--based detection of SARS-CoV-2 infection: ( 1 ) collection of the test sample from anindividual; ( 2 ) mixing the collected sample with viral transport media and storageat 4 °C until use; ( 3 ) isolation of viral RNAs from the collected sample; ( 4 ) synthesis of cDNA from viral RNA by reverse transcription; ( 5 ) RT-PCR with specific primers/fluorescent markers demonstrates either positive or negative results for SARS-CoV-2 detection.

2.2. Isothermal Nucleic Acid Amplification

Instead of RT-PCR, isothermal nucleic acid amplification is the method which does not require thermal cycling was developed having applications in disease diagnosis. Because of this feature, it is the quickest and most convenient molecular biology detection method for diagnosing SARS-CoV-2 infection [ 45 ]. This method enables primer-mediated polymerization of the target sequences by strand-displacement activity. Based on this principle, two additional methods were developed, which include:

• Reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP);
• Transcription-mediated amplification (TMA).

2.2.1. RT-LAMP

This technique is a modification of isothermal nucleic acid amplification, which is specifically used to diagnose infectious diseases caused by RNA viruses [ 61 ]. It is accomplished by the three sequential steps:

• Reverse transcription of viral RNA template to synthesize cDNA by enzyme reverse transcriptase;

RT-LAMP technique-based detection of SARS-CoV-2 infection: ( 1 ) collection ofhuman samples; ( 2 ) mixing of the collected sample with viral transport media and storageat 4 °C until use; ( 3 ) single-stranded RNA genome of SARS-CoV-2 with the targeted genes; ( 4 ) specific primers binding atthe targeted genes; ( 5 ) synthesizing the first-strand cDNA by reverse transcription; ( 6 ) DNA polymerization for second-strand cDNA synthesis; ( 7 ) dumbbell-shaped DNA formation during the process of cDNA synthesis; ( 8 ) RT-PCR with specific primers/fluorescent markers demonstrates either positive or negative results for SARS-CoV-2 detection.

• Calorimetric interpretationby photometry-based detection of the viral DNA ornaked eye visualization based on magnesium pyrophosphate-mediated precipitation reaction [ 62 ].

Thus, this technique is one of the promising tools used for the detection of COVID-19.

2.2.2. Transcription-Mediated Amplification (TMA)

It is a single tube-based isothermal nucleic acid amplification system thatworks on the principle of both RNA transcription and cDNA synthesis using RNA polymerase and reverse transcriptase simultaneously. In this method, instead of DNA amplicon, RNA amplicon is produced from the target nucleic acidin question [ 63 ]. The TMA mechanism is initiated when the template viral RNA hybridizes with specific capture probe. Upon the addition of oligonucleotides promoter site is bound by T7 RNA polymerase, this directs the oligonucleotides to capture onto magnetic microparticles under the influence of magnetic field. There by forms an active complex of T7 promoter sequence linked primer. Wherein the RNA molecule formed undergoes reverse transcription producing a cDNA. Later on, during the first strand of cDNA synthesis, the RNA strand of the hybrid RNA–cDNA is degraded byRNase H activity of the enzyme, while reverse transcriptase aids in single-stranded (ss) cDNA formation. In the final step, many RNA amplicons are produced by the action of T7 RNA polymerase [ 30 ], leading to their re-entry into the TMA process. This exponential amplification generates billions of RNA amplicons in less than 1 h ( Figure 3 ). Based on this principle, a platform called Panther fusion is used to sense ss nucleic acid detection viaa fluorophore and quencher. This platform of panther fusion is unique due to the fact of its high turnover rate (up to 1000 tests in 24 h), and this method clearly demarcates other frequent respiratory viruses causing similar symptoms of COVID-19. In addition, the availability of another version of Panther fusion, called Hologic’s Panther Fusion platform, simultaneously performs both TMA and RT-PCR for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA more accurately [ 58 , 64 ].

Transcription-mediated amplification (TMA)-based detection of SARS-CoV-2 infection: ( 1 ) reverse transcription-based first-strand cDNA synthesis; ( 2 ) RNA strand of hybrid RNA–cDNA is degraded by the RNase H activity of the enzyme reverse transcriptase; ( 3 ) DNA polymerization for the synthesis of second-strand cDNA; ( 4 ) PCR amplification with specific primers will demonstrate either positive or negative results for SARS-CoV-2 virus detection (multiple arrows indicate multiple cycles of amplification).

2.3. CRISPR-Based COVID Detection Assay

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) are edited DNA sequences that were first noticed as chopped nucleic acids in bacteriophage-infected bacteria. Its mechanism of action was discovered while studying the bacterial defense system, which demolishes the DNA of similar bacteriophages during their subsequent infections. This specific molecular mechanism understanding led to the discovery ofCRISPR and Cas enzyme (endonuclease) technology, a cutting-edge tool facilitates precision genome editing studies in various organisms [ 65 , 66 ]. This technology gained high popularity due to the fact of its efficiency and specificity in the genome editing process, also called targeted mutagenesis [ 65 , 67 ]. Both endonuclease and synthetic guide RNA (gRNA) work together to edit (insertion/deletions) a specific DNA sequence, resulting in the altered genomes of interest [ 68 ]. Thus, endonucleases, such as Cas9, cleave the targeted DNA around theprotospacer adjacent motif (PAM), which facilitates to create interestededits in different organisms for various research applications [ 65 , 69 ]. The CRISPR/Cas tool, which is a prominent technology, is also being used to detect viral infections in humans [ 70 , 71 ]. The CRISPR system uses specific endonucleases (such as Cas12a and Cas13a) and gRNA to detect the genome of viral pathogens [ 47 , 72 ]. This CRISPR system has now been extended for the diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infections in humans ( Figure 4 ).

CRISPR/Cas-based detection of SARS-CoV-2 infection: ( 1 ) reverse transcription of isolated viral RNA; ( 2 ) reverse transcription for the synthesis of cDNA; ( 3 ) CRISPR-mediated genome editing (identify and cleave) actat the precise sequence of viral RNA SARS-CoV-2 genome. Both Sherlock and Detector of the CRISPR tool convert viral RNA to DNA (isothermal amplification), which activates nuclease enzyme activity (Cas-12/13) to cleave the target sequence (pink colored symbols indicate DNA polymerase;red colored symbols indicates primer); ( 4 ) loading of the sample (fluorescence RNA reporter) on to strip for detection of the specific viral RNA sequence; ( 5 ) the number of bands visible on the strip (lateral flow) represents whether the test is positive or negative for SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Specific high-sensitivity enzymatic reporter unlocking (Sherlock) and DNA endonuclease-targeted CRISPR trans reporter (Detector) are two important techniques of CRISPR for SARS-CoV-2 detection.In these techniques, instead of Cas9, either the Cas12 or Cas13 endonuclease proteins are used to cleave and identify the SARS-CoV-2 viral genetic materials [ 29 , 45 ]. Sherlock is a CRISPR/Cas13-based tool used to precisely detect viral RNA genome in COVID-19 patient samples [ 73 ], wherein Cas13 cuts the SARS-CoV-2 ORF1ab gene-targeted RNA sequence. In this process, RNA of throat/respiratory swabs/samples aresubjected to reverse transcription to synthesize cDNA based on reverse polymerase chain reaction and amplified to give products [ 48 , 54 , 74 ]. The amplified product is further transcribed into RNA amplicons. Then, specific synthetic gRNA and Cas13 complex recognize to bind the amplified RNA product [ 75 ]. The Cas13 RNA targeting enzyme activity cleaves both target and non-target nucleic acids of the patient sample. The targeted product upon binding by the fluorophore, quencher probes cleaved by activated Cas13, givea fluorescence signal [ 48 , 74 ]. The Sherlock technique reads out clinical samples to determine anoutcome within 1 h [ 76 ]. Gootenberg et al. (2017) [ 77 ] initially developed this Sherlock method; later, it was refined by Kellner et al. [ 73 ] to specifically detect the COVID-19 RNA genome. Due to the CRISPR multiplexing, the Sherlock method detects more than 160 differentpathogenic agentspresenting in patient samples [ 78 ]. While, CRISPR/Cas12 editing technology is used to detect the SARS-CoV-2 genome through the DNA endonuclease-targeted CRISPR trans reporter (detector) technique [ 79 ]. The fluorescent probe and CRISPR/Cas12 were employed to detect the differential RNA amplicons that can be used to confirm SARS-CoV-2. This technique is handy, as is can be conducted outside of the clinical diagnostic laboratory, indicating POC testing. The negative results of RT-PCR can be found to be positive in CRISPR-based fluorescent detection due to the fact of its accuracy [ 48 ].

2.4. Microarray Nucleic Acid Hybridization

RT-qPCR is the gold-standard test for the clinical diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2. But for the analysis of a large number of samples, there is a need for an approach that uses more stringent nucleic acid hybridization conditions which prevents their mismatch base pairing. Such developed methods overcome the RT-qPCR associated false-negative results during disease diagnosis [ 80 ]. Microarray nucleic acid hybridization is one of the basic fundamental molecular tests that encompass the use of single-stranded (ss) nucleic acids DNA/RNA as microscopic spots (chip), which hybridizes with cDNA prepared from the RNA genome of SARS-CoV-2. The labeled cDNA fluorescent probe identifies complementarySARS-CoV-2 RNA molecules present in the clinical samples. After washing, labeled probes that are hybridized with the specific nucleic acid of SARS-CoV-2 areexcited to produce a signal. Currently, this diagnostic approach is deployed for detecting mutations in single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and genotyping of emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants [ 49 , 50 ]. As a result of its multiplexing and high specificity, DNA microarray hasbeen emerged as one of the most promising diagnostic methods for SARS-CoV-2 detection [ 81 ].

2.5. Genome Sequencing

Genomic sequencing tools are aversatile platform withimplications in different scientific fields such asagriculture, public health interventions, pathogen origin, contagious disease outbreaks, and phylogenetic analysis [ 82 ]. In the process of being prepared for future public health threats, current whole genomic sequencing trends need to be explored in every COVID-19 affected nation at an accelerated rate to build a healthy global community. High throughput genomic analysisvianext-generation sequencing (NGS) ensures the identification of novel pathogens of evolutionary/zoonotic origins and their rate of mutation or recombination frequency over time [ 83 ]. Investigations on genomics and molecular epidemiology of a disease organism (2019 novel coronavirus) unravel the origin and receptor binding of host–pathogen during itsinfection process. Such investigations are the real-time basis for designing novel molecular-based diagnostics and therapies required to control pandemics [ 84 ]. Rapid SARS-CoV-2 RNA isolations, differential RNA-Seq, library preparation protocols, identification of genomic sites of antiviral resistance, and deposition of repository genomic/protein/nucleotide sequence databases are used for scaling time-to-time viral outbreak intensities [ 82 , 85 ]. The due emergence of a given virus with a different genomic sequence, when it is tested with the existing probe results in a false–negative outcome leads to non-diagnosis of COVID-19 infections. In view of the emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants, the diagnostic test failures need to be correlated by whole genomic sequencingto reveal insights into whether failures weredue to the fact of sequence divergence or test failures [ 86 ]. Therefore, advances in diagnostics and improved genomic surveillance are two goals that need to work hand in hand for examining/handlingSARS-CoV-2 transmissibility or future pandemic threats. In addition, genomic sequencing of emerging variants may not only havean impact on innovations in clinical diagnostics but could also influence real-time vaccine redesign required to immediately curtail COVID-19 infections [ 87 ]. Therefore, large-scale deployment of time-to-time viral genomic sequencing ( Figure 5 ) is required to characterize SARS-CoV-2 variations for likely diagnosis and clinical significance.

Genome sequencing for detection of SARS-CoV-2 variants: ( 1 ) swab/test sample collection from an individual; ( 2 ) mixingthe collected sample with viral transport media and storage at 4 °C; ( 3 ) isolation of viral RNA from the collected sample; ( 4 ) cDNA synthesis from viral RNA by reverse transcription; ( 5 ) PCR-aided amplification; ( 6 ) computer-aided library preparation and collection of nucleotide databases; ( 7 ) further data analysis: RNA/whole-genome sequencing via NGS to identify SARS-CoV-2 variants assist in redesigning novel molecular-based diagnostics therapies to combat COVID-19.

2.6. Biosensors

These are the medical gadgets that are readily used to diagnose diseases ranging from acute to chronic in nature when laboratory equipment is in short supply/lacking. Thus, biosensors serve the purpose of detecting disease diagnosis within no or limited availability of resources, representing point-of-care diagnosis. Biosensors are generally classified into different types based on the type of transducer employed or the type of bioreceptor utilized. The basic type of biosensors arecomposed of gold nanoparticles (AuNP) of 20–80 nm and are precipitated with either coronavirus surface antigens or antibodies. It works on the principle of surface plasmon resonance (SPR), wherein changes such as adsorption/detection of biologically active compounds (such as antibodies/antigens/enzymes) are converted into incident light at surface interference and transducesreadoutcome via optical, electrical, and enzymatic methods [ 29 ]. Biosensors developed to diagnose severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) arecomposed of biochips incorporated with surface antigens that detect 200 ng/mL antibodies in a few minutes [ 88 ]. The CANARY biosensors, which were now specifically designed to detect the COVID-19 virus by PathSensors Inc., are based on a cell-based immune biosensor that transduce to give results in 3–5 min by capturing the virusviasignal amplification. Most recently, field-effect transistor (FET)-based biosensors were established for detecting the SARS-CoV-2 viral components.It is constituted of FET-based graphene sheets coated with a specific antibodiesagainst the spike protein ofSARS-CoV-2. These FET-based biosensors have a limit of detection of 2.42 × 10 2 copies/mL in clinical samples and an LOD of 1.6 × 10 1 pfu/mL in culture medium [ 89 ]. Apart from these, the aptamer-based biosensors were developed specifically to detect SARS-CoV-2 in asymptomatic patients. Such biosensors have the features of higher sensitivity, specificity, selectivity, and cost-effectiveness [ 52 , 54 ].

2.7. Serological and Immunological Assays

These assays are commonly used to track infectious disease outbreaks by correlating past and/or present immunity status from the individual to community levels over a period of time [ 90 ]. Government officials of a given nation conduct these tests as part of a survey to assess population/herd immunity against a given infectious disease. The data generated by such survey generally aid in the epidemiological, diagnostic, and vaccine redesigning investigations [ 31 ]. These tests examine immune status by looking for two specific antibody classes (immunoglobulin G (IgG) and immunoglobulin M (Ig M)) against the most prevalent pathogenic antigens (e.g., spike protein of SARS-CoV-2) present in clinical samples such as saliva, sputum, and blood. As a front-line defense mechanism, the human immune system soon after infection produces IgM than IgG. However, IgG, on the other hand, has a long-term immunological memory and will respond to the same pathogen if it is encountered again. IgM antibodies are an early indicator of infection, whereas IgG antibodies are a current or post-infection immunity indicator [ 30 ]. In addition, immunoglobulin A (Ig A) responses in mucosal secretions are also found at greater titers. These immunoglobulin responses have prime significance in the current SARS-CoV-2 outbreak ranging from human-to-human transmission to infection monitoring at the community level [ 91 ]. In COVID-19 diagnosis, these antibodies’ presence (positive test) or absence (negative test) against SARS-CoV-2 antigens is widely diagnosed using—enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA), and ELISpot.

2.7.1. LFIA

LFIA is also called a lateral flow test (LFT). This is a portable device and considered a POC immunodiagnostic test ( Table 1 ). The test procedure is conducted to reveal the outcome at or near the site of the patient. It works on the principle of rapid immunochromatography, wherein a test strip is conjugated with IgM or IgG or both [ 92 ]. A positive test indicates that the person is infected with SARS-CoV-2, and a negative test indicates that he has recovered from COVID-19 [ 93 ].By dripping a few drops of whole blood clinical sample (blood + few diluting liquids called buffer), if it contains viral antigens, it will bind against the SARS-CoV-2 antibodies present in the control and assay lines of the test strip. Based on the type of antibodies present in the blood sample of the testing individual 2–3 lines of color band formation is noticed. When compared to the RT-qPCR detection, this test’s diagnostic specificity and robustness were found to be higher [ 94 ].

