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18 Qualitative Research Examples

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Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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Qualitative research is an approach to scientific research that involves using observation to gather and analyze non-numerical, in-depth, and well-contextualized datasets.

It serves as an integral part of academic, professional, and even daily decision-making processes (Baxter & Jack, 2008).

Methods of qualitative research encompass a wide range of techniques, from in-depth personal encounters, like ethnographies (studying cultures in-depth) and autoethnographies (examining one’s own cultural experiences), to collection of diverse perspectives on topics through methods like interviewing focus groups (gatherings of individuals to discuss specific topics).

Qualitative Research Examples

1. ethnography.

Definition: Ethnography is a qualitative research design aimed at exploring cultural phenomena. Rooted in the discipline of anthropology , this research approach investigates the social interactions, behaviors, and perceptions within groups, communities, or organizations.

Ethnographic research is characterized by extended observation of the group, often through direct participation, in the participants’ environment. An ethnographer typically lives with the study group for extended periods, intricately observing their everyday lives (Khan, 2014).

It aims to present a complete, detailed and accurate picture of the observed social life, rituals, symbols, and values from the perspective of the study group.

Example of Ethnographic Research

Title: “ The Everyday Lives of Men: An Ethnographic Investigation of Young Adult Male Identity “

Citation: Evans, J. (2010). The Everyday Lives of Men: An Ethnographic Investigation of Young Adult Male Identity. Peter Lang.

Overview: This study by Evans (2010) provides a rich narrative of young adult male identity as experienced in everyday life. The author immersed himself among a group of young men, participating in their activities and cultivating a deep understanding of their lifestyle, values, and motivations. This research exemplified the ethnographic approach, revealing complexities of the subjects’ identities and societal roles, which could hardly be accessed through other qualitative research designs.

Read my Full Guide on Ethnography Here

2. Autoethnography

Definition: Autoethnography is an approach to qualitative research where the researcher uses their own personal experiences to extend the understanding of a certain group, culture, or setting. Essentially, it allows for the exploration of self within the context of social phenomena.

Unlike traditional ethnography, which focuses on the study of others, autoethnography turns the ethnographic gaze inward, allowing the researcher to use their personal experiences within a culture as rich qualitative data (Durham, 2019).

The objective is to critically appraise one’s personal experiences as they navigate and negotiate cultural, political, and social meanings. The researcher becomes both the observer and the participant, intertwining personal and cultural experiences in the research.

Example of Autoethnographic Research

Title: “ A Day In The Life Of An NHS Nurse “

Citation: Osben, J. (2019). A day in the life of a NHS nurse in 21st Century Britain: An auto-ethnography. The Journal of Autoethnography for Health & Social Care. 1(1).

Overview: This study presents an autoethnography of a day in the life of an NHS nurse (who, of course, is also the researcher). The author uses the research to achieve reflexivity, with the researcher concluding: “Scrutinising my practice and situating it within a wider contextual backdrop has compelled me to significantly increase my level of scrutiny into the driving forces that influence my practice.”

Read my Full Guide on Autoethnography Here

3. Semi-Structured Interviews

Definition: Semi-structured interviews stand as one of the most frequently used methods in qualitative research. These interviews are planned and utilize a set of pre-established questions, but also allow for the interviewer to steer the conversation in other directions based on the responses given by the interviewee.

In semi-structured interviews, the interviewer prepares a guide that outlines the focal points of the discussion. However, the interview is flexible, allowing for more in-depth probing if the interviewer deems it necessary (Qu, & Dumay, 2011). This style of interviewing strikes a balance between structured ones which might limit the discussion, and unstructured ones, which could lack focus.

Example of Semi-Structured Interview Research

Title: “ Factors influencing adherence to cancer treatment in older adults with cancer: a systematic review “

Citation: Puts, M., et al. (2014). Factors influencing adherence to cancer treatment in older adults with cancer: a systematic review. Annals of oncology, 25 (3), 564-577.

Overview: Puts et al. (2014) executed an extensive systematic review in which they conducted semi-structured interviews with older adults suffering from cancer to examine the factors influencing their adherence to cancer treatment. The findings suggested that various factors, including side effects, faith in healthcare professionals, and social support have substantial impacts on treatment adherence. This research demonstrates how semi-structured interviews can provide rich and profound insights into the subjective experiences of patients.

4. Focus Groups

Definition: Focus groups are a qualitative research method that involves organized discussion with a selected group of individuals to gain their perspectives on a specific concept, product, or phenomenon. Typically, these discussions are guided by a moderator.

During a focus group session, the moderator has a list of questions or topics to discuss, and participants are encouraged to interact with each other (Morgan, 2010). This interactivity can stimulate more information and provide a broader understanding of the issue under scrutiny. The open format allows participants to ask questions and respond freely, offering invaluable insights into attitudes, experiences, and group norms.

Example of Focus Group Research

Title: “ Perspectives of Older Adults on Aging Well: A Focus Group Study “

Citation: Halaweh, H., Dahlin-Ivanoff, S., Svantesson, U., & Willén, C. (2018). Perspectives of older adults on aging well: a focus group study. Journal of aging research .

Overview: This study aimed to explore what older adults (aged 60 years and older) perceived to be ‘aging well’. The researchers identified three major themes from their focus group interviews: a sense of well-being, having good physical health, and preserving good mental health. The findings highlight the importance of factors such as positive emotions, social engagement, physical activity, healthy eating habits, and maintaining independence in promoting aging well among older adults.

5. Phenomenology

Definition: Phenomenology, a qualitative research method, involves the examination of lived experiences to gain an in-depth understanding of the essence or underlying meanings of a phenomenon.

The focus of phenomenology lies in meticulously describing participants’ conscious experiences related to the chosen phenomenon (Padilla-Díaz, 2015).

In a phenomenological study, the researcher collects detailed, first-hand perspectives of the participants, typically via in-depth interviews, and then uses various strategies to interpret and structure these experiences, ultimately revealing essential themes (Creswell, 2013). This approach focuses on the perspective of individuals experiencing the phenomenon, seeking to explore, clarify, and understand the meanings they attach to those experiences.

Example of Phenomenology Research

Title: “ A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology: current state, promise, and future directions for research ”

Citation: Cilesiz, S. (2011). A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology: Current state, promise, and future directions for research. Educational Technology Research and Development, 59 , 487-510.

Overview: A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology by Sebnem Cilesiz represents a good starting point for formulating a phenomenological study. With its focus on the ‘essence of experience’, this piece presents methodological, reliability, validity, and data analysis techniques that phenomenologists use to explain how people experience technology in their everyday lives.

6. Grounded Theory

Definition: Grounded theory is a systematic methodology in qualitative research that typically applies inductive reasoning . The primary aim is to develop a theoretical explanation or framework for a process, action, or interaction grounded in, and arising from, empirical data (Birks & Mills, 2015).

In grounded theory, data collection and analysis work together in a recursive process. The researcher collects data, analyses it, and then collects more data based on the evolving understanding of the research context. This ongoing process continues until a comprehensive theory that represents the data and the associated phenomenon emerges – a point known as theoretical saturation (Charmaz, 2014).

Example of Grounded Theory Research

Title: “ Student Engagement in High School Classrooms from the Perspective of Flow Theory “

Citation: Shernoff, D. J., Csikszentmihalyi, M., Shneider, B., & Shernoff, E. S. (2003). Student engagement in high school classrooms from the perspective of flow theory. School Psychology Quarterly, 18 (2), 158–176.

Overview: Shernoff and colleagues (2003) used grounded theory to explore student engagement in high school classrooms. The researchers collected data through student self-reports, interviews, and observations. Key findings revealed that academic challenge, student autonomy, and teacher support emerged as the most significant factors influencing students’ engagement, demonstrating how grounded theory can illuminate complex dynamics within real-world contexts.

7. Narrative Research

Definition: Narrative research is a qualitative research method dedicated to storytelling and understanding how individuals experience the world. It focuses on studying an individual’s life and experiences as narrated by that individual (Polkinghorne, 2013).

In narrative research, the researcher collects data through methods such as interviews, observations , and document analysis. The emphasis is on the stories told by participants – narratives that reflect their experiences, thoughts, and feelings.

These stories are then interpreted by the researcher, who attempts to understand the meaning the participant attributes to these experiences (Josselson, 2011).

Example of Narrative Research

Title: “Narrative Structures and the Language of the Self”

Citation: McAdams, D. P., Josselson, R., & Lieblich, A. (2006). Identity and story: Creating self in narrative . American Psychological Association.

Overview: In this innovative study, McAdams et al. (2006) employed narrative research to explore how individuals construct their identities through the stories they tell about themselves. By examining personal narratives, the researchers discerned patterns associated with characters, motivations, conflicts, and resolutions, contributing valuable insights about the relationship between narrative and individual identity.

8. Case Study Research

Definition: Case study research is a qualitative research method that involves an in-depth investigation of a single instance or event: a case. These ‘cases’ can range from individuals, groups, or entities to specific projects, programs, or strategies (Creswell, 2013).

The case study method typically uses multiple sources of information for comprehensive contextual analysis. It aims to explore and understand the complexity and uniqueness of a particular case in a real-world context (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). This investigation could result in a detailed description of the case, a process for its development, or an exploration of a related issue or problem.

Example of Case Study Research

Title: “ Teacher’s Role in Fostering Preschoolers’ Computational Thinking: An Exploratory Case Study “

Citation: Wang, X. C., Choi, Y., Benson, K., Eggleston, C., & Weber, D. (2021). Teacher’s role in fostering preschoolers’ computational thinking: An exploratory case study. Early Education and Development , 32 (1), 26-48.

Overview: This study investigates the role of teachers in promoting computational thinking skills in preschoolers. The study utilized a qualitative case study methodology to examine the computational thinking scaffolding strategies employed by a teacher interacting with three preschoolers in a small group setting. The findings highlight the importance of teachers’ guidance in fostering computational thinking practices such as problem reformulation/decomposition, systematic testing, and debugging.

Read about some Famous Case Studies in Psychology Here

9. Participant Observation

Definition: Participant observation has the researcher immerse themselves in a group or community setting to observe the behavior of its members. It is similar to ethnography, but generally, the researcher isn’t embedded for a long period of time.

The researcher, being a participant, engages in daily activities, interactions, and events as a way of conducting a detailed study of a particular social phenomenon (Kawulich, 2005).

The method involves long-term engagement in the field, maintaining detailed records of observed events, informal interviews, direct participation, and reflexivity. This approach allows for a holistic view of the participants’ lived experiences, behaviours, and interactions within their everyday environment (Dewalt, 2011).

Example of Participant Observation Research

Title: Conflict in the boardroom: a participant observation study of supervisory board dynamics

Citation: Heemskerk, E. M., Heemskerk, K., & Wats, M. M. (2017). Conflict in the boardroom: a participant observation study of supervisory board dynamics. Journal of Management & Governance , 21 , 233-263.

Overview: This study examined how conflicts within corporate boards affect their performance. The researchers used a participant observation method, where they actively engaged with 11 supervisory boards and observed their dynamics. They found that having a shared understanding of the board’s role called a common framework, improved performance by reducing relationship conflicts, encouraging task conflicts, and minimizing conflicts between the board and CEO.

10. Non-Participant Observation

Definition: Non-participant observation is a qualitative research method in which the researcher observes the phenomena of interest without actively participating in the situation, setting, or community being studied.

This method allows the researcher to maintain a position of distance, as they are solely an observer and not a participant in the activities being observed (Kawulich, 2005).

During non-participant observation, the researcher typically records field notes on the actions, interactions, and behaviors observed , focusing on specific aspects of the situation deemed relevant to the research question.

This could include verbal and nonverbal communication , activities, interactions, and environmental contexts (Angrosino, 2007). They could also use video or audio recordings or other methods to collect data.

Example of Non-Participant Observation Research

Title: Mental Health Nurses’ attitudes towards mental illness and recovery-oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units: A non-participant observation study

Citation: Sreeram, A., Cross, W. M., & Townsin, L. (2023). Mental Health Nurses’ attitudes towards mental illness and recovery‐oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units: A non‐participant observation study. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing .

Overview: This study investigated the attitudes of mental health nurses towards mental illness and recovery-oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units. The researchers used a non-participant observation method, meaning they observed the nurses without directly participating in their activities. The findings shed light on the nurses’ perspectives and behaviors, providing valuable insights into their attitudes toward mental health and recovery-focused care in these settings.

11. Content Analysis

Definition: Content Analysis involves scrutinizing textual, visual, or spoken content to categorize and quantify information. The goal is to identify patterns, themes, biases, or other characteristics (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005).

Content Analysis is widely used in various disciplines for a multitude of purposes. Researchers typically use this method to distill large amounts of unstructured data, like interview transcripts, newspaper articles, or social media posts, into manageable and meaningful chunks.

When wielded appropriately, Content Analysis can illuminate the density and frequency of certain themes within a dataset, provide insights into how specific terms or concepts are applied contextually, and offer inferences about the meanings of their content and use (Duriau, Reger, & Pfarrer, 2007).

Example of Content Analysis

Title: Framing European politics: A content analysis of press and television news .

Citation: Semetko, H. A., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2000). Framing European politics: A content analysis of press and television news. Journal of Communication, 50 (2), 93-109.

Overview: This study analyzed press and television news articles about European politics using a method called content analysis. The researchers examined the prevalence of different “frames” in the news, which are ways of presenting information to shape audience perceptions. They found that the most common frames were attribution of responsibility, conflict, economic consequences, human interest, and morality.

