qualitative research paper example for students

Sample articles

Qualitative psychology ®.

• Recommendations for Designing and Reviewing Qualitative Research in Psychology: Promoting Methodological Integrity (PDF, 166KB) February 2017 by Heidi M. Levitt, Sue L. Motulsky, Fredrick J. Wertz, Susan L. Morrow, and Joseph G. Ponterotto
• Racial Microaggression Experiences and Coping Strategies of Black Women in Corporate Leadership (PDF, 132KB) August 2015 by Aisha M. B. Holder, Margo A. Jackson, and Joseph G. Ponterotto
• The Lived Experience of Homeless Youth: A Narrative Approach (PDF, 109KB) February 2015 by Erin E. Toolis and Phillip L. Hammack
• Lifetime Activism, Marginality, and Psychology: Narratives of Lifelong Feminist Activists Committed to Social Change (PDF, 93KB) August 2014 by Anjali Dutt and Shelly Grabe
• Qualitative Inquiry in the History of Psychology (PDF, 82KB) February 2014 by Frederick J. Wertz

More About this Journal

• Qualitative Psychology
• Pricing and subscription info
• Special section proposal guidelines
• Special sections
• Call for articles: Methodological Retrospectives

Contact Journals

Chapter 1. Introduction

“Science is in danger, and for that reason it is becoming dangerous” -Pierre Bourdieu, Science of Science and Reflexivity

Why an Open Access Textbook on Qualitative Research Methods?

I have been teaching qualitative research methods to both undergraduates and graduate students for many years.  Although there are some excellent textbooks out there, they are often costly, and none of them, to my mind, properly introduces qualitative research methods to the beginning student (whether undergraduate or graduate student).  In contrast, this open-access textbook is designed as a (free) true introduction to the subject, with helpful, practical pointers on how to conduct research and how to access more advanced instruction.  

Textbooks are typically arranged in one of two ways: (1) by technique (each chapter covers one method used in qualitative research); or (2) by process (chapters advance from research design through publication).  But both of these approaches are necessary for the beginner student.  This textbook will have sections dedicated to the process as well as the techniques of qualitative research.  This is a true “comprehensive” book for the beginning student.  In addition to covering techniques of data collection and data analysis, it provides a road map of how to get started and how to keep going and where to go for advanced instruction.  It covers aspects of research design and research communication as well as methods employed.  Along the way, it includes examples from many different disciplines in the social sciences.

The primary goal has been to create a useful, accessible, engaging textbook for use across many disciplines.  And, let’s face it.  Textbooks can be boring.  I hope readers find this to be a little different.  I have tried to write in a practical and forthright manner, with many lively examples and references to good and intellectually creative qualitative research.  Woven throughout the text are short textual asides (in colored textboxes) by professional (academic) qualitative researchers in various disciplines.  These short accounts by practitioners should help inspire students.  So, let’s begin!

What is Research?

When we use the word research , what exactly do we mean by that?  This is one of those words that everyone thinks they understand, but it is worth beginning this textbook with a short explanation.  We use the term to refer to “empirical research,” which is actually a historically specific approach to understanding the world around us.  Think about how you know things about the world. [1] You might know your mother loves you because she’s told you she does.  Or because that is what “mothers” do by tradition.  Or you might know because you’ve looked for evidence that she does, like taking care of you when you are sick or reading to you in bed or working two jobs so you can have the things you need to do OK in life.  Maybe it seems churlish to look for evidence; you just take it “on faith” that you are loved.

Only one of the above comes close to what we mean by research.  Empirical research is research (investigation) based on evidence.  Conclusions can then be drawn from observable data.  This observable data can also be “tested” or checked.  If the data cannot be tested, that is a good indication that we are not doing research.  Note that we can never “prove” conclusively, through observable data, that our mothers love us.  We might have some “disconfirming evidence” (that time she didn’t show up to your graduation, for example) that could push you to question an original hypothesis , but no amount of “confirming evidence” will ever allow us to say with 100% certainty, “my mother loves me.”  Faith and tradition and authority work differently.  Our knowledge can be 100% certain using each of those alternative methods of knowledge, but our certainty in those cases will not be based on facts or evidence.

For many periods of history, those in power have been nervous about “science” because it uses evidence and facts as the primary source of understanding the world, and facts can be at odds with what power or authority or tradition want you to believe.  That is why I say that scientific empirical research is a historically specific approach to understand the world.  You are in college or university now partly to learn how to engage in this historically specific approach.

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in Europe, there was a newfound respect for empirical research, some of which was seriously challenging to the established church.  Using observations and testing them, scientists found that the earth was not at the center of the universe, for example, but rather that it was but one planet of many which circled the sun. [2]   For the next two centuries, the science of astronomy, physics, biology, and chemistry emerged and became disciplines taught in universities.  All used the scientific method of observation and testing to advance knowledge.  Knowledge about people , however, and social institutions, however, was still left to faith, tradition, and authority.  Historians and philosophers and poets wrote about the human condition, but none of them used research to do so. [3]

It was not until the nineteenth century that “social science” really emerged, using the scientific method (empirical observation) to understand people and social institutions.  New fields of sociology, economics, political science, and anthropology emerged.  The first sociologists, people like Auguste Comte and Karl Marx, sought specifically to apply the scientific method of research to understand society, Engels famously claiming that Marx had done for the social world what Darwin did for the natural world, tracings its laws of development.  Today we tend to take for granted the naturalness of science here, but it is actually a pretty recent and radical development.

To return to the question, “does your mother love you?”  Well, this is actually not really how a researcher would frame the question, as it is too specific to your case.  It doesn’t tell us much about the world at large, even if it does tell us something about you and your relationship with your mother.  A social science researcher might ask, “do mothers love their children?”  Or maybe they would be more interested in how this loving relationship might change over time (e.g., “do mothers love their children more now than they did in the 18th century when so many children died before reaching adulthood?”) or perhaps they might be interested in measuring quality of love across cultures or time periods, or even establishing “what love looks like” using the mother/child relationship as a site of exploration.  All of these make good research questions because we can use observable data to answer them.

What is Qualitative Research?

“All we know is how to learn. How to study, how to listen, how to talk, how to tell.  If we don’t tell the world, we don’t know the world.  We’re lost in it, we die.” -Ursula LeGuin, The Telling

At its simplest, qualitative research is research about the social world that does not use numbers in its analyses.  All those who fear statistics can breathe a sigh of relief – there are no mathematical formulae or regression models in this book! But this definition is less about what qualitative research can be and more about what it is not.  To be honest, any simple statement will fail to capture the power and depth of qualitative research.  One way of contrasting qualitative research to quantitative research is to note that the focus of qualitative research is less about explaining and predicting relationships between variables and more about understanding the social world.  To use our mother love example, the question about “what love looks like” is a good question for the qualitative researcher while all questions measuring love or comparing incidences of love (both of which require measurement) are good questions for quantitative researchers. Patton writes,

Qualitative data describe.  They take us, as readers, into the time and place of the observation so that we know what it was like to have been there.  They capture and communicate someone else’s experience of the world in his or her own words.  Qualitative data tell a story. ( Patton 2002:47 )

Qualitative researchers are asking different questions about the world than their quantitative colleagues.  Even when researchers are employed in “mixed methods” research ( both quantitative and qualitative), they are using different methods to address different questions of the study.  I do a lot of research about first-generation and working-college college students.  Where a quantitative researcher might ask, how many first-generation college students graduate from college within four years? Or does first-generation college status predict high student debt loads?  A qualitative researcher might ask, how does the college experience differ for first-generation college students?  What is it like to carry a lot of debt, and how does this impact the ability to complete college on time?  Both sets of questions are important, but they can only be answered using specific tools tailored to those questions.  For the former, you need large numbers to make adequate comparisons.  For the latter, you need to talk to people, find out what they are thinking and feeling, and try to inhabit their shoes for a little while so you can make sense of their experiences and beliefs.

Examples of Qualitative Research

You have probably seen examples of qualitative research before, but you might not have paid particular attention to how they were produced or realized that the accounts you were reading were the result of hours, months, even years of research “in the field.”  A good qualitative researcher will present the product of their hours of work in such a way that it seems natural, even obvious, to the reader.  Because we are trying to convey what it is like answers, qualitative research is often presented as stories – stories about how people live their lives, go to work, raise their children, interact with one another.  In some ways, this can seem like reading particularly insightful novels.  But, unlike novels, there are very specific rules and guidelines that qualitative researchers follow to ensure that the “story” they are telling is accurate , a truthful rendition of what life is like for the people being studied.  Most of this textbook will be spent conveying those rules and guidelines.  Let’s take a look, first, however, at three examples of what the end product looks like.  I have chosen these three examples to showcase very different approaches to qualitative research, and I will return to these five examples throughout the book.  They were all published as whole books (not chapters or articles), and they are worth the long read, if you have the time.  I will also provide some information on how these books came to be and the length of time it takes to get them into book version.  It is important you know about this process, and the rest of this textbook will help explain why it takes so long to conduct good qualitative research!

Example 1 : The End Game (ethnography + interviews)

Corey Abramson is a sociologist who teaches at the University of Arizona.   In 2015 he published The End Game: How Inequality Shapes our Final Years ( 2015 ). This book was based on the research he did for his dissertation at the University of California-Berkeley in 2012.  Actually, the dissertation was completed in 2012 but the work that was produced that took several years.  The dissertation was entitled, “This is How We Live, This is How We Die: Social Stratification, Aging, and Health in Urban America” ( 2012 ).  You can see how the book version, which was written for a more general audience, has a more engaging sound to it, but that the dissertation version, which is what academic faculty read and evaluate, has a more descriptive title.  You can read the title and know that this is a study about aging and health and that the focus is going to be inequality and that the context (place) is going to be “urban America.”  It’s a study about “how” people do something – in this case, how they deal with aging and death.  This is the very first sentence of the dissertation, “From our first breath in the hospital to the day we die, we live in a society characterized by unequal opportunities for maintaining health and taking care of ourselves when ill.  These disparities reflect persistent racial, socio-economic, and gender-based inequalities and contribute to their persistence over time” ( 1 ).  What follows is a truthful account of how that is so.

Cory Abramson spent three years conducting his research in four different urban neighborhoods.  We call the type of research he conducted “comparative ethnographic” because he designed his study to compare groups of seniors as they went about their everyday business.  It’s comparative because he is comparing different groups (based on race, class, gender) and ethnographic because he is studying the culture/way of life of a group. [4]   He had an educated guess, rooted in what previous research had shown and what social theory would suggest, that people’s experiences of aging differ by race, class, and gender.  So, he set up a research design that would allow him to observe differences.  He chose two primarily middle-class (one was racially diverse and the other was predominantly White) and two primarily poor neighborhoods (one was racially diverse and the other was predominantly African American).  He hung out in senior centers and other places seniors congregated, watched them as they took the bus to get prescriptions filled, sat in doctor’s offices with them, and listened to their conversations with each other.  He also conducted more formal conversations, what we call in-depth interviews, with sixty seniors from each of the four neighborhoods.  As with a lot of fieldwork , as he got closer to the people involved, he both expanded and deepened his reach –

By the end of the project, I expanded my pool of general observations to include various settings frequented by seniors: apartment building common rooms, doctors’ offices, emergency rooms, pharmacies, senior centers, bars, parks, corner stores, shopping centers, pool halls, hair salons, coffee shops, and discount stores. Over the course of the three years of fieldwork, I observed hundreds of elders, and developed close relationships with a number of them. ( 2012:10 )

When Abramson rewrote the dissertation for a general audience and published his book in 2015, it got a lot of attention.  It is a beautifully written book and it provided insight into a common human experience that we surprisingly know very little about.  It won the Outstanding Publication Award by the American Sociological Association Section on Aging and the Life Course and was featured in the New York Times .  The book was about aging, and specifically how inequality shapes the aging process, but it was also about much more than that.  It helped show how inequality affects people’s everyday lives.  For example, by observing the difficulties the poor had in setting up appointments and getting to them using public transportation and then being made to wait to see a doctor, sometimes in standing-room-only situations, when they are unwell, and then being treated dismissively by hospital staff, Abramson allowed readers to feel the material reality of being poor in the US.  Comparing these examples with seniors with adequate supplemental insurance who have the resources to hire car services or have others assist them in arranging care when they need it, jolts the reader to understand and appreciate the difference money makes in the lives and circumstances of us all, and in a way that is different than simply reading a statistic (“80% of the poor do not keep regular doctor’s appointments”) does.  Qualitative research can reach into spaces and places that often go unexamined and then reports back to the rest of us what it is like in those spaces and places.

Example 2: Racing for Innocence (Interviews + Content Analysis + Fictional Stories)

Jennifer Pierce is a Professor of American Studies at the University of Minnesota.  Trained as a sociologist, she has written a number of books about gender, race, and power.  Her very first book, Gender Trials: Emotional Lives in Contemporary Law Firms, published in 1995, is a brilliant look at gender dynamics within two law firms.  Pierce was a participant observer, working as a paralegal, and she observed how female lawyers and female paralegals struggled to obtain parity with their male colleagues.

Fifteen years later, she reexamined the context of the law firm to include an examination of racial dynamics, particularly how elite white men working in these spaces created and maintained a culture that made it difficult for both female attorneys and attorneys of color to thrive. Her book, Racing for Innocence: Whiteness, Gender, and the Backlash Against Affirmative Action , published in 2012, is an interesting and creative blending of interviews with attorneys, content analyses of popular films during this period, and fictional accounts of racial discrimination and sexual harassment.  The law firm she chose to study had come under an affirmative action order and was in the process of implementing equitable policies and programs.  She wanted to understand how recipients of white privilege (the elite white male attorneys) come to deny the role they play in reproducing inequality.  Through interviews with attorneys who were present both before and during the affirmative action order, she creates a historical record of the “bad behavior” that necessitated new policies and procedures, but also, and more importantly , probed the participants ’ understanding of this behavior.  It should come as no surprise that most (but not all) of the white male attorneys saw little need for change, and that almost everyone else had accounts that were different if not sometimes downright harrowing.