2.7.2. ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay)

Among the various ELISA procedures, indirect ELISA is commonly used test platform, which comprises 96 testable antigen-impregnated microtiter wells (e.g., the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2). These antigens are customized to bind with specific antibodies (IgM or IgG) present in a COVID-19 patient’s serum sample. In the process of detection, a highly specific antigen–antibody reaction complex is formed. Following washing, such a complex combine with the conjugate (antihuman IgG with horseradish peroxidase) and the substrate (3,3′,5,5′tetramethylbenzidine) to give a color change that is readily detected by theELISA’s palate reader. A positive test signal results when the anti-COVID-19 IgG becomessandwiched between the anti-human IgG probe and absorbed antigen. Due to the merit of robust infection stage detection for antigen led to widespread use of the ELISA test to evaluate the infection status in the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic [ 95 ].

2.7.3. Enzyme-Linked Immunospot (ELISpot)

It is an antigen-specific T-cell functional test that assess cellular immunity by counting the number of T-cellresponses, which has the ability to produce specific cytokine-interferon γ [ 29 , 96 ]. During the process of SARS-CoV-2 infection, T cells are found to play a critical role in cellular immunity by providing long-term protection [ 97 ]. During the acute phase of infection, these T cells fight against the virus, among which some of them are transformed into SARS-CoV-2 specific memory cells, which restores the immunological memory needed to prevent future infections. This can be attributed to why people are protected during the second or other times of COVID-19 infection or post-vaccination [ 98 ]. This assay consists of microwell plates that are pre-coated with specific antibodies in a dilution culture medium of approximately100 µL per well, after whichthe addition of peptides of viral antigens and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) stimulate the required T-cell-mediated cytokine production. These cytokines accumulate around the T cells and appear as spots that are finally scanned and analyzed through the special immune-spot software [ 99 ]. Thus, the ELISpot method has viability to assess the cellular immunity status of an individual during the acute phase of COVID-19 infection.

2.8. Neutralization Assay

It is a test for determining the threshold levels or quantitative capabilities of a clinical sample to induce neutralizing antibodies (NABs), which is a measure of humoral response. These NABs confer protective immunity against a disease condition [ 100 ]. In addition, the results of this assay are used to correlate clinical sample NABs titers response under a particular medical condition or immunization efficacy study against COVID-19 [ 101 , 102 ]. This assay has also been used to quantify cultured cells capabilities of producing NAB’s titers in 1–2 days or clinical samples (i.e., blood, serum, or plasma) response in hours. In infected cell cultures, NABs are known to directly interfere with viral binding (SARS-CoV-2) to prevent its entry and viral replication [ 29 ].NABs generally bind to capsid proteins of the non-enveloped viruses and glycoproteins of the enveloped viruses not only preventthe entry of the virus but also hinder conformational changes. This leads to the formation of pathogen–antibody complexes, which are phagocyted by the macrophages [ 53 ]. The latest advancements in this assay have reduced the time of detection from days to hours with the increased feasibility of testing viral disease NABs and vaccine efficacy evaluation [ 100 ].

The probable flow chart of diagnostic tests used to rule out COVID-19 infections in asymptomatic and symptomatic persons has been illustrated in Figure 6 .

Diagnostic flow chart for COVID-19 disease detection.The probable flow chart used to rule out positive or negative test results forSARS-CoV-2infections in asymptomatic and symptomatic individuals with COVID-19 [ 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 , 109 , 110 , 111 , 112 , 113 ].

2.9. Rapid Antigen DetectionTest (RADT)

RADTs are commonly used in situations where molecular detection technologies are unavailable, and they are primarily used for disease testing with symptomatic individuals ( Figure 7 ). These detection methods are simple and portable, which are based on quantitative measurements of antigenic (Ag) surface proteins in terms of either their absence (negative result) or presence (positive result) [ 54 ]. Antigen (Ag) is a foreign or pathogenic molecule that readily binds to a B-cell Ag receptor (BCR) or Ag-specific antibody (Ab). RADT works on the principle of identifying the presence of SARS-CoV-2 antigen in clinical samples using specifically designed monoclonal antibodies. The SARS-CoV-2 viral structure ( Figure 8 ) comprises a spike protein (SP), an envelope protein (EP), a major glycoprotein, a membrane protein (MP), and a nucleocapsid protein (NP), whichare the viral antigens supposed to be detected in the clinical sample for COVID-19 detection [ 54 ]. The detection of SP in the sample is the most rapidand accurate for detection of COVID-19, as it can be identified from urine or serum samples during the early stages of infection or 10 days post-infection of asymptomatic cases [ 114 ].As the NP is larger in size, a sandwich immunoassay is the most commonly used test for its detection, while MP is the most abundant viral protein used for the detection of COVID-19 disease. In addition, EP is the next abundant smallest viral protein that can used to detect COVID-19 disease [ 93 , 115 ]. If the antigen in question is present in enough concentration in the collected sample, they bind to specific antibodies which are encrypted on the test vial. Thus, within 30 min of duration, the viral antigen detection generates a visually detectable signal with a sensitivity of 34 to 80% [ 54 ].

Rapid antigen test (RAT) kit-based detection of SARS-CoV-2 infection: ( 1 ) test samples are collected in the form of swabs; ( 2 ) mixing the collected swab samples with buffer; ( 3 ) loading collected sample into the well of the antigen-coated strip; ( 4 ) formation of one band representsa negative test, and two bands represent a positive test for COVID-19 infection.

Structure of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The structure of the COVID-19 virus contains the spike glycoprotein (SP), membrane protein (MP), nucleocapsid protein (NP), an envelope protein (EP), and single-stranded +RNA as the genome.

2.10. Luminescent Immunoassay

This test assay, based on the phenomenon of chemiluminescence (CL), is a chemical reaction in which electromagnetic radiation is generated in the form of light. The chemiluminescence technique is integrated with immunochemical reactions in the chemiluminescence immunoassay (CLIA), wherein chemical probes similar to other labeled immunoassays (such as FIA andELISA) are used to generate detectable light emission [ 116 ]. This assay uses synthetic antigens of the coronavirus SP and NP to measure antibody immune responses using a chemiluminescent analyzer [ 117 ]. Variations in the titers of SARS-CoV-2 specific antibodies (IgM and/or IgG) in COVID-19 patients represent the phase (i.e., acute or chronic) of COVID-19 infection status [ 118 , 119 ]. Thus, it is a reliable method with high diagnostic sensitivity to know the immunization status and the epidemiological surveillance [ 120 , 121 ]. Moreover, with the development of peptide-based magnetic chemiluminescence enzyme immunoassay, the Diazyme Laboratories of San Diego has advanced the Diazyme DZ-Lite-based SARS-CoV-2 IgM CLIA detection kit and SARS-CoV-2 Ig G CLIA detection kits, which run on the fully automated chemiluminescence analyzer [ 122 , 123 ]. Similarly, a technique with multiplex chemiluminescent immunoassay was found to detect all antibodies like IgG, IgM, and IgA during serological profiling of both COVID-19-positive asymptomatic and symptomatic patients [ 55 ].

3. Vaccine Platforms

Edward Jenner’s era of vaccination began with the development of the smallpox vaccine in 1976 [ 124 ]. Vaccination is an effective, economical, and the most successful health intervention that saves millions of lives every year. Vaccines are biological preparations of antigenic agents that trigger acquired immune responses in order to avert infectious diseases. Vaccine development is a tedious and complex process; it takes time to develop huge amounts of viruses on a wide scale, and it needs level 3 biosafety facilities fortheir production [ 38 ]. Vaccine development process often takes 10 to 15years, with a poor success rate [ 125 ]. Breakthrough vaccine development platforms are currently being advanced in an unthinkable time frame (12–18 months) with the hope of putting an end to the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic or its future outbreaks/surges [ 126 ]. Scientific communities across the world have been consistent in designing different platform-based vaccine candidates to curtail COVID-19disease asearly as possible [ 39 ]. Immunization against COVID-19 might be a rightful hope for ending the current epidemic, as vaccine-induced immunity is considerably more likely to confer adaptive immunity against the natural infection process or recurrent SARS-CoV-2 infections [ 127 ]. Vaccination hopes to provide long-term immunity against the deadly virus by protecting human beings from becoming ill or averting mortality due to the fact of COVID-19 infection. In all countries, vulnerable populations (elderly) are the highest priority for vaccination. The life of people can return to anormal state with contacts, social events, and traveling only after the performance of vaccination to a population proportion (70%) of herd immunity [ 43 , 128 ]. This may be attributed to development of vaccine-based immunological memory in people’s bodies, which can effectively tackle the present form of the virus and possibly against the mutated virus. If any of these vaccines become less effective against a new form of virus, then one has to change the vaccine’s composition to protect the life of people from new variants of COVID viruses. To eliminate the COVID-19 disease completely from the people, it is necessaryto collect and analyze data continuously on new variants of the COVID-19 virus. Moreover, in future, second, or third generation vaccines having antigenic preparation beyond the SARS-CoV-2 S protein or multiple antigenic targets might be worthwhile in effectively tackling and completely eradicating the SARS-CoV-2 virus from the human population.

As per the currently available data, 14 different vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 have been known to clear phase IIIclinical trials and be approved for worldwide massive and accelerated immunization campaigns to mitigate COVID-19viaEUA [ 40 , 129 , 130 ]. This is more likely to combat the mounting COVID-19 cases and deaths worldwideurgently. COVID-19 vaccine candidates developed come under different types of vaccine platforms ( Figure 9 ):

• Viral vector vaccines (non-replicating and replicating);
• Nucleic acid vaccines (DNA and mRNA);
• Vaccines based on recombinant proteins (subunit and VLPs virus-like particle);
• Virus-based (inactivated and live attenuated).

Various types of vaccine platforms used to mitigate COVID-19 pandemic. Major types of vaccine platforms: viral vector vaccines of non-replicating andreplicating types; nucleic acid vaccines based on DNA and mRNA; vaccines based on recombinant proteins/subunit/VLPs virus-like particle;vaccines based on virus-based on inactivated and live attenuated viral components.

Each type of vaccine candidate has pros and cons in terms of safety, efficacy, and development [ 35 ].

3.1. Viral Vector Vaccines

The viral vector vaccination platform uses non-infectious empty viral particles that self-assemble as infectious virions and having the ability to mimic antigenic (coronavirus) sequences. Due to the lack of a viral genome, these vaccines are empty viral particles of delivery systems containing foreign antigenic proteins (SARS-CoV-2) on their surface. These vaccines use the virus as vectors which are chemically destabilized to make them non-infectious in nature. Due to the natural tendency of host cell infection by viruses, viral vector-based vaccines have the highest ability to carry gene transduction [ 131 ]. The majority ofhuman cells are easily infected with adenoviral vectors because they have adenovirus cell surface receptors that aid in adenovirus attachment and entry into the cell. Viral vector vaccines are of either non-replicating (inactivation of viral replicating genes) or replication type. Viral vector vaccines ( Figure 10 ) express the antigenic proteins using the protein machinery of the infected cells, which evokes higher intensities of immune responses of both cellular and humoral types [ 132 ]. However, possible reversion to a pathogenic type remains a safety concern [ 133 ]. Despite this, viral vector-based vaccines are known to be produced rapidly in bulk quantities and need cold-chain requirements during vaccine storage and transportation [ 41 ].

Viral vector-based vaccines for the treatment of COVID-19: ( 1 ) modification of adenovirus by removing pathogenic genes to make them non-infectious; ( 2 ) insertion of a gene of interest encoding the SARS-CoV-2 virus’s spike protein into an adenovirus system; ( 3 ) making a modified adenovirus-based vaccine and their administration into individuals; ( 4 ) adhesion of a viral vector to human cells and delivery of the antigenic determinant; ( 5 ) expression of a viral vector antigenic determinant (spike protein) and its display on the surface of human cells; ( 6 ) recognition of viral spike protein by immune cells; ( 7 ) immune cells’ production of antibodies (NABs) against viral spike protein; ( 8 ) immune responses with elicited antibodies neutralize the SARS-CoV-2 virus in vaccinated people.

3.1.1. Non-Replicating Viral Vector Vaccines

The majority of the current vaccines developed to mitigate COVID-19 come under this category. This type of vaccine is devoid of the genes necessary for replication; therefore, they cannot produce infectious progeny, posing no risk of vaccination infection [ 134 ]. These non-replicating viral vector vaccines are genetically altered adenovirus (Ad) vectors that are impaired to carry replication in humans. It is achieved by disarming viral structural proteins within the vector, thus hindering virion assembly underin vivoconditions. But the assembly of vaccine vector requires the missing structural protein from another helper virus or a transgenic host cell. Commonly used non-replicating types of viral vectors are serotype 26 (Ad26) and serotype 25 (Ad25) of human adenovirus, alphavirus, MVA-modified vaccinia virus Ankara, and adeno-associated virus (AAV) [ 134 ]. Other viruses which are used as vectors are the modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) virus, influenza virus, human parainfluenza virus, and Sendai virus [ 135 , 136 ]. One major drawback associated with these vectors is limited vaccine efficiency due to the pre-existing immunity. However, it is circumvented by using vector types that are either uncommon in human beings [ 136 ] or by using viruses that do not induce much immunity or animal-based viruses, such as adeno-associated viruses, are used. Further, pre-existing immunity is circumvented by boosting with one vector or by priming with another vector. Several non-replicating viral-based vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 are in the final stages of clinical tests Due to the replication deficiency, greater doses of these vaccines are required to elicit an immune response. In addition, these vaccines need to be administered in booster doses to confer long-term immunity [ 40 ]. Table 2 lists vaccines of this category that were approved for large-scale immunization via EUA, to mitigate the COVID-19 pandemic.

COVID-19 Vaccines Details Enlisted with Developers/Manufacturers, Number of Doses, Efficacy, Storage, Conditional Approval, and Current Stage of Clinical Trials [ 39 , 126 , 127 ].

3.1.2. Replicating Viral Vector-Based Vaccines

Unlike non-replicating viral vectors, replicating viral vectors can multiply independently in host cells; hence, a lower dose of this vaccine formulationis adequate to establish protective immunity. These vectors are developed based on attenuated strains of viruses which are modified to express a transgene (e.g., the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2) [ 51 ]. Moreover, animal viruses that do not replicate efficiently obviously cause disease manifestation in human beings that are also used to make replicating viral vectors. However, these approach-based vectors undergo multiplication in the vaccinated individuals, which induces a strong immunity in them. There are safety concerns associated with these vaccines due to the pathogenicity of the replicating viral vector vaccines, observed particularly inimmunocompromised individuals. These vectors are often administered intramuscularly or through mucosal routes (oral andintranasal), which may impart immune responses at the specific site of administration. The common replicative types of viral vectors are measles virus (MV), vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), and adenovirus (Ad-V) [ 137 ]. Pertussis, Hepatitis B, and HPV are examples of other vaccines developed comes under this category [ 138 ].

3.2. Nucleic Acid-Based Vaccines (RNA/DNA)

The nucleic acid (RNA/DNA)-based vaccine represents a novel and quick low-cost-based strategy used to impart protective immunity against SARS-CoV-2 infections. In the history of vaccine development, this is the first time of using this strategy to obtain an approved vaccine (COVID-19 vaccines) in public health programs [ 139 , 140 ]. In this approach, DNA or RNA molecules are engineered to encode antigenic proteins for triggering specific immune responses [ 141 ]. Recombinant technology uses nucleic acid molecules (DNA or mRNA encoding disease-specific antigens) in properly stabilized formulations. These nucleic acid molecules (e.g., RNA) are encapsulated to provide durability during storage and transportation. Thus, DNA and mRNA vaccines are driven into the cells using different techniques such as direct injection or encapsulation in nanoparticle form. In the case of DNA vaccines, nucleic acids are circularized forms of plasmids, which alone stable enough to use in formulations. In contrast, an mRNA vaccine needs to be kept intact for their appropriate mode of action. Thus, nucleic acid molecule-based vaccines generally need grouping with appropriate delivery vehicles such as nano or microparticles. DNA or RNA molecules, once they enter the cell, initiate the synthesis of antigens and display it on the cells surface, which after recognition by the immune cells stimulate specific immune response (antibodies) of both humoral and cellular immunity [ 142 ]. Intriguingly, nucleic acid-based vaccines can beproduced on a large scale, enablingtheir quick deployment to prevent pandemics. Because of this, several biotech industries such as Pfizer, BiNTech, and Moderna were actively engaged in the nucleic acid-based development of vaccine candidates against COVID-19 [ 143 ].