Read my Full Guide on Content Analysis Here

12. Discourse Analysis

Definition: Discourse Analysis, a qualitative research method, interprets the meanings, functions, and coherence of certain languages in context.

Discourse analysis is typically understood through social constructionism, critical theory , and poststructuralism and used for understanding how language constructs social concepts (Cheek, 2004).

Discourse Analysis offers great breadth, providing tools to examine spoken or written language, often beyond the level of the sentence. It enables researchers to scrutinize how text and talk articulate social and political interactions and hierarchies.

Insight can be garnered from different conversations, institutional text, and media coverage to understand how topics are addressed or framed within a specific social context (Jorgensen & Phillips, 2002).

Example of Discourse Analysis

Title: The construction of teacher identities in educational policy documents: A critical discourse analysis

Citation: Thomas, S. (2005). The construction of teacher identities in educational policy documents: A critical discourse analysis. Critical Studies in Education, 46 (2), 25-44.

Overview: The author examines how an education policy in one state of Australia positions teacher professionalism and teacher identities. While there are competing discourses about professional identity, the policy framework privileges a  narrative that frames the ‘good’ teacher as one that accepts ever-tightening control and regulation over their professional practice.

Read my Full Guide on Discourse Analysis Here

13. Action Research

Definition: Action Research is a qualitative research technique that is employed to bring about change while simultaneously studying the process and results of that change.

This method involves a cyclical process of fact-finding, action, evaluation, and reflection (Greenwood & Levin, 2016).

Typically, Action Research is used in the fields of education, social sciences , and community development. The process isn’t just about resolving an issue but also developing knowledge that can be used in the future to address similar or related problems.

The researcher plays an active role in the research process, which is normally broken down into four steps: 

• developing a plan to improve what is currently being done
• implementing the plan
• observing the effects of the plan, and
• reflecting upon these effects (Smith, 2010).

Example of Action Research

Title: Using Digital Sandbox Gaming to Improve Creativity Within Boys’ Writing

Citation: Ellison, M., & Drew, C. (2020). Using digital sandbox gaming to improve creativity within boys’ writing. Journal of Research in Childhood Education , 34 (2), 277-287.

Overview: This was a research study one of my research students completed in his own classroom under my supervision. He implemented a digital game-based approach to literacy teaching with boys and interviewed his students to see if the use of games as stimuli for storytelling helped draw them into the learning experience.

Read my Full Guide on Action Research Here

14. Semiotic Analysis

Definition: Semiotic Analysis is a qualitative method of research that interprets signs and symbols in communication to understand sociocultural phenomena. It stems from semiotics, the study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation (Chandler, 2017).

In a Semiotic Analysis, signs (anything that represents something else) are interpreted based on their significance and the role they play in representing ideas.

This type of research often involves the examination of images, sounds, and word choice to uncover the embedded sociocultural meanings. For example, an advertisement for a car might be studied to learn more about societal views on masculinity or success (Berger, 2010).

Example of Semiotic Research

Title: Shielding the learned body: a semiotic analysis of school badges in New South Wales, Australia

Citation: Symes, C. (2023). Shielding the learned body: a semiotic analysis of school badges in New South Wales, Australia. Semiotica , 2023 (250), 167-190.

Overview: This study examines school badges in New South Wales, Australia, and explores their significance through a semiotic analysis. The badges, which are part of the school’s visual identity, are seen as symbolic representations that convey meanings. The analysis reveals that these badges often draw on heraldic models, incorporating elements like colors, names, motifs, and mottoes that reflect local culture and history, thus connecting students to their national identity. Additionally, the study highlights how some schools have shifted from traditional badges to modern logos and slogans, reflecting a more business-oriented approach.

15. Qualitative Longitudinal Studies

Definition: Qualitative Longitudinal Studies are a research method that involves repeated observation of the same items over an extended period of time.

Unlike a snapshot perspective, this method aims to piece together individual histories and examine the influences and impacts of change (Neale, 2019).

Qualitative Longitudinal Studies provide an in-depth understanding of change as it happens, including changes in people’s lives, their perceptions, and their behaviors.

For instance, this method could be used to follow a group of students through their schooling years to understand the evolution of their learning behaviors and attitudes towards education (Saldaña, 2003).

Example of Qualitative Longitudinal Research

Title: Patient and caregiver perspectives on managing pain in advanced cancer: a qualitative longitudinal study

Citation: Hackett, J., Godfrey, M., & Bennett, M. I. (2016). Patient and caregiver perspectives on managing pain in advanced cancer: a qualitative longitudinal study.  Palliative medicine ,  30 (8), 711-719.

Overview: This article examines how patients and their caregivers manage pain in advanced cancer through a qualitative longitudinal study. The researchers interviewed patients and caregivers at two different time points and collected audio diaries to gain insights into their experiences, making this study longitudinal.

Read my Full Guide on Longitudinal Research Here

16. Open-Ended Surveys

Definition: Open-Ended Surveys are a type of qualitative research method where respondents provide answers in their own words. Unlike closed-ended surveys, which limit responses to predefined options, open-ended surveys allow for expansive and unsolicited explanations (Fink, 2013).

Open-ended surveys are commonly used in a range of fields, from market research to social studies. As they don’t force respondents into predefined response categories, these surveys help to draw out rich, detailed data that might uncover new variables or ideas.

For example, an open-ended survey might be used to understand customer opinions about a new product or service (Lavrakas, 2008).

Contrast this to a quantitative closed-ended survey, like a Likert scale, which could theoretically help us to come up with generalizable data but is restricted by the questions on the questionnaire, meaning new and surprising data and insights can’t emerge from the survey results in the same way.

Example of Open-Ended Survey Research

Title: Advantages and disadvantages of technology in relationships: Findings from an open-ended survey

Citation: Hertlein, K. M., & Ancheta, K. (2014). Advantages and disadvantages of technology in relationships: Findings from an open-ended survey.  The Qualitative Report ,  19 (11), 1-11.

Overview: This article examines the advantages and disadvantages of technology in couple relationships through an open-ended survey method. Researchers analyzed responses from 410 undergraduate students to understand how technology affects relationships. They found that technology can contribute to relationship development, management, and enhancement, but it can also create challenges such as distancing, lack of clarity, and impaired trust.

17. Naturalistic Observation

Definition: Naturalistic Observation is a type of qualitative research method that involves observing individuals in their natural environments without interference or manipulation by the researcher.

Naturalistic observation is often used when conducting research on behaviors that cannot be controlled or manipulated in a laboratory setting (Kawulich, 2005).

It is frequently used in the fields of psychology, sociology, and anthropology. For instance, to understand the social dynamics in a schoolyard, a researcher could spend time observing the children interact during their recess, noting their behaviors, interactions, and conflicts without imposing their presence on the children’s activities (Forsyth, 2010).

Example of Naturalistic Observation Research

Title: Dispositional mindfulness in daily life: A naturalistic observation study

Citation: Kaplan, D. M., Raison, C. L., Milek, A., Tackman, A. M., Pace, T. W., & Mehl, M. R. (2018). Dispositional mindfulness in daily life: A naturalistic observation study. PloS one , 13 (11), e0206029.

Overview: In this study, researchers conducted two studies: one exploring assumptions about mindfulness and behavior, and the other using naturalistic observation to examine actual behavioral manifestations of mindfulness. They found that trait mindfulness is associated with a heightened perceptual focus in conversations, suggesting that being mindful is expressed primarily through sharpened attention rather than observable behavioral or social differences.

Read my Full Guide on Naturalistic Observation Here

18. Photo-Elicitation

Definition: Photo-elicitation utilizes photographs as a means to trigger discussions and evoke responses during interviews. This strategy aids in bringing out topics of discussion that may not emerge through verbal prompting alone (Harper, 2002).

Traditionally, Photo-Elicitation has been useful in various fields such as education, psychology, and sociology. The method involves the researcher or participants taking photographs, which are then used as prompts for discussion.

For instance, a researcher studying urban environmental issues might invite participants to photograph areas in their neighborhood that they perceive as environmentally detrimental, and then discuss each photo in depth (Clark-Ibáñez, 2004).

Example of Photo-Elicitation Research

Title: Early adolescent food routines: A photo-elicitation study

Citation: Green, E. M., Spivak, C., & Dollahite, J. S. (2021). Early adolescent food routines: A photo-elicitation study. Appetite, 158 .

Overview: This study focused on early adolescents (ages 10-14) and their food routines. Researchers conducted in-depth interviews using a photo-elicitation approach, where participants took photos related to their food choices and experiences. Through analysis, the study identified various routines and three main themes: family, settings, and meals/foods consumed, revealing how early adolescents view and are influenced by their eating routines.

Features of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a research method focused on understanding the meaning individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2013).

Some key features of this method include:

• Naturalistic Inquiry: Qualitative research happens in the natural setting of the phenomena, aiming to understand “real world” situations (Patton, 2015). This immersion in the field or subject allows the researcher to gather a deep understanding of the subject matter.
• Emphasis on Process: It aims to understand how events unfold over time rather than focusing solely on outcomes (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). The process-oriented nature of qualitative research allows researchers to investigate sequences, timing, and changes.
• Interpretive: It involves interpreting and making sense of phenomena in terms of the meanings people assign to them (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). This interpretive element allows for rich, nuanced insights into human behavior and experiences.
• Holistic Perspective: Qualitative research seeks to understand the whole phenomenon rather than focusing on individual components (Creswell, 2013). It emphasizes the complex interplay of factors, providing a richer, more nuanced view of the research subject.
• Prioritizes Depth over Breadth: Qualitative research favors depth of understanding over breadth, typically involving a smaller but more focused sample size (Hennink, Hutter, & Bailey, 2020). This enables detailed exploration of the phenomena of interest, often leading to rich and complex data.

Qualitative vs Quantitative Research

Qualitative research centers on exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2013).

It involves an in-depth approach to the subject matter, aiming to capture the richness and complexity of human experience.

Examples include conducting interviews, observing behaviors, or analyzing text and images.

There are strengths inherent in this approach. In its focus on understanding subjective experiences and interpretations, qualitative research can yield rich and detailed data that quantitative research may overlook (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).

Additionally, qualitative research is adaptive, allowing the researcher to respond to new directions and insights as they emerge during the research process.

However, there are also limitations. Because of the interpretive nature of this research, findings may not be generalizable to a broader population (Marshall & Rossman, 2014). Well-designed quantitative research, on the other hand, can be generalizable.

Moreover, the reliability and validity of qualitative data can be challenging to establish due to its subjective nature, unlike quantitative research, which is ideally more objective.

Compare Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methodologies in This Guide Here

In conclusion, qualitative research methods provide distinctive ways to explore social phenomena and understand nuances that quantitative approaches might overlook. Each method, from Ethnography to Photo-Elicitation, presents its strengths and weaknesses but they all offer valuable means of investigating complex, real-world situations. The goal for the researcher is not to find a definitive tool, but to employ the method best suited for their research questions and the context at hand (Almalki, 2016). Above all, these methods underscore the richness of human experience and deepen our understanding of the world around us.

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• What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on June 19, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on September 5, 2024.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Table of contents

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography , action research , phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasize different aims and perspectives.

Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne effect , observer bias , recall bias , and social desirability bias . While not always totally avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data can prevent them from impacting your work too much.

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Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews:  personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
• You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
• You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analyzing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

• Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
• Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
• Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorize your data.
• Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
• Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

• Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

• Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

• Limited generalizability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

• Labor-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organization to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organize your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

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A qualitative study on the experiences and challenges of MBA students' engagement with a business research methods module

Journal of Work-Applied Management

ISSN : 2205-2062

Article publication date: 17 March 2021

Issue publication date: 5 April 2022

Undertaking research as part of a business degree qualification undoubtedly enables students to develop practical and life-long skills. Nevertheless, students seem to find it challenging undertaking a research project. This study set out to explore the experiences of a group of MBA students who recently undertook their business and management research projects as part of their MBA degree program.

Design/methodology/approach

The study was carried out in a UK higher education institution and is based on an MBA business and management research module. The purpose of the module is to enable learners to develop advanced-level independent research and critical problem-solving skills within a business context. The study adopted a qualitative approach to capture a broad mix of students' experiences and perceptions on the module. The sample includes previous MBA students on different cohorts and different nationalities.

Outcomes of the study show that though students are stretched in the business and management project process they develop a diversity of skills required in the workplace while conducting their projects. The study findings also show that the practical implications of the students' projects and progressive support from their project supervisors contribute to the successful completion of their projects and subsequent attainment of their MBA degree.

Originality/value

Outcomes of this study further reveal that undertaking business and management projects creates a rewarding learning experience for learners/students, develops confident graduates as well as enables effective applications of theory into practice.