I’ve used Pierce’s book in my qualitative research methods courses as an example of an interesting blend of techniques and presentation styles.  My students often have a very difficult time with the fictional accounts she includes.  But they serve an important communicative purpose here.  They are her attempts at presenting “both sides” to an objective reality – something happens (Pierce writes this something so it is very clear what it is), and the two participants to the thing that happened have very different understandings of what this means.  By including these stories, Pierce presents one of her key findings – people remember things differently and these different memories tend to support their own ideological positions.  I wonder what Pierce would have written had she studied the murder of George Floyd or the storming of the US Capitol on January 6 or any number of other historic events whose observers and participants record very different happenings.

This is not to say that qualitative researchers write fictional accounts.  In fact, the use of fiction in our work remains controversial.  When used, it must be clearly identified as a presentation device, as Pierce did.  I include Racing for Innocence here as an example of the multiple uses of methods and techniques and the way that these work together to produce better understandings by us, the readers, of what Pierce studied.  We readers come away with a better grasp of how and why advantaged people understate their own involvement in situations and structures that advantage them.  This is normal human behavior , in other words.  This case may have been about elite white men in law firms, but the general insights here can be transposed to other settings.  Indeed, Pierce argues that more research needs to be done about the role elites play in the reproduction of inequality in the workplace in general.

Example 3: Amplified Advantage (Mixed Methods: Survey Interviews + Focus Groups + Archives)

The final example comes from my own work with college students, particularly the ways in which class background affects the experience of college and outcomes for graduates.  I include it here as an example of mixed methods, and for the use of supplementary archival research.  I’ve done a lot of research over the years on first-generation, low-income, and working-class college students.  I am curious (and skeptical) about the possibility of social mobility today, particularly with the rising cost of college and growing inequality in general.  As one of the few people in my family to go to college, I didn’t grow up with a lot of examples of what college was like or how to make the most of it.  And when I entered graduate school, I realized with dismay that there were very few people like me there.  I worried about becoming too different from my family and friends back home.  And I wasn’t at all sure that I would ever be able to pay back the huge load of debt I was taking on.  And so I wrote my dissertation and first two books about working-class college students.  These books focused on experiences in college and the difficulties of navigating between family and school ( Hurst 2010a, 2012 ).  But even after all that research, I kept coming back to wondering if working-class students who made it through college had an equal chance at finding good jobs and happy lives,

What happens to students after college?  Do working-class students fare as well as their peers?  I knew from my own experience that barriers continued through graduate school and beyond, and that my debtload was higher than that of my peers, constraining some of the choices I made when I graduated.  To answer these questions, I designed a study of students attending small liberal arts colleges, the type of college that tried to equalize the experience of students by requiring all students to live on campus and offering small classes with lots of interaction with faculty.  These private colleges tend to have more money and resources so they can provide financial aid to low-income students.  They also attract some very wealthy students.  Because they enroll students across the class spectrum, I would be able to draw comparisons.  I ended up spending about four years collecting data, both a survey of more than 2000 students (which formed the basis for quantitative analyses) and qualitative data collection (interviews, focus groups, archival research, and participant observation).  This is what we call a “mixed methods” approach because we use both quantitative and qualitative data.  The survey gave me a large enough number of students that I could make comparisons of the how many kind, and to be able to say with some authority that there were in fact significant differences in experience and outcome by class (e.g., wealthier students earned more money and had little debt; working-class students often found jobs that were not in their chosen careers and were very affected by debt, upper-middle-class students were more likely to go to graduate school).  But the survey analyses could not explain why these differences existed.  For that, I needed to talk to people and ask them about their motivations and aspirations.  I needed to understand their perceptions of the world, and it is very hard to do this through a survey.

By interviewing students and recent graduates, I was able to discern particular patterns and pathways through college and beyond.  Specifically, I identified three versions of gameplay.  Upper-middle-class students, whose parents were themselves professionals (academics, lawyers, managers of non-profits), saw college as the first stage of their education and took classes and declared majors that would prepare them for graduate school.  They also spent a lot of time building their resumes, taking advantage of opportunities to help professors with their research, or study abroad.  This helped them gain admission to highly-ranked graduate schools and interesting jobs in the public sector.  In contrast, upper-class students, whose parents were wealthy and more likely to be engaged in business (as CEOs or other high-level directors), prioritized building social capital.  They did this by joining fraternities and sororities and playing club sports.  This helped them when they graduated as they called on friends and parents of friends to find them well-paying jobs.  Finally, low-income, first-generation, and working-class students were often adrift.  They took the classes that were recommended to them but without the knowledge of how to connect them to life beyond college.  They spent time working and studying rather than partying or building their resumes.  All three sets of students thought they were “doing college” the right way, the way that one was supposed to do college.   But these three versions of gameplay led to distinct outcomes that advantaged some students over others.  I titled my work “Amplified Advantage” to highlight this process.

These three examples, Cory Abramson’s The End Game , Jennifer Peirce’s Racing for Innocence, and my own Amplified Advantage, demonstrate the range of approaches and tools available to the qualitative researcher.  They also help explain why qualitative research is so important.  Numbers can tell us some things about the world, but they cannot get at the hearts and minds, motivations and beliefs of the people who make up the social worlds we inhabit.  For that, we need tools that allow us to listen and make sense of what people tell us and show us.  That is what good qualitative research offers us.

How Is This Book Organized?

This textbook is organized as a comprehensive introduction to the use of qualitative research methods.  The first half covers general topics (e.g., approaches to qualitative research, ethics) and research design (necessary steps for building a successful qualitative research study).  The second half reviews various data collection and data analysis techniques.  Of course, building a successful qualitative research study requires some knowledge of data collection and data analysis so the chapters in the first half and the chapters in the second half should be read in conversation with each other.  That said, each chapter can be read on its own for assistance with a particular narrow topic.  In addition to the chapters, a helpful glossary can be found in the back of the book.  Rummage around in the text as needed.

Chapter Descriptions

Chapter 2 provides an overview of the Research Design Process.  How does one begin a study? What is an appropriate research question?  How is the study to be done – with what methods ?  Involving what people and sites?  Although qualitative research studies can and often do change and develop over the course of data collection, it is important to have a good idea of what the aims and goals of your study are at the outset and a good plan of how to achieve those aims and goals.  Chapter 2 provides a road map of the process.

Chapter 3 describes and explains various ways of knowing the (social) world.  What is it possible for us to know about how other people think or why they behave the way they do?  What does it mean to say something is a “fact” or that it is “well-known” and understood?  Qualitative researchers are particularly interested in these questions because of the types of research questions we are interested in answering (the how questions rather than the how many questions of quantitative research).  Qualitative researchers have adopted various epistemological approaches.  Chapter 3 will explore these approaches, highlighting interpretivist approaches that acknowledge the subjective aspect of reality – in other words, reality and knowledge are not objective but rather influenced by (interpreted through) people.

Chapter 4 focuses on the practical matter of developing a research question and finding the right approach to data collection.  In any given study (think of Cory Abramson’s study of aging, for example), there may be years of collected data, thousands of observations , hundreds of pages of notes to read and review and make sense of.  If all you had was a general interest area (“aging”), it would be very difficult, nearly impossible, to make sense of all of that data.  The research question provides a helpful lens to refine and clarify (and simplify) everything you find and collect.  For that reason, it is important to pull out that lens (articulate the research question) before you get started.  In the case of the aging study, Cory Abramson was interested in how inequalities affected understandings and responses to aging.  It is for this reason he designed a study that would allow him to compare different groups of seniors (some middle-class, some poor).  Inevitably, he saw much more in the three years in the field than what made it into his book (or dissertation), but he was able to narrow down the complexity of the social world to provide us with this rich account linked to the original research question.  Developing a good research question is thus crucial to effective design and a successful outcome.  Chapter 4 will provide pointers on how to do this.  Chapter 4 also provides an overview of general approaches taken to doing qualitative research and various “traditions of inquiry.”

Chapter 5 explores sampling .  After you have developed a research question and have a general idea of how you will collect data (Observations?  Interviews?), how do you go about actually finding people and sites to study?  Although there is no “correct number” of people to interview , the sample should follow the research question and research design.  Unlike quantitative research, qualitative research involves nonprobability sampling.  Chapter 5 explains why this is so and what qualities instead make a good sample for qualitative research.

Chapter 6 addresses the importance of reflexivity in qualitative research.  Related to epistemological issues of how we know anything about the social world, qualitative researchers understand that we the researchers can never be truly neutral or outside the study we are conducting.  As observers, we see things that make sense to us and may entirely miss what is either too obvious to note or too different to comprehend.  As interviewers, as much as we would like to ask questions neutrally and remain in the background, interviews are a form of conversation, and the persons we interview are responding to us .  Therefore, it is important to reflect upon our social positions and the knowledges and expectations we bring to our work and to work through any blind spots that we may have.  Chapter 6 provides some examples of reflexivity in practice and exercises for thinking through one’s own biases.

Chapter 7 is a very important chapter and should not be overlooked.  As a practical matter, it should also be read closely with chapters 6 and 8.  Because qualitative researchers deal with people and the social world, it is imperative they develop and adhere to a strong ethical code for conducting research in a way that does not harm.  There are legal requirements and guidelines for doing so (see chapter 8), but these requirements should not be considered synonymous with the ethical code required of us.   Each researcher must constantly interrogate every aspect of their research, from research question to design to sample through analysis and presentation, to ensure that a minimum of harm (ideally, zero harm) is caused.  Because each research project is unique, the standards of care for each study are unique.  Part of being a professional researcher is carrying this code in one’s heart, being constantly attentive to what is required under particular circumstances.  Chapter 7 provides various research scenarios and asks readers to weigh in on the suitability and appropriateness of the research.  If done in a class setting, it will become obvious fairly quickly that there are often no absolutely correct answers, as different people find different aspects of the scenarios of greatest importance.  Minimizing the harm in one area may require possible harm in another.  Being attentive to all the ethical aspects of one’s research and making the best judgments one can, clearly and consciously, is an integral part of being a good researcher.

Chapter 8 , best to be read in conjunction with chapter 7, explains the role and importance of Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) .  Under federal guidelines, an IRB is an appropriately constituted group that has been formally designated to review and monitor research involving human subjects .  Every institution that receives funding from the federal government has an IRB.  IRBs have the authority to approve, require modifications to (to secure approval), or disapprove research.  This group review serves an important role in the protection of the rights and welfare of human research subjects.  Chapter 8 reviews the history of IRBs and the work they do but also argues that IRBs’ review of qualitative research is often both over-inclusive and under-inclusive.  Some aspects of qualitative research are not well understood by IRBs, given that they were developed to prevent abuses in biomedical research.  Thus, it is important not to rely on IRBs to identify all the potential ethical issues that emerge in our research (see chapter 7).

Chapter 9 provides help for getting started on formulating a research question based on gaps in the pre-existing literature.  Research is conducted as part of a community, even if particular studies are done by single individuals (or small teams).  What any of us finds and reports back becomes part of a much larger body of knowledge.  Thus, it is important that we look at the larger body of knowledge before we actually start our bit to see how we can best contribute.  When I first began interviewing working-class college students, there was only one other similar study I could find, and it hadn’t been published (it was a dissertation of students from poor backgrounds).  But there had been a lot published by professors who had grown up working class and made it through college despite the odds.  These accounts by “working-class academics” became an important inspiration for my study and helped me frame the questions I asked the students I interviewed.  Chapter 9 will provide some pointers on how to search for relevant literature and how to use this to refine your research question.

Chapter 10 serves as a bridge between the two parts of the textbook, by introducing techniques of data collection.  Qualitative research is often characterized by the form of data collection – for example, an ethnographic study is one that employs primarily observational data collection for the purpose of documenting and presenting a particular culture or ethnos.  Techniques can be effectively combined, depending on the research question and the aims and goals of the study.   Chapter 10 provides a general overview of all the various techniques and how they can be combined.

The second part of the textbook moves into the doing part of qualitative research once the research question has been articulated and the study designed.  Chapters 11 through 17 cover various data collection techniques and approaches.  Chapters 18 and 19 provide a very simple overview of basic data analysis.  Chapter 20 covers communication of the data to various audiences, and in various formats.

Chapter 11 begins our overview of data collection techniques with a focus on interviewing , the true heart of qualitative research.  This technique can serve as the primary and exclusive form of data collection, or it can be used to supplement other forms (observation, archival).  An interview is distinct from a survey, where questions are asked in a specific order and often with a range of predetermined responses available.  Interviews can be conversational and unstructured or, more conventionally, semistructured , where a general set of interview questions “guides” the conversation.  Chapter 11 covers the basics of interviews: how to create interview guides, how many people to interview, where to conduct the interview, what to watch out for (how to prepare against things going wrong), and how to get the most out of your interviews.

Chapter 12 covers an important variant of interviewing, the focus group.  Focus groups are semistructured interviews with a group of people moderated by a facilitator (the researcher or researcher’s assistant).  Focus groups explicitly use group interaction to assist in the data collection.  They are best used to collect data on a specific topic that is non-personal and shared among the group.  For example, asking a group of college students about a common experience such as taking classes by remote delivery during the pandemic year of 2020.  Chapter 12 covers the basics of focus groups: when to use them, how to create interview guides for them, and how to run them effectively.

Chapter 13 moves away from interviewing to the second major form of data collection unique to qualitative researchers – observation .  Qualitative research that employs observation can best be understood as falling on a continuum of “fly on the wall” observation (e.g., observing how strangers interact in a doctor’s waiting room) to “participant” observation, where the researcher is also an active participant of the activity being observed.  For example, an activist in the Black Lives Matter movement might want to study the movement, using her inside position to gain access to observe key meetings and interactions.  Chapter  13 covers the basics of participant observation studies: advantages and disadvantages, gaining access, ethical concerns related to insider/outsider status and entanglement, and recording techniques.

Chapter 14 takes a closer look at “deep ethnography” – immersion in the field of a particularly long duration for the purpose of gaining a deeper understanding and appreciation of a particular culture or social world.  Clifford Geertz called this “deep hanging out.”  Whereas participant observation is often combined with semistructured interview techniques, deep ethnography’s commitment to “living the life” or experiencing the situation as it really is demands more conversational and natural interactions with people.  These interactions and conversations may take place over months or even years.  As can be expected, there are some costs to this technique, as well as some very large rewards when done competently.  Chapter 14 provides some examples of deep ethnographies that will inspire some beginning researchers and intimidate others.