3.2.1. DNA Vaccines

DNA vaccines are produced based on plasmid DNA; it is ahighly attractive vehicle that readily undergoes transcription and translation to produce one or multiple antigens inside cells [ 144 ]. An engineered plasmid DNA vector comprises mammalian expression promoters, RNA processing elements, and gene-specific spike proteins (in the case of vaccines against COVID-19) to express the antigenic determinants in the vaccinated individual [ 145 ]. Plasmid DNA is highly stable and can be multiplied in larger quantities using host systems (e.g., Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis ), which makes this platform attractive for large-scale production. Moreover, as plasmid DNA is very stable at room temperature, itmakesit easy for their long-term storage and transportation conditions. To make DNA vaccines efficient, they are administered via delivery equipment, such as electroporators, and often these vectors know to impart low immunogenicity [ 146 ]. However, the predominant challenge is that these vectors induce the risk of mutations and may readily integrate into the genome of the host cell [ 132 , 135 ]. Takis Biotech, LineaRx, Applied DNA Sciences Subsidiary, and Inovio Pharmaceuticals are among the biotech companies that have adopted DNA-based vaccine platforms for the development of vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 [ 147 ]. According to a recent study, DNA vaccine candidates werefound to be effective platforms for combating the coronavirus pandemic; however, they may still need to clear regulatory hurdles before theiravailability to the public [ 148 ].

3.2.2. mRNA Vaccines

RNA vectors are relatively recent in terms of development. These vaccines contain mRNA molecules of the single-stranded form, which express genetic information of specific antigen determinant without requiring transcription [ 149 ]. When delivered into the cells of the vaccinated individual, the antigenic sequence in mRNA merely needs translation step to make its antigenic determinant (protein). The transcript of mRNA generally encompasses the gene of the interest guarded by 3′and 5′untranslated regions -polyA tail and 7-methylguanosine cap, respectively [ 150 ]. The capacity to manufacture vast amounts of mRNA transcripts using conventional methods is merit for the production of mRNA-based vaccines [ 151 ]. The objective of particular antigenic expression is served by either mRNA transcripts with modifications (synthetic) encoding the antigenic determinant of interest or self-replicating RNA ( Figure 11 ). The mRNA molecule is naturally unstable due to the fact of its single-stranded (ss) form, and it is readily degraded by the ubiquitous action of ribonucleases. For enhancing the stability of the mRNA vaccine, the mRNA molecules are initially precipitated with 80nmsized liquid nanoparticles (LNPs) andthen packed to injectable forms [ 141 , 152 ]. Phospholipids, PEG, cholesterol, and ionizable cationic lipids make up lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), which assemble to create a stable lipid bilayer that encases the mRNA molecule [ 153 ]. The mRNA vaccine candidate is much safer, as it is neither an inactivated virus nor does it possess any protein subunits of the alive SARS-CoV-2 virus.

Mechanism of mRNA-based vaccine for developing immunity against COVID-19 infection: ( 1 ) intramuscular injection of mRNA-based vaccine; ( 2 ) entry and delivery of spike protein-encoding mRNA into human cells; ( 3 ) decoding of viral mRNA into spike protein and its display on the surface of human cells; ( 4 ) recognition of viral spike protein as antigenic determinant by immune cells; ( 5 ) immune cells’ production of antibodies (NABs) against viral spike proteins; ( 6 ) immune responses elicit antibodies to neutralize the SARS-CoV-2 virus in vaccinated people.

RNA vaccines, in contrast to traditional vaccines, are a new, potent, and cost-effective platform for against viruses [ 154 ]. The mRNA-based vaccine is considered safe, as it cannot integrate into the human/host chromosome [ 155 ]. This vaccine platform has not only been rapidly produced, but it has also showed tremendous promise in recent years due to the fact of its nature of simulating a natural kind of infection process through precise antigenic expression in host systems [ 152 , 156 ]. The use of nanotechnology to encapsulate the mRNA with a lipid nanoparticle coating enables its intramuscular delivery much easier [ 144 , 151 ]. Despite this, the RNA vaccine platform is suffering with constraints oflong-term storage and transportation instability as they need stringent cold-chain conditions.

Several RNA vaccines are in development against COVID-19 disease [ 129 ]. Among them, a vaccine (mRNA-1273) has been designed based on synthetic viral mRNA, which encodes the entire spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 virus. This is known to have the ability to induce natural infection caused by the naturalSARS-CoV-2 virus. In addition, mRNA vaccines, BNT162b1 and BNT162b2, encode for the entire spike protein and RBD subunit of SARS-CoV-2, respectively. Based on phase III clinical trials data of BNT162b2 after 28 days of its first administration, RNA vaccines showed 95% efficacy against COVID-19. Due to the fact of this, the FDA has granted BioNTech and Pfizer EUA for the BNT162b2 vaccine against COVID-19 [ 157 ]. Among the various nucleic acid-based vaccines, Moderna’s mRNA-1273 (SARS-CoV-2 mRNA) vaccine has been successfully tested and utilized for immunization against COVID-19. These features suggest that mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccines are efficient, safe, and good enough in providing immunization in humans. Among the various mRNA-based vaccines, two vaccines of BioNTech/Pfizer and Moderna (mRNA-1273) were provisionally approved for usage in several countries [ 126 ]. However, these vaccines are unlikely to induce strong mucosal immunity (oral or nasal) against infectious respiratory pathogens such as SARS-CoV-2, as these vaccines are administered intramuscularly.RNA vaccines were allowedforuse via EUA for large-scale immunization in the process of mitigating the COVID-19 pandemic ( Table 2 ).

3.3. Recombinant Viral Protein-Based Vaccines

These are viral protein-based vaccines manufactured by recombinant technologies whichconsist of viral antigenic fragments (immunogens) [ 158 ]. They have no genetic materials and are thus comparatively safer compared to whole virus-based vaccines. These are divided into virus-like particle (VLP)-based vaccines, recombinant RBD-based vaccines, and recombinant spike-protein-based vaccines.

Despite several COVID-19 vaccines having beendeveloped, there is a sufficient global demand for vaccines to control the quick spread of SARS-CoV-2. Some recombinant protein-subunit vaccines against COVID-19 are in the pipeline [ 87 , 159 ]. Protein subunit vaccines are easier to produce, having been made with one or a few harmless proteins or its segments of the pathogen, whose delivery in the host system induces strong host immunity ( Figure 12 ). Insect cells, mammalian cells, yeast, and plants are the model systems used to express recombinant proteins. The extent of given antigenic protein post-translational modifications yields varies depending on the expression system. Most protein subunit-based vaccines require adjuvants to induce enhanced immune responses [ 142 ]. Hence, to boost the immune response, this type of vaccine needs adjutants, and also multiple dose administration are mandatory to enhance vaccine efficacy. It is a well-developed platform; existing approved subunit vaccines, viz., HBV and DPT [ 128 ]. Most of these vaccines employ either the full length of S protein (vaccines based on recombinant spike protein) or its receptor-binding domain (RBD) as an antigenic determinant (recombinant RBD-based vaccines). The S protein is a surface protein of the SARS-CoV-2 virus that helps in binding the virus to the host cells with the ACE2 receptor for their fusion and entry [ 10 ]. Currently, in order to induce enhanced immune responses, different vaccines are produced using the S protein as a vaccine antigenic determinant [ 160 ]. Similar to the entire S protein, the RBD fragment induces the neutralizing antibodies (NABs) but lacks other important (neutralizing) epitopes as that of the entire S protein. Thus, vaccines of RBD subunits are not as worthwhile as those of S protein vaccines [ 38 ]. At present, different types of recombinant protein-based vaccines are at the stages of preclinical trials. Some RBD-based and spike-protein-based vaccines have entered the clinical trials ( Table 2 ) [ 129 ].Clover Biopharmaceuticals Inc., developed a trimerized S protein-based subunit vaccine against COVID-19 [ 161 ].

Mechanism of spike protein-based vaccines for developing immunity against COVID-19 infection: ( 1 ) spike proteins of the SARS-CoV-2 virus is enclosed inside a capsule; ( 2 ) spike proteins are mixed with adjuvants; ( 3 ) antigen-presenting structures are made with spike proteins; ( 4 ) virus-like particles are made with native spike proteins of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The spike protein-based vaccines arecreated using one of the above four represented protein formulations. Upon vaccination with thespike protein-based vaccine, the antigen-presenting cells recognize the virus’s spike protein and present it to immune cells (i.e., Tcells and Bcells), resulting in both cell and antibody-mediated immunity.

Virus-like particles (VLPs) vaccines are a type of recombinant vaccine made from the antigenic portion of the pathogen, which triggers required specific immune responses. VLPs are generally made with a radius of 20–200 nm, making them ideal for uptake by antigen-presenting cells (APCs) of the host system, thereby eliciting prompt T-cell responses. The interesting feature of these nano-particle-based VLP vaccines is that theyare given as intranasal vaccines spray or inhalers [ 162 ]. There are increasing investigations on vaccine development based on nanoparticles [ 163 ]. Such vaccines are proposed to have higher specificity, efficiency, and pharmacokinetic properties. But the assembly of the particles is sometimes challenging. Vaccines of this category are under usage against Human papillomavirus and Hepatitis B pathogens [ 130 ]. Novavax Inc., developed an S protein-based nanoparticle vaccine (NVX-CoV2373) that was found to be safe and effective incontrolling COVID-19 ( Table 2 ) [ 164 ].

3.4. Whole Virus Vaccines

Live inactivated and attenuated vaccines are the whole virus vaccines with several antigenic components, which induce potentially broad immune responses in the host against the virus. This is the conventional-based vaccine type that forms the basis of many existing vaccines ( Figure 13 ).

Mechanism of whole virus-based vaccine for inducing immunity against COVID-19: ( 1 ) whole or native virus-based vaccines are prepared by inactivating the whole virus; ( 2 ) whole or native virus-based vaccines are also prepared by attenuating the virus. Whole virus-based vaccines aremade with one of the above two represented protein formulations. Upon vaccination of the whole virus-based vaccine, the antigen-presenting cells recognize the inactivated or attenuated SARS-CoV-2 virus and present it to immune cells (i.e., T cells and B cells) to mediate both cell and antibody-mediated immunity.

3.4.1. Live Attenuated Vaccines

Live attenuated vaccines are developed by using a virus in a weakened form by eitherin vivoorin vitrotechnique or by reverse type of genetic mutagenesis. As a result, the virus replicates to a limited extent, but the virus still has the ability to replicate and mimic immunogenicity similar to natural infection. After their delivery into the host system, these types of vaccines exhibit high immunological efficiency and exert wide cross-protection by inducing humoral, cell-mediated, systemic, and mucosal immunity [ 165 ]. The currently available live-attenuated virus-type vaccines include yellow fever vaccine, oral poliovirus vaccine, vaccines against mumps, measles, and rubella [ 128 ]. These vaccines need to undergo safety concerns and has tedious process while weakening the viral antigenic components [ 166 ]. Currently, a live attenuated type of vaccine for COVID-19 was developed by Codagenix/Serum Institute of India Ltd. (Farmingdale, NY, USA) via codon deoptimization, which is about to roll out for public use.

3.4.2. Inactivated Virus Vaccines

These vaccines consist of live and whole pathogen components in an inactivated or weakened form, which generates an immune response without causing any disease manifestations. These are also called killed vaccines, whose manufacturing iseasy; however, takes a long time for virus culture under biosafety level3 production facilities. These vaccines are actually weakened by subjecting to UV radiation, heat, or chemicals. β -Propiolactone is being used as an inactivating agent and additionally need adjutants, such as aluminum hydroxide, for enhanced immunogenicity.This kind of vaccine platform has been widely used over several years as inactivation renders these vaccine formulations safe. Moreover, these vaccines are non-replicating in nature and exhibit no adverse effects even in immune-compromised hosts. The existing inactivated types of vaccines act against seasonal influenza and inactivated polio vaccine, and vaccines against rabies, Japanese encephalitis, and hepatitis-A diseases [ 128 ]. When compared to live-attenuated vaccines, these vaccines induce a lower immune response; thus, they need to be given in multiple doses to boost immunity. Despite this, inactivated types of vaccines are highly immunogenic in nature and result in the immune response of the innate type. These vaccines present the whole virus to the host’s immune system, and their immune responses are triggered to matrix, envelope, nucleoprotein, and spike proteins of the SARS-CoV-2 virus.

Some of the important examples of these kind COVID-19 vaccines are Corona Vac from Sino Vac biotech from China ( Table 2 ). Sinopharm of China has produced the BBIBP-CorV vaccine, which has exhibited satisfactory results in clinical tests and proceeded to phase IIItrials in which 79.3% efficacy was shown for against COVID-19. It also has the authorization of conditional marketing (CMA) approval. Another vaccine (BBV152) from Bharath Biotech of India is currently in phase III trials, which has received EUA for itsusage across India and other countries [ 167 ].

Table 2 summarizes different COVID-19 vaccine candidates (passed through phase III trials) after EUA, which are widely used for the public in several countries (WHO drafts landscape, 2021).

4. The Ideal Next-Generation COVID-19 Vaccines: Mucosal Vaccines and Edible Vaccines

4.1. mucosal vaccines.

Massive efforts have beenmade in thedevelopment of several vaccine candidates as well as their safety testing, immunogenicity levels, host protection levels, and efficacy. Within a few days of a natural SARS-CoV-2 infection or after vaccine administrationprocess in humans, serum neutralizing antibodies are generally produced inpersons [ 152 , 168 ]. Hence, an ideal vaccine forCOVID-19 is anticipated to induce high titers of antibodies that could neutralize the SARS-CoV-2 infection process. These antibodies are known as vaccine-induced neutralizing antibodies (NABs). Further, an ideal vaccine has to reduce non-NABs production by lowering the enhanced respiratory disease (ERD) potential and by minimizing antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE) potential. These potentialities will maintain life-long immunological memory and provide protection against different CoVs [ 169 ]. In conjunction, a recent report attributed the correlation of NABsto that of human protection levels from SARS-CoV-2 after COVID-19 infection [ 170 ].After natural infection, usually the host’s immune system will induce secretary immunoglobulin A (mucosal antibody of IgA type) and IgG-mediated systemic antibody-mediated immune responses.Secretory IgA protects the upper regions of the respiratory tract, whereas the IgG know to protect the lower respiratory tract [ 171 , 172 ].

Vaccine administration procedures affect a given vaccine candidate’s antigen presentation, expression, immunogenicity, and efficacy. Generally, vaccination administration conductedby parenteral routes includes subcutaneous (SC), intradermal (ID), and intramuscular (IM), whereas mucosal routes include nasal and oral [ 173 ]. Since SARS-CoV-2infectshumansviamucosal lines of the respiratory tract [ 174 ], vaccine administrationvia the mucosal (oral and/or intranasal) route might be a critical means to prevent disease COVID-19 transmission and prevention [ 175 ], because the majority of APCs, especially dendritic cells (DCs), inhabit the mucosal sites and aid in presenting antigen to Tcells, thereby initiatingappropriate immune responses [ 176 ]. In addition, IgA immunoglobulin is inhabited at mucosal sites (upper respiratory tract) to prevent pathogenic entry into the body [ 38 ]. Most of the current vaccines developed aredelivered intra-muscularly and are known to induce immunity for preventing/attenuating disease and, thus, not staving off viremia or viral shedding from the upper respiratory tract, which perpetuates due to the deprived local IgA-mediated immune responses. Thus, vaccines administered intradermally or intramuscularly induce IgG production without secretory antibodies (IgA). This is not necessarily conferring sterilizing immunity. Sterilizing immunity is a key factor in eliminating viruses and does notcarry any of the viruses. Thus, intranasal vaccine candidates that confer mucosal and/or upper respiratory tract immunity may be rightfully thought to contain the COVID-19 pandemic as the virus neither persists nor allow them to infect othersviaviral shedding. Administration of vaccines through the mucosal/nasal route could effectively prevent infection (via induction of strong mucosal immunity) as the site of infection and mode of transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 type of virus is through the mucosal/nasal site of the respiratory tract [ 174 , 177 ]. Currently, most of the COVID-19 vaccines are administered through parenteral routes; however, a range of mucosal vaccines are in the pipeline to roll out [ 178 , 179 ], which are more likely to evoke a humoral response in oral and nasal mucosa lymphoid tissues and, thus, toughening to prevent upper airway transmission by promoting sterilizing immunity required to combat COVID-19 disease.