• Business research
• Research methods

Nzekwe-Excel, C. (2022), "A qualitative study on the experiences and challenges of MBA students' engagement with a business research methods module", Journal of Work-Applied Management , Vol. 14 No. 1, pp. 46-62. https://doi.org/10.1108/JWAM-08-2020-0040

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2021, Chinny Nzekwe-Excel

Published in Journal of Work-Applied Management . Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

Introduction: study context and rationale

Undertaking or conducting business and management research projects can be a daunting experience for students, probably because of the requirement to adopt an academic stance while undertaking the task/ project, which is intended to be practice-based. Students may demonstrate full engagement on the idea of undertaking a project or research; however they seem to disconnect from the requirement of doing so within the confines of academic research process. Thus, it can be a challenge for an academic, who is teaching a research methods module to guide/ encourage students to stay within the scope of an achievable research study ( Lewthwaite and Nind, 2016 ). Over the past four decades, there is a reasonable number of studies on the challenges associated with teaching research methods as well as suggestions on how to encourage students to become more engaged and less anxious while undertaking their research projects ( Ransford and Butler, 1982 ; Zablotsky, 2001 ; Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2003 ; Ekmekci et al. , 2012 ; Lewthwaite and Nind, 2016 ; Mullins, 2017 ). Carr (2014) collated and presented discussions from five studies on the challenges associated with teaching research methods in business and management to both undergraduate and MBA students. The challenges were around the epistemological assumptions and differing methodological conceptions of tutors, equipping staff/ tutors with statistical capabilities for quantitative research methodology and enabling students to develop the skills or aptitudes associated with the research process. The completion of students' projects can also be viewed in the context of collaborative or paired projects; an empirical study carried out by Ronnie (2017) shows high levels of positive outcomes. Amongst other factors, Ronnie's study reveals that early and ongoing conversations between the students, trust in each other's ability and self-reflection contribute to productive outcomes in the paired-project process.

The difficulty for students to engage with and to link the knowledge gained in the research methods teaching to the entirety of their higher education study is a recognisable challenge for the students ( Winn, 1995 ; Chapdelaine and Chapman, 1999 ; Ekmekci et al. , 2012 ). Winn (1995) suggests that live organisational issues or projects based on problems within a specific organisation can offer a unique opportunity toward mitigating such challenges. Similarly, Garnett et al. (2016) argue that there is the need for the projects to be grounded in real-time work-related issues. This may mean a review and subsequent redesign or reformation of the research methods module within the business and management discipline. Ekmekci et al. (2012) outline a number of reflective questions/ recommendations and associated implications on how to enable students to apply the knowledge gained in their research methods course. A summary of the authors' recommendations show that tutors of the research methods course play a significant role in creating the right atmosphere that will enable students navigate their learning in a meaningful way.

With particular focus on qualitative research approach, Cassell (2018) discussed the challenges faced by over 200 MBA students in conducting their business and management research. Cassell demonstrated the need for the students to develop the knowledge, skills and competences required for undertaking qualitative research, which can be used for effective management practice. While the focus of the business and management projects may not be categorically on aptitude or skills development, Toledano-O'Farrill (2017) argues that students are expected to develop workplace skills as a result of their involvement with the project activities. For example, qualitative research which involves a series of questioning between the researcher and the respondent as part of the data collection process for the research enables the researcher to develop skills such as critical thinking, reflective ability and communication skills ( Wall et al. , 2017a , b ).

Evidence shows that MBA students enrol on their MBA course with minimal work experience and critical thinking ability ( Schaupp and Vitullo, 2019 ), which highlights the need for research methods to be taught in such a way that students are enabled to “build-up” the required knowledge and competences ( Galliers and Huang, 2012 ). Similarly, Llamas and Boza (2011) argue that research methods by definition should be applicable to a specific discipline ( or practice ). In a similar line of argument, Beardwell and Claydon (2007 , cited in Rowe et al. , 2017 ) echo that employers prefer graduates who have the ability to reflect and synthesise opinions through critical thinking. The challenges of undertaking their business and management research projects raise the questions: how MBA students apply critical thinking to practical problems, how to keep them engaged throughout the research process and essentially how to enable them to confidently develop or enhance a wide range of personal and professional skills, which are a necessity in today's workplace.

Therefore, the aim of this study is to explore the experiences of a group of MBA students who recently undertook their business research module and completed their business and management research project as part of their MBA degree program.

Research module design

This study explores student experiences in completing a business and management research module and in carrying out a business and management research project. One of the key requirements of the research module is for students to define their project topics themselves with assistance from their project supervisors. The module is developed to include interactive teaching components, action-learning sets (ALS), which are designed to be student-led and tutor-facilitated and individual (and in some cases, group) supervision. The module design incorporates the active-blended learning concepts, including a combination of face-to-face and virtual/ online sessions.

Planning the business and management research

Conducting and writing up the literature review

Deciding on the right methodological approaches; Research Governance and Ethics

Collecting and gathering data

Analysing and interpreting data

Dissemination and presentation: Write-up of the project report.

The ALS are designed to help consolidate the research project process, enable students to frame their research ideology and to make more tailored decisions for their individual business and management research. At this stage of the process, students may become anxious initially; however with support and guidance from their project supervisors, they should be able to channel their energy and anxiety toward making better informed decisions and choices for their business and management research. It is also during the ALS classes that students begin to develop the confidence to undertake their individual business and management research projects; the ALS classes provide an environment for learners to share their research experiences, express their challenges and suggest strategies with tailored support or advice from their project supervisors.

Methodology

Paradigm and research stance.

An interpretivist paradigm was adopted for this study; this enabled gaining an understanding of the research focus through subjective relationship with the participants ( Manroop, 2017 ). Interpretivism places focus on the perceptions, interpretations and experiences of individuals ( Cohen et al. , 2010 ; Fisher, 2010 ). Therefore, interpretivism was assumed for this study with the intention to individually question the study participants and to gain an understanding of their experiences from undertaking their business and management research projects. Consequently, a qualitative methodology was employed, which created a platform to generate in-depth personal information on the subject under study. This approach was considered more appropriate considering the intention to explore the views and experiences of a diversity of postgraduate students who have recently undertaken the assessed business and management research module. Thus, this methodology enabled the investigation of student learning experience in the area of undertaking business and management research and thorough evaluation of the perceptions of different categories of students.

This study recruited participants from a United Kingdom (UK) public university with campuses in the UK and two partner institutions in Vietnam. Precisely, the concept of purposeful sampling was used, which means that a selection of students enrolled on the business and management research module (under discussion) was recruited as participants for the study because they could purposefully inform an understanding of the aim of the study ( Creswell, 2013 ). A total of four cohorts from two academic years (2016/17 and 2017/18) were considered for this study, which had a total of 54 students enrolled on the module. 33 were contacted, and 13 agreed to be part of the study. However, only 11 attended the interview sessions, which resulted in a small sample. Nonetheless, there is evidence to suggest that the sample size of 11 for a qualitative study can be considered as being suitable. Morse (1994 , cited in Guest et al. , 2006 ) recommended a minimum of six participants while Dukes (1984) and Reimen (1986) (both cited in Creswell, 2013 ) recommended a sample size of 3–10. As perceived by 14 qualitative research experts collated by Baker et al. (2012) , the sample size for a qualitative study varies and will depend on the number of participants who are sufficient to provide evidence on the issue under discussion; some of the experts argue that one interview is sometimes sufficient (p. 16; 24), while some other experts suggest a minimum sample size of 12 (p. 11; 19).

This study's population (54) comprised students who received the same teaching sessions from the same research module. It is aimed at exploring the students' experiences on undertaking the business research module and completing their research project; therefore, effort was made to draw rich, detailed responses and insights from the 11 participants. Subsequently, critical evaluations of the collected data were carried out. Thus, data saturation was considered and achieved through the sampling process, data collection strategy, the study timeframe and data analysis. The 11 participants who contributed to the study are recent MBA graduates of the UK Higher Education Institution under study, who achieved varied grade categories in the business and management research module assessment. All the participants were on full-time MBA programme and eight were in some form of employment during their MBA study. Details of the participants are shown in Table 1 . The 11 participants comprised five participants who had the module taught and delivered in the UK and six participants who had the module taught and delivered outside the UK (in Vietnam).

Approach and data collection procedure

The interview technique was the primary data collection tool that was adopted to capture the students' experiences in undertaking their business and management research projects as well as their perceptions on the research module under study. All the interview sessions were carried out between March and June 2019, when the students/participants were not under any form of academic pressure in terms of exams or pending assignments/resits. In addition, all the interview sessions were carried out in consideration of the participants' availability and convenience. Prior to the data collection, appropriate ethical approval was adhered to, which included obtaining each participant's signed consent before the interview sessions. A participant information sheet, which outlined the purpose of the study and explained the conditions for participation was given to each interview participant before conducting the interviews. Subsequently, voluntary participation, issues of strict confidentiality and participants' anonymity were established. Prior to the data collection, an individual email containing the consent form was sent to each participant to sign their consent to participate in the interview. Each of the 11 participants had their one interview session organised and carried out in a formal fashion, and each interview session lasted approximately 40 min (see Table 1 ). During the interview sessions, simpler opening questions were used to ease the interviewees, thereby ensuring that any form of tension or anxiety was eliminated or reduced ( Nzekwe-Excel, 2012 ). Similarly, pertinent closing questions were used to enable the interviewees make concluding remarks and/or additional comments to their earlier responses. Effort was made to keep the participants within the focus of the study by highlighting the purpose of the study as well as asking additional questions for clarity. In addition, each interview was audio-recorded and fully transcribed.

Students/ participants' expectations from the research module before the teaching/ delivery

Students/ participants' expectations from the research module during the teaching/ delivery

Students/ participants' positive experiences while undertaking their business and management research projects

Students/ participants' challenging experiences while undertaking their business and management research projects and how these were managed

Students/ participants' perceptions on whether their expectations were met and the benefits of the business and management research module

The participants' recommendations in the review/ redesign of the business and management research module

Analytical procedure

The concept of thematic analysis was used in analysing and interpreting the data. Precisely, thematic analysis was used for identifying themes and patterns of behaviour or meanings in the interview/ qualitative dataset. The themes are developed by placing the initial coding of the data in such a way that they can be moved around to form connections with data that has similar coding ( Howitt and Cramer, 2008 ). Themes are defined as “conversation topics, vocabulary, recurring activities, meanings, feelings, and proverbs” ( Taylor and Bogdan, 1984 , p. 131, cited in Aronson, 1994 ). For the purpose of this study, the themes are phrases or comments, also known as the participants' responses. Therefore, thematic analysis was employed because of its flexibility in identifying participants' experiences, views and behaviours, which seeks to understand what participants' think, feel and do ( Clarke and Braun, 2017 ). The six phases of implementing thematic analysis as suggested by Braun and Clarke (2006) were considered in analysing the collected/ interview data of this study. The six phases include: familiarisation of the data, generation of initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing the themes, defining and naming the themes and then producing the report.

Sufficient time was dedicated toward transcribing, reviewing the data as well as making initial notes. The NVIVO qualitative data analysis software was employed for the initial coding process of the data, which subsequently helped in searching for/ identifying themes. NVIVO provided a platform for grouping the data in different ways using folders, sets and cases for coding, easy access and retrieval of the data ( Wiltshier, 2011 ). As an approach to data analyses, the identified themes (generated data) were reviewed, and named by managing, classifying, and categorising the data using a process of reduction and coding technique ( Nzekwe-Excel, 2012 ). Subsequently, meaningful textual segments were derived based on similar and/or dissimilar viewpoints of the study's participants ( Nzekwe-Excel, 2012 ).

Data analyses and findings

The first two interview questions were aimed at exploring the students' preparedness and engagement prior to and during the delivery of the business and management research module. Responses from these questions were grouped under the themed-category labelled “Preparedness”. The theme “Preparedness” was used because it reflects how students were prepared for the business and management research module, including their expectations and learning needs.

The third and fourth questions were aimed at exploring the students' critical thinking ability and their engagement with the module. Responses from these questions were grouped under the themed-category labelled “Engagement”. The theme “Engagement” was used because it reflects the students' ongoing interest in the module including challenges and their learning development from the module.

The fifth question was aimed at exploring the students' ability to manage the entire research process from question formulation through to analysis and interpretation of results. Responses from this question were grouped under the themed-category labelled “Aptitude”. The theme “Aptitude” was used because it reflects the students' personal and research skills development including their met expectations and learning needs.

Finally, participants were given the opportunity to make additional comments regarding the progressive review and delivery of the module through the sixth/ final question. Responses from this question were grouped under the themed-category labelled “Reformation”. The theme “Reformation” was used because it reflects the students' suggestions on how the business and management research Module can be further enhanced in its design and delivery.

It is important to note that the terms “Preparedness”, “Engagement”, “Aptitude” and “Reformation” were put together in view of the aim of this study as well as to categorise the participants' responses accordingly.

Preparedness of the students

The study identified a number of themes in an evaluation of students' expectations before and during the teaching sessions for the business and management research module. The students' “prior” expectations were generally focussed on their desire to gain or expand their knowledge on business and management research processes and on what to do to succeed in the module assessment. A careful review of the students' expectations “during” the teaching sessions show focused research needs as shown in Figure 2 .

Engagement of the students

The students' engagement throughout the duration of the module delivery and the conduct of their individual projects were analysed based on their perceptions on what they enjoyed, the challenges they encountered and their coping mechanisms. Most of the positive experiences shown by the interviewees' supportive comments express the learning or skills gained in conducting their business and management projects and confidence developed in the area of business and management research strategies ( Figure 3 ). With respect to the challenges that the students encountered while conducting their projects, references were made to a number of factors associated with different stages of their projects, the online mode of module delivery and personal issues such as managing and combining full-time study and full-time employment.

Aptitude of the students

In an attempt to explore the students' ability to manage their entire research process and demonstrate a consistent focus on their arguments, this study sought to find out the participants' perceptions on whether their “prior” and “during” module expectations were met as well as the participants' views on the benefits of the module to them on a personal basis. As illustrated in Figure 4 , the findings show strong positive affirmations from the participants. There are also demonstrations of understanding on the systematic stages of the research process.

Reformation of the module

As a way forward toward upgrading the business and management research module, the study drew insights from the participants. The findings, as shown in Figure 5 , uncover varied viewpoints, mostly around the timing allocated to the module delivery and quantitative/ statistical support sessions. Interestingly, some of the participants noted that they simply like the module design/ delivery as it is and do not think a redesign is necessary.