Chapter 15 moves in the opposite direction of deep ethnography, a technique that is the least positivist of all those discussed here, to mixed methods , a set of techniques that is arguably the most positivist .  A mixed methods approach combines both qualitative data collection and quantitative data collection, commonly by combining a survey that is analyzed statistically (e.g., cross-tabs or regression analyses of large number probability samples) with semi-structured interviews.  Although it is somewhat unconventional to discuss mixed methods in textbooks on qualitative research, I think it is important to recognize this often-employed approach here.  There are several advantages and some disadvantages to taking this route.  Chapter 16 will describe those advantages and disadvantages and provide some particular guidance on how to design a mixed methods study for maximum effectiveness.

Chapter 16 covers data collection that does not involve live human subjects at all – archival and historical research (chapter 17 will also cover data that does not involve interacting with human subjects).  Sometimes people are unavailable to us, either because they do not wish to be interviewed or observed (as is the case with many “elites”) or because they are too far away, in both place and time.  Fortunately, humans leave many traces and we can often answer questions we have by examining those traces.  Special collections and archives can be goldmines for social science research.  This chapter will explain how to access these places, for what purposes, and how to begin to make sense of what you find.

Chapter 17 covers another data collection area that does not involve face-to-face interaction with humans: content analysis .  Although content analysis may be understood more properly as a data analysis technique, the term is often used for the entire approach, which will be the case here.  Content analysis involves interpreting meaning from a body of text.  This body of text might be something found in historical records (see chapter 16) or something collected by the researcher, as in the case of comment posts on a popular blog post.  I once used the stories told by student loan debtors on the website studentloanjustice.org as the content I analyzed.  Content analysis is particularly useful when attempting to define and understand prevalent stories or communication about a topic of interest.  In other words, when we are less interested in what particular people (our defined sample) are doing or believing and more interested in what general narratives exist about a particular topic or issue.  This chapter will explore different approaches to content analysis and provide helpful tips on how to collect data, how to turn that data into codes for analysis, and how to go about presenting what is found through analysis.

Where chapter 17 has pushed us towards data analysis, chapters 18 and 19 are all about what to do with the data collected, whether that data be in the form of interview transcripts or fieldnotes from observations.  Chapter 18 introduces the basics of coding , the iterative process of assigning meaning to the data in order to both simplify and identify patterns.  What is a code and how does it work?  What are the different ways of coding data, and when should you use them?  What is a codebook, and why do you need one?  What does the process of data analysis look like?

Chapter 19 goes further into detail on codes and how to use them, particularly the later stages of coding in which our codes are refined, simplified, combined, and organized.  These later rounds of coding are essential to getting the most out of the data we’ve collected.  As students are often overwhelmed with the amount of data (a corpus of interview transcripts typically runs into the hundreds of pages; fieldnotes can easily top that), this chapter will also address time management and provide suggestions for dealing with chaos and reminders that feeling overwhelmed at the analysis stage is part of the process.  By the end of the chapter, you should understand how “findings” are actually found.

The book concludes with a chapter dedicated to the effective presentation of data results.  Chapter 20 covers the many ways that researchers communicate their studies to various audiences (academic, personal, political), what elements must be included in these various publications, and the hallmarks of excellent qualitative research that various audiences will be expecting.  Because qualitative researchers are motivated by understanding and conveying meaning , effective communication is not only an essential skill but a fundamental facet of the entire research project.  Ethnographers must be able to convey a certain sense of verisimilitude , the appearance of true reality.  Those employing interviews must faithfully depict the key meanings of the people they interviewed in a way that rings true to those people, even if the end result surprises them.  And all researchers must strive for clarity in their publications so that various audiences can understand what was found and why it is important.

The book concludes with a short chapter ( chapter 21 ) discussing the value of qualitative research. At the very end of this book, you will find a glossary of terms. I recommend you make frequent use of the glossary and add to each entry as you find examples. Although the entries are meant to be simple and clear, you may also want to paraphrase the definition—make it “make sense” to you, in other words. In addition to the standard reference list (all works cited here), you will find various recommendations for further reading at the end of many chapters. Some of these recommendations will be examples of excellent qualitative research, indicated with an asterisk (*) at the end of the entry. As they say, a picture is worth a thousand words. A good example of qualitative research can teach you more about conducting research than any textbook can (this one included). I highly recommend you select one to three examples from these lists and read them along with the textbook.

A final note on the choice of examples – you will note that many of the examples used in the text come from research on college students.  This is for two reasons.  First, as most of my research falls in this area, I am most familiar with this literature and have contacts with those who do research here and can call upon them to share their stories with you.  Second, and more importantly, my hope is that this textbook reaches a wide audience of beginning researchers who study widely and deeply across the range of what can be known about the social world (from marine resources management to public policy to nursing to political science to sexuality studies and beyond).  It is sometimes difficult to find examples that speak to all those research interests, however. A focus on college students is something that all readers can understand and, hopefully, appreciate, as we are all now or have been at some point a college student.

Recommended Reading: Other Qualitative Research Textbooks

I’ve included a brief list of some of my favorite qualitative research textbooks and guidebooks if you need more than what you will find in this introductory text.  For each, I’ve also indicated if these are for “beginning” or “advanced” (graduate-level) readers.  Many of these books have several editions that do not significantly vary; the edition recommended is merely the edition I have used in teaching and to whose page numbers any specific references made in the text agree.

Barbour, Rosaline. 2014. Introducing Qualitative Research: A Student’s Guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.  A good introduction to qualitative research, with abundant examples (often from the discipline of health care) and clear definitions.  Includes quick summaries at the ends of each chapter.  However, some US students might find the British context distracting and can be a bit advanced in some places.  Beginning .

Bloomberg, Linda Dale, and Marie F. Volpe. 2012. Completing Your Qualitative Dissertation . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.  Specifically designed to guide graduate students through the research process. Advanced .

Creswell, John W., and Cheryl Poth. 2018 Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among Five Traditions .  4th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.  This is a classic and one of the go-to books I used myself as a graduate student.  One of the best things about this text is its clear presentation of five distinct traditions in qualitative research.  Despite the title, this reasonably sized book is about more than research design, including both data analysis and how to write about qualitative research.  Advanced .

Lareau, Annette. 2021. Listening to People: A Practical Guide to Interviewing, Participant Observation, Data Analysis, and Writing It All Up .  Chicago: University of Chicago Press. A readable and personal account of conducting qualitative research by an eminent sociologist, with a heavy emphasis on the kinds of participant-observation research conducted by the author.  Despite its reader-friendliness, this is really a book targeted to graduate students learning the craft.  Advanced .

Lune, Howard, and Bruce L. Berg. 2018. 9th edition.  Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences.  Pearson . Although a good introduction to qualitative methods, the authors favor symbolic interactionist and dramaturgical approaches, which limits the appeal primarily to sociologists.  Beginning .

Marshall, Catherine, and Gretchen B. Rossman. 2016. 6th edition. Designing Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.  Very readable and accessible guide to research design by two educational scholars.  Although the presentation is sometimes fairly dry, personal vignettes and illustrations enliven the text.  Beginning .

Maxwell, Joseph A. 2013. Qualitative Research Design: An Interactive Approach .  3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. A short and accessible introduction to qualitative research design, particularly helpful for graduate students contemplating theses and dissertations. This has been a standard textbook in my graduate-level courses for years.  Advanced .

Patton, Michael Quinn. 2002. Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.  This is a comprehensive text that served as my “go-to” reference when I was a graduate student.  It is particularly helpful for those involved in program evaluation and other forms of evaluation studies and uses examples from a wide range of disciplines.  Advanced .

Rubin, Ashley T. 2021. Rocking Qualitative Social Science: An Irreverent Guide to Rigorous Research. Stanford : Stanford University Press.  A delightful and personal read.  Rubin uses rock climbing as an extended metaphor for learning how to conduct qualitative research.  A bit slanted toward ethnographic and archival methods of data collection, with frequent examples from her own studies in criminology. Beginning .

Weis, Lois, and Michelle Fine. 2000. Speed Bumps: A Student-Friendly Guide to Qualitative Research . New York: Teachers College Press.  Readable and accessibly written in a quasi-conversational style.  Particularly strong in its discussion of ethical issues throughout the qualitative research process.  Not comprehensive, however, and very much tied to ethnographic research.  Although designed for graduate students, this is a recommended read for students of all levels.  Beginning .

Patton’s Ten Suggestions for Doing Qualitative Research

The following ten suggestions were made by Michael Quinn Patton in his massive textbooks Qualitative Research and Evaluations Methods . This book is highly recommended for those of you who want more than an introduction to qualitative methods. It is the book I relied on heavily when I was a graduate student, although it is much easier to “dip into” when necessary than to read through as a whole. Patton is asked for “just one bit of advice” for a graduate student considering using qualitative research methods for their dissertation.  Here are his top ten responses, in short form, heavily paraphrased, and with additional comments and emphases from me:

• Make sure that a qualitative approach fits the research question. The following are the kinds of questions that call out for qualitative methods or where qualitative methods are particularly appropriate: questions about people’s experiences or how they make sense of those experiences; studying a person in their natural environment; researching a phenomenon so unknown that it would be impossible to study it with standardized instruments or other forms of quantitative data collection.
• Study qualitative research by going to the original sources for the design and analysis appropriate to the particular approach you want to take (e.g., read Glaser and Straus if you are using grounded theory )
• Find a dissertation adviser who understands or at least who will support your use of qualitative research methods. You are asking for trouble if your entire committee is populated by quantitative researchers, even if they are all very knowledgeable about the subject or focus of your study (maybe even more so if they are!)
• Really work on design. Doing qualitative research effectively takes a lot of planning.  Even if things are more flexible than in quantitative research, a good design is absolutely essential when starting out.
• Practice data collection techniques, particularly interviewing and observing. There is definitely a set of learned skills here!  Do not expect your first interview to be perfect.  You will continue to grow as a researcher the more interviews you conduct, and you will probably come to understand yourself a bit more in the process, too.  This is not easy, despite what others who don’t work with qualitative methods may assume (and tell you!)
• Have a plan for analysis before you begin data collection. This is often a requirement in IRB protocols , although you can get away with writing something fairly simple.  And even if you are taking an approach, such as grounded theory, that pushes you to remain fairly open-minded during the data collection process, you still want to know what you will be doing with all the data collected – creating a codebook? Writing analytical memos? Comparing cases?  Having a plan in hand will also help prevent you from collecting too much extraneous data.
• Be prepared to confront controversies both within the qualitative research community and between qualitative research and quantitative research. Don’t be naïve about this – qualitative research, particularly some approaches, will be derided by many more “positivist” researchers and audiences.  For example, is an “n” of 1 really sufficient?  Yes!  But not everyone will agree.
• Do not make the mistake of using qualitative research methods because someone told you it was easier, or because you are intimidated by the math required of statistical analyses. Qualitative research is difficult in its own way (and many would claim much more time-consuming than quantitative research).  Do it because you are convinced it is right for your goals, aims, and research questions.
• Find a good support network. This could be a research mentor, or it could be a group of friends or colleagues who are also using qualitative research, or it could be just someone who will listen to you work through all of the issues you will confront out in the field and during the writing process.  Even though qualitative research often involves human subjects, it can be pretty lonely.  A lot of times you will feel like you are working without a net.  You have to create one for yourself.  Take care of yourself.
• And, finally, in the words of Patton, “Prepare to be changed. Looking deeply at other people’s lives will force you to look deeply at yourself.”
• We will actually spend an entire chapter ( chapter 3 ) looking at this question in much more detail! ↵
• Note that this might have been news to Europeans at the time, but many other societies around the world had also come to this conclusion through observation.  There is often a tendency to equate “the scientific revolution” with the European world in which it took place, but this is somewhat misleading. ↵
• Historians are a special case here.  Historians have scrupulously and rigorously investigated the social world, but not for the purpose of understanding general laws about how things work, which is the point of scientific empirical research.  History is often referred to as an idiographic field of study, meaning that it studies things that happened or are happening in themselves and not for general observations or conclusions. ↵
• Don’t worry, we’ll spend more time later in this book unpacking the meaning of ethnography and other terms that are important here.  Note the available glossary ↵

An approach to research that is “multimethod in focus, involving an interpretative, naturalistic approach to its subject matter.  This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.  Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials – case study, personal experience, introspective, life story, interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts – that describe routine and problematic moments and meanings in individuals’ lives." ( Denzin and Lincoln 2005:2 ). Contrast with quantitative research .

In contrast to methodology, methods are more simply the practices and tools used to collect and analyze data.  Examples of common methods in qualitative research are interviews , observations , and documentary analysis .  One’s methodology should connect to one’s choice of methods, of course, but they are distinguishable terms.  See also methodology .

A proposed explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further investigation.  The positing of a hypothesis is often the first step in quantitative research but not in qualitative research.  Even when qualitative researchers offer possible explanations in advance of conducting research, they will tend to not use the word “hypothesis” as it conjures up the kind of positivist research they are not conducting.

The foundational question to be addressed by the research study.  This will form the anchor of the research design, collection, and analysis.  Note that in qualitative research, the research question may, and probably will, alter or develop during the course of the research.

An approach to research that collects and analyzes numerical data for the purpose of finding patterns and averages, making predictions, testing causal relationships, and generalizing results to wider populations.  Contrast with qualitative research .

Data collection that takes place in real-world settings, referred to as “the field;” a key component of much Grounded Theory and ethnographic research.  Patton ( 2002 ) calls fieldwork “the central activity of qualitative inquiry” where “‘going into the field’ means having direct and personal contact with people under study in their own environments – getting close to people and situations being studied to personally understand the realities of minutiae of daily life” (48).

The people who are the subjects of a qualitative study.  In interview-based studies, they may be the respondents to the interviewer; for purposes of IRBs, they are often referred to as the human subjects of the research.

The branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge.  For researchers, it is important to recognize and adopt one of the many distinguishing epistemological perspectives as part of our understanding of what questions research can address or fully answer.  See, e.g., constructivism , subjectivism, and  objectivism .

An approach that refutes the possibility of neutrality in social science research.  All research is “guided by a set of beliefs and feelings about the world and how it should be understood and studied” (Denzin and Lincoln 2005: 13).  In contrast to positivism , interpretivism recognizes the social constructedness of reality, and researchers adopting this approach focus on capturing interpretations and understandings people have about the world rather than “the world” as it is (which is a chimera).

The cluster of data-collection tools and techniques that involve observing interactions between people, the behaviors, and practices of individuals (sometimes in contrast to what they say about how they act and behave), and cultures in context.  Observational methods are the key tools employed by ethnographers and Grounded Theory .

Research based on data collected and analyzed by the research (in contrast to secondary “library” research).

The process of selecting people or other units of analysis to represent a larger population. In quantitative research, this representation is taken quite literally, as statistically representative.  In qualitative research, in contrast, sample selection is often made based on potential to generate insight about a particular topic or phenomenon.

A method of data collection in which the researcher asks the participant questions; the answers to these questions are often recorded and transcribed verbatim. There are many different kinds of interviews - see also semistructured interview , structured interview , and unstructured interview .

The specific group of individuals that you will collect data from.  Contrast population.

The practice of being conscious of and reflective upon one’s own social location and presence when conducting research.  Because qualitative research often requires interaction with live humans, failing to take into account how one’s presence and prior expectations and social location affect the data collected and how analyzed may limit the reliability of the findings.  This remains true even when dealing with historical archives and other content.  Who we are matters when asking questions about how people experience the world because we, too, are a part of that world.

The science and practice of right conduct; in research, it is also the delineation of moral obligations towards research participants, communities to which we belong, and communities in which we conduct our research.

An administrative body established to protect the rights and welfare of human research subjects recruited to participate in research activities conducted under the auspices of the institution with which it is affiliated. The IRB is charged with the responsibility of reviewing all research involving human participants. The IRB is concerned with protecting the welfare, rights, and privacy of human subjects. The IRB has the authority to approve, disapprove, monitor, and require modifications in all research activities that fall within its jurisdiction as specified by both the federal regulations and institutional policy.

Research, according to US federal guidelines, that involves “a living individual about whom an investigator (whether professional or student) conducting research:  (1) Obtains information or biospecimens through intervention or interaction with the individual, and uses, studies, or analyzes the information or biospecimens; or  (2) Obtains, uses, studies, analyzes, or generates identifiable private information or identifiable biospecimens.”

One of the primary methodological traditions of inquiry in qualitative research, ethnography is the study of a group or group culture, largely through observational fieldwork supplemented by interviews. It is a form of fieldwork that may include participant-observation data collection. See chapter 14 for a discussion of deep ethnography. 

A form of interview that follows a standard guide of questions asked, although the order of the questions may change to match the particular needs of each individual interview subject, and probing “follow-up” questions are often added during the course of the interview.  The semi-structured interview is the primary form of interviewing used by qualitative researchers in the social sciences.  It is sometimes referred to as an “in-depth” interview.  See also interview and  interview guide .

A method of observational data collection taking place in a natural setting; a form of fieldwork .  The term encompasses a continuum of relative participation by the researcher (from full participant to “fly-on-the-wall” observer).  This is also sometimes referred to as ethnography , although the latter is characterized by a greater focus on the culture under observation.

A research design that employs both quantitative and qualitative methods, as in the case of a survey supplemented by interviews.

An epistemological perspective that posits the existence of reality through sensory experience similar to empiricism but goes further in denying any non-sensory basis of thought or consciousness.  In the social sciences, the term has roots in the proto-sociologist August Comte, who believed he could discern “laws” of society similar to the laws of natural science (e.g., gravity).  The term has come to mean the kinds of measurable and verifiable science conducted by quantitative researchers and is thus used pejoratively by some qualitative researchers interested in interpretation, consciousness, and human understanding.  Calling someone a “positivist” is often intended as an insult.  See also empiricism and objectivism.

A place or collection containing records, documents, or other materials of historical interest; most universities have an archive of material related to the university’s history, as well as other “special collections” that may be of interest to members of the community.

A method of both data collection and data analysis in which a given content (textual, visual, graphic) is examined systematically and rigorously to identify meanings, themes, patterns and assumptions.  Qualitative content analysis (QCA) is concerned with gathering and interpreting an existing body of material.    

A word or short phrase that symbolically assigns a summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute for a portion of language-based or visual data (Saldaña 2021:5).

Usually a verbatim written record of an interview or focus group discussion.

The primary form of data for fieldwork , participant observation , and ethnography .  These notes, taken by the researcher either during the course of fieldwork or at day’s end, should include as many details as possible on what was observed and what was said.  They should include clear identifiers of date, time, setting, and names (or identifying characteristics) of participants.

The process of labeling and organizing qualitative data to identify different themes and the relationships between them; a way of simplifying data to allow better management and retrieval of key themes and illustrative passages.  See coding frame and  codebook.

A methodological tradition of inquiry and approach to analyzing qualitative data in which theories emerge from a rigorous and systematic process of induction.  This approach was pioneered by the sociologists Glaser and Strauss (1967).  The elements of theory generated from comparative analysis of data are, first, conceptual categories and their properties and, second, hypotheses or generalized relations among the categories and their properties – “The constant comparing of many groups draws the [researcher’s] attention to their many similarities and differences.  Considering these leads [the researcher] to generate abstract categories and their properties, which, since they emerge from the data, will clearly be important to a theory explaining the kind of behavior under observation.” (36).

A detailed description of any proposed research that involves human subjects for review by IRB.  The protocol serves as the recipe for the conduct of the research activity.  It includes the scientific rationale to justify the conduct of the study, the information necessary to conduct the study, the plan for managing and analyzing the data, and a discussion of the research ethical issues relevant to the research.  Protocols for qualitative research often include interview guides, all documents related to recruitment, informed consent forms, very clear guidelines on the safekeeping of materials collected, and plans for de-identifying transcripts or other data that include personal identifying information.

Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods Copyright © 2023 by Allison Hurst is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on June 19, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Table of contents

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography , action research , phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasize different aims and perspectives.

Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne effect , observer bias , recall bias , and social desirability bias . While not always totally avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data can prevent them from impacting your work too much.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews:  personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
• You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
• You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analyzing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

• Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
• Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
• Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorize your data.
• Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
• Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

• Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

• Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

• Limited generalizability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

• Labor-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organization to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organize your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Bhandari, P. (2023, June 22). What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved June 13, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/qualitative-research/

Is this article helpful?

Pritha Bhandari

Other students also liked, qualitative vs. quantitative research | differences, examples & methods, how to do thematic analysis | step-by-step guide & examples, get unlimited documents corrected.

✔ Free APA citation check included ✔ Unlimited document corrections ✔ Specialized in correcting academic texts

18 Qualitative Research Examples

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

Learn about our Editorial Process

Qualitative research is an approach to scientific research that involves using observation to gather and analyze non-numerical, in-depth, and well-contextualized datasets.

It serves as an integral part of academic, professional, and even daily decision-making processes (Baxter & Jack, 2008).

Methods of qualitative research encompass a wide range of techniques, from in-depth personal encounters, like ethnographies (studying cultures in-depth) and autoethnographies (examining one’s own cultural experiences), to collection of diverse perspectives on topics through methods like interviewing focus groups (gatherings of individuals to discuss specific topics).

Qualitative Research Examples

1. ethnography.

Definition: Ethnography is a qualitative research design aimed at exploring cultural phenomena. Rooted in the discipline of anthropology , this research approach investigates the social interactions, behaviors, and perceptions within groups, communities, or organizations.

Ethnographic research is characterized by extended observation of the group, often through direct participation, in the participants’ environment. An ethnographer typically lives with the study group for extended periods, intricately observing their everyday lives (Khan, 2014).

It aims to present a complete, detailed and accurate picture of the observed social life, rituals, symbols, and values from the perspective of the study group.

Example of Ethnographic Research

Title: “ The Everyday Lives of Men: An Ethnographic Investigation of Young Adult Male Identity “

Citation: Evans, J. (2010). The Everyday Lives of Men: An Ethnographic Investigation of Young Adult Male Identity. Peter Lang.

Overview: This study by Evans (2010) provides a rich narrative of young adult male identity as experienced in everyday life. The author immersed himself among a group of young men, participating in their activities and cultivating a deep understanding of their lifestyle, values, and motivations. This research exemplified the ethnographic approach, revealing complexities of the subjects’ identities and societal roles, which could hardly be accessed through other qualitative research designs.

Read my Full Guide on Ethnography Here

2. Autoethnography

Definition: Autoethnography is an approach to qualitative research where the researcher uses their own personal experiences to extend the understanding of a certain group, culture, or setting. Essentially, it allows for the exploration of self within the context of social phenomena.

Unlike traditional ethnography, which focuses on the study of others, autoethnography turns the ethnographic gaze inward, allowing the researcher to use their personal experiences within a culture as rich qualitative data (Durham, 2019).

The objective is to critically appraise one’s personal experiences as they navigate and negotiate cultural, political, and social meanings. The researcher becomes both the observer and the participant, intertwining personal and cultural experiences in the research.

Example of Autoethnographic Research

Title: “ A Day In The Life Of An NHS Nurse “

Citation: Osben, J. (2019). A day in the life of a NHS nurse in 21st Century Britain: An auto-ethnography. The Journal of Autoethnography for Health & Social Care. 1(1).

Overview: This study presents an autoethnography of a day in the life of an NHS nurse (who, of course, is also the researcher). The author uses the research to achieve reflexivity, with the researcher concluding: “Scrutinising my practice and situating it within a wider contextual backdrop has compelled me to significantly increase my level of scrutiny into the driving forces that influence my practice.”

Read my Full Guide on Autoethnography Here

3. Semi-Structured Interviews

Definition: Semi-structured interviews stand as one of the most frequently used methods in qualitative research. These interviews are planned and utilize a set of pre-established questions, but also allow for the interviewer to steer the conversation in other directions based on the responses given by the interviewee.

In semi-structured interviews, the interviewer prepares a guide that outlines the focal points of the discussion. However, the interview is flexible, allowing for more in-depth probing if the interviewer deems it necessary (Qu, & Dumay, 2011). This style of interviewing strikes a balance between structured ones which might limit the discussion, and unstructured ones, which could lack focus.

Example of Semi-Structured Interview Research

Title: “ Factors influencing adherence to cancer treatment in older adults with cancer: a systematic review “

Citation: Puts, M., et al. (2014). Factors influencing adherence to cancer treatment in older adults with cancer: a systematic review. Annals of oncology, 25 (3), 564-577.

Overview: Puts et al. (2014) executed an extensive systematic review in which they conducted semi-structured interviews with older adults suffering from cancer to examine the factors influencing their adherence to cancer treatment. The findings suggested that various factors, including side effects, faith in healthcare professionals, and social support have substantial impacts on treatment adherence. This research demonstrates how semi-structured interviews can provide rich and profound insights into the subjective experiences of patients.

4. Focus Groups

Definition: Focus groups are a qualitative research method that involves organized discussion with a selected group of individuals to gain their perspectives on a specific concept, product, or phenomenon. Typically, these discussions are guided by a moderator.

During a focus group session, the moderator has a list of questions or topics to discuss, and participants are encouraged to interact with each other (Morgan, 2010). This interactivity can stimulate more information and provide a broader understanding of the issue under scrutiny. The open format allows participants to ask questions and respond freely, offering invaluable insights into attitudes, experiences, and group norms.

Example of Focus Group Research

Title: “ Perspectives of Older Adults on Aging Well: A Focus Group Study “

Citation: Halaweh, H., Dahlin-Ivanoff, S., Svantesson, U., & Willén, C. (2018). Perspectives of older adults on aging well: a focus group study. Journal of aging research .

Overview: This study aimed to explore what older adults (aged 60 years and older) perceived to be ‘aging well’. The researchers identified three major themes from their focus group interviews: a sense of well-being, having good physical health, and preserving good mental health. The findings highlight the importance of factors such as positive emotions, social engagement, physical activity, healthy eating habits, and maintaining independence in promoting aging well among older adults.

5. Phenomenology

Definition: Phenomenology, a qualitative research method, involves the examination of lived experiences to gain an in-depth understanding of the essence or underlying meanings of a phenomenon.

The focus of phenomenology lies in meticulously describing participants’ conscious experiences related to the chosen phenomenon (Padilla-Díaz, 2015).

In a phenomenological study, the researcher collects detailed, first-hand perspectives of the participants, typically via in-depth interviews, and then uses various strategies to interpret and structure these experiences, ultimately revealing essential themes (Creswell, 2013). This approach focuses on the perspective of individuals experiencing the phenomenon, seeking to explore, clarify, and understand the meanings they attach to those experiences.

Example of Phenomenology Research

Title: “ A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology: current state, promise, and future directions for research ”

Citation: Cilesiz, S. (2011). A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology: Current state, promise, and future directions for research. Educational Technology Research and Development, 59 , 487-510.

Overview: A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology by Sebnem Cilesiz represents a good starting point for formulating a phenomenological study. With its focus on the ‘essence of experience’, this piece presents methodological, reliability, validity, and data analysis techniques that phenomenologists use to explain how people experience technology in their everyday lives.

6. Grounded Theory

Definition: Grounded theory is a systematic methodology in qualitative research that typically applies inductive reasoning . The primary aim is to develop a theoretical explanation or framework for a process, action, or interaction grounded in, and arising from, empirical data (Birks & Mills, 2015).

In grounded theory, data collection and analysis work together in a recursive process. The researcher collects data, analyses it, and then collects more data based on the evolving understanding of the research context. This ongoing process continues until a comprehensive theory that represents the data and the associated phenomenon emerges – a point known as theoretical saturation (Charmaz, 2014).