4.2. Edible Vaccines

Edible vaccines (EVs) are vaccine formulations that humans can eat to protect themselves from viral, parasite, and bacterial infections [ 180 , 181 ]. These vaccines are modified plant fruits or vegetables (edible portions) having specific antigen determinants. EVs are edible parts of modified plants’ fruits or vegetables that are expressed with antigenic determinants (vaccine determinants) at a tissue-specific level, upon their consumption by humans trigger immune responses to protect against a certain illness. The need for such EVs in large scale is increasing due to the mounting number of COVID-19 positive cases across affected countries; hence, there is a pressing need to develop an appropriate vaccine based on edible plant parts [ 182 ]. Plant-derived edible vaccines can be a feasible and appealing platform, since they are cost-effective due to the fact of their simplicity of large-scale manufacture and the ability to immunize via the mucosal route. Maintaining the cold chain is a major concern in vaccination technology, as it requires costly and laborious logistics to keep vaccines stable throughout storage and transportation process. EVs may be the best alternative to traditional vaccines because they are easy to use (oral delivery), have no patient hesitancy (as they cover all age groups), and are biofriendly [ 180 , 181 ].

The spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 is the best know antigenic target to be cloned via plant-based vectors and expressed into the plant cells of tomato, spinach, lettuce, and cucumber [ 182 ]. Attempts for the production of edible vaccines of COVID-19 were already made in a few plant systems (carrot, tomato, cucumber, and banana) for their large-scale production [ 181 , 183 ]. In addition, various plant-based vaccines have been developed, viz., virus-like particles (VLPs), multi-epitope, and mucosal vaccines [ 184 ]. Interestingly, plant-based EVs can be either for nutraceutical purpose or used to curb human diseases [ 185 ], deploying CRISPR editing technology [ 186 ]. However, several regulatory and technological limitations need to be addressed to make EVs more efficient and applicable. To meet the existing demand for vaccines, especially in the low and middle-income countries (LMICs), these plant-based edible vaccines are viable alternatives and would be the game changer to avert COVID-19pandemics.

5. Immunoinformatics in Vaccine Preparation

Immunoinformatics is the science of storing, managing, and analyzing the data related to antigenic variations at the amino acid and genomic levels by comparing the data using computational tools [ 187 ]. Numerous immunoinformatics tools, such as AlgPred, VaxiJen server, ToxinPred server, and IEDB immunogenicity, are used to evaluate the allergenicity, antigenicity, toxigenicity, immunogenicity, and interferon-gamma inducing capacity of the viral constructs, respectively [ 188 ]. Thus, the information of immunoinformatics is also necessary to predict the exact site of the highest rate of mutagenesis in the spike protein-encoding genes and thereby providing a solution in designing the polyvalent COVID-19 vaccines against the multiple emerging variants of SARS-CoV-19 viruses [ 189 ].

6. Artificial Intelligence (AI) in the Pandemic Times

The ability of a digital computer to perform tasks commonly associated with intelligence is known as artificial intelligence (AI). AI tools are versatile due to the fact of their application in healthcare management, particularly in COVID-19 pandemic by detecting early COVID-19 diagnosis (with the use of technologies such as machine learning, deep learning, and deep neural network) and also being used for studying Lung Abnormalities to rule out the ARDS from common pneumonia [ 190 ]. Currently, AI is used to predict the patient’s need for oxygen therapy andasymptomatic people’s tendency to develop ARDS. This can be ruled out, which is a key clinical symptom representing the severity of COVID-19 infection [ 191 ]. Now a day’s deep learning model called COVID-19 detection neural network (CovNet) is used to distinguish between COVID-19 and community-acquired pneumonia. Moreover, AI has implications for COVID-19 coronavirus vaccine redesigning deploying VAXIGN reverse vaccinology and machine language, signifying the versatility of AI to combat COVID-19 [ 192 ].

7. Conclusions and Perspective

Like other viruses, the quick emergence of different mutating forms of coronavirus is now seen worldwide, which has created havoc in many countries with regard to human health and socioeconomic well-being. An accidental mutation often gives the virus improved transmissibility, and those variants (mutants) become more fit and dominant. The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants has caused significant human morbidities and fatalities in the initial days of pandemic due to the lack of our preparation for the rapid spread of the pandemic viruses. This is because that the greatest ability to evade human immunity is due to the decreased neutralizing antibodies against specific variants. These changes in the virus are constantly drifting due to the fact of evolutionary pressures, although more suitable variants will emerge over time. No natural process is ongoing, new varieties may settle and no longer confer the advantage of infectivity and will eventually reach its peak form of transmission. The lessons learned from viral pandemics timelines, which spilled over in humans, showed that all viruses will be stabilized after reaching the most contagious phenotype and will finally become endemic. Albeit, early and precise diagnosis of asymptomatic persons, contact tracing, and timely quarantining of infected persons are the keys to forbiddingfurther transmission of SARS-CoV-2.

To date, there is no definitive clinically approved therapeutics available; hence, the only hope is vaccine intervention to combat outbreak SARS-CoV-2. With the advent of the Edward Jenner vaccinology era, vaccine-induced immunity is only the evidence of strategic protective immunity conferred than that elicited by the natural infection. Thus, to diminish the devastating effects of the SARS-CoV-2 on society, economy, and public health, a safe and effective vaccine is of the highest priority and paramount urgency. The current extraordinary speed with which novel gene-based vaccinations are being developed would quickly put an end to viral replication and spread. SARS-CoV-2 variants are not found to evolve at a level to minimize the acquired immunity conferred by now available COVID-19 vaccines, which roll out via EUA. However, the scientific community should rigorously keep monitoring to promptly diagnose the emergence of “vaccine-piercing”variants and, in that case, rapidly redesign diagnostics and vaccines accordingly using advanced areas of immune-informatics and artificial intelligence.

Additionally, the type (heat-stable vaccines) and route (mucosal-oral andintranasal) of vaccine administration would be viable options to avert the COVID-19 pandemic. Hence, variant-specific updating of diagnostics and vaccines should go hand in hand to come out of this public health emergency. Thus, an optimized COVID-19 immunization provides an expectation for an end to this pandemic disease, with equal access and optimal shots for people of all ages, especially in the world’s most densely populated nations (LMICs). Regardless of political ideologies and socio-sanitary settings, integrative perspectives may not be overlooked. Furthermore, to defeat the invisible enemy, SARS-CoV-2, optimizing the human lifestyle with a balanced diet, adequate sleep cycle, and physical activity are critical. As timing going, more reliable clinic treatments will also be developed for treated patients with COVID infection, which include but are not limited to new pharmaceutical drugs and CRISPR-based diagnosis and treatments using various CRISPR/Cas tools [ 193 ]. We believe that humans will eventually win this battle and that all the current chaos will be brought under control.

Acknowledgments

M.A. is grateful to the Department of Biotechnology, Telangana University, Nizamabad, for providing the facilities. P.J. is grateful to the Council of Scientific andIndustrial Research (CSIR), Government of India, for providing the Research Associate Fellowship (No. 09/0384(11496)/2021-EMR-I).

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.A. and B.Z.; writing and original draft preparation, M.A., G.K.R., P.J. and S.S.; review and editing, B.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Current research in biotechnology: Exploring the biotech forefront

2019, Current Research in Biotechnology

Biotechnology is an evolving research field that covers a broad range of topics. Here we aimed to evaluate the latest research literature, to identify prominent research themes, major contributors in terms of institutions, countries/re-gions, and journals. The Web of Science Core Collection online database was searched to retrieve biotechnology articles published since 2017. In total, 12,351 publications were identified and analyzed. Over 8500 institutions contributed to these biotechnology publications, with the top 5 most productive ones scattered over France, China, the United States of America, Spain, and Brazil. Over 140 countries/regions contributed to the biotechnology research literature, led by the United States of America, China, Germany, Brazil, and India. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineer-ing was the most productive journal in terms of number of publications. Metabolic engineering was among the most prevalent biotechnology study themes, and Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae were frequently used in biotechnology investigations, including the biosynthesis of useful biomolecules, such as myo-inositol (vitamin B8), mono-terpenes, adipic acid, astaxanthin, and ethanol. Nanoparticles and nanotechnology were identified too as emerging biotechnology research themes of great significance. Biotechnology continues to evolve and will remain a major driver of societal innovation and development.

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Master in Biotechnology

Master's thesis.

The master's degree programme concludes with a master's thesis of 35 weeks duration that includes a written report and oral presentation. The topic of the thesis can be chosen according to the student's interests in the field of biotechnology.

Important: the master's thesis needs to completed in a different group or company department - and supervised by a different professor - than the research project or industry internship!

• The name of the BSSE group you will be working in (for the group server access)
• The start and end date of your master's thesis

Remuneration

In general, students are not allowed to be paid for their master's thesis. Please refer to the respective Download ETH Directive (PDF, 23 KB) vertical_align_bottom

Though, students are allowed to accept payment if they have an internship contract for up to 80%. A full-time position remains forbidden.

The master's thesis is conducted in a research group at D-BSSE. Students are expected to contact the research group they are interested in directly. Usually, the contact person for research project/master thesis is a senior assistant or post-​doc in the group.

The master's thesis is a graded semester performance. A failed master's thesis can only be repeated once. If the master's thesis is repeated, a new research topic needs to be found. Students can choose the same supervisor again or a different supervisor. A passed master's thesis cannot be repeated.

Students need to fulfil the following prerequisites prior to starting their master's thesis:

• The BSc programme has been completed successfully
• Assigned additional requirements for the admission to the master's programme have been passed
• A minimum of 64 ECTS must have been acquired for the master's degree programme, including all credits in the core course category (22 ECTS)
• The research project or industry internship must have been completed and the credits acquired (16 ECTS)

The Director of Studies may allow exceptions with regard to the required 64 ECTS if cogent grounds are submitted at the proper time. Note that no exception can be made with regard to the completion of BSc programme and additional requirements.

Students need to register the master's thesis including all required information prior to the start.

The master's thesis needs to be registered in myStudies. A fter the initial registration, the request is forwarded to the supervising professor for confirmation - students are asked to inform their supervisor when they have registered the thesis.

• The title of the thesis can still be changed afterwards in myStudies.
• The submission deadline is automatically calculated and cannot be changed.

The registration must be done in the semester in which the thesis is started. Students starting in between semesters should register the thesis in the semester in which most of the work is completed.

In a subsequent semester, the thesis does not have to be registered for again, and students may request a leave of absence .

Students wishing to complete an external master's thesis must start the organisation process early to ensure that registration is completed prior to the start.

Completing the master's thesis outside D-BSSE requires approval of the Director of Studies.

Students who wish to complete the master's thesis outside D-BSSE need to submit the respective request form together with a one-page project description to the Student Administration.

The request must be submitted in a timely manner to ensure the assessment and approval as well as the subsequent registration can be completed before the start of the thesis.

All forms can be found under Documents & Templates

NDA / Agreement

A confidentiality agreement may be requested by the external institution. Any agreement is subject to negotiations between the student, the host institution and the supervising professor. Students must clarify NDA/agreement questions in advance and be aware that ETH professors may refuse to sign any agreement other than the standard ETH templates:

• Non-​​D​isclosure Agreement: Download (login required)
• Thesis Project Agreement Template: protected page Download lock (login required)

The master's thesis duration is 35 weeks full-time. Thereof, 3 weeks are reserved for writing the report and 2 weeks for compensation of public holidays, sick leave and other unplanned short term absences. In case of late submission, the master's thesis is failed.

For reasons of fairness and comparability it is not allowed to change the allotted duration. Students may voluntarily extend their stay in the research group or company after submission of the master's thesis. However, the master’s thesis work and report, and consequently the assessment must only refer to the official duration.

The Director of Studies may extend the deadline if cogent grounds are submitted at the proper time.

The master's thesis is supervised by a D-BSSE professor.

The supervising professor defines the task, start date and grading criteria and evaluates the thesis. The master's thesis must show a clear innovative character with regard to the technical and scientific approach.

Mind that the master's thesis needs to completed in a different group or company department - and supervised by a different professor - than the research project or industry internship!

The master's thesis is concluded with an oral presentation and a written report.

The master's thesis needs to adhere to common scientific and academic standards.

Details are to be discussed and agreed upon with the supervising professor. There are no department specific rules, criteria with regard to the written report. It is suggested to ask the supervising professor for a good sample report beforehand and afterwards for feedback to improve own writing skills for future reports/theses.

The oral presentation may be held within a reasonable timeframe after submission of the written report. The supervising professor and the student jointly agree on a date for the oral presentation. Note that feedback from the oral presentation may not be used or integrated in the written report.

Students submit the master's thesis to the supervising professor.

The D-BSSE does not receive copies of the master's thesis.

• A signed " Download Declaration of Originality (PDF, 183 KB) vertical_align_bottom " is a component of every research project/master's thesis, semester paper, or other qualifying paper written during the course of studies (including the electronic versions) and must be submitted with the thesis.
• The master's thesis can be published in the Research Collection of ETH Zürich.

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Top 100 Biotechnology Dissertation Topics for the Year 2021

• September 14, 2021 September 14, 2021

Biotechnology is one of the major streams of science where students request for our reliable and time-tested assignment help from prestigious universities, colleges, and institutes around the globe. The subject helps us understand how we can effectively utilise biological systems, living organisms, or their parts to develop or create different types of products.

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(since 2006)

Apart from genetics, bioengineering and research, the subject offers decent career options in industrial sectors like textiles, food, agriculture, pharmaceutical and animal husbandry.

Introduction

Modern biotechnology has been credited with breakthrough innovations in the field of product development and technologies to help us develop a cleaner and more sustainable world. It is primarily because of biotechnology; we have progressed towards the development of more efficient industrial manufacturing base. Besides, it is helping in the production of cleaner energy, feed more hungry people without leaving much of our environmental footprint, and help mankind combat rare and debilitating diseases.

Our assignment writing services in the field of biotechnology cover all types of subject topics that test and vindicate the skill sets of the students before awarding them with their respective degrees. We help students successfully pass their syllabus in all forms of biotechnology courses. These include medical biotechnology (red), environmental biotechnology (green), marine biotechnology (blue) and industrial biotechnology (white).

What are We Expecting to Gain from All these Efforts?

Our sole objective of preparing this marathon list of top 100 biotechnology assignment topics is to help students decide upon effective time management skills. We have seen an immense numbers of cases where while exploring online assignment help related to topic selection, exploration of information sources, and citing them in correct reference order, students get stuck at different stages. Amongst them, most of the students find it difficult even to pass their topic selection dilemma. That is where we contribute to our efforts to make things easy for the biotech students right in one go. We help our students save time and energy, so that they can prudently use the assigned time to prepare the content of their assignment around the best topics.

Are you keen to master your dissertation writing skills in just a couple of weeks? Read the below amazing article and do not miss the golden opportunity to learn from the experts absolutely for free!

Must read: wish to master dissertation skills in 2 weeks learn from the experts here, top 100 biotechnology dissertation topics trending in the year 2021.