Evaluation of findings and discussions

This study presents verbatim quotes of the interview participants (in italics) as a way to reinforce the study findings. The participants' identifier numbers shown in Table 1 are written next to the quotes.

Business and management research expectations and learning needs

Being the final module that the students are expected to complete and pass before being considered for their MBA degree qualification, it is no surprise that some of the students' expectations prior to undertaking their business and management research projects were focused on the successful completion and submission of the project assessment. This is shown by comments from two of the interviewees: “ I had expectation on graduation” (INTC-UK2); “ I had a knowledge shortage. I wanted to know what is expected…in submission” (INTH-UK5) .

“we were not sure how to do research…to have some knowledge transfer” (INTH-UK5).

“I had little knowledge…Um, the advancement of knowledge especially on facial products…More socialisation with people…I became a specialist” (INTC-UK2).

“It has…broadened my knowledge in the area that I researched on.… it made me have a more critical thinking approach…making sure you are exactly on point in asking the right questions” (INTH-UK5).

“Applying the knowledge that is being learned to… specific business projects” (VNT-Hanoi2)

“I wanted to explore…business research process to apply in practical…” (VNL-Hanoi2)

“Mostly, I expect…to get the implication and recommendation to handle the situation we are facing (in the organisation); gaining knowledge to apply to my current organisation' I try to check my topic with my organisation… to deliver the project” (VNJ-HMC3).

“I had an expectation that the module will provide me a way we can know to start a business plan” (VNU-HMC2).

“I wanted to know more information on the business market” (VNT-HMC1).

In addition, one of two of the participants in part-time employment at the time of the module delivery also expected to acquire knowledge on business concepts in view of their career aspirations: “ I expected this module will give…an opportunity to study new knowledge….for…future when I want to start my own business…” (INTP-UK3) .

“I had questions such as “what am I gonna do for my dissertation? “will I find my topic?” (INTC-UK1)

“The subject of the research topic: because the topic I chose has also been chosen by another. So the difficulty is in decision making for the topic” (INTC-UK2).

“how to define a topic was confusing…but by end of the teaching week, I had idea on what to do my research on” (INTH-UK5).

“Therefore, what I expect was finding a suitable method for the research topic…to proceed” (VNK-Hanoi3).

“I expected that…my research is easy to find and not much difficult to understand but my thinking was wrong; some were easy to understand but some were difficult to understand” (INTP-UK3).

“Struggled with which methodology to go by… what should I use to support my research? These took a lot of time” (INTH-UK5).

“…due to my chosen topic, I had to travel back home to interview the participants. There were times when I couldn't find the appropriate literature to support my research” (INTP-UK4).

One of the participants noted that their met expectations were more in theory than in practice, which suggests a drawback: “Actually for me, the expectations were met more in theory than in practical” (VNU-HMC2) . The same participant suggested that the teaching sessions should be more tailored to their own environment: “ …to be met in practice, it can be based in more research in Vietnam market” (VNU-HMC2).

Business and management research learning experience and skills gained

“I also understood about the changes that I could suggest making it easier for women to work in bank” (INTP-UK4).

“When I finish and submit, I think I made a difference for myself” (VNJ-HMC3)

“The skills I developed doing this module are my study skills, research skills, analysing skills” (INTC-UK1).

“Absolutely…bring me many skills like developing independent working skills, problem solving skills, management skills, decision-making skills, market research, data analysis” (VNT-Hanoi2).

“Yes, the project provided insights for my organisation, and it meet the expectation, and it's good timing” (VNJ-HMC3).

“I think this module is very valuable for me so I know how to conduct a research and I learn about time management and I learn about how to conduct the survey, and know about the research questions” (VNJ-HMC3)

The above participants' positive comments suggest that the goal of the module to enable learners to be equipped with or develop the skills to undertake research on a high level ( Kilburn et al. , 2014 ), and of course on a practical basis in the workplace is a welcomed approach.

“The other challenge I faced was the fact that we had to do online classes…in my view if we were present physically in the class with teachers, it would have been better. (INTP-UK4).

“However it is also hard to catch up…ideas because the other students showed up without preparation. In addition, we…work full time and study therefore hard to follow the deadlines while lack of statistics and software experiences” (VNL-Hanoi1).

One of the participants commented on the opportunity for students to interact and share ideas in the teaching and learning environment: “ It ' s also interesting to listen to the others ' ideas to see how they implement the research on different industries and various cases” (VNL-Hanoi1). These insights indicate the strength of action learning sets and the workshop teaching method. Workshops enable dialogue and constructive interactions between learners and tutors ( Nzekwe-Excel, 2014 ). In their discussion on the role of action learning concept/ approach in executive management program, Johnson and Spicer (2006) and Kelliher and Byrne (2018) assert that the approach fosters learning, effective interactions, progress and knowledge transfer. In addition, Ronnie (2017) elucidates that there is an opportunity for collaborative dialogue and an atmosphere for students to build on each other's ideas: “I remember, I identified the wrong topic and my scope was very big and I get support from my classmates” (VNJ-HMC3) .

“ readily available tutor-support'; “quick response from the project supervisor, which helped speed the project process” (INTC-UK1).

“…were my supervisor kept on providing me feedback whenever, I mailed her any of my work completed” (INTP-UK4).

“I'm really thankful of the conversations I received from my tutors” (INTH-UK5).

“Um, I think for me, it's very helpful and Project Supervisor's guidance is helpful” (VNJ-HMC3).

“the Project Supervisor teach on how to take care of each work, how to use exact words for…” (VNU-HMC2).

A key component in undertaking business and management research projects is adherence to appropriate ethical procedures; the ethical procedure is expected to demonstrate research governance and integrity, particularly in the design of the data collection procedure/ tool. Interestingly, one of the interviewees highlighted the learning she gained while undergoing the rigorous ethical approval process: “For me, actually I learnt from…first of all is Ethics Form…teach on how to take care of each work, how to use exact words for each person…make the questionnaire for the customer service … (VNU-HMC2).

“For me, actually I learnt … first of all…” (VNU-HMC2).

“I did not fully understand the principles of qualitative research, so I encountered many difficulties in the process of analysing…. Although I failed to do a quality research…the study helped me understand important principles such as collecting and analysing data accurately. Besides, I also get better understood the importance of determining goals…, I also realized that not spending enough time to review theory and doing research is a major cause of this failure” (VNK-Hanoi3).

“For me I can make the questionnaire for…industry so we can control the quality of the service” (VNU-HMC2).

“However, what I have not really understood after the course is that I still have not fully understood how to effectively apply qualitative and quantitative analysis methods to other kinds of research” (VNK-Hanoi3).

“I prefer that I will identify the topic by myself and if I think it's too big, I will get guidance from my project supervisor and I will change by myself because actually I learn by myself a lot” (VNJ-HMC3).

“Providing the topics may be a good for those not knowing what they gonna do or kind of lost, that is students who are unsure of their career prospects. On the contrary, doing so, will limit students' ability to think outside the box, limit their creativity and initiation” (INTC-UK1).

“like to decide the title but at the same time have the tutor support on the recommendation on the topic, which my tutors did” (INTH-UK5).

“Well it depends on the students. Personally, I do recommend you choose me a topic because to be honest I don't know what to choose as it's the first time of the research. I think it will facilitate the students if you provide the students the topic to choose. It may also block the ability of the students to think outside the box” (INTC-UK2).

These show that the business and management research module provides a unique opportunity for learners to explore or examine an area of interest on a specific subject within the business and management discipline.

An exploration of the participants' comments on the “timing” theme broadly reflect management of the students' time throughout their business and management research process: “…challenge of time management” (VNJ-HMC3); “A challenge I had was to follow on the schedule...because we had to share our time…and working (VNT-HMC1)”; “Challenge I had was managing my time with respect to personal job commitments and attend the sessions as well, and commuting…from…most times made the project challenging” (INTC-UK1). These unimpressive comments also suggest a personal act of discipline, commitment and responsibility from the students are required to successfully complete their business and management research. A slightly different comment on “timing”: “Deadlines should note the holiday leave of professors as we have different new year holiday…we don ' t have holidays for Christmas and New Year” (VNL-Hanoi1) still highlights the need for students to develop the habit of good time management practice. The module assessment deadline is set well in advance before the module delivery and the students are made aware of the deadline in the first teaching session. In addition, the students are sent deadline reminders throughout the duration of the module/ their business and management research.

Another area where the students appeared to find challenging is in their data analyses and the technicality of their chosen data analysis software (SPSS): “I wish that we could have a workshop for 1 hour or…n the classroom…teach us a bit more about SPSS first because for some of us, that ' s the first time they hear about SPSS” (VNU-HMC2) . It is not surprising that this issue was raised again when asked on their views for recommendations on the review/ redesign of the module. Similarly, some of the themes identified as the participants' challenging experiences ( Figure 3 ) were identified as themes for the reformation of the module ( Figure 5 ).

Future direction for the business and management research module

Reflecting on the participants' recommendations for the business and management research module ( Figure 5 ) and in consideration of the main highlights from the study findings (discussed above), the review of the module will be addressed from two perspectives: module design and module delivery. It is important to note that the themes shown in Figure 5 have been defined in such a way that they are strategies aimed to be implemented in the review of the module's content and activities.

At present, qualitative and quantitative data analyses taught sessions are embedded in the module design, with an inclusion of independent/ additional support sessions available to students to take advantage of from the university learning development/ statistics team. However, the participants' responses or concerns around quantitative evaluations, including software usage (“Should have a separate session to train software/ statistics” (VNL-Hanoi1); “My challenge is knowledge about the statistics I used in my research because I never known and done it before” (INTP-UK3); “I think that choosing the right form of analysis (qualitative or quantitative) for different research objects is very important…the module should focus more deeply on…analysing information with specific examples” (VNK-Hanoi3)) suggest that students are not taking advantage of the additional support sessions tailored toward qualitative and quantitative/ statistical evaluations. Though research shows that it is not unusual for students to be anxious or concerned toward statistical evaluations ( Baglin et al. , 2017 ), it may be a step in the right direction to “formally” embed the additional support sessions on quantitative/ statistical evaluations and qualitative analysis in the module design and delivery to bridge this knowledge gap. The contents of the additional support sessions will need to be modified or updated accordingly for each cohort considering that students' research topics vary. Some degree of competence in statistical evaluations is expected from today's graduates in the workplace as shown in the outcomes from Harraway and Barker (2005) study; so the formalised additional support or specialised data analyses sessions may be one way to develop and harness this skill in students as they undertake their business and management research projects.

With respect to decision-making for the research topic, a possible way forward is to have two options including students deciding on their project topics themselves and students' choosing a topic from a list made available to the students. Making a list of project topics available could help trigger possible areas that the students may want to focus their research on. This may consequently minimise unnecessary anxiety, enable effective time management, foster/ boost the research profile of the institution as the predefined research topics will be put together in consideration of the institution's current research areas/ foci. In addition, aspirational research areas could be developed or expanded on through the predefined research topics; the list of topics could be put together to embrace a wider perspective and in consideration of locations where the module is taught or delivered, which is in view of one of the non-UK participants' comments: “If possible, … add more case-study in the module design and delivery; I think the case study should be … focussed in Vietnam (VNT-HMC1)” . Whether students define their project topic themselves or make a choice for a project topic based on a list of available topics, it is important that students are guided and supported on how to decide/define their project topic with careful consideration of what they have a passion for. In his discussion on a six-stage process for choosing a project topic, Fisher (2010) identifies interest as the first stage or fundamental requirement of the topic definition.

The theme “Diversified communication modes” refers to how information is communicated to (and with) the students enrolled on the module. An unsurprising comment from one of the participants “Use social media i.e. Whatsapp Facebook, Instagram and email students directly instead of expecting them to always check the Learning_Environment [1] site” (INTC-UK2) demonstrates the drive for IT embrace in today's society. With a module that already has the concepts of active-blended learning in its design, extending its communication platforms as a means to facilitate student engagement and success should be a straightforward process.

Concluding remarks and further research

The critical evaluations of the findings from the qualitative data discussed in the preceding sections of this paper show the relevance, benefits and challenges associated with the business and management research module in the personal and professional development of learners. This study contributes to knowledge and practice on teaching research methods and supporting students while they undertake their business and management projects as follows: the study findings provide useful insights on MBA students' preparedness for undertaking business and management research projects, the students' development of a range of personal, practical and research skills and triggers for enabling the students' engagement throughout the research process. Furthermore, outcomes of this study suggest that where the challenges associated with undertaking business and management research projects are adequately channelled toward developing practical skills required in the workplace through progressive support from the academic project supervisors, it will contribute toward creating a rewarding learning experience for learners as well as enabling effective applications of theory into practice.

While transcribing the data and carefully reviewing the participants' responses, and making initial notes, it was observed that factors such as gender, academic year when the module was delivered and place of module delivery did not uncover any obvious disparity in the participants' responses to the interview questions. Nevertheless, there is still an opportunity for further research on the possible effects of these factors on the students' academic performance/ grade achieved.

Interview themes: Knowledge acquired and application of business and management research techniques

Interview themes: expectations and learning needs from business and management research

Interview themes: Learning and skills gained in business and management research

Interview themes: Benefits associated with business and management research

Interview themes: review of business and management research module

Study participants

Learning_Environment = This is the acronym for the virtual learning environment of the higher education institution under study.