Example of Grounded Theory Research

Title: “ Student Engagement in High School Classrooms from the Perspective of Flow Theory “

Citation: Shernoff, D. J., Csikszentmihalyi, M., Shneider, B., & Shernoff, E. S. (2003). Student engagement in high school classrooms from the perspective of flow theory. School Psychology Quarterly, 18 (2), 158–176.

Overview: Shernoff and colleagues (2003) used grounded theory to explore student engagement in high school classrooms. The researchers collected data through student self-reports, interviews, and observations. Key findings revealed that academic challenge, student autonomy, and teacher support emerged as the most significant factors influencing students’ engagement, demonstrating how grounded theory can illuminate complex dynamics within real-world contexts.

7. Narrative Research

Definition: Narrative research is a qualitative research method dedicated to storytelling and understanding how individuals experience the world. It focuses on studying an individual’s life and experiences as narrated by that individual (Polkinghorne, 2013).

In narrative research, the researcher collects data through methods such as interviews, observations , and document analysis. The emphasis is on the stories told by participants – narratives that reflect their experiences, thoughts, and feelings.

These stories are then interpreted by the researcher, who attempts to understand the meaning the participant attributes to these experiences (Josselson, 2011).

Example of Narrative Research

Title: “Narrative Structures and the Language of the Self”

Citation: McAdams, D. P., Josselson, R., & Lieblich, A. (2006). Identity and story: Creating self in narrative . American Psychological Association.

Overview: In this innovative study, McAdams et al. (2006) employed narrative research to explore how individuals construct their identities through the stories they tell about themselves. By examining personal narratives, the researchers discerned patterns associated with characters, motivations, conflicts, and resolutions, contributing valuable insights about the relationship between narrative and individual identity.

8. Case Study Research

Definition: Case study research is a qualitative research method that involves an in-depth investigation of a single instance or event: a case. These ‘cases’ can range from individuals, groups, or entities to specific projects, programs, or strategies (Creswell, 2013).

The case study method typically uses multiple sources of information for comprehensive contextual analysis. It aims to explore and understand the complexity and uniqueness of a particular case in a real-world context (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). This investigation could result in a detailed description of the case, a process for its development, or an exploration of a related issue or problem.

Example of Case Study Research

Title: “ Teacher’s Role in Fostering Preschoolers’ Computational Thinking: An Exploratory Case Study “

Citation: Wang, X. C., Choi, Y., Benson, K., Eggleston, C., & Weber, D. (2021). Teacher’s role in fostering preschoolers’ computational thinking: An exploratory case study. Early Education and Development , 32 (1), 26-48.

Overview: This study investigates the role of teachers in promoting computational thinking skills in preschoolers. The study utilized a qualitative case study methodology to examine the computational thinking scaffolding strategies employed by a teacher interacting with three preschoolers in a small group setting. The findings highlight the importance of teachers’ guidance in fostering computational thinking practices such as problem reformulation/decomposition, systematic testing, and debugging.

Read about some Famous Case Studies in Psychology Here

9. Participant Observation

Definition: Participant observation has the researcher immerse themselves in a group or community setting to observe the behavior of its members. It is similar to ethnography, but generally, the researcher isn’t embedded for a long period of time.

The researcher, being a participant, engages in daily activities, interactions, and events as a way of conducting a detailed study of a particular social phenomenon (Kawulich, 2005).

The method involves long-term engagement in the field, maintaining detailed records of observed events, informal interviews, direct participation, and reflexivity. This approach allows for a holistic view of the participants’ lived experiences, behaviours, and interactions within their everyday environment (Dewalt, 2011).

Example of Participant Observation Research

Title: Conflict in the boardroom: a participant observation study of supervisory board dynamics

Citation: Heemskerk, E. M., Heemskerk, K., & Wats, M. M. (2017). Conflict in the boardroom: a participant observation study of supervisory board dynamics. Journal of Management & Governance , 21 , 233-263.

Overview: This study examined how conflicts within corporate boards affect their performance. The researchers used a participant observation method, where they actively engaged with 11 supervisory boards and observed their dynamics. They found that having a shared understanding of the board’s role called a common framework, improved performance by reducing relationship conflicts, encouraging task conflicts, and minimizing conflicts between the board and CEO.

10. Non-Participant Observation

Definition: Non-participant observation is a qualitative research method in which the researcher observes the phenomena of interest without actively participating in the situation, setting, or community being studied.

This method allows the researcher to maintain a position of distance, as they are solely an observer and not a participant in the activities being observed (Kawulich, 2005).

During non-participant observation, the researcher typically records field notes on the actions, interactions, and behaviors observed , focusing on specific aspects of the situation deemed relevant to the research question.

This could include verbal and nonverbal communication , activities, interactions, and environmental contexts (Angrosino, 2007). They could also use video or audio recordings or other methods to collect data.

Example of Non-Participant Observation Research

Title: Mental Health Nurses’ attitudes towards mental illness and recovery-oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units: A non-participant observation study

Citation: Sreeram, A., Cross, W. M., & Townsin, L. (2023). Mental Health Nurses’ attitudes towards mental illness and recovery‐oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units: A non‐participant observation study. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing .

Overview: This study investigated the attitudes of mental health nurses towards mental illness and recovery-oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units. The researchers used a non-participant observation method, meaning they observed the nurses without directly participating in their activities. The findings shed light on the nurses’ perspectives and behaviors, providing valuable insights into their attitudes toward mental health and recovery-focused care in these settings.

11. Content Analysis

Definition: Content Analysis involves scrutinizing textual, visual, or spoken content to categorize and quantify information. The goal is to identify patterns, themes, biases, or other characteristics (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005).

Content Analysis is widely used in various disciplines for a multitude of purposes. Researchers typically use this method to distill large amounts of unstructured data, like interview transcripts, newspaper articles, or social media posts, into manageable and meaningful chunks.

When wielded appropriately, Content Analysis can illuminate the density and frequency of certain themes within a dataset, provide insights into how specific terms or concepts are applied contextually, and offer inferences about the meanings of their content and use (Duriau, Reger, & Pfarrer, 2007).

Example of Content Analysis

Title: Framing European politics: A content analysis of press and television news .

Citation: Semetko, H. A., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2000). Framing European politics: A content analysis of press and television news. Journal of Communication, 50 (2), 93-109.

Overview: This study analyzed press and television news articles about European politics using a method called content analysis. The researchers examined the prevalence of different “frames” in the news, which are ways of presenting information to shape audience perceptions. They found that the most common frames were attribution of responsibility, conflict, economic consequences, human interest, and morality.

Read my Full Guide on Content Analysis Here

12. Discourse Analysis

Definition: Discourse Analysis, a qualitative research method, interprets the meanings, functions, and coherence of certain languages in context.

Discourse analysis is typically understood through social constructionism, critical theory , and poststructuralism and used for understanding how language constructs social concepts (Cheek, 2004).

Discourse Analysis offers great breadth, providing tools to examine spoken or written language, often beyond the level of the sentence. It enables researchers to scrutinize how text and talk articulate social and political interactions and hierarchies.

Insight can be garnered from different conversations, institutional text, and media coverage to understand how topics are addressed or framed within a specific social context (Jorgensen & Phillips, 2002).

Example of Discourse Analysis

Title: The construction of teacher identities in educational policy documents: A critical discourse analysis

Citation: Thomas, S. (2005). The construction of teacher identities in educational policy documents: A critical discourse analysis. Critical Studies in Education, 46 (2), 25-44.

Overview: The author examines how an education policy in one state of Australia positions teacher professionalism and teacher identities. While there are competing discourses about professional identity, the policy framework privileges a  narrative that frames the ‘good’ teacher as one that accepts ever-tightening control and regulation over their professional practice.

Read my Full Guide on Discourse Analysis Here

13. Action Research

Definition: Action Research is a qualitative research technique that is employed to bring about change while simultaneously studying the process and results of that change.

This method involves a cyclical process of fact-finding, action, evaluation, and reflection (Greenwood & Levin, 2016).

Typically, Action Research is used in the fields of education, social sciences , and community development. The process isn’t just about resolving an issue but also developing knowledge that can be used in the future to address similar or related problems.

The researcher plays an active role in the research process, which is normally broken down into four steps: 

• developing a plan to improve what is currently being done
• implementing the plan
• observing the effects of the plan, and
• reflecting upon these effects (Smith, 2010).

Example of Action Research

Title: Using Digital Sandbox Gaming to Improve Creativity Within Boys’ Writing

Citation: Ellison, M., & Drew, C. (2020). Using digital sandbox gaming to improve creativity within boys’ writing. Journal of Research in Childhood Education , 34 (2), 277-287.

Overview: This was a research study one of my research students completed in his own classroom under my supervision. He implemented a digital game-based approach to literacy teaching with boys and interviewed his students to see if the use of games as stimuli for storytelling helped draw them into the learning experience.

Read my Full Guide on Action Research Here

14. Semiotic Analysis

Definition: Semiotic Analysis is a qualitative method of research that interprets signs and symbols in communication to understand sociocultural phenomena. It stems from semiotics, the study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation (Chandler, 2017).

In a Semiotic Analysis, signs (anything that represents something else) are interpreted based on their significance and the role they play in representing ideas.

This type of research often involves the examination of images, sounds, and word choice to uncover the embedded sociocultural meanings. For example, an advertisement for a car might be studied to learn more about societal views on masculinity or success (Berger, 2010).

Example of Semiotic Research

Title: Shielding the learned body: a semiotic analysis of school badges in New South Wales, Australia

Citation: Symes, C. (2023). Shielding the learned body: a semiotic analysis of school badges in New South Wales, Australia. Semiotica , 2023 (250), 167-190.

Overview: This study examines school badges in New South Wales, Australia, and explores their significance through a semiotic analysis. The badges, which are part of the school’s visual identity, are seen as symbolic representations that convey meanings. The analysis reveals that these badges often draw on heraldic models, incorporating elements like colors, names, motifs, and mottoes that reflect local culture and history, thus connecting students to their national identity. Additionally, the study highlights how some schools have shifted from traditional badges to modern logos and slogans, reflecting a more business-oriented approach.

15. Qualitative Longitudinal Studies

Definition: Qualitative Longitudinal Studies are a research method that involves repeated observation of the same items over an extended period of time.

Unlike a snapshot perspective, this method aims to piece together individual histories and examine the influences and impacts of change (Neale, 2019).

Qualitative Longitudinal Studies provide an in-depth understanding of change as it happens, including changes in people’s lives, their perceptions, and their behaviors.

For instance, this method could be used to follow a group of students through their schooling years to understand the evolution of their learning behaviors and attitudes towards education (Saldaña, 2003).

Example of Qualitative Longitudinal Research

Title: Patient and caregiver perspectives on managing pain in advanced cancer: a qualitative longitudinal study

Citation: Hackett, J., Godfrey, M., & Bennett, M. I. (2016). Patient and caregiver perspectives on managing pain in advanced cancer: a qualitative longitudinal study.  Palliative medicine ,  30 (8), 711-719.

Overview: This article examines how patients and their caregivers manage pain in advanced cancer through a qualitative longitudinal study. The researchers interviewed patients and caregivers at two different time points and collected audio diaries to gain insights into their experiences, making this study longitudinal.

Read my Full Guide on Longitudinal Research Here

16. Open-Ended Surveys

Definition: Open-Ended Surveys are a type of qualitative research method where respondents provide answers in their own words. Unlike closed-ended surveys, which limit responses to predefined options, open-ended surveys allow for expansive and unsolicited explanations (Fink, 2013).

Open-ended surveys are commonly used in a range of fields, from market research to social studies. As they don’t force respondents into predefined response categories, these surveys help to draw out rich, detailed data that might uncover new variables or ideas.

For example, an open-ended survey might be used to understand customer opinions about a new product or service (Lavrakas, 2008).

Contrast this to a quantitative closed-ended survey, like a Likert scale, which could theoretically help us to come up with generalizable data but is restricted by the questions on the questionnaire, meaning new and surprising data and insights can’t emerge from the survey results in the same way.

Example of Open-Ended Survey Research

Title: Advantages and disadvantages of technology in relationships: Findings from an open-ended survey

Citation: Hertlein, K. M., & Ancheta, K. (2014). Advantages and disadvantages of technology in relationships: Findings from an open-ended survey.  The Qualitative Report ,  19 (11), 1-11.

Overview: This article examines the advantages and disadvantages of technology in couple relationships through an open-ended survey method. Researchers analyzed responses from 410 undergraduate students to understand how technology affects relationships. They found that technology can contribute to relationship development, management, and enhancement, but it can also create challenges such as distancing, lack of clarity, and impaired trust.

17. Naturalistic Observation

Definition: Naturalistic Observation is a type of qualitative research method that involves observing individuals in their natural environments without interference or manipulation by the researcher.

Naturalistic observation is often used when conducting research on behaviors that cannot be controlled or manipulated in a laboratory setting (Kawulich, 2005).

It is frequently used in the fields of psychology, sociology, and anthropology. For instance, to understand the social dynamics in a schoolyard, a researcher could spend time observing the children interact during their recess, noting their behaviors, interactions, and conflicts without imposing their presence on the children’s activities (Forsyth, 2010).

Example of Naturalistic Observation Research

Title: Dispositional mindfulness in daily life: A naturalistic observation study

Citation: Kaplan, D. M., Raison, C. L., Milek, A., Tackman, A. M., Pace, T. W., & Mehl, M. R. (2018). Dispositional mindfulness in daily life: A naturalistic observation study. PloS one , 13 (11), e0206029.

Overview: In this study, researchers conducted two studies: one exploring assumptions about mindfulness and behavior, and the other using naturalistic observation to examine actual behavioral manifestations of mindfulness. They found that trait mindfulness is associated with a heightened perceptual focus in conversations, suggesting that being mindful is expressed primarily through sharpened attention rather than observable behavioral or social differences.

Read my Full Guide on Naturalistic Observation Here

18. Photo-Elicitation

Definition: Photo-elicitation utilizes photographs as a means to trigger discussions and evoke responses during interviews. This strategy aids in bringing out topics of discussion that may not emerge through verbal prompting alone (Harper, 2002).

Traditionally, Photo-Elicitation has been useful in various fields such as education, psychology, and sociology. The method involves the researcher or participants taking photographs, which are then used as prompts for discussion.