We have prepared the list of top 100 most recommended dissertation topics prepared by our research experts. They have ensured to provide a comprehensive list of topics that are covering all the dimensions of the subject. We fully hope that the list would cover all your dissertation help requirements. So, let us begin with the prepared list of topics one by one –

• Effective management of renewable energy technology to promote a village
• The production of ethanol with the help of molasses as well as its effluent treatment
• Different methods and aspects of evapotranspiration
• The scattering parameters of the circulator biotechnology
• The inactivation of the mammalian TLR2 through an inhibiting antibody
• Number of proteins through Mycobacterium tuberculosis
• The recognition and classification of the genes shaping the plant responses to salinity and drought
• The segment of small signing molecules in the responses of plants to salinity and drought
• Genetic improvement of the plant lenience to salinity and drought
• Pharmacogenomics of the drug transporters
• Pharmacogenomics of the anti-cancer drugs
• Pharmacogenomics of the anti-hypertensive drugs
• Indels genotyping of the African populations
• Y-chromosome genotyping of the African populations
• Profiling of the DNA isolated from the historical crime scenes: Discuss in terms of South African Innocence Project
• Nanotechnology methods in terms of DNA isolation
• Nanotechnology applications in terms of DNA genotyping
• Recognizing heavy metal tolerant along with sensitive genotypes
• Features of genes that participate in the process of heavy metal tolerance
• DNA authentication of the animal species through raw meat products reared commercially
• Molecular based technology in terms of rapid identification and detection of the food borne pathogens with respect to complex food systems
• Making an assessment of cancer specific peptides for successful implementations in the field of cancer diagnosis
• Quantum dot-based detection system development with respect to successful breast cancer diagnosis
• Targeted delivery of the embelin to the cancer cells
• Accessing the role of novel quinone compounds to perform as anti-cancer agents
• Therapeutic approaches to the treatment of HIV and the role of nanotechnology in it
• An assessment of the medicinal value of the natural antioxidants
• An indepth study of the structure of the COVID spike proteins
• An assessment of the immune response of the stem cell therapy
• The use of CRISPR-Cas9 technology for the purpose of genome editing
• Tissue engineering and the drug delivery with the application of Chitosan
• An assessment of therapeutic effects of the cancer vaccines
• Utilization of PacBio sequencing with respect to genome assembly of the model organisms
• Studying the relationship between the mRNA suppression and its impact on the expansion of the stem cell
• Utilizing biomimicry for the identification of the tumor cells
• The sub-classification and characterization of the Yellow enzymes
• The production of the hypoallergenic fermented foods
• The production of the hypoallergenic milk
• The purification process of the thermostable phytase
• Bioconversion of the cellulose to successfully yield the products that are industrially significant
• The examination of the gut microbiota in the model organisms
• The utilization of the fungal enzymes in the production of chemical glue
• An examination of the inhibitors of exocellulase and endocellulase
• Discuss the utility of microorganisms in the recovery of shale gas
• Discuss the in-depth study of the procedure of natural decomposition
• Discuss the process of recycling the bio-wastes
• Enhanced bio-remediation for the cases of oil spills
• The process of gold biosorption with the help of cyanobacterium
• Maintaining a healthy balance between the biotic and the abiotic factors with the help of biotechnological tools
• Labeling the level of mercury in fish with the help of markers
• Exploring out the biotechnological potential of the Jellyfish related microbiome
• What is the potential of marine fungi in the efforts to degrade polymers and plastics?
• Discuss the biotechnological potential that one can fetch out of dinoflagellates
• Tracing out endosulfan residues with the application of biotechnology in the field of agricultural products
• The development of the ELISA technique for the identification of crop viruses
• Boosting the quality of drinking water with the help of E.coli consortium
• The characterization of E.coli isolation from the feces of the zoo animals
• Improving the resistance of the crops against the invasion of the insects
• Reducing the spending on agriculture with the help of effective bio-tools
• What are the most effective steps to reduce soil erosion with the utility of tools derived from biotechnology?
• How biotechnology can help in the improvement the levels of vitamin in GM foods?
• Improving the delivery of pesticide with the help of biotechnology
• Comparing folate biofortification in different kinds of corps
• Discuss the photovoltaic-based production of the ocean crops
• How the application of nanotechnology to improve the activities of the agricultural sector?
• Examining the mechanisms of water stress tolerance in the model plants
• Testing and production of the human immune boosters in the experimental organisms
• Comparing genomic analysis with the utility of tools meant for bioinformatics
• Arabinogalactan protein sequencing and its utility in computational methods
• Evaluating and interpreting gut microbiota in the model organisms
• Different techniques of protein purification: A comparative analysis
• Diagnosing microbes and their role in o ligonucleotide micro-arrays
• The application of different techniques in the field of biomedical research comprising micro-arrays technology
• The application of microbial consortium in producing the greenhouse effect
• Computational assessment of various proteins accessed from marine microbiota
• E.coli gene mapping with the application of various microbial tools
• Enhancing the strains of cyanobacterium with the help of gene sequencing
• Computational assessment and description of the crystallized proteins present in nature
• mTERF protein and its application to terminate the transcription of mitochondrial DNA in algae
• Reverse phase column chromatography and its application in separating proteins
• The study of various proteins present within Mycobacterium leprae
• An assessment of the strategies that are ideally suitable for successful cloning of RNA
• Discuss the common failures of biotechnology in saving the ecology and the environment
• Is there a way to make the medicinal plants free of pests? Discuss
• What are the harms imposed by pest resistant corps on humans and birds?
• What are the diverse fields of biotechnology that still remain unexplored in terms of research?
• What is the future of biotechnology in the field of medicine?
• The application of recombinant DNA technology in the invention of new forms of medicine
• Why is the strain of bacteria used to create vaccine with the help of biotechnology?
• How biotechnology can help in the creation of medicines that are more resistant towards the mutating forms of viruses and bacteria?
• Can there be a permanent cure for cancer in the future? How biotechnology can play a decisive role in it?
• Why it is critical for the students to effectively remember the DNA coding in the field of biotechnology?
• How one can make hybrid seeds with the help from biotechnology?
• How one can generate pest resistant seeds and what are their benefits in the end yielding in agriculture?
• Discuss bio-magnification and its impact on ecology
• What are the reasons due to which the ecologists disapprove the usage of pest resistant seeds, despite their usage in the field of agriculture?
• How biotechnology positively influenced the lives of farmers in the developing economies?
• How biotechnology functions to increase in yield of the crop plants?
• Discuss the role of biotechnology in boosting the output of seasonal crops
• Are there adverse effects of medicines in pharmacology when manufactured with biotechnological principles? Throw some light on the question with real-life cases

Now with that, we have reached the end of this list and fully hope that it would have served the purpose of topic selection requirements. Besides, the inclusion of biotechnology assignment topics has been done in such a manner that it can help us out with our needs related to different other assignment writing formats as well. For instance, all our topic selection requirements related to case study help , essay help , research paper writing help or thesis help can also be met with the topics in the above-mentioned list.

Are you facing the heat of topic selection dilemma in your biology assignment homework? Check the below link to rely upon the topic list that the most respected experts recommend.

Must read: top 100 biology dissertation topics for the year 2021.

Biotechnology is a subject that is meant to offer a plethora of research prospects. A successful completion of course in one or more streams of biotechnology will ensure job placement opportunities in different research and development companies dedicated to the field. The objective of recommending this list is to help you make the right topic selection in less amount of time and dedicate more time to assignment research, and adequate content writing. After all, going an extra mile in terms of efforts will ensure that the final submission is good enough to help you earn the grades that can help you beat the competition.

If you have liked our recommended list of 100 biotechnology topics, then we invite you to reach our paid assignment help to unburden all the biotech assignment worries onto the shoulders of the most trusted professional assignment writers. Reach biotechnology assignment help to learn how the most trusted online homework help agency has helped thousands of biotechnology students to skyrocket to better career opportunities in the last 15 years. It is the time to step-in and reap the benefits from what the best in business has to offer!

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How To Write A Research Paper In Biotechnology

Table of Contents:

Current research in biotechnology: Exploring the biotech forefront . Biotechnology is an evolving research field that covers a broad range of topics. Here we aimed to evaluate the latest research literature, to identify…

Highlights – View PDFCurrent research in biotechnology: Exploring the biotech forefrontUnder a Creative Commons licenseopen accessHighlights•Biotechnology literature since 2017 was analyzed. •The United States of America, China, Germany, Brazil and India were most productive. •Metabolic engineering was among the most prevalent study themes. •Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae were frequently used. •Nanoparticles and nanotechnology are trending research themes in biotechnology. AbstractBiotechnology is an evolving research field that covers a broad range of topics. Here we aimed to evaluate the latest research literature, to identify prominent research themes, major contributors in terms of institutions, countries/regions, and journals. The Web of Science Core Collection online database was searched to retrieve biotechnology articles published since 2017. In total, 12,351 publications were identified and analyzed. Over 8500 institutions contributed to these biotechnology publications, with the top 5 most productive ones scattered over France, China, the United States of America, Spain, and Brazil.

Video advice: 7 Most Effective Tips For Writing a Better Scientific Research Paper

Thesis Writing, Research paper Writing, Research Methodology \u0026 Scientific Writing Course – https://btnk.org/btn-certification

BMC Biotechnology

BMC Biotechnology is an open access, peer-reviewed journal that considers articles on the manipulation of biological macromolecules or organisms for use in …

• Ethics approval and consent to participate
• Consent for publication
• Availability of data and materials
• Competing interests
• Authors’ contributions
• Acknowledgements
• Authors’ information

All manuscripts must contain the following sections under the heading ‘Declarations’: Ethics approval and consent to participate Consent for publication Availability of data and materials Competing interests Funding Authors’ contributions Acknowledgements Authors’ information (optional)Please see below for details on the information to be included in these sections. If any of the sections are not relevant to your manuscript, please include the heading and write ‘Not applicable’ for that section. Ethics approval and consent to participateManuscripts reporting studies involving human participants, human data or human tissue must: include a statement on ethics approval and consent (even where the need for approval was waived) include the name of the ethics committee that approved the study and the committee’s reference number if appropriateStudies involving animals must include a statement on ethics approval and for experimental studies involving client-owned animals, authors must also include a statement on informed consent from the client or owner.

Top Ten Exclusive Research Paper Topics On Biotechnology

Looking for some unique ideas for your paper on biotechnology? Check out the list of suggestions provided in the article and feel free to take your pick.

A Selection Of Great Research Paper Topics On Biotechnology – Like a student, you’ll frequently need to write complex academic assignments that need effort, search, critically planning and exploring new aspects. You are able to only produce a winning assignment if you opt to talk about fresh ideas and new breakthroughs. Its likely the first couple of topics which come for your mind under this subject could be already taken. You have to make certain the niche you decide to address is exclusive and fresh. If other scientific study has already spoken relating to this before you decide to, then there’s no reason on paper it.

Free Term Papers On Biotechnology – Writing a good paper on biotechnology is a challenging task. If you struggling to complete it, be sure to take a quick look at the following article.

You can find free research papers online as well. There are several documents that are available online. You can download them. You can check the image search as well if you are having trouble locating one. Try typing it into the search engine of the web browser and the image browser for the best results.

Video advice: HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PAPER

HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PAPER |Beginners Guide to Writing Quality Essays from An Oxford Grad Student

Guide for authors

Get more information about Current Research in Biotechnology. Check the Author information pack on Elsevier.com.

INTRODUCTION Current Research in Biotechnology is definitely an worldwide peer reviewed journal dedicated to publishing original research and short communications caused by research in Analytical biotechnology, Plant biotechnology, Food biotechnology, Energy biotechnology, Ecological biotechnology, Systems biology, Nanobiotechnology, Tissue, cell and path engineering, Chemical biotechnology, and Pharmaceutical biotechnology. The Journal publishes Research Papers, Short Communications, Graphical Reviews and Reviews. We offer the “Your Paper The Right Path” Elsevier guideline which enables authors to submit their primary manuscript file with no formatting needs. Research Papers aren’t limited in dimensions. However, we all do highly recommend to authors to become as succinct as you possibly can within the welfare from the readers and also the distribution from the work. Short Communications possess the following soft limits. The manuscript should ideally contain a maximum of 4-6 Figures/Tables and 4000 words, such as the title page, all parts of the manuscript (such as the references), and Figure/Table legends.

Structure for writing a scientific research proposal in biotechnology

The aim or goal and objective of the biotechnology research proposal should give a broad indication of the expected research outcome and the hypothesis to be tested can also be the aim of your study. The objective can be categorized as primary and secondary according to the parameters and tools used to achieve the goal.

Writing an investigation proposal in our era is definitely an entirely challenging mission due to the constant evolution within the research design and the necessity to incorporate innovative concepts and medical advances within the methodology section. A properly-formatted research proposal in the area of biotechnology is going to be written based on the needed guidelines forms the mainstay for that research, and therefore proposal writing is a vital step while performing research. The primary objective in preparing an investigation proposal would be to obtain approval from the 3 committees like the ethics committee and grant committee.

Research Papers – Learn more about research papers for the Master of Biotechnology Program at Northwestern University.

Alison Chow et al., “Metabolic engineering of the non-sporulating, non-solventogenic Clostridium acetobutylicum strain M5 to produce butanol without acetone demonstrate the robustness of the acid-formation pathways and the importance of the electron balance”, Metabolic Engineering 2008.

Natural Products and Biotechnology

Natural Products and Biotechnology (NatProBiotech) is an International Journal and only accepting English manuscripts. NatProBiotech publishes original research articles and review articles only.

• Research Article
• Review Article

Current Issue

Natural Products and Biotechnology (Nat. Pro. Biotech. ) (ISSN: 2791-674X) is an International Journal and only accepting English manuscripts. Natural Products and Biotechnology publishes original research articles and review articles only and publishes twice a year. There is no fee for article submission, article processing, or publication processes. Please write the article in good English. Choose only one of the British or American usage, you should not use both together. If the language of the article is not good enough, please have it edited by anEnglish Language Editing service. The article will be reviewed by the Spelling and Language editor, if the editor decides that it is not written in good English, your article will be send to corresponding author for edit before the referee process. Research articles should report the results of original research. The article should not have been published elsewhere. Review articles should cover current topics and comply with the journal’s publication guidelines and should not have been published anywhere before.

Video advice: How To Write Research Paper

How To Write Research Paper | Step-by-Step Research Paper Writing Process | by Aditi Sharma

What are the research topics in biotechnology?

• Research Areas.
• Cancer Biotechnology.
• Cardiovascular Biology & Transplantation Biology.
• Cell & Molecular Biology.
• Developmental Biology & Neurobiology.
• Diagnostics & Medical Devices.
• Drug Discovery & Delivery.
• Microbial & Environmental Biotechnology.

How do you publish a research paper in biotechnology?

How to publish your research paper in an international journal

• International journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) publish research paper of related fields. ...
• Your research paper that you are going to submit should follow the same format that is mentioned in journal.

How do you research biotechnology?

Step-By-Step Guide To Becoming a Biotechnologist

• Step One: Earn a Bachelor's Degree (Four years) ...
• Step Two: Gain Practical Work Experience (Optional, Timeline Varies) ...
• Step Three: Earn a Certificate or Master's Degree In Biotechnology (One to Three Years)

How do you write a research paper step by step?

Basic Steps in the Research Process

• Step 1: Identify and develop your topic. ...
• Step 2 : Do a preliminary search for information. ...
• Step 3: Locate materials. ...
• Step 4: Evaluate your sources. ...
• Step 5: Make notes. ...
• Step 6: Write your paper. ...
• Step 7: Cite your sources properly. ...
• Step 8: Proofread.

What is biotechnology research?

Biotechnologists identify practical uses of biological material – including the physical, chemical, and genetic properties of cells – to improve agricultural, environmental, or pharmaceutical products, although biotechnologists also work in related capacities, as in marine biotechnology. ...

Related Articles:

• How To Write A Research Paper Biology
• How To Write Abstract For Science Research Paper
• How To Write Research Proposal For Phd In Biotechnology
• How To Write A Journal Paper In Engineering
• How To Write A Computer Science Paper
• How To Write A Review Paper In Chemistry

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Home > Life Sciences > Microbiology and Molecular Biology > Theses and Dissertations

Microbiology and Molecular Biology Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2024 2024.