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Presenting and Evaluating Qualitative Research

The purpose of this paper is to help authors to think about ways to present qualitative research papers in the American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education . It also discusses methods for reviewers to assess the rigour, quality, and usefulness of qualitative research. Examples of different ways to present data from interviews, observations, and focus groups are included. The paper concludes with guidance for publishing qualitative research and a checklist for authors and reviewers.

INTRODUCTION

Policy and practice decisions, including those in education, increasingly are informed by findings from qualitative as well as quantitative research. Qualitative research is useful to policymakers because it often describes the settings in which policies will be implemented. Qualitative research is also useful to both pharmacy practitioners and pharmacy academics who are involved in researching educational issues in both universities and practice and in developing teaching and learning.

Qualitative research involves the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data that are not easily reduced to numbers. These data relate to the social world and the concepts and behaviors of people within it. Qualitative research can be found in all social sciences and in the applied fields that derive from them, for example, research in health services, nursing, and pharmacy. 1 It looks at X in terms of how X varies in different circumstances rather than how big is X or how many Xs are there? 2 Textbooks often subdivide research into qualitative and quantitative approaches, furthering the common assumption that there are fundamental differences between the 2 approaches. With pharmacy educators who have been trained in the natural and clinical sciences, there is often a tendency to embrace quantitative research, perhaps due to familiarity. A growing consensus is emerging that sees both qualitative and quantitative approaches as useful to answering research questions and understanding the world. Increasingly mixed methods research is being carried out where the researcher explicitly combines the quantitative and qualitative aspects of the study. 3 , 4

Like healthcare, education involves complex human interactions that can rarely be studied or explained in simple terms. Complex educational situations demand complex understanding; thus, the scope of educational research can be extended by the use of qualitative methods. Qualitative research can sometimes provide a better understanding of the nature of educational problems and thus add to insights into teaching and learning in a number of contexts. For example, at the University of Nottingham, we conducted in-depth interviews with pharmacists to determine their perceptions of continuing professional development and who had influenced their learning. We also have used a case study approach using observation of practice and in-depth interviews to explore physiotherapists' views of influences on their leaning in practice. We have conducted in-depth interviews with a variety of stakeholders in Malawi, Africa, to explore the issues surrounding pharmacy academic capacity building. A colleague has interviewed and conducted focus groups with students to explore cultural issues as part of a joint Nottingham-Malaysia pharmacy degree program. Another colleague has interviewed pharmacists and patients regarding their expectations before and after clinic appointments and then observed pharmacist-patient communication in clinics and assessed it using the Calgary Cambridge model in order to develop recommendations for communication skills training. 5 We have also performed documentary analysis on curriculum data to compare pharmacist and nurse supplementary prescribing courses in the United Kingdom.

It is important to choose the most appropriate methods for what is being investigated. Qualitative research is not appropriate to answer every research question and researchers need to think carefully about their objectives. Do they wish to study a particular phenomenon in depth (eg, students' perceptions of studying in a different culture)? Or are they more interested in making standardized comparisons and accounting for variance (eg, examining differences in examination grades after changing the way the content of a module is taught). Clearly a quantitative approach would be more appropriate in the last example. As with any research project, a clear research objective has to be identified to know which methods should be applied.

Types of qualitative data include:

• Audio recordings and transcripts from in-depth or semi-structured interviews
• Structured interview questionnaires containing substantial open comments including a substantial number of responses to open comment items.
• Audio recordings and transcripts from focus group sessions.
• Field notes (notes taken by the researcher while in the field [setting] being studied)
• Video recordings (eg, lecture delivery, class assignments, laboratory performance)
• Case study notes
• Documents (reports, meeting minutes, e-mails)
• Diaries, video diaries
• Observation notes
• Press clippings
• Photographs

RIGOUR IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research is often criticized as biased, small scale, anecdotal, and/or lacking rigor; however, when it is carried out properly it is unbiased, in depth, valid, reliable, credible and rigorous. In qualitative research, there needs to be a way of assessing the “extent to which claims are supported by convincing evidence.” 1 Although the terms reliability and validity traditionally have been associated with quantitative research, increasingly they are being seen as important concepts in qualitative research as well. Examining the data for reliability and validity assesses both the objectivity and credibility of the research. Validity relates to the honesty and genuineness of the research data, while reliability relates to the reproducibility and stability of the data.

The validity of research findings refers to the extent to which the findings are an accurate representation of the phenomena they are intended to represent. The reliability of a study refers to the reproducibility of the findings. Validity can be substantiated by a number of techniques including triangulation use of contradictory evidence, respondent validation, and constant comparison. Triangulation is using 2 or more methods to study the same phenomenon. Contradictory evidence, often known as deviant cases, must be sought out, examined, and accounted for in the analysis to ensure that researcher bias does not interfere with or alter their perception of the data and any insights offered. Respondent validation, which is allowing participants to read through the data and analyses and provide feedback on the researchers' interpretations of their responses, provides researchers with a method of checking for inconsistencies, challenges the researchers' assumptions, and provides them with an opportunity to re-analyze their data. The use of constant comparison means that one piece of data (for example, an interview) is compared with previous data and not considered on its own, enabling researchers to treat the data as a whole rather than fragmenting it. Constant comparison also enables the researcher to identify emerging/unanticipated themes within the research project.

STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative researchers have been criticized for overusing interviews and focus groups at the expense of other methods such as ethnography, observation, documentary analysis, case studies, and conversational analysis. Qualitative research has numerous strengths when properly conducted.

Strengths of Qualitative Research

• Issues can be examined in detail and in depth.
• Interviews are not restricted to specific questions and can be guided/redirected by the researcher in real time.
• The research framework and direction can be quickly revised as new information emerges.
• The data based on human experience that is obtained is powerful and sometimes more compelling than quantitative data.
• Subtleties and complexities about the research subjects and/or topic are discovered that are often missed by more positivistic enquiries.
• Data usually are collected from a few cases or individuals so findings cannot be generalized to a larger population. Findings can however be transferable to another setting.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

• Research quality is heavily dependent on the individual skills of the researcher and more easily influenced by the researcher's personal biases and idiosyncrasies.
• Rigor is more difficult to maintain, assess, and demonstrate.
• The volume of data makes analysis and interpretation time consuming.
• It is sometimes not as well understood and accepted as quantitative research within the scientific community
• The researcher's presence during data gathering, which is often unavoidable in qualitative research, can affect the subjects' responses.
• Issues of anonymity and confidentiality can present problems when presenting findings
• Findings can be more difficult and time consuming to characterize in a visual way.

PRESENTATION OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH FINDINGS

The following extracts are examples of how qualitative data might be presented:

Data From an Interview.

The following is an example of how to present and discuss a quote from an interview.

The researcher should select quotes that are poignant and/or most representative of the research findings. Including large portions of an interview in a research paper is not necessary and often tedious for the reader. The setting and speakers should be established in the text at the end of the quote.

The student describes how he had used deep learning in a dispensing module. He was able to draw on learning from a previous module, “I found that while using the e learning programme I was able to apply the knowledge and skills that I had gained in last year's diseases and goals of treatment module.” (interviewee 22, male)

This is an excerpt from an article on curriculum reform that used interviews 5 :

The first question was, “Without the accreditation mandate, how much of this curriculum reform would have been attempted?” According to respondents, accreditation played a significant role in prompting the broad-based curricular change, and their comments revealed a nuanced view. Most indicated that the change would likely have occurred even without the mandate from the accreditation process: “It reflects where the profession wants to be … training a professional who wants to take on more responsibility.” However, they also commented that “if it were not mandated, it could have been a very difficult road.” Or it “would have happened, but much later.” The change would more likely have been incremental, “evolutionary,” or far more limited in its scope. “Accreditation tipped the balance” was the way one person phrased it. “Nobody got serious until the accrediting body said it would no longer accredit programs that did not change.”

Data From Observations

The following example is some data taken from observation of pharmacist patient consultations using the Calgary Cambridge guide. 6 , 7 The data are first presented and a discussion follows:

Pharmacist: We will soon be starting a stop smoking clinic. Patient: Is the interview over now? Pharmacist: No this is part of it. (Laughs) You can't tell me to bog off (sic) yet. (pause) We will be starting a stop smoking service here, Patient: Yes. Pharmacist: with one-to-one and we will be able to help you or try to help you. If you want it. In this example, the pharmacist has picked up from the patient's reaction to the stop smoking clinic that she is not receptive to advice about giving up smoking at this time; in fact she would rather end the consultation. The pharmacist draws on his prior relationship with the patient and makes use of a joke to lighten the tone. He feels his message is important enough to persevere but he presents the information in a succinct and non-pressurised way. His final comment of “If you want it” is important as this makes it clear that he is not putting any pressure on the patient to take up this offer. This extract shows that some patient cues were picked up, and appropriately dealt with, but this was not the case in all examples.

Data From Focus Groups

This excerpt from a study involving 11 focus groups illustrates how findings are presented using representative quotes from focus group participants. 8

Those pharmacists who were initially familiar with CPD endorsed the model for their peers, and suggested it had made a meaningful difference in the way they viewed their own practice. In virtually all focus groups sessions, pharmacists familiar with and supportive of the CPD paradigm had worked in collaborative practice environments such as hospital pharmacy practice. For these pharmacists, the major advantage of CPD was the linking of workplace learning with continuous education. One pharmacist stated, “It's amazing how much I have to learn every day, when I work as a pharmacist. With [the learning portfolio] it helps to show how much learning we all do, every day. It's kind of satisfying to look it over and see how much you accomplish.” Within many of the learning portfolio-sharing sessions, debates emerged regarding the true value of traditional continuing education and its outcome in changing an individual's practice. While participants appreciated the opportunity for social and professional networking inherent in some forms of traditional CE, most eventually conceded that the academic value of most CE programming was limited by the lack of a systematic process for following-up and implementing new learning in the workplace. “Well it's nice to go to these [continuing education] events, but really, I don't know how useful they are. You go, you sit, you listen, but then, well I at least forget.”

The following is an extract from a focus group (conducted by the author) with first-year pharmacy students about community placements. It illustrates how focus groups provide a chance for participants to discuss issues on which they might disagree.

Interviewer: So you are saying that you would prefer health related placements? Student 1: Not exactly so long as I could be developing my communication skill. Student 2: Yes but I still think the more health related the placement is the more I'll gain from it. Student 3: I disagree because other people related skills are useful and you may learn those from taking part in a community project like building a garden. Interviewer: So would you prefer a mixture of health and non health related community placements?

GUIDANCE FOR PUBLISHING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research is becoming increasingly accepted and published in pharmacy and medical journals. Some journals and publishers have guidelines for presenting qualitative research, for example, the British Medical Journal 9 and Biomedcentral . 10 Medical Education published a useful series of articles on qualitative research. 11 Some of the important issues that should be considered by authors, reviewers and editors when publishing qualitative research are discussed below.

Introduction.

A good introduction provides a brief overview of the manuscript, including the research question and a statement justifying the research question and the reasons for using qualitative research methods. This section also should provide background information, including relevant literature from pharmacy, medicine, and other health professions, as well as literature from the field of education that addresses similar issues. Any specific educational or research terminology used in the manuscript should be defined in the introduction.

The methods section should clearly state and justify why the particular method, for example, face to face semistructured interviews, was chosen. The method should be outlined and illustrated with examples such as the interview questions, focusing exercises, observation criteria, etc. The criteria for selecting the study participants should then be explained and justified. The way in which the participants were recruited and by whom also must be stated. A brief explanation/description should be included of those who were invited to participate but chose not to. It is important to consider “fair dealing,” ie, whether the research design explicitly incorporates a wide range of different perspectives so that the viewpoint of 1 group is never presented as if it represents the sole truth about any situation. The process by which ethical and or research/institutional governance approval was obtained should be described and cited.

The study sample and the research setting should be described. Sampling differs between qualitative and quantitative studies. In quantitative survey studies, it is important to select probability samples so that statistics can be used to provide generalizations to the population from which the sample was drawn. Qualitative research necessitates having a small sample because of the detailed and intensive work required for the study. So sample sizes are not calculated using mathematical rules and probability statistics are not applied. Instead qualitative researchers should describe their sample in terms of characteristics and relevance to the wider population. Purposive sampling is common in qualitative research. Particular individuals are chosen with characteristics relevant to the study who are thought will be most informative. Purposive sampling also may be used to produce maximum variation within a sample. Participants being chosen based for example, on year of study, gender, place of work, etc. Representative samples also may be used, for example, 20 students from each of 6 schools of pharmacy. Convenience samples involve the researcher choosing those who are either most accessible or most willing to take part. This may be fine for exploratory studies; however, this form of sampling may be biased and unrepresentative of the population in question. Theoretical sampling uses insights gained from previous research to inform sample selection for a new study. The method for gaining informed consent from the participants should be described, as well as how anonymity and confidentiality of subjects were guaranteed. The method of recording, eg, audio or video recording, should be noted, along with procedures used for transcribing the data.

Data Analysis.

A description of how the data were analyzed also should be included. Was computer-aided qualitative data analysis software such as NVivo (QSR International, Cambridge, MA) used? Arrival at “data saturation” or the end of data collection should then be described and justified. A good rule when considering how much information to include is that readers should have been given enough information to be able to carry out similar research themselves.

One of the strengths of qualitative research is the recognition that data must always be understood in relation to the context of their production. 1 The analytical approach taken should be described in detail and theoretically justified in light of the research question. If the analysis was repeated by more than 1 researcher to ensure reliability or trustworthiness, this should be stated and methods of resolving any disagreements clearly described. Some researchers ask participants to check the data. If this was done, it should be fully discussed in the paper.