For instance, a researcher studying urban environmental issues might invite participants to photograph areas in their neighborhood that they perceive as environmentally detrimental, and then discuss each photo in depth (Clark-Ibáñez, 2004).

Example of Photo-Elicitation Research

Title: Early adolescent food routines: A photo-elicitation study

Citation: Green, E. M., Spivak, C., & Dollahite, J. S. (2021). Early adolescent food routines: A photo-elicitation study. Appetite, 158 .

Overview: This study focused on early adolescents (ages 10-14) and their food routines. Researchers conducted in-depth interviews using a photo-elicitation approach, where participants took photos related to their food choices and experiences. Through analysis, the study identified various routines and three main themes: family, settings, and meals/foods consumed, revealing how early adolescents view and are influenced by their eating routines.

Features of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a research method focused on understanding the meaning individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2013).

Some key features of this method include:

• Naturalistic Inquiry: Qualitative research happens in the natural setting of the phenomena, aiming to understand “real world” situations (Patton, 2015). This immersion in the field or subject allows the researcher to gather a deep understanding of the subject matter.
• Emphasis on Process: It aims to understand how events unfold over time rather than focusing solely on outcomes (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). The process-oriented nature of qualitative research allows researchers to investigate sequences, timing, and changes.
• Interpretive: It involves interpreting and making sense of phenomena in terms of the meanings people assign to them (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). This interpretive element allows for rich, nuanced insights into human behavior and experiences.
• Holistic Perspective: Qualitative research seeks to understand the whole phenomenon rather than focusing on individual components (Creswell, 2013). It emphasizes the complex interplay of factors, providing a richer, more nuanced view of the research subject.
• Prioritizes Depth over Breadth: Qualitative research favors depth of understanding over breadth, typically involving a smaller but more focused sample size (Hennink, Hutter, & Bailey, 2020). This enables detailed exploration of the phenomena of interest, often leading to rich and complex data.

Qualitative vs Quantitative Research

Qualitative research centers on exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2013).

It involves an in-depth approach to the subject matter, aiming to capture the richness and complexity of human experience.

Examples include conducting interviews, observing behaviors, or analyzing text and images.

There are strengths inherent in this approach. In its focus on understanding subjective experiences and interpretations, qualitative research can yield rich and detailed data that quantitative research may overlook (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).

Additionally, qualitative research is adaptive, allowing the researcher to respond to new directions and insights as they emerge during the research process.

However, there are also limitations. Because of the interpretive nature of this research, findings may not be generalizable to a broader population (Marshall & Rossman, 2014). Well-designed quantitative research, on the other hand, can be generalizable.

Moreover, the reliability and validity of qualitative data can be challenging to establish due to its subjective nature, unlike quantitative research, which is ideally more objective.

Compare Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methodologies in This Guide Here

In conclusion, qualitative research methods provide distinctive ways to explore social phenomena and understand nuances that quantitative approaches might overlook. Each method, from Ethnography to Photo-Elicitation, presents its strengths and weaknesses but they all offer valuable means of investigating complex, real-world situations. The goal for the researcher is not to find a definitive tool, but to employ the method best suited for their research questions and the context at hand (Almalki, 2016). Above all, these methods underscore the richness of human experience and deepen our understanding of the world around us.

Angrosino, M. (2007). Doing ethnographic and observational research. Sage Publications.

Areni, C. S., & Kim, D. (1994). The influence of in-store lighting on consumers’ examination of merchandise in a wine store. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 11 (2), 117-125.

Barker, C., Pistrang, N., & Elliott, R. (2016). Research Methods in Clinical Psychology: An Introduction for Students and Practitioners. John Wiley & Sons.

Baxter, P. & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative case study methodology: Study design and implementation for novice researchers. The Qualitative Report, 13 (4), 544-559.

Berger, A. A. (2010). The Objects of Affection: Semiotics and Consumer Culture. Palgrave Macmillan.

Bevan, M. T. (2014). A method of phenomenological interviewing. Qualitative health research, 24 (1), 136-144.

Birks, M., & Mills, J. (2015). Grounded theory: A practical guide . Sage Publications.

Bryman, A. (2015) . The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research. Sage Publications.

Chandler, D. (2017). Semiotics: The Basics. Routledge.

Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing grounded theory. Sage Publications.

Cheek, J. (2004). At the margins? Discourse analysis and qualitative research. Qualitative Health Research, 14(8), 1140-1150.

Clark-Ibáñez, M. (2004). Framing the social world with photo-elicitation interviews. American Behavioral Scientist, 47(12), 1507-1527.

Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches. Sage Publications.

Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage publications.

Crowe, S., Cresswell, K., Robertson, A., Huby, G., Avery, A., & Sheikh, A. (2011). The case study approach. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 11(100), 1-9.

Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2011). The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research. Sage.

Dewalt, K. M., & Dewalt, B. R. (2011). Participant observation: A guide for fieldworkers. Rowman Altamira.

Doody, O., Slevin, E., & Taggart, L. (2013). Focus group interviews in nursing research: part 1. British Journal of Nursing, 22(1), 16-19.

Durham, A. (2019). Autoethnography. In P. Atkinson (Ed.), Qualitative Research Methods. Oxford University Press.

Duriau, V. J., Reger, R. K., & Pfarrer, M. D. (2007). A content analysis of the content analysis literature in organization studies: Research themes, data sources, and methodological refinements. Organizational Research Methods, 10(1), 5-34.

Evans, J. (2010). The Everyday Lives of Men: An Ethnographic Investigation of Young Adult Male Identity. Peter Lang.

Farrall, S. (2006). What is qualitative longitudinal research? Papers in Social Research Methods, Qualitative Series, No.11, London School of Economics, Methodology Institute.

Fielding, J., & Fielding, N. (2008). Synergy and synthesis: integrating qualitative and quantitative data. The SAGE handbook of social research methods, 555-571.

Fink, A. (2013). How to conduct surveys: A step-by-step guide . SAGE.

Forsyth, D. R. (2010). Group Dynamics . Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Fugard, A. J. B., & Potts, H. W. W. (2015). Supporting thinking on sample sizes for thematic analyses: A quantitative tool. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 18 (6), 669–684.

Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Aldine de Gruyter.

Gray, J. R., Grove, S. K., & Sutherland, S. (2017). Burns and Grove’s the Practice of Nursing Research E-Book: Appraisal, Synthesis, and Generation of Evidence. Elsevier Health Sciences.

Greenwood, D. J., & Levin, M. (2016). Introduction to action research: Social research for social change. SAGE.

Harper, D. (2002). Talking about pictures: A case for photo elicitation. Visual Studies, 17 (1), 13-26.

Heinonen, T. (2012). Making Sense of the Social: Human Sciences and the Narrative Turn. Rozenberg Publishers.

Heisley, D. D., & Levy, S. J. (1991). Autodriving: A photoelicitation technique. Journal of Consumer Research, 18 (3), 257-272.

Hennink, M. M., Hutter, I., & Bailey, A. (2020). Qualitative Research Methods . SAGE Publications Ltd.

Hsieh, H. F., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15 (9), 1277–1288.

Jorgensen, D. L. (2015). Participant Observation. In Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences: An Interdisciplinary, Searchable, and Linkable Resource. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Jorgensen, M., & Phillips, L. (2002). Discourse Analysis as Theory and Method . SAGE.

Josselson, R. (2011). Narrative research: Constructing, deconstructing, and reconstructing story. In Five ways of doing qualitative analysis . Guilford Press.

Kawulich, B. B. (2005). Participant observation as a data collection method. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 6 (2).

Khan, S. (2014). Qualitative Research Method: Grounded Theory. Journal of Basic and Clinical Pharmacy, 5 (4), 86-88.

Koshy, E., Koshy, V., & Waterman, H. (2010). Action Research in Healthcare . SAGE.

Krippendorff, K. (2013). Content Analysis: An Introduction to its Methodology. SAGE.

Lannon, J., & Cooper, P. (2012). Humanistic Advertising: A Holistic Cultural Perspective. International Journal of Advertising, 15 (2), 97–111.

Lavrakas, P. J. (2008). Encyclopedia of survey research methods. SAGE Publications.

Lieblich, A., Tuval-Mashiach, R., & Zilber, T. (2008). Narrative research: Reading, analysis and interpretation. Sage Publications.

Mackey, A., & Gass, S. M. (2015). Second language research: Methodology and design. Routledge.

Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (2014). Designing qualitative research. Sage publications.

McAdams, D. P., Josselson, R., & Lieblich, A. (2006). Identity and story: Creating self in narrative. American Psychological Association.

Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2015). Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation. Jossey-Bass.

Mick, D. G. (1986). Consumer Research and Semiotics: Exploring the Morphology of Signs, Symbols, and Significance. Journal of Consumer Research, 13 (2), 196-213.

Morgan, D. L. (2010). Focus groups as qualitative research. Sage Publications.

Mulhall, A. (2003). In the field: notes on observation in qualitative research. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 41 (3), 306-313.

Neale, B. (2019). What is Qualitative Longitudinal Research? Bloomsbury Publishing.

Nolan, L. B., & Renderos, T. B. (2012). A focus group study on the influence of fatalism and religiosity on cancer risk perceptions in rural, eastern North Carolina. Journal of religion and health, 51 (1), 91-104.

Padilla-Díaz, M. (2015). Phenomenology in educational qualitative research: Philosophy as science or philosophical science? International Journal of Educational Excellence, 1 (2), 101-110.

Parker, I. (2014). Discourse dynamics: Critical analysis for social and individual psychology . Routledge.

Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative research & evaluation methods: Integrating theory and practice . Sage Publications.

Polkinghorne, D. E. (2013). Narrative configuration in qualitative analysis. In Life history and narrative. Routledge.

Puts, M. T., Tapscott, B., Fitch, M., Howell, D., Monette, J., Wan-Chow-Wah, D., Krzyzanowska, M., Leighl, N. B., Springall, E., & Alibhai, S. (2014). Factors influencing adherence to cancer treatment in older adults with cancer: a systematic review. Annals of oncology, 25 (3), 564-577.

Qu, S. Q., & Dumay, J. (2011). The qualitative research interview . Qualitative research in accounting & management.

Ali, J., & Bhaskar, S. B. (2016). Basic statistical tools in research and data analysis. Indian Journal of Anaesthesia, 60 (9), 662–669.

Rosenbaum, M. S. (2017). Exploring the social supportive role of third places in consumers’ lives. Journal of Service Research, 20 (1), 26-42.

Saldaña, J. (2003). Longitudinal Qualitative Research: Analyzing Change Through Time . AltaMira Press.

Saldaña, J. (2014). The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers. SAGE.

Shernoff, D. J., Csikszentmihalyi, M., Shneider, B., & Shernoff, E. S. (2003). Student engagement in high school classrooms from the perspective of flow theory. School Psychology Quarterly, 18 (2), 158-176.

Smith, J. A. (2015). Qualitative Psychology: A Practical Guide to Research Methods . Sage Publications.

Smith, M. K. (2010). Action Research. The encyclopedia of informal education.

Sue, V. M., & Ritter, L. A. (2012). Conducting online surveys . SAGE Publications.

Van Auken, P. M., Frisvoll, S. J., & Stewart, S. I. (2010). Visualising community: using participant-driven photo-elicitation for research and application. Local Environment, 15 (4), 373-388.

Van Voorhis, F. L., & Morgan, B. L. (2007). Understanding Power and Rules of Thumb for Determining Sample Sizes. Tutorials in Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 3 (2), 43–50.

Wodak, R., & Meyer, M. (2015). Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis . SAGE.

Zuber-Skerritt, O. (2018). Action research for developing educational theories and practices . Routledge.

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 15 Self-Actualization Examples (Maslow's Hierarchy)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ Forest Schools Philosophy & Curriculum, Explained!
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ Montessori's 4 Planes of Development, Explained!
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ Montessori vs Reggio Emilia vs Steiner-Waldorf vs Froebel

Leave a Comment Cancel Reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• PubMed/Medline
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

On time: a qualitative study of swedish students’, parents’ and teachers’ views on school attendance, with a focus on tardiness.

1. Introduction

1.1. absenteeism, 1.2. specific on tardiness, 1.3. the swedish school system, 2. materials and methods, 2.1. participants and procedures, 2.2. analysis, 2.3. research ethics.

Yes, that they are in place, at the lessons. And on breaks and lunches too, of course. So, they are in place on school days, that’s what I think. (Mother 1)

Yes, that they are on time and are here (in school) when they should be. (Mother 2)

Yes and have what they need to bring to school, like books, clothes for physical education, bags, or whatever it is. (Mother 1)

3.1. Signals

A time is usually to be held to for a reason. So if you do not show up or do not bother being on time, then you do not show respect for it. Everything I think is about consideration, respect, and cooperation. We are numerous at the school; it should work for everyone. And then slipping in when you feel like it or not showing up at all, this affects oneself first and foremost but affects others as well. You get into it, there just has to be a routine...In our family, we are useless at being on time, but…you have to try. And then there are surely families who, ‘but my goodness, come on time, it is well a worldly thing, there are worse problems in life’. But somehow, the school must uphold routines. If you don’t have a routine in school...and do not have one at home, where do you have it, if you are a youth? You have these two platforms and then perhaps a hobby. And then there must be security in this. (Mother 1)

So that you...And that you get in contact directly, so... (to the Guardian), if a student does not come to school, for example, and you have not received an illness report or any other absences, then you must call immediately, of course.

They begin arriving a little bit late from breaks, linger, don’t take things seriously, or the student left home a little bit late. And of course, it affects others too, those who are always there on time [laughter]. So, of course, that is part of the reason why we have tried to work on it.

3.2. Reactions

Some teachers, they do this... If you are a little late, you cannot get in; then, you get marked even more absent than you really were… So, you really were earlier than the report shows because the teacher didn’t let you in. And then you want to be on time. You do not want to get an unnecessarily long absence. The teachers lock the door, not just close it.

3.3. Responses

4. discussion, 4.1. signals, 4.2. reactions, 4.3. responses, 4.4. it depends on…, 4.5. methodological discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, conflicts of interest.