Characterization of Cellular Metabolism Regulation by the Transcription Factor Centromere Binding Factor 1 (Cbf1) , Spencer Ellsworth

Theses/Dissertations from 2023 2023

Elucidating the Architecture of the TclIJN Complex that Converts Cysteine to Thiazoles in the Biosynthesis of Micrococcin , Diana G. Calvopina Chavez

Manipulating and Assaying Chromatin Architecture Around Enhancer Elements in vivo , John Lawrence Carter

Halophilic Genes that Impact Plant Growth in Saline Soils , Mckay A. Meinzer

Characterizing Stress Granule Regulation by PAS Kinase, Ataxin-2 and Ptc6 and Investigating the Lifespan of Covid-19 Virus on Currency , Colleen R. Newey

Changes in RNA Expression of HuT78 Cells Resulting From the HIV-1 Viral Protein R R77Q Mutation , Joshua S. Ramsey

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

Biofilm Characterization and the Potential Role of eDNA in Horizontal Gene Transfer in Hospital and Meat Isolates of Staphylococcus aureus and Their Biofilms , Ashley Lynne Ball

Novel Patterns for Nucleosome Positioning: From in vitro to in vivo , David Andrew Bates

The Effects of Polymorphisms of Viral Protein R of HIV-1 on the Induction of Apoptosis in Primary Cells and the Characterization of Twelve Novel Bacillus anthracis Bacteriophage , Jacob D. Fairholm

Analysis of the Cytopathogenic Effect of Different HIV-1 Vpr Isoforms on Primary Human CD4+ T Cells and a Model Cell Line , Jonatan Josue Fierro Nieves

The Role of Chitinase A in Mastitis-Associated Escherichia coli Pathogenesis , Weston D. Hutchison

Big Data Meta-Analyses of Transcriptional Responses of Human Samples to Orthohantavirus Infection and Shotgun Metagenomics From Crohn's Disease Patients. , John L. Krapohl

An Exploration of Factors that Impact Uptake of Human Papillomavirus Vaccines , David Samuel Redd

Genomic Analysis and Therapeutic Development of Bacteriophages to Treat Bacterial Infections and Parasitic Infestations , Daniel W. Thompson

The Use of Nucleotide Salvage Pathway Enzymes as Suitable Tumor Targets for Antibody-Based and Adoptive Cell Therapies , Edwin J. Velazquez

Comparative Sequence Analysis Elucidates the Evolutionary Patterns of Yersinia pestis in New Mexico over Thirty-Two Years , M. Elizabeth Warren

Regulation of T Cell Activation by the CD5 Co-Receptor and Altered Peptides, Characterization of Thymidine Kinase-Specific Antibodies, and Integrating Genomics Education in Society , Kiara Vaden Whitley

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

Evolution and Selection: From Suppression of Metabolic Deficiencies to Bacteriophage Host Range and Resistance , Daniel Kurt Arens

Identifying Sinorhizobium meliloti Genes that Determine Fitness Outcomes , Alexander B. Benedict

Pushing the Limits of SARS-CoV-2 Survival: How SARS-CoV-2 Responds to Quaternary Ammonium Compounds and Wastewater , Benjamin Hawthorne Ogilvie

Mutations in HIV-1 Vpr Affect Pathogenesis in T-Lymphocytes and Novel Strategies to Contain the Current COVID-19 Pandemic , Antonio Solis Leal

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

Staphylococcus aureus Metal Acquisition in Milk and Mammary Gland Tissue , Shalee Killpack Carlson

Antimicrobial Peptide Development: From Massively Parallel Peptide Sequencing to Bioinformatic Motif Identification , Alexander K. Erikson

A Comparison of Chikungunya Virus Infection, Dissemination, and Cytokine Induction in Human and Murine Macrophages and Characterization of RAG2-/-γc-/- Mice as an Animal Model to Study Neurotropic Chikungunya Disease , Israel Guerrero

The Effects of Immune Regulation and Dysregulation: Helper T Cell Receptor Affinity, Systemic Lupus Erythematosus and Cancer Risk, and Vaccine Hesitancy , Deborah K. Johnson

Identification of Genes that Determine Fitness, Virulence, and Disease Outcomes in Mastitis Associated Eschericia coli , Michael Andrew Olson

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Investigation of Thymidine Kinase 1 in Cancer Progression , Eliza Esther King Bitter

Ribosomally Synthesized and Post-Translationally Modified Peptides as Potential Scaffolds for Peptide Engineering , Devan Bursey

Bioaerosols Associated with Evaporative Cooler Use in Low-Income Homes in Semi-Arid Climates , Ashlin Elaine Cowger

PAS Kinase and TOR, Controllers of Cell Growth and Proliferation , Brooke Jasmyn Cozzens

Regulation of Immune Cell Activation and Functionby the nBMPp2 Protein andthe CD5 Co-Receptor , Claudia Mercedes Freitas

Characterizing Novel Pathways for Regulation and Function of Ataxin-2 , Elise Spencer Melhado

Interactions Between the Organellar Pol1A, Pol1B, and Twinkle DNA Replication Proteins and Their Role in Plant Organelle DNA Replication , Stewart Anthony Morley

SNFing Glucose to PASs Mitochondrial Dysfunction: The Role of Two Sensory Protein Kinases in Metabolic Diseases , Kai Li Ong

Characterizing the Function of PAS kinase in Cellular Metabolism and Neurodegenerative Disease , Jenny Adele Pape

Isolation, Characterization, and Genomic Comparison of Bacteriophages of Enterobacteriales Order , Ruchira Sharma

Isolation, Genetic Characterization and Clinical Application of Bacteriophages of Pathogenic Bacterial Species , Trever Leon Thurgood

Investigation of Therapeutic Immune Cell Metabolism , Josephine Anna Tueller

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

Innate Immune Cell Phenotypes Are Dictated by Distinct Epigenetic Reprogramming , Kevin Douglas Adams

Bacteriophages for Treating American Foulbrood and the Neutralization of Paenibacillus larvae Spores , Thomas Scott Brady

Methods for Detection of and Therapy for Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae , Olivia Tateoka Brown

The Diversity Found Among Carbapenem-Resistant Bacteria , Galen Edward Card

Exploration of Antimicrobial Activity in Natural Peptides and High-Throughput Discovery of Synthetic Peptides , Emma Kay Dallon

Gut Microbiota Regulates the Interplay Between Diet and Genetics to Influence Insulin Resistance , Jeralyn Jones Franson

The Antimicrobial Properties of Honey and Their Effect on Pathogenic Bacteria , Shreena Himanshu Mody

The Ability of Novel Phage to Infect Virulent Bacillus anthracis Isolates , Hyrum Smith Shumway

Galleria Mellonella as an Alternate Infection Model for Burkholderia Species and a Comparison of Suspension and Surface Test Methods for Evaluating Sporicidal Efficacy , Joseph D. Thiriot

The Clinical Significance of HPRT as a Diagnostic and Therapeutic Biomarker for Hematological and Solid Malignancies , Michelle Hannah Townsend

Biomarker Analysis and Clinical Relevance of Thymidine Kinase 1 in Solid and Hematological Malignancies , Evita Giraldez Weagel

Hospital and meat associated Staphylococcus aureus and Their Biofilm Characteristics , Trevor Michael Wienclaw

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Comparison of Cytokine Expression and Bacterial Growth During Periparturient and Mid Lactation Mastitis in a Mouse Model , Rhonda Nicole Chronis

Influence of Epstein-Barr Virus on Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Disease Development and the Role of Depression on Disease Progression , Caleb Cornaby

The Effects of Nucleosome Positioning and Chromatin Architecture on Transgene Expression , Colton E. Kempton

Phosphate Signaling Through Alternate Conformations of the PstSCAB Phosphate Transporter , Ramesh Krishna Vuppada

Acetobacter fabarum Genes Influencing Drosophila melanogaster Phenotypes , Kylie MaKay White

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

The Path to Understanding Salt Tolerance: Global Profiling of Genes Using Transcriptomics of the Halophyte Suaeda fruticosa , Joann Diray Arce

Genetic and Biochemical Analysis of the Micrococcin Biosynthetic Pathway , Philip Ross Bennallack

Characterizing Interaction Between PASK and PBP1/ ATXN2 to Regulate Cell Growth and Proliferation , Nidhi Rajan Choksi

The Activity of Alkaline Glutaraldehyde Against Bacterial Endospores and Select Non-Enveloped Viruses , Justen Thalmus Despain

The Role of Viral Interleukin-6 in Tumor Development of Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus Lymphomas , Rebecca A. Fullwood

The Role of the Transcriptional Antiterminator RfaH in Lipopolysaccharide Synthesis, Resistance to Antimicrobial Peptides, and Virulence of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and Yersinia pestis , Jared Michael Hoffman

A CryAB Interactome Reveals Clientele Specificity and Dysfunction of Mutants Associated with Human Disease , Whitney Katherine Hoopes

The pmrHFIJKLM Operon in Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Enhances Resistance to CCL28 and Promotes Phagocytic Engulfment by Neutrophils , Lauren Elizabeth Johnson

Characterization of Five Brevibacillus Bacteriophages and Their Genomes , Michael Allen Sheflo

Analysis of Nucleosome Isolation and Recovery: From In Silico Invitrosomes to In Vivo Nucleosomes , Collin Brendan Skousen

Human Herpesvirus 6A Infection and Immunopathogenesis in Humanized Rag2 -/-γc-/- Mice and Relevance to HIV/AIDS and Autoimmunity , Anne Tanner

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Identifying and Characterizing Yeast PAS Kinase 1 Substrates Reveals Regulation of Mitochondrial and Cell Growth Pathways , Desiree DeMille

The Detection and Molecular Evolution of Francisella tularensis Subspecies , Mark K. Gunnell

Isolation and Host Range of Staphylococcus aureus Bacteriophages and Use for Decontamination of Fomites , Kyle C. Jensen

The Antioxidant and DNA Repair Capacities of Resveratrol, Piceatannol, and Pterostilbene , Justin Ryan Livingston

High Salinity Stabilizes Bacterial Community Composition and Activity Through Time , Tylan Wayne Magnusson

Advancing Phage Genomics and Honeybee Health Through Discovery and Characterization of Paenibacillaceae Bacteriophages , Bryan Douglas Merrill

Specialized Replication Operons Control Rhizobial Plasmid Copy Number in Developing Symbiotic Cells , Clarice Lorraine Perry

Gene Networks Involved in Competitive Root Colonization and Nodulation in the Sinorhizobium meliloti-Medicago truncatula Symbiosis , Ryan D. VanYperen

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

Snf1 Mediated Phosphorylation and Activation of PAS Kinase , Bryan D. Badal

Studies of PhoU in Escherichia coli: Metal Binding, Dimerization,Protein/Protein Interactions, and a Signaling Complex Model , Stewart G. Gardner

Pharmacologic Immunomodulation of Macrophage Activation by Caffeine , Ryan Perry Steck

Analysis of Nucleosome Mobility, Fragility, and Recovery: From Embryonic Stem Cells to Invitrosomes , Ashley Nicolle Wright

Enhancing Protein and Enzyme Stability Through Rationally Engineered Site-Specific Immobilization Utilizing Non-Canonical Amino Acids , Jeffrey Chun Wu

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

Thymidine Kinase 1: Diagnostic and Prognostic Significance in Malignancy , Melissa Marie Alegre

Promoter Polymorphisms in Interferon Regulatory Factor 5 , Daniel N. Clark

Modulators of Symbiotic Outcome in Sinorhizobium meliloti , Matthew B. Crook

Evidences for Protein-Protein Interactions Between PstB and PhoU in the Phosphate Signaling Complex of Escherichia coli , Kristine Dawn Johns

Identification of the Binding Partners for HspB2 and CryAB Reveals Myofibril and Mitochondrial Protein Interactions and Non-Redundant Roles for Small Heat Shock Proteins , Kelsey Murphey Langston

A Quadruplex Real-Time PCR Assay for the Rapid Detection and Differentiation of the Burkholderia pseudomallei Complex: B. mallei , B. pseudomallei , and B. thailandensis , Chinn-woan Lowe

The Role of Nuclear BMP2 in the Cell Cycle and Tumorigenesis , Brandt Alan Nichols

Nuclear BMP2 and the Immune Response , Daniel S. Olsen

Hypersaline Lake Environments Exhibit Reduced Microbial Dormancy , Joshua Christopher Vert

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

Characterization of the Cellular and Organellar Dynamics that Occur with a Partial Depletion of Mitochondrial DNA when Arabidopsis Organellar DNA Polymerase IB is Mutated , John D. Cupp

Effect of Antioxidants and Oxidative Stress on Different Cancer Cell Types , Gaytri Devi Gupta Elera

Effects of Chemical Stimulation and Tumor Co-Incubation on Macrophage Activation and Aggressiveness, Measured Through Phagocytosis and Respiratory Burst , Bo Marcus Gustafsson

Loss of the Lipopolysaccharide Core Biosynthesis rfaD Gene Increases Antimicrobial Chemokine Binding and Bacterial Susceptibility to CCL28 and Polymyxin: A Model for Understanding the Interface of Antimicrobial Chemokines and Bacterial Host Defense Avoidance Mechanisms , Cynthia S. Lew

Partial Characterization of the Antimicrobial Activity of CCL28 , Bin Liu

Characterizing the Role of HspB2 in Cardiac Metabolism and Muscle Structure Using Yeast and Mammalian Systems , Jonathan Paul Neubert

Humanized Mice as a Model to Study Human Viral Pathogenesis and Novel Antiviral Drugs , Freddy Mauricio Sanchez Tumbaco

Transgene Delivery via Microelectromechanical Systems , Aubrey Marie Mueller Wilson

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

Antioxidants in Cancer Research and Prevention: Assay Comparison, Structure-Function Analysis, and Food Product Analysis , Andrew Robert Garrett

Characterization of the Role Nuclear Bmp2 (nBmp2) Plays in Regulating Gene Expression , Fialka Grigorova

Theses/Dissertations from 2010 2010

Effects of Diabetic State and Gender on Pro-Inflammatory Cytokine Secretion by Human Macrophages Infected with Burkholderia pseudomallei , Annette J. Blam

Organellar DNA Polymerases Gamma I and II in Arabidopsis thaliana , Jeffrey M. Brammer

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Distribution of complete CRISPR-Cas systems in vibrio cholerae and its effect on presence of plasmid derived contigs in complete genome assemblies 

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Characterization of newly identified bacterial biofilm degrading bacteriophage obtained from Dhaka city lake water samples 

Investigating adaptation of Staphylococcus aureus to hand sanitisers and subsequent antibiotic co-selection via experimental evolution 

Unveiling the role of free DNA in biofilm formation; potential relevance in Cholera epidemiology 

A knowledge-based perception analysis about Biotechnology among university students in Bangladesh 

PCR based detection of helicobacter pylori compared with CLO in stomach biopsy samples from patients with dyspepsia: a pilot study 

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Effects of vitamin C in enhancing the activities of antibiotics against multi-drug resistant bacteria 

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In silico analysis revealed hsa-miR-19a-3p and hsa-miR-19b-3p as two potential inhibitors of EGF mRNA in Breast Cancer 

Establishment of tissue culture protocol of Brassica juncea var. BARI Sarisha-11 

Carbapenem resistance gene Ppofiling in Klebsiella pneumoniae isolated from clinical and non-clinical (water and vegetables) samples 

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Top 50 Research Topics in Biotechnology

Table of Contents

Biotechnology

Research in biotechnology can helps in bringing massive changes in humankind and lead to a better life. In the last few years, there have been so many leaps, and paces of innovations as scientists worldwide worked to develop and produce novel mRNA vaccinations and brought some significant developments in biotechnology. During this period, they also faced many challenges. Disturbances in the supply chain and the pandemic significantly impacted biotech labs and researchers, forcing lab managers to become ingenious in buying lab supplies, planning experiments, and using technology for maintaining research schedules.