An adequate account of how the findings were produced should be included A description of how the themes and concepts were derived from the data also should be included. Was an inductive or deductive process used? The analysis should not be limited to just those issues that the researcher thinks are important, anticipated themes, but also consider issues that participants raised, ie, emergent themes. Qualitative researchers must be open regarding the data analysis and provide evidence of their thinking, for example, were alternative explanations for the data considered and dismissed, and if so, why were they dismissed? It also is important to present outlying or negative/deviant cases that did not fit with the central interpretation.

The interpretation should usually be grounded in interviewees or respondents' contributions and may be semi-quantified, if this is possible or appropriate, for example, “Half of the respondents said …” “The majority said …” “Three said…” Readers should be presented with data that enable them to “see what the researcher is talking about.” 1 Sufficient data should be presented to allow the reader to clearly see the relationship between the data and the interpretation of the data. Qualitative data conventionally are presented by using illustrative quotes. Quotes are “raw data” and should be compiled and analyzed, not just listed. There should be an explanation of how the quotes were chosen and how they are labeled. For example, have pseudonyms been given to each respondent or are the respondents identified using codes, and if so, how? It is important for the reader to be able to see that a range of participants have contributed to the data and that not all the quotes are drawn from 1 or 2 individuals. There is a tendency for authors to overuse quotes and for papers to be dominated by a series of long quotes with little analysis or discussion. This should be avoided.

Participants do not always state the truth and may say what they think the interviewer wishes to hear. A good qualitative researcher should not only examine what people say but also consider how they structured their responses and how they talked about the subject being discussed, for example, the person's emotions, tone, nonverbal communication, etc. If the research was triangulated with other qualitative or quantitative data, this should be discussed.

Discussion.

The findings should be presented in the context of any similar previous research and or theories. A discussion of the existing literature and how this present research contributes to the area should be included. A consideration must also be made about how transferrable the research would be to other settings. Any particular strengths and limitations of the research also should be discussed. It is common practice to include some discussion within the results section of qualitative research and follow with a concluding discussion.

The author also should reflect on their own influence on the data, including a consideration of how the researcher(s) may have introduced bias to the results. The researcher should critically examine their own influence on the design and development of the research, as well as on data collection and interpretation of the data, eg, were they an experienced teacher who researched teaching methods? If so, they should discuss how this might have influenced their interpretation of the results.

Conclusion.

The conclusion should summarize the main findings from the study and emphasize what the study adds to knowledge in the area being studied. Mays and Pope suggest the researcher ask the following 3 questions to determine whether the conclusions of a qualitative study are valid 12 : How well does this analysis explain why people behave in the way they do? How comprehensible would this explanation be to a thoughtful participant in the setting? How well does the explanation cohere with what we already know?

CHECKLIST FOR QUALITATIVE PAPERS

This paper establishes criteria for judging the quality of qualitative research. It provides guidance for authors and reviewers to prepare and review qualitative research papers for the American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education . A checklist is provided in Appendix 1 to assist both authors and reviewers of qualitative data.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thank you to the 3 reviewers whose ideas helped me to shape this paper.

Appendix 1. Checklist for authors and reviewers of qualitative research.

Introduction

• □ Research question is clearly stated.
• □ Research question is justified and related to the existing knowledge base (empirical research, theory, policy).
• □ Any specific research or educational terminology used later in manuscript is defined.
• □ The process by which ethical and or research/institutional governance approval was obtained is described and cited.
• □ Reason for choosing particular research method is stated.
• □ Criteria for selecting study participants are explained and justified.
• □ Recruitment methods are explicitly stated.
• □ Details of who chose not to participate and why are given.
• □ Study sample and research setting used are described.
• □ Method for gaining informed consent from the participants is described.
• □ Maintenance/Preservation of subject anonymity and confidentiality is described.
• □ Method of recording data (eg, audio or video recording) and procedures for transcribing data are described.
• □ Methods are outlined and examples given (eg, interview guide).
• □ Decision to stop data collection is described and justified.
• □ Data analysis and verification are described, including by whom they were performed.
• □ Methods for identifying/extrapolating themes and concepts from the data are discussed.
• □ Sufficient data are presented to allow a reader to assess whether or not the interpretation is supported by the data.
• □ Outlying or negative/deviant cases that do not fit with the central interpretation are presented.
• □ Transferability of research findings to other settings is discussed.
• □ Findings are presented in the context of any similar previous research and social theories.
• □ Discussion often is incorporated into the results in qualitative papers.
• □ A discussion of the existing literature and how this present research contributes to the area is included.
• □ Any particular strengths and limitations of the research are discussed.
• □ Reflection of the influence of the researcher(s) on the data, including a consideration of how the researcher(s) may have introduced bias to the results is included.

Conclusions

• □ The conclusion states the main finings of the study and emphasizes what the study adds to knowledge in the subject area.

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On time: a qualitative study of swedish students’, parents’ and teachers’ views on school attendance, with a focus on tardiness.

1. Introduction

1.1. absenteeism, 1.2. specific on tardiness, 1.3. the swedish school system, 2. materials and methods, 2.1. participants and procedures, 2.2. analysis, 2.3. research ethics.

Yes, that they are in place, at the lessons. And on breaks and lunches too, of course. So, they are in place on school days, that’s what I think. (Mother 1)

Yes, that they are on time and are here (in school) when they should be. (Mother 2)

Yes and have what they need to bring to school, like books, clothes for physical education, bags, or whatever it is. (Mother 1)

3.1. Signals

A time is usually to be held to for a reason. So if you do not show up or do not bother being on time, then you do not show respect for it. Everything I think is about consideration, respect, and cooperation. We are numerous at the school; it should work for everyone. And then slipping in when you feel like it or not showing up at all, this affects oneself first and foremost but affects others as well. You get into it, there just has to be a routine...In our family, we are useless at being on time, but…you have to try. And then there are surely families who, ‘but my goodness, come on time, it is well a worldly thing, there are worse problems in life’. But somehow, the school must uphold routines. If you don’t have a routine in school...and do not have one at home, where do you have it, if you are a youth? You have these two platforms and then perhaps a hobby. And then there must be security in this. (Mother 1)

So that you...And that you get in contact directly, so... (to the Guardian), if a student does not come to school, for example, and you have not received an illness report or any other absences, then you must call immediately, of course.

They begin arriving a little bit late from breaks, linger, don’t take things seriously, or the student left home a little bit late. And of course, it affects others too, those who are always there on time [laughter]. So, of course, that is part of the reason why we have tried to work on it.

3.2. Reactions

Some teachers, they do this... If you are a little late, you cannot get in; then, you get marked even more absent than you really were… So, you really were earlier than the report shows because the teacher didn’t let you in. And then you want to be on time. You do not want to get an unnecessarily long absence. The teachers lock the door, not just close it.

3.3. Responses

4. discussion, 4.1. signals, 4.2. reactions, 4.3. responses, 4.4. it depends on…, 4.5. methodological discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Warne, M.; Svensson, Å.; Tirén, L.; Wall, E. On Time: A Qualitative Study of Swedish Students’, Parents’ and Teachers’ Views on School Attendance, with a Focus on Tardiness. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020 , 17 , 1430. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041430

Warne M, Svensson Å, Tirén L, Wall E. On Time: A Qualitative Study of Swedish Students’, Parents’ and Teachers’ Views on School Attendance, with a Focus on Tardiness. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health . 2020; 17(4):1430. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041430

Warne, Maria, Åsa Svensson, Lina Tirén, and Erika Wall. 2020. "On Time: A Qualitative Study of Swedish Students’, Parents’ and Teachers’ Views on School Attendance, with a Focus on Tardiness" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 4: 1430. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041430

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Polish your papers with one click, avoid unintentional plagiarism, reliability vs validity | examples and differences.

Published on September 27, 2024 by Emily Heffernan, PhD .

When choosing how to measure something, you must ensure that your method is both reliable and valid . Reliability concerns how consistent a test is, and validity (or test validity) concerns its accuracy.

Reliability and validity are especially important in research areas like psychology that study constructs . A construct is a variable that cannot be directly measured, such as happiness or anxiety.

Researchers must carefully operationalize , or define how they will measure, constructs and design instruments to properly capture them. Ensuring the reliability and validity of these instruments is a necessary component of meaningful and reproducible research.

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Understanding reliability and validity, reliability vs validity in research, validity vs reliability examples, frequently asked questions about reliability vs validity.

Reliability and validity are closely related but distinct concepts.

What is reliability?

Reliability is how consistent a measure is. A test should provide the same results if it’s administered under the same circumstances using the same methods. Different types of reliability assess different ways in which a test should be consistent.

What is validity?

Validity (more specifically, test validity ) concerns the accuracy of a test or  measure—whether it actually measures the thing it’s supposed to. You provide evidence of a measure’s test validity by assessing different types of validity .

Test validity concerns the accuracy of a specific measure or test. When conducting experimental research , it is also important to consider experimental validity —whether a true cause-and-effect relationship exists between your dependent and independent variables ( internal validity ) and how well your results generalize to the real world ( external validity ).

In experimental research, you test a hypothesis by manipulating an independent variable and measuring changes in a dependent variabl e. Different forms of experimental validity concern how well-designed an experiment is. Mitigating threats to internal validity and threats to external validity can help yield results that are meaningful and reproducible.

Though reliability and validity are theoretically distinct, in practice both concepts are intertwined.

Reliability is a necessary condition of validity: a measure that is valid must also be reliable. An instrument that is properly measuring a construct of interest should yield consistent results.

However, a measure can be reliable but not valid. Consider a clock that’s set 5 minutes fast. If checked at noon every day, it will consistently read “12:05.” Though the clock yields reliable results, it is not valid: it does not accurately reflect reality.

Because reliability is a necessary condition of validity, it makes sense to evaluate the reliability of a measure before assessing its validity. In research, validity is more important but harder to measure than reliability. It is relatively straightforward to assess whether a measurement yields consistent results across different contexts, but how can you be certain a measurement of a construct like “happiness” actually measures what you want it to?

Reliability and validity should be considered throughout the research process. Validity is especially important during study design, when you are determining how to measure relevant constructs. Reliability should be considered both when designing your study and when collecting data—careful planning and consistent execution are key.

Reliability and validity are both important when conducting research. Consider the following examples of how a measure may or may not be reliable and valid.

• Reliability : This measure is not reliable—two observers might count smiles differently when observing the same meeting, leading to inconsistent results. The measure therefore lacks interrater reliability .
• Validity : Casey’s assumption that smiling signifies teamwork was incorrect. Her measure fails to capture aspects of teamwork like cooperation, communication, and collaboration. It lacks content validity , and its overall construct validity is poor.

Casey can choose a different measure in an attempt to improve the reliability and validity of her study.

• Reliability : This measure has high test-retest reliability . Provided someone has a consistent schedule, they will respond in the same manner each time they answer this question.
• Validity : Casey assesses the convergent validity of her new measure by determining the correlation between people’s responses and their teams’ performance metrics over the last quarter. There is no correlation between the two, which does not support the construct validity of this measure. The number of meetings a team has does not seem to capture how well they work as a team.

Even though the measure in the previous example is reliable, it lacks validity. Casey must try a different approach.

• Reliability : Casey ensures that her questionnaire includes clear, well-defined questions; has participants answer using well-structured Likert scales; and trains team members on how to respond objectively. This helps ensure the interrater reliability and test-retest reliability of her measure.
• Validity: Casey tests the test validity of her questionnaire using several approaches. She has an experienced manager evaluate whether her instrument addresses various aspects of teamwork to confirm content validity . She also once again compares her questionnaire results to team performance metrics and finds a high correlation between the two, indicating convergent validity . Casey also finds that questionnaire responses do not correlate with individual salaries, demonstrating divergent validity . This all provides evidence of the test validity of her questionnaire.

Psychology and other social sciences often involve the study of constructs —phenomena that cannot be directly measured—such as happiness or stress.

Because we cannot directly measure a construct, we must instead operationalize it, or define how we will approximate it using observable variables. These variables could include behaviors, survey responses, or physiological measures.

Validity is the extent to which a test or instrument actually captures the construct it’s been designed to measure. Researchers must demonstrate that their operationalization properly captures a construct by providing evidence of multiple types of validity , such as face validity , content validity , criterion validity , convergent validity , and discriminant validity .

When you find evidence of different types of validity for an instrument, you’re proving its construct validity —you can be fairly confident it’s measuring the thing it’s supposed to.

In short, validity helps researchers ensure that they’re measuring what they intended to, which is especially important when studying constructs that cannot be directly measured and instead must be operationally defined.

A construct is a phenomenon that cannot be directly measured, such as intelligence, anxiety, or happiness. Researchers must instead approximate constructs using related, measurable variables.

The process of defining how a construct will be measured is called operationalization. Constructs are common in psychology and other social sciences.

To evaluate how well a construct measures what it’s supposed to, researchers determine construct validity . Face validity , content validity , criterion validity , convergent validity , and discriminant validity all provide evidence of construct validity.

Test validity refers to whether a test or measure actually measures the thing it’s supposed to. Construct validity is considered the overarching concern of test validity; other types of validity provide evidence of construct validity and thus the overall test validity of a measure.

Experimental validity concerns whether a true cause-and-effect relationship exists in an experimental design ( internal validity ) and how well findings generalize to the real world ( external validity and ecological validity ).

Verifying that an experiment has both test and experimental validity is imperative to ensuring meaningful and generalizable results.

An experiment is a study that attempts to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables.

In experimental design , the researcher first forms a hypothesis . They then test this hypothesis by manipulating an independent variable while controlling for potential confounds that could influence results. Changes in the dependent variable are recorded, and data are analyzed to determine if the results support the hypothesis.