• Gustafsson, J.-E.; Allodi Westling, M.; Alin Åkerman, B.; Eriksson, C.; Eriksson, L.; Fischbein, S.; Granlund, M.; Gustafsson, P.; Ljungdahl, S.; Ogden, T.; et al. School Learning and Mental Health: A Systematic Review ; The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences: Stockholm, Sweden, 2010. [ Google Scholar ]
• Augustsson, H.; Hagquist, C. Kartläggning av Studier om Nordiska Ungdomars Psykiska Hälsa ; [Review of Nordic’ Youth Mental Health]; Nordic School of Public Health NHV: Göteborg, Sweden, 2011. [ Google Scholar ]
• Baker, J.A.; Maupin, A.N. School satisfaction and children’s positive school adjustment. In Handbook of Positive Psychology in the Schools ; Gilman, R., Huebner, E.S., Furlong, M.J., Eds.; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2009; pp. 189–196. [ Google Scholar ]
• Martínez, I.; Murgui, S.; García, O.F.; García, F. Parenting in the digital era: Protective and risk parenting styles for traditional bullying and cyberbullying victimization. Comput. Hum. Behavoir 2019 , 90 , 84–92. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Harrison, B.K.; Clarcke, L.; Ungerer, J.A. Children’s Drawings Provide a New Perspective on Teacher-Child Relationship Quality and School Adjustment. Early Child. Res. Q. 2007 , 22 , 55–71. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rodríguez-Fernández, A.; Ramos-Díaz, E.; Madariaga, J.M.; Arribillaga, A.; Galende, N. Steps in the construction and verification of an explanatory model of psychosocial adjustment. Eur. J. Educ. Psychol. 2016 , 9 , 20–28. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Gómez-Ortiz, O.; Romera, E.M.; Ortega-Ruiz, R.; Del Rey, R. Parenting practices as risk or preventive factors for adolescent involvement in cyberbullying: Contribution of children and parent gender. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Hhealth 2018 , 15 , 2664. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Serna, C.; Martínez, I. Parental Involvement as a Protective Factor in School Adjustment among Retained and Promoted Secondary Students. Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 7080. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Lorence, B.; Hidalgo, V.; Pérez-Padilla, J.; Menéndez, S. The Role of Parenting Styles on Behavior Problem Profiles of Adolescents. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019 , 16 , 2767. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Rosser-Limiñana, A.; Suriá-Martínez, R.; Mateo Pérez, M.Á. Children Exposed to Intimate Partner Violence: Association Among Battered Mothers’ Parenting Competences and Children’s Behavior. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020 , 17 , 1134. [ Google Scholar ]
• Rumberger, R.W. Dropping out of Middle School: A Multilevel Analysis of Students and Schools. Am. Educ. Res. J. 1995 , 32 , 583–625. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Green, L.W.; Richard, L.; Potvin, L. Ecological foundations of health promotion. Am. J. Health Promot. 1996 , 10 , 270–281. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• World Health Organization. The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion. In Proceedings of the First International Conference on Health Promotion, Ottawa, ON, Canada, 21 November 1986. [ Google Scholar ]
• Nutbeam, D. Evaluating health promotion—Progress, problems and solutions. Health Promot. Int. 1998 , 13 , 27–44. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kickbusch, I. The contribution of the World Health Organization to a new public health and health promotion. Am. J. Public Health 2003 , 93 , 383–388. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Lee, A.; Lo, A.S.C.; Keung, M.W.; Kwong, C.M.A.; Wong, K.K. Effective health promoting school for better health of children and adolescents: Indicators for success. BMC Public Health 2019 , 19 , 1088. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Nutbeam, D.; Clarkson, J.; Phillips, K.; Everett, V.; Hill, A.; Catford, J. The health-promoting school: Organisation and policy development in Welsh secondary schools. Health Educ. J. 1987 , 46 , 109–115. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• St Leger, L. Protocols and guidelines for health promoting schools. Promot. Educ. 2005 , 12 , 145–147. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Gren-Landell, M.; Ekerfelt Allvin, C.; Bradley, M.; Andersson, M.; Andersson, G. Teachers’ views on risk factors for problematic school absenteeism in Swedish primary school students. Educ. Psychol. Pract. 2015 , 31 , 412–423. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Keppens, G.; Spruyt, B. Truancy in Europe: Does the type of educational system matter? Eur. J. Educ. 2018 , 53 , 414–426. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Claes, E.; Hooghe, M.; Reeskens, T. Truancy as a contextual and school-related problem: A comparative multilevel analysis of country and school characteristics on civic knowledge among 14 year olds. Educ. Stud. 2009 , 35 , 123–142. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• OECD PISA 2015 Results. Policies and Practices for Successful Schools ; OECD: Paris, France, 2016; Volume 2. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kearney, C.A. School absenteeism and school refusal behavior in youth: A contemporary review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 2008 , 28 , 451–471. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kearny, C.A. Bridging the gap among professionals who address youths with school absenteeism: Overview and suggestions for consensus. Prof. Psychol. Res. Pract. 2003 , 34 , 57–65. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Reid, K. The causes, views and traits of school absenteeism and truancy: An analytical review. Res. Educ. 2005 , 74 , 59–82. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Heyne, D.; Gren-Landell, M.; Melvin, G.; Gentle-Genitty, C. Differentiation Between School Attendance Problems: Why and How? Cogn. Behav. Pract. 2018 , 26 , 8–34. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Rocque, M.; Jennings, W.G.; Piquero, A.R.; Ozkan, T.; Farrington, D.P. The Importance of School Attendance: Findings From the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development on the Life-Course Effects of Truancy. Crime Delinq. 2017 , 63 , 592–612. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Edralin, D.M. Why do workers misbehave in the workplace. J. Manag. 2015 , 2 , 88–108. [ Google Scholar ]
• Thorhauge, M.; Cherchi, E.; Rich, J. How flexible is flexible? Accounting for the effect of rescheduling possibilities in choice of departure time for work trips. Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract. 2016 , 86 , 177–193. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Lockwood, L. Causes of tardiness. Sch. Rev. 1930 , 38 , 538–543. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gottfried, M.A. The achievement effects of tardy classmates: Evidence in urban elementary schools. Sch. Eff. Sch. Improv. 2014 , 25 , 3–28. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• D’Amico, L. Teacher treatment of tardiness. Clear. House 1956 , 31 , 160. [ Google Scholar ]
• Freeman, J.; Wilkinson, S.; Kowitt, J.; Kittelman, A.; Brigid Flannery, K. supported practices for improving attendance in high schools: A review of the literature. Educ. Res. Eval. 2018 , 24 , 481–503. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Licht, B.G.; Gard, T.; Guardino, C. Modifying school attendance of special education high school students. J. Educ. Res. 1991 , 84 , 368–373. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Thacher, P.V.; Onyper, S.V. Longitudinal outcomes of start time delay on sleep, behavior, and achievement in high school. Sleep 2016 , 39 , 271–281. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ugwuegbulam, C.N.; Ibrahim, H. Lateness to School Remediation Game. J. Educ. Pract. 2015 , 6 , 141–145. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tyre, A.; Feurborn, L.; Pierce, J. Schoolwide intervention to reduce chronic tardiness at the middle and high school levels. Prev. Sch. Fail. 2011 , 55 , 132–139. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Swedish National Agency for Education ; SKOLFS 2010:37; Swedish National Agency for Education: Stockholm, Sweden, 2010.
• Löfstedt, P. Socioeconomic Inequality and Student Outcomes in Swedish Schools. In Socioeconomic Inequality and Student Outcomes ; Springer: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 2019; pp. 133–152. [ Google Scholar ]
• Volante, L.; Schnepf, S.V.; Jerrrim, J.; Klinger, D.A. Cross-National Trends, Policies, and Practices. In Socioeconomic Inequality and Student Outcomes in Swedish Schools ; Löfstedt, P., Ed.; Springer: Singapore, 2019. [ Google Scholar ]
• Green-Landell, M. Saknad! Uppmärksamma Elevers Frånvaro Och Agera, SOU 2016:94 ; [Missed! Be Aware of Students Tardiness and React on it]; Norstedts Juridik AB: Stockholm, Sweden, 2016. [ Google Scholar ]
• Wheaton, A.G.; Chpaman, D.P.; Croft, J.B. School Start Times, Sleep, Behavioral, Health, and Academic Outcomes: A Review of the Literature. J. Sch. Health 2016 , 86 , 363–381. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Stokols, D. Establishing and maintaining healthy environments: Toward a social ecology of health promotion. Am. Psychol. 1992 , 47 , 6. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Green, L.W.; Poland, B.D.; Rootman, I. The settings approach to health promotion. In Settings for Health Promotion: Linking Theroy to Practice ; Poland, B.D., Green, L.W., Rootman, I., Eds.; Sage: Thousands Oaks, CA, USA, 2000. [ Google Scholar ]
• Rootman, I.; Goodstadt, M. Evaluation in Health Promotion: Principles and Perspectives ; WHO Regional Office Europe: Copenhagen, Denmark, 2001. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sahin, S.; Arseven, Z.; Kiliç, A. Causes of Student Absenteeism and School Dropouts. Int. J. Instr. 2016 , 9 , 195–210. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Greenbaum, T.L. The Handbook for Focus Group Research ; Sage: Thousands Oaks, CA, USA, 1998. [ Google Scholar ]
• Morgan, D.L. Focus Groups. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 1996 , 22 , 129–152. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Morgan, D.L. Focus Groups as Qualitative Research ; Sage: London, UK, 1997. [ Google Scholar ]
• Frey, J.H.; Fontana, A. The Group Interview in Social Research. Soc. Sci. J. 1991 , 28 , 175–187. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Swedish Governement. SFS 2003:460 om Etikprövning av Forskning som Avser Människor [Ethical Review on Human Research] ; Utbildningsdepartementet: Stockholm, Sweden, 2003.
• Wernersson, I.; Ve, H. Research on gender and education in the Nordic countries. Scand. J. Educ. Res. 1997 , 41 , 295–317. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Braun, V.; Clarke, V.; Hayfield, N.; Terry, G. Thematic Analysis. In Handbook of Research Methods in Health Social Sciences ; Liamputtong, P., Ed.; Springer: Singapore, 2019; pp. 843–860. [ Google Scholar ]
• Buhler, M.; Karlsson, A.; Österholm, T. Lågaffektivt Bemötande Och Problematisk Skolfrånvaro ; [Low-Impact Replay and Problematic School Absenteeism]; Studentlitteratur: Lund, Sweden, 2018. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gase, L.N.; DeFosset, A.; Perry, R.; Kuo, T. Youths’ perspectives on the reasons underlying school truancy and opportunities to improve school attendance. Qual. Rep. 2016 , 21 , 299–320. [ Google Scholar ]
• Rowe, F.; Stewart, D. Promoting connectedness through whole-school approaches: Key elements and pathways of influence. Health Educ. 2011 , 111 , 49–65. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bond, L.; Butler, H.; Thomas, L.; Carlin, J.; Glover, S.; Bowes, G.; Patton, G. Social and school connectedness in early secondary school as predictors of late teenage substance use, mental health, and academic outcomes. J. Adolesc. Health 2007 , 40 , 357.e9–357.e18. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Wentzel, K.R. Social relationships and motivation in middle school: The role of parents, teachers, and peers. J. Educ. Psychol. 1998 , 90 , 202. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Warne, M.; Snyder, K.; Gillander Gådin, K. Promoting and equal and healthy environment: Swedish student’s views of daily life at school. Qual. Health Res. 2013 , 23 , 1354–1368. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Banfield, S.R.; Richmond, V.P.; McCroskey, J.C. The effect of teacher misbehaviors on teacher credibility and affect for the teacher. Commun. Educ. 2006 , 55 , 63–72. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Trigwell, K.; Prosser, M. Changing approaches to teaching: A relational perspective. Stud. High. Educ. 1996 , 21 , 275–284. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Böckler, N.; Seeger, T.; Sitzer, P.; Heitmeyer, W. School Shootings: International Research, Case Studies, and Concepts for Prevention ; Springer Science & Business Media: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2012. [ Google Scholar ]
• Swedish Governement. Skollagen 2010:800 ; [Swedish School Law]; Utbildningsdepartementet: Stockholm, Sweden, 2010.
• Ferreira, M.; Cardoso, A.P.; Abrantes, J.L. Motivation and relationship of the student with the school as factors involved in the perceived learning. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 2011 , 29 , 1707–1714. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Skinner, E.A.; Belmont, M.J. Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year. J. Educ. Psychol. 1993 , 85 , 571. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cornelius-White, J. Learner-Centered Teacher-Student Relationships Are Effective: A Meta-Analysis. Rev. Educ. Res. 2007 , 77 , 113–143. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hill, N.E.; Tyson, D.F. Parental involvement in middle school: A meta-analytic assessment of the strategies that promote achievement. Dev. Psychol. 2009 , 45 , 740–763. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bronfenbrenner, U. The Ecology ofH Development ; Harvard University Press: London, UK, 1979. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tones, K. Health promotion in schools: The radical imperative. In The Health Promoting School: International Advances in Theory, Evaluation and Practice ; Clift, S., Bruun Jensen, B., Eds.; Danish University of Education Press: Copenhagen, Denmark, 2005. [ Google Scholar ]
• Rowling, L. Strengthening “school” in school mental health promotion. Health Educ. 2009 , 109 , 357–368. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Brouwer-Borghuis, M.L.; Heyne, D.; Sauter, F.M.; Scholte, R.H.J. The Link: An Alternative Educational Program in the Netherlands to Reengage School-Refusing Adolescents With Schooling. Cogn. Behav. Pract. 2019 , 26 , 75–91. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Thapa, A.; Cohen, J.; Guffey, S.; Higgins-D’Alessandro, A. A review of school climate research. Rev. Educ. Res. 2013 , 83 , 357–385. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sarsour, K.; Sheridan, M.; Jutte, D.; Nuru-Jeter, A.; Hinshaw, S.; Boyce, W.T. Family Socioeconomic Status and Child Executive Functions: The Roles of Language, Home Environment, and Single Parenthood. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 2011 , 17 , 120–132. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Allodi, M.W. Equal Opportunities in Educational Systems: The case of Sweden. Eur. J. Educ. 2007 , 42 , 133–146. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Von Bertalanffy, L. General system theory—Foundations, development, applications. Gen. Syst. 1956 , 1 , 11–17. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sheppard, A. Research Section: School attendance and attainment: Poor attenders’ perceptions of schoolwork and parental involvement in their education. Br. J. Spec. Educ. 2009 , 36 , 104–111. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]

Share and Cite

Warne, M.; Svensson, Å.; Tirén, L.; Wall, E. On Time: A Qualitative Study of Swedish Students’, Parents’ and Teachers’ Views on School Attendance, with a Focus on Tardiness. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020 , 17 , 1430. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041430

Warne M, Svensson Å, Tirén L, Wall E. On Time: A Qualitative Study of Swedish Students’, Parents’ and Teachers’ Views on School Attendance, with a Focus on Tardiness. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health . 2020; 17(4):1430. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041430

Warne, Maria, Åsa Svensson, Lina Tirén, and Erika Wall. 2020. "On Time: A Qualitative Study of Swedish Students’, Parents’ and Teachers’ Views on School Attendance, with a Focus on Tardiness" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 4: 1430. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041430

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

A qualitative study on the experiences and challenges of MBA students' engagement with a business research methods module

Journal of Work-Applied Management

ISSN : 2205-2062

Article publication date: 17 March 2021

Issue publication date: 5 April 2022

Undertaking research as part of a business degree qualification undoubtedly enables students to develop practical and life-long skills. Nevertheless, students seem to find it challenging undertaking a research project. This study set out to explore the experiences of a group of MBA students who recently undertook their business and management research projects as part of their MBA degree program.