The Biotech Research Technique is changing

How research is being done is changing, as also how scientists are conducting it. Affected by both B2C eCommerce and growing independence in remote and cloud-dependent working, most of the biotechnology labs are going through some digital transformations. This implies more software, automation, and AI in the biotech lab, along with some latest digital procurement plans and integrated systems for various lab operations.

Look at some of the top trends in biotech research and recent Biotechnology Topics that are bringing massive changes in this vast world of science, resulting in some innovation in life sciences and biotechnology ideas .

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Research Proposal Topics In Biotechnology

Biotechnology is a fascinating subject that blends biology and technology and provides a huge chance to develop new ideas. However, before pursuing a career in this field, a person needs to complete a number of studies and have a thorough knowledge of the matter. When we begin our career must we conduct study to discover some innovative innovations that could benefit people around the world. Biotechnology is one of a variety of sciences of life, including pharmacy. Students who are pursuing graduation, post-graduation or PhD must complete the research work and compose their thesis to earn the satisfaction in their education. When choosing a subject for biotechnology-related research it is important to choose one that is likely to inspire us. Based on our passion and personal preferences, the subject to study may differ.

What is Biotechnology?

In its most basic sense, biotechnology is the science of biology that enables technology Biotechnology harnesses the power of the biomolecular and cellular processes to create products and technologies that enhance our lives and the wellbeing of the planet. Biotechnology has been utilizing microorganisms' biological processes for over six thousand years to create useful food items like cheese and bread as well as to keep dairy products in good condition.

Modern biotechnology has created breakthrough products and technology to treat rare and debilitating illnesses help reduce our footprint on the environment and feed hungry people, consume less energy and use less and provide safer, more clean and productive industrial production processes.

Introduction

Biotechnology is credited with groundbreaking advancements in technological development and development of products to create sustainable and cleaner world. This is in large part due to biotechnology that we've made progress toward the creation of more efficient industrial manufacturing bases. Additionally, it assists in the creation of greener energy, feeding more hungry people and not leaving a large environmental footprint, and helping humanity fight rare and fatal diseases.

Our writing services for assignments within the field of biotechnology covers all kinds of subjects that are designed to test and validate the skills of students prior to awarding their certificates. We assist students to successfully complete their course in all kinds of biotechnology-related courses. This includes biological sciences for medical use (red) and eco-biotechnology (green) marine biotechnology (blue) and industrial biotechnology (white).

What do we hope to gain from all these Initiatives?

Our primary goal in preparing this list of the top 100 biotechnology assignment subjects is to aid students in deciding on effective time management techniques. We've witnessed a large amount of cases where when looking for online help with assignments with the topic, examining sources of information, and citing the correct order of reference students find themselves stuck at various points. In the majority of cases, students have difficulty even to get through their dilemma of choosing a topic. This is why we contribute in our effort to help make the process easier for students in biotech quickly and efficiently. Our students are able to save time and energy in order to help them make use of the time they are given to write the assignment with the most appropriate topics.

Let's look at some of the newest areas of biotechnology research and the related areas.

• Renewable Energy Technology Management Promoting Village
• Molasses is a molasses-based ingredient that can be used to produce and the treatment of its effluent
• Different ways to evapotranspirate
• Scattering Parameters of Circulator Bio-Technology
• Renewable Energy Technology Management Promoting Village.

Structural Biology of Infectious Diseases

A variety of studies are being conducted into the techniques used by pathogens in order to infect humans and other species and for designing strategies for countering the disease. The main areas that are available to study by biotech researchers include:

• inlA from Listeria monocytogenes when combined with E-cadherin from humans.
• InlC in Listeria monocytogenes that are multipart with human Tuba.
• Phospholipase PatA of Legionella pnemophila.
• The inactivation process of mammalian TLR2 by inhibiting antibody.
• There are many proteins that come originate from Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Plant Biotechnology

Another significant area for research in biotechnology for plants is to study the genetic causes of the plant's responses to scarcity and salinity, which have a significant impact on yields of the crop and food.

• Recognition and classification of genes that influence the responses of plants to drought and salinity.
• A component of small-signing molecules in plants' responses to salinity and drought.
• Genetic enhancement of plant sensitivity salinity and drought.

Pharmacogenetics

It's also a significant area for conducting research in biotechnology. One of the most important reasons for doing so could be the identification of various genetic factors that cause differences in drug effectiveness and susceptibility for adverse reactions. Some of the subjects which can be studied are,

• Pharmacogenomics of Drug Transporters
• Pharmacogenomics of Metformin's response to type II mellitus
• The pharmacogenomics behind anti-hypertensive medicines
• The Pharmacogenomics of anti-cancer drugs

Forensic DNA

A further area of research in biotechnology research is the study of the genetic diversity of humans for its applications in criminal justice. Some of the topics that could be studied include,

• Y-chromosome Forensic Kit, Development of commercial prototype.
• Genetic testing of Indels in African populations.
• The Y-chromosome genotyping process is used for African populations.
• Study of paternal and maternal ancestry of mixed communities in South Africa.
• The study of the local diversity in genetics using highly mutating Y-STRs and Indels.
• South African Innocence Project: The study of DNA extracted from historical crime scene.
• Nanotechnology is a new technology that can be applied to DNA genotyping.
• Nanotechnology methods to isolate DNA.

Food Biotechnology

It is possible to conduct research in order to create innovative methods and processes in the fields of food processing and water. The most fascinating topics include:

• A molecular-based technology that allows for the rapid identification and detection of foodborne pathogens in intricate food chains.
• The effects of conventional and modern processing techniques on the bacteria that are associated with Aspalathus lineriasis.
• DNA-based identification of species of animals that are present in meat products that are sold raw.
• The phage assay and PCR are used to detect and limit the spread of foodborne pathogens.
• Retention and elimination of pathogenic, heat-resistant and other microorganisms that are treated by UV-C.
• Analysis of an F1 generation of the cross Bon Rouge x Packham's Triumph by Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR/microsatellite).
• The identification of heavy metal tolerant and sensitive genotypes
• Identification of genes that are involved in tolerance to heavy metals
• The isolation of novel growth-promoting bacteria that can help crops cope with heavy metal stress . Identification of proteins that signal lipids to increase the tolerance of plants to stress from heavy metals

This topic includes high-resolution protein expression profiling for the investigation of proteome profiles. The following are a few of the most fascinating topics:

• The identification and profile of stress-responsive proteins that respond to abiotic stress in Arabidopsis Thalian and Sorghum bicolor.
• Analyzing sugar biosynthesis-related proteins in Sorghum bicolor, and study of their roles in drought stress tolerance
• Evaluation of the viability and long-term sustainability of Sweet Sorghum for bioethanol (and other by-products) production in South Africa
• In the direction of developing an environmentally sustainable, low-tech hypoallergenic latex Agroprocessing System designed specifically especially for South African small-holder farmers.

Bioinformatics

This is an additional aspect of biotechnology research. The current trend is to discover new methods to combat cancer. Bioinformatics may help identify proteins and genes as well as their role in the fight against cancer. Check out some of the areas that are suitable to study.

• Prediction of anticancer peptides with HIMMER and the the support vector machine.
• The identification and verification of innovative therapeutic antimicrobial peptides for Human Immunodeficiency Virus In the lab and molecular method.
• The identification of biomarkers that are associated with cancer of the ovary using an molecular and in-silico method.
• Biomarkers identified in breast cancer, as possible therapeutic and diagnostic agents with a combination of molecular and in-silico approaches.
• The identification of MiRNA's as biomarkers for screening of cancerous prostates in the early stages an in-silico and molecular method
• Identification of putatively identified the genes present in breast cancer tissues as biomarkers for early detection of lobular and ductal breast cancers.
• Examining the significance of Retinoblastoma Binding Protein 6 (RBBP6) in the regulation of the cancer-related protein Y-Box Binding Protein 1 (YB-1).
• Examining the role played by Retinoblastoma Binding Protein 6 (RBBP6) in the regulation of the cancer suppressor p53 through Mouse Double Minute 2 (MDM2).
• Structural analysis of the anti-oxidant properties of the 1-Cys peroxiredoxin Prx2 found in the plant that resurrects itself Xerophyta viscosa.

Nanotechnology

This is a fascinating aspect of biotechnology, which can be used to identify effective tools to address the most serious health issues.

• Evaluation of cancer-specific peptides to determine their applications for the detection of cancer.
• The development of a quantum dot-based detection systems for breast cancer.
• The creation of targeted Nano-constructs for in vivo imaging as well as the treatment of tumors.
• Novel quinone compounds are being tested as anti-cancer medicines.
• Embedelin is delivered to malignant cells in a specific manner.
• The anti-cancer activities of Tulbaghia Violacea extracts were studied biochemically .
• Novel organic compounds are screened for their anti-cancer potential.
• To treat HIV, nanotechnology-based therapeutic techniques are being developed.

Top 100 Biotechnology Research Proposal Topics to Consider in 2022

We've prepared a list of the top 100 most suggested dissertation topics, which were compiled by our experts in research. They've made sure to offer a an extensive list of topics that cover all aspects of the topic. We hope that this list will meet all of the requirements for assistance with your dissertation . Let us start with our list of subjects, one at a time each one

• Achieving effective control of renewable power technologies to help the village
• The production of ethanol through the aid of molasses and the treatment of its effluent
• Different approaches and aspects of Evapotranspiration
• Its scattering parameter is biotechnology circulator
• The inactivation of mammalian TLR2 via an inhibiting antibody
• The number of proteins produced by Mycobacterium tuberculosis
• Recognition and classification of genes that shape the responses of plants to drought and salinity.
• The small sign molecules that are involved in the response that plants have to the effects of salinity as well as drought
• Genetic improvement of the plant's sensitivity to drought and saltiness
• The pharmacogenomics of drug transporters
• The anti-cancer drugs' pharmacogenomics are based on pharmac
• The pharmacogenomics of antihypertensive medications
• Indels genotyping of African populations
• Genomics of the Y-chromosomes of African populations
• The profiling of DNA extracted from historical crime scenes Consider the implications of South African Innocence Project
• Nanotechnology-related methods for DNA isolation
• Nanotechnology applications in the context of DNA genotyping
• Recognizing the heavy metals that are tolerant with genotypes that are sensitive.
• Genetic characteristics that play a role within the procedure of gaining tolerance to metals
• The animal's DNA is authenticated by the species by the commercial production of raw meat products
• The use of molecular-based technology is in the sense of detection and identification of foodborne pathogens in complicated food systems
• Assessing the effectiveness of cancer-specific peptides that are suitable for efficient implementations in the area of diagnosis and treatment for cancer
• Quantum Dot-based detection system is being developed in relation to a positive breast cancer diagnosis
• It is targeted delivery of the embelin to cancerous cells
• Exploring the potential of novel quinone compounds as anti-cancer agents
• Treatment strategies for treating HIV in addition to the significance of nanotechnology the treatment of HIV.
• A review of the medicinal value the antioxidants found in nature.
• An in-depth examination of the structure of COVID spike proteins
• A review of the immune response to the stem therapy using cells
• CRISPR-Cas9 technology to aid in the process of editing the genome
• Tissue engineering and delivery of drugs through the application of Chitosan
• Evaluation of beneficial effects of cancer vaccines
• Use of PacBio sequencing in relation to genome assembly of model organisms
• Examining the connection between mRNA suppression and its effect on the growth of stem cells
• Biomimicry is a method of identifying of cancer cells
• The sub-classification and characterisation of the Yellow enzymes
• The process of producing food products that are hypoallergenic and fermented.
• The production of hypoallergenic milk
• The purification process for the thermostable phytase
• Bioconversion of the cellulose produce products that are significant for industry
• The investigation of the gut microbiota of the model organisms
• The use of fungal enzymes for the manufacture of chemical glue
• A look at those inhibitors to exocellulase as well as endocellulase
• Examine the value of microorganisms to aid in the recovery of gas from shale.
• Examine the thorough analysis of the method of natural decomposition
• Examine ways to recycle bio-wastes
• Improved bio-remediation in the case of oil spills
• The process of gold biosorption is accomplished with the aid of the cyanobacterium
• A healthy equilibrium between the biotic and the abiotic elements by using biotechnological devices
• The measurement of the mercury level in fish by means of markers
• Exploring the biotechnological capabilities from Jellyfish related microbiomes Jellyfish related microbiome
• What is the role of marine fungi to aid in attempts to break down plastics and polymers?
• Examine the biotechnological possibilities that can be extracted of dinoflagellates
• Removing endosulfan residues using the use of biotechnology the agriculture sector
• The creation of the ELISA method for the detection of crop virus
• Enhancing the quality of drinking water by the aid of the E.coli consortium
• The characterisation of E.coli is its isolation from the feces of Zoo animals
• Enhancing the resistance of crops to the attack of insects
• The reduction of the expenditure on agriculture by using efficient bio-tools
• Are there the most efficient ways to stop erosion of soils using the help of biotechnology-based tools?
• What can biotechnology do to assist in increasing the levels of vitamin content in GM food items?
• Enhancing the distribution of pesticides by using biotechnology
• Comparing the biofortification of folate in various types of corpses
• Examine the photovoltaic-based generation of ocean-based crop
• What is the best way to use nanotechnology will improve the efficiency of the agriculture sector?
• Analyzing the mechanisms that govern resistance to water stresses in models of plants
• Production and testing of human immune boosters within the test organisms
• Comparing genomic analysis to the usefulness of tools intended for bioinformatics
• The Arabinogalactan protein sequence and its value in the field of computational methods
• Analyzing and interpreting gut microbiota from model organisms
• Different methods of purification of proteins A comparative analysis
• The diagnosis of microbes and their function in micro-arrays of oligonucleotide oligonu
• The use of diverse techniques within the biomedical research field that includes micro-arrays technology
• The use of microbial community to produce the greenhouse effect
• Evaluation of the computational properties of various proteins that are derived from the marine microbiota
• E.coli gene mapping through the help of different tools for microbial research
• Intensifying the strains of Cyanobacterium the aid of gene sequencing
• Assessment and description by computation of crystallized proteins that are found in the natural world.
• MTERF protein and the use of it to end the process of transcription that occurs in mitochondrial DNA inside algae
• Reverse column chromatography in phase and its use in the separation of proteins
• The study of the various proteins that are found within Mycobacterium leprae.
• A review of the methods that are ideal to ensure the success of cloning RNA
• Examine the most common mistakes of biotechnology in conserving the ecology and natural environment.
• Is there a method to ensure that the medicinal plants are free of insects? Discuss
• What are the dangers caused by pest resistant animals on birds and human beings?
• What are the many areas of biotechnology that remain unexplored in terms research?
• What's the future of biotechnology in the medical field?
• Recombinant DNA technology to develop of new medical treatments
• What is the reason for the type of bacteria that is used to make vaccines with the aid of biotechnology?
• How can biotechnology aid in the development of new medicines that are resistant to the mutations of viruses and bacteria?
• Is there a long-term treatment for cancer that is available in the near term? Biotechnology could play an essential role in this?
• What is the reason it is so important that students remember the DNA codes in biotechnology?
• How can we create hybrid seeds with assistance of biotechnology?
• How can one create resistant plants to pests and what are the benefits of these seeds in final yields in agriculture?
• Examine bio-magnification and its effects on the ecology
• What are the causes to the reasons ecologists do not approve the use of pest-resistant seed, even though they are in application in agriculture?
• How has biotechnology influenced the lives of farmers in developing countries?
• Biotechnology can be used to boost the yield of plant species?
• Examine the role played by biotechnology to increase the production of the seasonal crops
• Are there any adverse side effects associated with pharmaceutical drugs when they are manufactured with biotechnological techniques? Let the issue with real-world examples

We attempted to cover the essential topics needed for research work. Other topics are available that could be picked based on our interests, the facilities available and resources available for the research, as well as resources and time limits.

We have reached the end of this list. We feel it was beneficial in satisfying the selection criteria. Furthermore, the inclusion of biotechnology-related assignment themes was done in such a manner that they may help us with the requirements of assignment writing kinds and forms. The themes listed above can meet our demands for topic selection linked to aid with case studies and essay assistance, research paper writing help , or thesis writing help .