Nonexperimental research does not involve the manipulation of an independent variable. Nonexperimental studies therefore cannot establish a cause-and-effect relationship. Nonexperimental studies include correlational designs and observational research.

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Patients’ reasons for consulting a general practitioner at the time of having dental problems: a qualitative study

• Raziyehsadat Rezvaninejad 1 ,
• Maryam Alsadat Hashemipour 2 , 3 ,
• Mina Mirzaei 2 , 3 &
• Haleh Rajaeinia 4  

BMC Oral Health volume  24 , Article number:  1130 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Introduction

Many patients consult general practitioners instead of dentists for their oral and dental problems every year. This study aims to find the reasons why patients consult general practitioners when they have dental problems.

The sample consisted of patients visiting dentists and general practitioners in Kerman, Iran. A thematic interview guide, semi-structured questions, and a mind map that allowed for structured and open-ended questions were prepared and used for the interviews. All interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim by a final-year student. Data collection, transcription, and analysis were conducted simultaneously to allow for new topics to be raised and theoretical saturation to be reached. When researchers determined that sufficient information was available for analysis and understanding of patient opinions and beliefs, the interview process was stopped. As all audio conversations were recorded with the participant’s permission, no note-taking was done during the interviews, which allowed for greater focus on the participants’ conversation. The obtained data was analyzed using the content analysis.

A total of 52 patients were included in this study. The codes related to patients participating in this research, along with the number of respondent groups related to each code were as follows: patient’s perceptions of general practitioner(GP) and dental practitioner’s scope of work [ 21 ], flawed dental system (34), dental anxiety [ 28 ], financial considerations [ 25 ], and more accessibility to GPs (31). Dental abscesses and dental pain were reported as the most common reasons for consulting GPs.

Most participants agreed that dental problems are more effectively treated by dentists. Reasons for visiting a general practitioner included lack of a specific dentist, dissatisfaction with dental treatments, lack of a dentist nearby, absence of emergency dental care, and familiarity with a physician. The most common reasons for visits were toothache and dental abscesses. Patients also sought treatment for TMJ pain, referred nerve pain, wisdom tooth pain, numbness and tingling in the jaw, gum inflammation, oral lesions, and ulcers. Furthermore, other factors such as opening hours, appointment systems and waiting time can also affect patient’s consult behaviors regarding dental problems.

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Although a large number of patients consult a dentist when they have dental problems, other patients consult a general practitioner. Nearly 380,000 visits are made to general practitioners per year due to dental problems in the United Kingdom [ 1 ]. The overall rate of consultations related to dental issues with general practitioners in the UK has decreased between 2008 and 2013. However, reported statistics vary widely. For example, in some practices, as many as 8.29 dental consultations per 1,000 patients have been reported [ 2 , 3 ].

This may be due to issues with access to dental services, the patient’s perception of the scope of practice of physicians and dentists, poorly differentiated pain, the need for antibiotics, or financial concerns about the cost of dental treatment [ 2 , 3 ]. Evidence-based guidelines for the management of acute dental conditions recommend that patients (except those with critical conditions) be referred to dentists who have the skills and resources necessary to stabilize conditions and prevent the worsening of patient status. In many cases, acute dental conditions require dental surgical treatments such as extractions or root canal treatments. It seems unlikely that general practitioners have the necessary skills or tools to diagnose and treat such cases, which can justify the high rate of prescribing antibiotics for dental problems. Since in most cases prescribing antibiotics for acute dental problems rarely leads to a definitive cure, the use of antibiotics in these consultations has become a concern. There are also direct, indirect, and opportunity costs associated with dental consultations those are imposed on general practitioners [ 4 ].

Most dental problems cannot be managed entirely by physicians [ 4 ], but unfortunately, general practitioners who lack the knowledge, specialized skills, and necessary facilities to perform appropriate treatment still visit such patients. Systemic antibiotic prescribing for those consulting general practitioners regarding dental problems is more likely than those who visit dentists. Antibiotics have no clinical benefit for many acute dental diseases [ 5 ], and their indiscriminate use could lead to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains and harmful side effects [ 6 ].

The use of general practitioners for dental problems is usually ineffective and insufficient, making it a waste of resources. Patients rarely receive the best care for their dental condition, which can lead to concern about the worsening of their condition due to untreated dental problems and increase the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains from improper antibiotic prescribing. The reasons for patients consulting with general practitioners regarding dental problems are not only influenced by the symptoms of the disease and the difference between dentist and general practitioner consultations in terms of access and scheduling convenience but also by background factors such as previous experiences with dental visits and patients’ perceptions of the scope of practice of physicians [ 1 ].

Evidence has been discussed for decades on the relationship between oral and dental health and systemic diseases, especially the interactions between periodontitis or remaining teeth and chronic and non-communicable diseases (diabetes, coronary heart disease, atherosclerosis, and dementia) [ 5 , 6 , 7 ]. Collaborating between general practitioners and dentists is crucial for providing high-quality health services to patients. Recently, it was reported that the convenience of scheduling a visit and its availability can be effective in choosing a general practitioner for dental symptoms. In a study of patients referred to the maxillofacial surgery department in the UK, 26% of patients referred by their treating physician believed that the cost of visiting a dentist instead of a physician was effective in choosing a treating physician for dental and jaw problems. Although the findings of this study may not be generalized to a larger population of patients with dental problems who visit general practitioners, only a small proportion of these patients are referred to another physician [ 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ]. Therefore, this study aims to find out the reasons why patients consult with a general practitioner for dental or gum problems.

The sample population was comprised of patients who went to dentists and general practitioners in Kerman. In this comprehensive study, both individual and group interviews were conducted with several patients in Kerman. Focus groups and individual interviews are both excellent means of collecting data and information to support monitoring and evaluation work. Both collect qualitative information directly from participants and should provide detailed and rich data. A Focus Group is a structured discussion group, which aims to gather critical information about beneficiaries. A focus group is a small, but representative, sample of people who are asked about their opinions on a particular topic. The responses are then used to generate insights and understanding about that topic. The Focus groups can be an effective way to gather information because they provide a forum for open discussion and allow for the exploration of different viewpoints. They also offer the opportunity to build rapport and relationships with participants [ 11 , 12 ].

Before the interviews, verbal consent was obtained from the patients, and those who were willing to participate were included in the study. A purposive sample with maximum diversity was used to ensure diversity in occupation, gender, and age. All participants volunteered and participated without compensation, and were informed of their right to withdraw from the study without giving a reason until the publication of the study.

Semi-structured individual interviews were conducted in locations requested by the patients. The interviews were conducted by an experienced interviewer (a final-year student who had been trained by the oral medicine professor). A thematic interview guide, semi-structured questions, and a mind map that allowed for structured and open-ended questions were prepared and used for the interviews [ 11 , 12 ].

All interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim by a final-year student (female). After each interview, field notes were reviewed and reminders were documented. Field notes consisting the context of the conversation, how the information was presented by the patients, the interview atmosphere, and reactions during the interview. Transcripts were compared with recordings and adjusted if necessary [ 11 , 12 ].

The timing and schedule for participants were not uniform, and because each participant may have had different ethical and behavioral characteristics, some conversations may not have required further questioning during the interview, while others may have prompted more questions from the interviewer. The interviews were conducted informally to allow for more detailed and nuanced opinions and discussions by the participants [ 11 , 12 ].

Data collection, transcription, and analysis were conducted simultaneously to allow for new topics to be raised and theoretical saturation to be reached. Theoretical saturation refers to when no new interviews add additional information required for a specific topic. When researchers determined that sufficient information was available for analysis and understanding of patient opinions and beliefs, the interview process was stopped [ 11 , 12 ].

Immediately after the first interview, individuals’ opinions were reviewed and coded separately by a researcher and continued until data saturation was reached (Fig.  1 ). Additionally, to increase the scientific accuracy and validity of the study, the cod es obtained from each interview were given back to the participants to ensure that the researchers’ interpretation of their opinions was accurate.

Saturation of data was reached after conducting six focus groups

Furthermore, individuals were allowed to fully express their opinions, experiences, and perspectives in this area, and their experiences and attitudes were evaluated (face-to-face). As all audio conversations were recorded with the participant’s permission, no note-taking was done during the interviews, which allowed for greater focus on the participants’ conversation [ 11 , 12 ].

Also, the following methods were used to minimize bias: start with building a diverse shortlist, standardize our interview process, make records of the interviews, involve multiple people in the interview process, and acknowledge bias in virtual interviews.

Data was analyzed using content analysis, and the analyzed data was classified and the number of respondents for each category was determined.

This study included 52 patients, all of whom participated in focus group interviews. There were 38 female and 14 male patients, with a mean age of 27.32 ± 1.4 years. All interviews were conducted in a private space and lasted between 20 and 30 min (Mean ± SD = 24.12 ± 4.78). Also, there was no repetition of interviews. Table  1 .

The codes related to participating patients in this study, along with the number of respondent groups for each code, was as follows:

Lack of understanding of the scope of work of physicians (21 codes).

Problems in the patient admission system in dentistry (34 codes).

Anxiety and fear of dentistry (28 codes).

Expensive dental services and inability to pay for dental expenses (25 codes).

Easier access to physicians (31 codes).

Dissatisfaction with previous dental care (17 codes).

Willingness and ability to pay for dental care (21codes).

Patients’ understanding of their symptoms and the scope of medical practice

A great number of participants (39 individuals) agreed that dental problems are more effectively treated by dentists. However, some (13 individuals) had doubts about who was the most appropriate person to consult for gum or other oral problems. For example, some of the patients went to ear, nose, and throat specialists, surgery, or even cosmetic dentistry for this purpose. Some participants (12 individuals) expressed a border between the situations treated by general practitioners and those requiring a dentist. Additionally, some (15 individuals) believed that general practitioners should treat oral problems such as jaw pain or gum sores, while dentists focus on teeth. In this regard, some patients reported reasons such as unusual pain or symptoms that did not match dental problems to justify their choice.

Some patients stated that general practitioners can easily treat dental problems caused by the infection. Additionally, a few participants were unaware that their condition was dental-related until they consulted a general practitioner.

Patients’ statements

“I didn’t have any toothache at all. My problem started with facial swelling. Then I had swelling under my jaw. I should see a general practitioner.”

“One of my relatives was a physician. I explained my problem over the phone and the infection was resolved with medication.”

Problems in the dental system

Some patients (34 individuals) visited a general practitioner for reasons such as not having a specific dentist, dissatisfaction with dental treatments, not having a dentist near their place of residence, no emergency dental care, and familiarity with general practitioners.

Waiting in line for a dental appointment was a common reason for visiting a general practitioner. Among participants who were unable to access a dentist, only a few attempted to go to emergency dental care. From the patients’ point of view, the timing of appointments with general practitioners was much wider than that of dentists. For a patient who has their own business, being able to access a dentist only during working hours means incurring financial losses. Additionally, another reason for visiting a general practitioner was the proximity and stronger relationship between patients and their general practitioner.

“Emergency dental care is not near our place of residence. Besides, students usually work in emergencies. At least there is a physician in clinics.”

“I tried several times to schedule an appointment with a dentist, but they told that it takes several days to get an appointment with a dentist. So, I decided to see a general practitioner.”

Dental anxiety

More than half of the patients (28 individuals) reported fear of dentistry or unpleasant experiences from previous dental treatments. This issue has contributed to non-participation in regular dental care over many years. In five cases, fear of dentistry was the main reason for patients to visit a general practitioner instead of a dentist. Some patients reported not having access to their dentist or not being given an appointment by their dentist as reasons for fear of visiting other dentists and visiting general practitioners instead.

“Instead of enduring dental stress, a toothache can be relieved with painkillers and antibiotics.”

Patient dissatisfaction with previous dental treatments

Patient dissatisfaction with prior dental care was notably evident in the patients’ statements, revealing a sequence of events that led them to seek treatment from a general practitioner. It seems that experiences in the first few dental visits are crucial, and dissatisfaction during these meetings more often leads to a reluctance to return for further treatments. Failures in dental treatments, unsightly dental restorations, and post-surgical complications all contribute to this feeling. Undertaking unnecessary treatments, the lack of a clear treatment plan, and prolonged waiting times despite severe dental pain were also the other reasons for consulting a general practitioner.

Other reasons included missing appointments or changing addresses, which made these individuals feel abandoned by their previously trusted dentists and unsure about where to seek dental care.

Inability to Afford Dental expenses

The inability to afford dental expenses was a significant reason for patients to consult a general practitioner. The extent of patients’ demand for treatment may be influenced by their values and willingness to pay for dental care. Some patients reported that they did not any visit a dentist due to unpaid bills from previous treatments and, therefore, consulted a general practitioner.

Patient statements

“If I have a dental problem at the end of the month, I always consult a general practitioner because I can’t afford the cost.”

“If I visit a dentist, I have to pay at least half the cost, and I don’t have a definite plan for dental maintenance. That’s why I turned to a general practitioner so I can decide later.”

“I don’t have the necessary funds for dental treatments.”

This study verifies and examines the reasons for patients consult general practitioners when experiencing dental problems. The obtained findings reveal that lack of individual understanding of the scope of medical professionals, issues within the dental care system, fear and anxiety about dentistry, inability to afford dental expenses, easier access to physicians, patients’ previous experiences with dental care, and dissatisfaction with prior treatments are among the reasons for these consultations.

A study conducted in the United Kingdom revealed that between 30 and 48 patients with dental problems consult regular general practitioners out of 7,000 registered patients annually [ 3 ]. In Australia, general practitioners manage and control oral problems in approximately 19.1 out of 100 individuals [ 3 ].