Frequently asked questions

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• Thesis Guidelines

A thesis for Distinction in Biology is a wonderful way for you to close the loop on your undergraduate research experience and showcase your scientific scholarship. Your thesis will be evaluated by the Faculty in Biology and answers the following questions: What did you do? Why did you do it? What is the significance of your results? What else would you do, were you to continue the project?

In answering the above questions, you have an opportunity to demonstrate your understanding and intellectual ownership of a project; not simply your productivity in the lab. The volume of results or completeness of the study is not critical for a successful thesis. Instead, we will be looking for the following:

• An argument for the significance of your research, contextualized within the scientific literature;
• A review of appropriate literature as evidence in support of claims you make in your argument;
• A statement of your research goals, i.e., a meaningful question of biological importance;
• A description of experimental approaches and methods ;
• Appropriate presentation of results through tables, figures, and images;
• A discussion of the meaning and significance of your results;
• A description of limitations and future directions for the project.

Expanded guidelines can be found in the Biology Thesis Assessment Protocol (BioTAP):

Format of the Thesis

The basic format of the thesis should resemble that of any scientific journal article that is common in your subdiscipline. It generally includes the following sections: Introduction & Background; Methods; Results; Discussion; Acknowledgements; and References. In some instances, it may be useful to sub-divide the Methods & Results section to correspond to multiple aims. However, if you chose to take this route, remember that there should still be a general Introduction and Discussion sections that address the project as a whole. The thesis should not consist of several "mini-papers" that are unconnected.  

Submission Guidelines

The format of the final copy should follow these guidelines:

• Cover Page ( sample ): Title; student's name; supervisor's name; date of submission; 3 signature lines at bottom right (Research Supervisor, DUS, Reader). Please follow the format and language of the sample.
• Abstract Page: single-spaced, roughly 250 words.
• Thesis should be double-spaced
• Pages should be numbered at the top right corner of the page
• It is preferred that figures are embedded within the document instead of all at the end
• There is no minimum page requirement or limit, although most are approximately 25 pages. 

Sample Theses

Examples of Distinction papers from previous years are available for examination in the Undergraduate Studies Office (Rm 135 BioSci).  Several samples are also available below as PDF files.

• Tracing the origins of antimalarial resistance in Plasmodium vivax
• Interaction network optimization improves the antimicrobial efficacy of phage cocktails
• Identifying how ufmylation of RAB1B regulates IFN-β signaling

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Thesis Statements for Biotechnology

A thesis statement portrays the central idea of your research paper or essay. Not everyone is an expert at writing a coherent, well-structured thesis statement, so they need assistance from reliable websites to find a strong thesis statement for their essay. Before writing a statement for a subject like biotechnology, you must do a little homework beforehand. To ease the process, we have written down 31 biotechnology thesis statement that can help you compile a perfect research paper.

• Problems in Clinical Trials for Emerging Respiratory Viruses  

Respiratory viruses are the leading cause of mortality in children. As viruses can mutate easily, it becomes difficult to carry out clinical trials. Dealing with emerging viruses has always remained a high-alert task.

• Future Aspects of CRISPR-Cas in the Agriculture Sector

CRISPR-Cas-based editing of rice genomes opens up opportunities in the development of commercial crop plants. Various steps under controlled conditions are carried out for the genome editing process, which includes planning, vector construction, the transformation of plants, screening at the molecular level, plant phenotyping, and field trials.

• Novel Strategies to Protect Grapevine from Viruses Invasion

Protection of grapevine from viruses is unavoidable. Therefore, such strategies need to be adopted that provide a habitat for the least dangerous viral strains to co-exist with the plants without causing notable harm to the crops.

• Significance of Breast Cancer Screening

Breast cancer screening at regular intervals is crucial to receiving an early diagnosis of the disease. Once the tumour enters the bloodstream, it can spread rapidly and damage other organs quickly. A delayed diagnosis might lead to distant metastases and a poor prognosis.

• Consequences of Skin-Related Antibiotic Abuse  

Excessive use of antibiotics to treat skin-related issues can do more harm than good. It is critical to emphasise the risks of antibiotic overprescription, as it kills good bacteria and results in the expansion of antibiotic-resistant strains, thus disturbing the body’s largest organ microbiome.

• Upscaling of Jatropha curcas L. Biomass Availability

Jatropha curcas L. is used as the feedstock in the production of biodiesel. Techniques such as in-vitro plant propagation, somatic embryogenesis, gene transformation studies, production of haploids, and development of elite germplasm are required to upscale its biomass availability globally.

• Application of Plant Biotechnology to Prevent HIV

Several antibody therapies are already known to prevent HIV infection, but the production of other therapeutic antibodies and proteins using plant biotechnology reduces the overall cost of the system. Compared to bioreactor-based processes, this system requires less money to produce strong anti-HIV antibodies.

• Use of White Rot Fungi to Control Environmental Pollution

One of the important tools of biotechnology used to control environmental pollution is white rot fungi (WRFs). Using mycoremediation, WRF degrades the lignin using its mycelia. The mycelium punctures the cell cavity and allows the ligninolytic enzymes (LEM) to release, which then forms the sponge-like mass in white color.

• Application of KCM-R5 to Detoxify Industrial Waste Water

High quantities of phenol in the industrial waste can be hazardous to living organisms. The P. rhodesiae KCM-R5 bacterium can make biofilm and is capable of degrading phenol and its derivatives by using phenol in its metabolism. Therefore, engineered PEO cryogel-P. rhodesiae KCM R5 biofilms can be used to treat industrial wastewater detoxification.

• Cinnamomum cassia Uses as an Anti-cancer and Anti-oxidant Herb

Cinnamomum cassia is a valuable medicinal herb with anti-cancer and antioxidant properties. Fermenting the cinnamon with Lactobacillus Plantarum enhances the phenolic compounds and flavonoids, subsequently improving the plants’ anti-cancer and antioxidant capabilities. 

• Treatment of Wastewater by the Use of L. monocytogenes

The human pathogen L. monocytogenes is a potential organism to carry out bioremediation. It is a solvent-tolerant organism that secretes solvent-stable lipase that can readily break down polyester plastic and lipids in wastewater streams.

• Improvement of Plant Growth under Salinity Stress

Salinity stress is one of the main abiotic factors that restrict crop growth. Plant growth in saline environments can be improved by using Bacillus safensis PM22 as a bio-inoculant or biofertilizer. This PGPR can increase photosynthetic efficiency, antioxidant levels, osmoprotectant synthesis, and decreased oxidative stress markers.

•   Role of L.reutri Probiotics in the Treatment of Peptic Ulcer

Peptic ulcer disease is commonly caused by H. pylori infection and aspirin use. Using antibiotics with L. reuteri probiotics is beneficial which causes the good bacteria to serve as ulcer biotherapy, promoting mucus secretion, reducing the size of ulcer and the number of pathogens in the body.

• Importance of Pyrabactin Resistance 1 in Sense-Response Function

To improve the sense-response function, a quick transformation of biosensors using an abscisic acid receptor obtained from a plant PYR1 (Pyrabactin Resistance 1), which binds to a malleable binding pocket, is needed. It is required to heterodimerize a ligand.

•   Significance of mRNA Expression

The amount of total mRNA expressed in a cell is essential to determine the clinical outcomes of the cells using tumor phenotypes. Intra-tumor genetic heterogeneity, altered genes, and trends in metabolic dysfunction impact the total mRNA expression (TmS) by cancer-specific marking.

• Role of HiFi-DdCBEs in Therapeutic Treatments

Unlike conventional DdCBEs that result in undesirable off-target conversions of C-to-T in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of humans, the whole sequencing of the mitochondrial genome shows HiFi-DdCBEs are extremely precise and structured. This system keeps off-target mutations away, thus resulting in the efficient application of therapeutic treatments.

• Application of Selective Time-Resolved Anisotropy in Molecular Biotechnology

With the help of a detection technique called fluorescence anisotropy in molecular biotechnology, the development of macromolecules can be studied using the changes in their rotational potency. STARSS (selective time-resolved anisotropy with reversibly switchable states) is used to improve the limitations of this system as it can probe large structures, which helps in studying the whole proteome of a human.

• Replacement of Conventional Organoid Culture to Expand Organoid

Conventional organoid culture can be replaced with the engineered approach that transforms single injections of stem cells into arrays of structures similar to organs in a dish. This system is scalable and enables the growth and expansion of organoids, so it can be continued without passaging.

• Significance of Transgenic Plant Production

An application of transgenic plant biotechnology results in the production of consumable oral vaccines. The purpose can be achieved by using a glycoprotein gene (G-protein) that covers the surface of the rabies virus to be expressed in tomato plants. Transformation of cotyledons is mediated by Agrobacterium tumefaciens in plants.

• Study of Transcription by Synthetic Gene Circuits

To produce precise and programmable outcomes, synthetic gene circuits with multiple input signals that can be customized has been used. The system can be employed to study unrealized traits of plants and precisely constructed programs related to the process of transcription in cells.

• Use of Tannase in Animal Feed

To yield the substrate of an inducible enzyme, i.e., tannase, Citrus limetta peels can be used. This is a useful study as milk production and growth rates of animals are enhanced with the help of tannase, which degrades the tannin, thus producing gallic acid and glucose. The research further points toward low tannin-based animal feed at the industrial level.

• The Role of Lactobacillus in the Treatment of Kidney Diseases

Kidney diseases lead to obesity. The study shows the use of two different strains of Lactobacillus to improve kidney insufficiency and metabolic disorder, which is associated with obesity. A combination of Lactobacillus strains (Pro1 + Pro2) as a supplement of various juices and milk is essential for lowering obesity-associated kidney diseases.

• Bt-Resistance Role in Large-Scale Cultivation

To protect the cotton from the most destructive pest, i.e., the Pink Bollworm ( Pectinophora gossypiella ), a host plant resistance technique is needed. Large-scale cultivation can be protected using eco-friendly Bt -resistance. The growth of non- Bt crops helps control the Pink Bollworm.

• Production of Triticum aestivum L by RAPD Technique

Wheat ( Triticum aestivum L. ). is a staple food crop worldwide and can be studied using morphological markers. These markers focus on the detection of specific genes, which are of high interest economically. RAPD and similar molecular techniques can be employed.

• Application of Ganodermalucidium in Therapeutics

The RED LINGZHI MUSHROOM ( Ganodermalucidum ) is an important therapeutic agent that can be used to produce triterpenoids. The effect of potential ultrasonic radiations along with the solvent can be used to study the shortened extraction time and to produce a high yield of triterpenoids from various fruit bodies of G.lucidum.

• Microbiology Research to Recover Fossil Fuels 

Dependence on fossil fuels is rising daily to meet energy and chemical feedstock needs. Microbiology plays a significant role in the oil industry via different microbial-induced processes. We can conduct research in the field of microbiology to recover fossil fuel energy resources. However, we will acquire renewable energy sources in the long run as our future economy depends on them.

• Overview of Transcriptomics and RNA Sequencing

DNA acts as a blueprint to transcribe genes and proteins to form organs as the cells undergo a differentiation process. Most of these transcriptional changes are physiological, but pathological changes also drive them in abnormal cases. Using transcriptomics and Next-Generation Sequencing, we can study these cellular phenotypes. In the future, we expect to study these techniques in clinical practice.

• Use of Microbes in Industrial Biotechnology

Industrial biotechnology is blooming as the chemical industry needs chemicals to produce fuels and solvents. Designing and establishing efficient factories to synthesize them is a big challenge. Metabolic engineering is used in the fermentation procedure, and it acquires transcriptome, proteome and metabolome analysis along with mathematical modeling. Moreover, systems biology can improve the cell factory development process.

• Synthesis and Use of Erythritol

Erythritol is a popular natural sweetener in the food industry. As the number of diabetes patients grows, so does the demand for lower-calorie foods. It is usually used as a sweetener in calorie-deficient foods. Its synthesis procedure is more challenging as compared to other polyols. It is needed to improve its concentration, productivity, and yield.

• Application of Blastobotrys adeninivorans in Biotechnology

A haploid yeast called Blastobotrys adeninivorans is a member of the subphylum Saccharomycotina. It has unusual characteristics, including thermo- and osmo-tolerance. Its genome is completely sequenced, and now many gene manipulations are possible. Therefore, it is a good host for gene expression. In addition, it has multiple applications in industrial biotechnology.

• Benefits of Anti-Ageing Products

Ageing is the leading cause of death. The slow process of ageing helps to provide many medical benefits. Different genes and pathways play a vital role in regulating the ageing process. Clinical trials address many challenges, ranging from anti-ageing understanding to commercializing anti-ageing products.

After reading all these thesis statement examples , you are now clear about trending topics in the biotech research field. Select the statement you apprehend the most and start writing for a research paper !

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[100+] Biotechnology Research Topics With Free [Thesis Pdf] 2023

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Ccds outstanding phd thesis award 2024, congratulations to the following phd graduates for their achievement, for contributions to building generalizable solutions that can enhance the capabilities and applicability of aiot systems..

Dr XU Huatao  Building Generalizable Deep Learning Solutions for Mobile Sensing

This thesis signifies a significant leap in mobile sensing with deep learning. It introduces LIMU-BERT, a pioneering sensor foundation model adaptable to various applications, and integrates it into UniHAR, a universal learning framework that trains models across domains using physics-informed data augmentation. A notable innovation is 'Penetrative AI,' the first-ever application of Large Language Models (LLMs) like ChatGPT for processing IoT sensor signals. This breakthrough enables LLMs to interact with the physical world, laying the groundwork for generalizable IoT solutions. The thesis's excellence is recognized by the SenSys 2021 best paper runner-up award and the GetMobile 2022 research highlight. Its models have gained nationwide adoption in Eleme, China's second-largest food delivery service. It also has sparked widespread discussion on social media. Altogether, this work substantially enriches the mobile sensing field, expanding both the scope and effectiveness of AIoT systems in practical applications. 

for contributions to advancing graph deep learning through innovative benchmarks, neural network architectures, and scalable frameworks

Dr DWIVEDI Vijay Prakash  Deep Learning for Graph Structured Data

This thesis marks a significant advancement in deep learning for graph-structured data which are ubiquitous in domains such as drug discovery, social networks, medicine and transportation. Addressing the inadequacies of traditional deep learning approaches for such data, the thesis introduces comprehensive benchmarks for assessing Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) across varied domains. A key contribution is the extension of Transformer networks, fundamental to ChatGPT, to graph domains, integrating graph-based inductive biases and positional encodings, thereby enhancing expressivity and generalization. His work also proposes novel techniques for learning distinct structural and positional representations in GNNs, boosting model capacities. Further, he develops scalable Graph Transformers that can adapt to massive graphs with billions of edge connections, employing efficient local and global graph representations and fast neighborhood sampling. Overall, this thesis paves the way for the application of GNNs in complex real-world relational data scenarios, significantly contributing to the field of graph representation learning.

for contributions to systems addressing efficiency and practicality issues of ML model tuning, training, scheduling, and deployment in large-scale clusters.

Dr HU Qinghao  Building Efficient and Practical Machine Learning Systems

Emerging ML technologies have empowered transformative applications, such as ChatGPT and Stable Diffusion. These breakthroughs heavily rely on advanced system support, encompassing training frameworks and cluster schedulers.  However, as ML workloads proliferate and billion-scale models surface, current systems fail to handle them efficiently. Qinghao’s thesis focuses on addressing efficiency and practicality issues with ML-tailored system designs. His research expands along two lines: (1) Efficiency. He pioneers system optimizations for both cluster and job levels. His ground-breaking work is the first to facilitate hyperparameter tuning for large models such as GPT-3. Through novel model scaling, fusion, and interleaving, he achieves two orders of magnitude acceleration. (2) Practicality. Most existing work targets excellent system performance while ignoring its complexity and usability. Qinghao first attains the state-of-the-art performance under the non-intrusive design principle in cluster scheduling systems. Besides, he crafts a unified framework to achieve transparent, performant and lightweight systems.

Prof Loy Chen Change (Jury Chair)

Assoc Prof Tang Xueyan

Assoc Prof Lam Siew Kei

Assoc Prof Zhang Hanwang

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