A research work by Verma et al. (67) revealed that 94% of patients with dental issues visited the emergency department of Royal Hobart Hospital, which is similar to statistics reported in other hospital emergency departments (1.8-3%) [ 8 , 9 ].

The findings by Cope et al. [ 3 ] are similar to another study that shows that although the presence of patients with dental issues in general practitioner offices is relatively low, they receive various treatments [ 1 ]. Consultations and the need for dental problem treatment may be less frequent than other infections, but it still poses a dilemma for some general practitioners [ 1 , 3 ].

Dental problems sometimes manifest with atypical features such as acute sinusitis [ 10 ] or orbital and auricular symptoms [ 11 ]. Recent research has recognized referred pains or pains that are difficult to distinguish as one of the reasons why patients consult general practitioners instead of dentists during dental problems [ 12 ]. However, it is currently not possible to estimate the ratio of patients who are influenced by misconceptions about their condition compared to those who are aware that their problem is related to their teeth or gums [ 13 ].

According to the study by Cope et al. [ 14 ], some patients believe that physicians receive more extensive training for managing facial and jaw problems than dentists. This perspective may be more common, especially in individuals who consult general practitioners with jaw or dental problems. This aligns with the findings of a study conducted in the United States, where 21% of participants who consulted a physician for dental pain believed that the physician could treat them [ 15 ].

In the study conducted by Cope et al. [ 12 ], the choice of oral health care provider for dental problems was influenced by patient characteristics, such as their understanding of the scope of practice and their willingness and ability to pay for dental care, as well as the characteristics of the healthcare providers. This study is in line with Levesque et al. [ 16 ], who proposed a framework in which access to healthcare is the result of dynamic interaction between the healthcare system and the population they serve. One of the main reasons participants without a specific dentist chose to consult a general practitioner was the lack of timely access to dental care.

Another reason for patients seeking general practitioners was anxiety and fear of dental procedures, which is consistent with the research by Cope et al. [ 12 ] and Levesque et al. [ 16 ]. Dental anxiety is a well-known significant factor affecting access to dental care and is a significant barrier that leads patients to consult general practitioners instead of dentists.

This study revealed that participants sought a general practitioner because of their inability or unwillingness to pay for dental care expenses. The cost of dental treatment had been described previously as a barrier to accessing dental care and a factor that might drive patients toward general practitioners. Reluctance to pay was also recognized as a known barrier to access.

In a study conducted in Wales, UK in 2015, the prescription of antibiotics for managing dental problems significantly varied among samples. Some general practitioners reported that they might not prescribe antibiotics for all patients with dental problems, but most patients receive antibiotics. In comparison, other general practitioners were highly resistant to prescribing antibiotics and only provided pain relief medications or advised patients to consult a dentist [ 14 ].

In the research conducted by Cope et al. [ 14 ], most general practitioners expressed that they have limited or no formal education in diagnosing and managing dental conditions. Therefore, most of their dental knowledge is informally gained through socializing with friends who are dentists, occasionally working alongside dentists to acquire knowledge, or sometimes being patients of dentists themselves, which helps them acquire knowledge. One problem with this type of learning is that it can lead to confusion among general practitioners when they receive mixed information about managing dental problems, especially regarding the use of antibiotics.

In the study by Cope and colleagues [ 14 ], a general practitioner expressed that the rate of antibiotic prescription for dental problems had decreased since the improvement in access to local emergency dental services. This means that doctors can guide patients to places with better dental care and have less commitment to making efforts and managing conditions.

In the research work by Cope et al. [ 14 ], one general practitioner similarly stated that antibiotic prescriptions for dental problems have decreased since access to local emergency dental services has improved. This means that doctors can refer patients to a place with better care and feel less of an obligation to try and manage the condition. In Cope et al. research [ 14 ], many doctors, especially those who did not routinely prescribe antibiotics for dental problems rejected the patient’s request for antibiotics; which caused patient dissatisfaction.

In Cope et al. [ 17 ] study, more than half of the treatments led to antibiotic prescriptions for dental problems. The widespread prescription of antibiotics for dental problems is concerning. Antibiotics may not resolve the issue in the long term, and they may interact with other medications and create antibiotic resistance. Furthermore, evidence suggests that prescribing antibiotics for dental problems may encourage future visits to general practitioners and reinforce the incorrect behavior of patients not seeking dental care for dental issues.

A study by Verma and colleagues [ 7 ] showed that the management of dental caries and infections primarily occurs through drugs such as pain relievers and antibiotics, which can be ineffective and, at best, provide short-term relief without addressing the patient’s need for definitive treatment by a dentist. Despite the increase in awareness of the importance of surgical treatments for managing dental problems among doctors, general practitioners are still considered unsuitable professionals for controlling dental problems. Therefore, there is a need for more effort to encourage people to seek appropriate dental care when they have dental problems, possibly through proper awareness by dental care providers or campaigns to educate people about healthcare professionals in this field for addressing dental issues.

In this study, the number of visits ranged from 1 to 20 per month, with most cases occurring during the night. The reported sequence by general practitioners for dental consultations varies. While some general practitioners visit patients with dental problems weekly, others report that dental consultations during their practice are much less frequent.

In the Cope et al. study [ 14 ], the reported number of dental consultations varied from once a week to once every few months. While some doctors stated that the number of dental consultations remains relatively stable, other doctors stated that the number of patients presenting with dental problems increases or decreases during their time in the office. The reduction in these referrals is related to improved access to dentistry or patient awareness of where they can access appropriate dental care.

Attitudes towards the management of dental problems can be much different. In the study by Cope et al. [ 14 ], some doctors stated that some of their colleagues stubbornly refuse to visit patients with dental problems, although they always do so with good manners. In comparison, general practitioners who strongly opposed the management of dental problems in medical practice expressed different degrees of consternation than those who willingly treated such patients. The doctors explained that in their experience, this will lead to an increase in the probability of patients coming back during the next period of toothache.

Despite the general negative attitude towards dental problems in medical practice, general practitioners sympathize with patients who experience dental problems. Doctors are aware of the debilitating effects of toothache as well as the complexities of accessing emergency dental services. This issue shows that many of the contradictions shown by general practitioners towards dental consultations are related to system defects that lead to insufficient access to emergency dental care. The exception in this case were the patients who were thought to do this to avoid the costs of dental services [ 14 ].

The attitude of general practitioners towards dental consultations is influenced by the burden and pressure of dental problems, the general pressure of the workload of medicine, and the perceptions of the patient’s motivation to request care. Cost concerns may be the main reason for avoiding dental care [ 7 ].

In the Cheng et al. study [ 18 ], problems related to oral and dental mucosa were reported as the most common problems. These findings are consistent with a study conducted by physicians in Ontario, Canada [ 19 ]. This study identified dental problems and supporting structures, hard tissue diseases, and soft tissue diseases of the mouth, except for gum and tongue lesions, as the most common oral conditions visited by physicians.

In Cope et al.‘s study [ 3 ], women visited more than men, which is similar to findings from other articles [ 19 , 20 , 21 ]. The highest number of visits was for the age group of 20 to 29 years, and the reason was due to problems related to wisdom teeth and toothache.

In the study by Verma et al. [ 17 ], most patients were male. In South Korea and Ohio, 7.62% and 59% of emergency department visits were made by men, respectively [ 10 , 20 ].

In the investigation by Verma et al. [ 7 ] it was revealed that despite the wide age range of emergency department patients at Royal Hobart Hospital (from 0 to 88 years), the majority of patients are under 30 years old. 68% of patients visit the hospital during non-working hours when general dentists may not be available, which can lead to the need for dental services to be provided at Hobart Hospital during non-working hours.

Cheng et al. study [ 22 ] showed that the rate of individuals aged 70 and above visiting general practitioners for dental problems is significantly lower than those aged 54 and younger. These findings are consistent with the National Dental Health Survey of Australian adults in 2017–2018, which reported a decreasing trend in delaying or avoiding dental care due to cost in older age groups [ 23 ].

In Bell et al. study [ 5 ], the majority of patients preferred to consult with a medical practitioner rather than a dentist for non-dental jaw and facial problems. This result is similar to a survey of patients attending a rapid access clinic for suspected cancer cases, where 59% of patients presented to their general practitioner with a complaint of oral problems [ 24 ]. Another study on patient preference for oral ulcer therapy showed that 69% of patients preferred to consult with a general practitioner rather than a dentist for specific dental problems [ 25 ]. The results of the Bell et al. study [ 5 ] suggest that most patients perceive medical practitioners to have more training and therefore greater ability to deal with non-dental jaw and facial complaints. Additionally, most patients reported that their general practitioner is more accessible than their dentist.

In the Anderson et al. study [ 1 ], dental problems were seen in 44% of visits to dental clinics or 0.13% of all visits. However, nearly one-fifth of these visits were for non-dental problems that were also presented to family physicians. Many patients may also visit their physician without realizing that their symptoms have a dental origin. Although the presence of patients in general practitioner clinics is often seen as a major problem, this study found that only 0.3% of visits were for oral and dental health problems.

Similarly, the Office of Population Censuses and Surveys/Royal College of General Practitioners study showed a low prevalence of oral and dental problems among family physician patients (185 consultations per 10,000 people) [ 26 ]. In Anderson et al.‘s study [ 1 ], patients with dental problems were generally in the age groups of 0–4 years and 16–44 years. A disproportionate number of weekend visits were shown for dental problems compared to all visits. Patients who met with their general practitioner more regularly had a stronger relationship with them and were therefore more likely to request help from them than from a dentist, with whom they have less frequent contact.

It was revealed by Bell et al. [ 5 ] that most participants find medical practitioners more accessible than dentists when scheduling appointments. This suggests that factors such as working hours, appointment systems, and waiting times can influence a patient’s decision to seek advice for dental problems [ 27 , 28 ]. The direct cost associated with dental treatments can be an effective factor in choosing a healthcare provider.

Since there is no single reason why patients with dental problems visit their general practitioner, it seems that there will be no single solution to ensure that patients seek the most professional individuals capable of managing their dental conditions. However, there is a need to overcome barriers that prevent access to dental care. It may also be necessary to take action to increase access to emergency dental care for patients who do not have a specific dentist and to ensure that dentists have timely access to emergency care for their patients so that they do not have to wait long periods during which they may seek care from a general practitioner. These findings also indicate a need for information on where to seek care for oral diseases, especially the role that dentists can play in managing non-dental oral problems. This information should be tailored to reflect local dental service providers along with treatment costs. General practice teams should also be able to guide patients with dental problems to local emergency dental services or other care resources if necessary. The limitations of this study were non-cooperation of some patients and the lengthening of several interviews.

Most participants agreed that dental problems are more effectively treated by dentists, because of the lack of a specific dentist, dissatisfaction with dental treatments, lack of a dentist nearby, absence of emergency dental care, and familiarity with a family physician. The most common reasons for visits were toothache and dental abscesses. Patients also sought treatment for TMJ pain, referred nerve pain, wisdom tooth pain, numbness and tingling in the jaw, gum inflammation, oral lesions, and ulcers. Furthermore, other factors such as opening hours, appointment systems and waiting time can also effects on patient’s consult behaviors regarding dental problems.

Mention specific recommendations for future research

This in turn should facilitate the design of interventions to reduce consultation rates for dental problems in general medical practice in Iran. This could be approached using qualitative methods, in order to capture the richness and complexity of influences on patients’ care-seeking behavior. Alternatively, a cross-sectional design could be employed, in which dominant influences on consultation behavior are quantified amongst a representative sample of the Iranian population who have sought care from a general medical practitioner for a dental problem. There is therefore a need for further high-quality studies exploring the reasons why patients in Iran may seek care from a general medical practitioner general medical practitioner when experiencing dental problems.

Data availability

Availability of data and materials: The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Vice Deputy of Research at Kerman University of Medical Sciences for their financial support (Reg. No. 401000594). This project was approved by the Ethics Committee of the university with the code IR.KMU.REC.1401.477.

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Raziyehsadat Rezvaninejad

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Maryam Alsadat Hashemipour & Mina Mirzaei

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Raziyehsadat Rezvaninejad: wrote the main manuscript text Maryam Alsadat Hashemipour: wrote the main manuscript text Mina Mirzaei : data collectionHaleh Rajaeinia: data collection.

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The study was approved by the ethics committee of Kerman University of Medical Sciences by the research deputy of Kerman University of Medical Sciences. A statement to confirm that all experimental protocols were approved by the research deputy of Kerman University of Medical Sciences. Informed verbal consent was obtained from the participants for examinations and participation in the study following the provision of the needed explanations by the research deputy of Kerman University of Medical Sciences. All the information on the subjects will remain confidential. The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Vice Deputy of Research at Kerman University of Medical Sciences for their financial support (Reg. No. 401000594). This project was approved by the Ethics Committee of the university with the code IR.KMU.REC.1401.477. All experiments were performed according to relevant guidelines and regulations.

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Coreq (consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research) checklist: 32-item checklist.

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Tong A, Sainsbury P, Craig J. Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ): a 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups. International Journal for Quality in Health Care. 2007. Volume 19, Number 6: pp. 349–357. (Ref:26)

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Rezvaninejad, R., Hashemipour, M.A., Mirzaei, M. et al. Patients’ reasons for consulting a general practitioner at the time of having dental problems: a qualitative study. BMC Oral Health 24 , 1130 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12903-024-04899-y

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Received : 06 February 2024

Accepted : 11 September 2024

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12903-024-04899-y

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