Design/methodology/approach

The study was carried out in a UK higher education institution and is based on an MBA business and management research module. The purpose of the module is to enable learners to develop advanced-level independent research and critical problem-solving skills within a business context. The study adopted a qualitative approach to capture a broad mix of students' experiences and perceptions on the module. The sample includes previous MBA students on different cohorts and different nationalities.

Outcomes of the study show that though students are stretched in the business and management project process they develop a diversity of skills required in the workplace while conducting their projects. The study findings also show that the practical implications of the students' projects and progressive support from their project supervisors contribute to the successful completion of their projects and subsequent attainment of their MBA degree.

Originality/value

Outcomes of this study further reveal that undertaking business and management projects creates a rewarding learning experience for learners/students, develops confident graduates as well as enables effective applications of theory into practice.

• Business research
• Research methods

Nzekwe-Excel, C. (2022), "A qualitative study on the experiences and challenges of MBA students' engagement with a business research methods module", Journal of Work-Applied Management , Vol. 14 No. 1, pp. 46-62. https://doi.org/10.1108/JWAM-08-2020-0040

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2021, Chinny Nzekwe-Excel

Published in Journal of Work-Applied Management . Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

Introduction: study context and rationale

Undertaking or conducting business and management research projects can be a daunting experience for students, probably because of the requirement to adopt an academic stance while undertaking the task/ project, which is intended to be practice-based. Students may demonstrate full engagement on the idea of undertaking a project or research; however they seem to disconnect from the requirement of doing so within the confines of academic research process. Thus, it can be a challenge for an academic, who is teaching a research methods module to guide/ encourage students to stay within the scope of an achievable research study ( Lewthwaite and Nind, 2016 ). Over the past four decades, there is a reasonable number of studies on the challenges associated with teaching research methods as well as suggestions on how to encourage students to become more engaged and less anxious while undertaking their research projects ( Ransford and Butler, 1982 ; Zablotsky, 2001 ; Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2003 ; Ekmekci et al. , 2012 ; Lewthwaite and Nind, 2016 ; Mullins, 2017 ). Carr (2014) collated and presented discussions from five studies on the challenges associated with teaching research methods in business and management to both undergraduate and MBA students. The challenges were around the epistemological assumptions and differing methodological conceptions of tutors, equipping staff/ tutors with statistical capabilities for quantitative research methodology and enabling students to develop the skills or aptitudes associated with the research process. The completion of students' projects can also be viewed in the context of collaborative or paired projects; an empirical study carried out by Ronnie (2017) shows high levels of positive outcomes. Amongst other factors, Ronnie's study reveals that early and ongoing conversations between the students, trust in each other's ability and self-reflection contribute to productive outcomes in the paired-project process.

The difficulty for students to engage with and to link the knowledge gained in the research methods teaching to the entirety of their higher education study is a recognisable challenge for the students ( Winn, 1995 ; Chapdelaine and Chapman, 1999 ; Ekmekci et al. , 2012 ). Winn (1995) suggests that live organisational issues or projects based on problems within a specific organisation can offer a unique opportunity toward mitigating such challenges. Similarly, Garnett et al. (2016) argue that there is the need for the projects to be grounded in real-time work-related issues. This may mean a review and subsequent redesign or reformation of the research methods module within the business and management discipline. Ekmekci et al. (2012) outline a number of reflective questions/ recommendations and associated implications on how to enable students to apply the knowledge gained in their research methods course. A summary of the authors' recommendations show that tutors of the research methods course play a significant role in creating the right atmosphere that will enable students navigate their learning in a meaningful way.

With particular focus on qualitative research approach, Cassell (2018) discussed the challenges faced by over 200 MBA students in conducting their business and management research. Cassell demonstrated the need for the students to develop the knowledge, skills and competences required for undertaking qualitative research, which can be used for effective management practice. While the focus of the business and management projects may not be categorically on aptitude or skills development, Toledano-O'Farrill (2017) argues that students are expected to develop workplace skills as a result of their involvement with the project activities. For example, qualitative research which involves a series of questioning between the researcher and the respondent as part of the data collection process for the research enables the researcher to develop skills such as critical thinking, reflective ability and communication skills ( Wall et al. , 2017a , b ).

Evidence shows that MBA students enrol on their MBA course with minimal work experience and critical thinking ability ( Schaupp and Vitullo, 2019 ), which highlights the need for research methods to be taught in such a way that students are enabled to “build-up” the required knowledge and competences ( Galliers and Huang, 2012 ). Similarly, Llamas and Boza (2011) argue that research methods by definition should be applicable to a specific discipline ( or practice ). In a similar line of argument, Beardwell and Claydon (2007 , cited in Rowe et al. , 2017 ) echo that employers prefer graduates who have the ability to reflect and synthesise opinions through critical thinking. The challenges of undertaking their business and management research projects raise the questions: how MBA students apply critical thinking to practical problems, how to keep them engaged throughout the research process and essentially how to enable them to confidently develop or enhance a wide range of personal and professional skills, which are a necessity in today's workplace.

Therefore, the aim of this study is to explore the experiences of a group of MBA students who recently undertook their business research module and completed their business and management research project as part of their MBA degree program.

Research module design

This study explores student experiences in completing a business and management research module and in carrying out a business and management research project. One of the key requirements of the research module is for students to define their project topics themselves with assistance from their project supervisors. The module is developed to include interactive teaching components, action-learning sets (ALS), which are designed to be student-led and tutor-facilitated and individual (and in some cases, group) supervision. The module design incorporates the active-blended learning concepts, including a combination of face-to-face and virtual/ online sessions.

Planning the business and management research

Conducting and writing up the literature review

Deciding on the right methodological approaches; Research Governance and Ethics

Collecting and gathering data

Analysing and interpreting data

Dissemination and presentation: Write-up of the project report.

The ALS are designed to help consolidate the research project process, enable students to frame their research ideology and to make more tailored decisions for their individual business and management research. At this stage of the process, students may become anxious initially; however with support and guidance from their project supervisors, they should be able to channel their energy and anxiety toward making better informed decisions and choices for their business and management research. It is also during the ALS classes that students begin to develop the confidence to undertake their individual business and management research projects; the ALS classes provide an environment for learners to share their research experiences, express their challenges and suggest strategies with tailored support or advice from their project supervisors.

Methodology

Paradigm and research stance.

An interpretivist paradigm was adopted for this study; this enabled gaining an understanding of the research focus through subjective relationship with the participants ( Manroop, 2017 ). Interpretivism places focus on the perceptions, interpretations and experiences of individuals ( Cohen et al. , 2010 ; Fisher, 2010 ). Therefore, interpretivism was assumed for this study with the intention to individually question the study participants and to gain an understanding of their experiences from undertaking their business and management research projects. Consequently, a qualitative methodology was employed, which created a platform to generate in-depth personal information on the subject under study. This approach was considered more appropriate considering the intention to explore the views and experiences of a diversity of postgraduate students who have recently undertaken the assessed business and management research module. Thus, this methodology enabled the investigation of student learning experience in the area of undertaking business and management research and thorough evaluation of the perceptions of different categories of students.

This study recruited participants from a United Kingdom (UK) public university with campuses in the UK and two partner institutions in Vietnam. Precisely, the concept of purposeful sampling was used, which means that a selection of students enrolled on the business and management research module (under discussion) was recruited as participants for the study because they could purposefully inform an understanding of the aim of the study ( Creswell, 2013 ). A total of four cohorts from two academic years (2016/17 and 2017/18) were considered for this study, which had a total of 54 students enrolled on the module. 33 were contacted, and 13 agreed to be part of the study. However, only 11 attended the interview sessions, which resulted in a small sample. Nonetheless, there is evidence to suggest that the sample size of 11 for a qualitative study can be considered as being suitable. Morse (1994 , cited in Guest et al. , 2006 ) recommended a minimum of six participants while Dukes (1984) and Reimen (1986) (both cited in Creswell, 2013 ) recommended a sample size of 3–10. As perceived by 14 qualitative research experts collated by Baker et al. (2012) , the sample size for a qualitative study varies and will depend on the number of participants who are sufficient to provide evidence on the issue under discussion; some of the experts argue that one interview is sometimes sufficient (p. 16; 24), while some other experts suggest a minimum sample size of 12 (p. 11; 19).

This study's population (54) comprised students who received the same teaching sessions from the same research module. It is aimed at exploring the students' experiences on undertaking the business research module and completing their research project; therefore, effort was made to draw rich, detailed responses and insights from the 11 participants. Subsequently, critical evaluations of the collected data were carried out. Thus, data saturation was considered and achieved through the sampling process, data collection strategy, the study timeframe and data analysis. The 11 participants who contributed to the study are recent MBA graduates of the UK Higher Education Institution under study, who achieved varied grade categories in the business and management research module assessment. All the participants were on full-time MBA programme and eight were in some form of employment during their MBA study. Details of the participants are shown in Table 1 . The 11 participants comprised five participants who had the module taught and delivered in the UK and six participants who had the module taught and delivered outside the UK (in Vietnam).

Approach and data collection procedure

The interview technique was the primary data collection tool that was adopted to capture the students' experiences in undertaking their business and management research projects as well as their perceptions on the research module under study. All the interview sessions were carried out between March and June 2019, when the students/participants were not under any form of academic pressure in terms of exams or pending assignments/resits. In addition, all the interview sessions were carried out in consideration of the participants' availability and convenience. Prior to the data collection, appropriate ethical approval was adhered to, which included obtaining each participant's signed consent before the interview sessions. A participant information sheet, which outlined the purpose of the study and explained the conditions for participation was given to each interview participant before conducting the interviews. Subsequently, voluntary participation, issues of strict confidentiality and participants' anonymity were established. Prior to the data collection, an individual email containing the consent form was sent to each participant to sign their consent to participate in the interview. Each of the 11 participants had their one interview session organised and carried out in a formal fashion, and each interview session lasted approximately 40 min (see Table 1 ). During the interview sessions, simpler opening questions were used to ease the interviewees, thereby ensuring that any form of tension or anxiety was eliminated or reduced ( Nzekwe-Excel, 2012 ). Similarly, pertinent closing questions were used to enable the interviewees make concluding remarks and/or additional comments to their earlier responses. Effort was made to keep the participants within the focus of the study by highlighting the purpose of the study as well as asking additional questions for clarity. In addition, each interview was audio-recorded and fully transcribed.

Students/ participants' expectations from the research module before the teaching/ delivery

Students/ participants' expectations from the research module during the teaching/ delivery

Students/ participants' positive experiences while undertaking their business and management research projects

Students/ participants' challenging experiences while undertaking their business and management research projects and how these were managed

Students/ participants' perceptions on whether their expectations were met and the benefits of the business and management research module

The participants' recommendations in the review/ redesign of the business and management research module

Analytical procedure

The concept of thematic analysis was used in analysing and interpreting the data. Precisely, thematic analysis was used for identifying themes and patterns of behaviour or meanings in the interview/ qualitative dataset. The themes are developed by placing the initial coding of the data in such a way that they can be moved around to form connections with data that has similar coding ( Howitt and Cramer, 2008 ). Themes are defined as “conversation topics, vocabulary, recurring activities, meanings, feelings, and proverbs” ( Taylor and Bogdan, 1984 , p. 131, cited in Aronson, 1994 ). For the purpose of this study, the themes are phrases or comments, also known as the participants' responses. Therefore, thematic analysis was employed because of its flexibility in identifying participants' experiences, views and behaviours, which seeks to understand what participants' think, feel and do ( Clarke and Braun, 2017 ). The six phases of implementing thematic analysis as suggested by Braun and Clarke (2006) were considered in analysing the collected/ interview data of this study. The six phases include: familiarisation of the data, generation of initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing the themes, defining and naming the themes and then producing the report.

Sufficient time was dedicated toward transcribing, reviewing the data as well as making initial notes. The NVIVO qualitative data analysis software was employed for the initial coding process of the data, which subsequently helped in searching for/ identifying themes. NVIVO provided a platform for grouping the data in different ways using folders, sets and cases for coding, easy access and retrieval of the data ( Wiltshier, 2011 ). As an approach to data analyses, the identified themes (generated data) were reviewed, and named by managing, classifying, and categorising the data using a process of reduction and coding technique ( Nzekwe-Excel, 2012 ). Subsequently, meaningful textual segments were derived based on similar and/or dissimilar viewpoints of the study's participants ( Nzekwe-Excel, 2012 ).

Data analyses and findings

The first two interview questions were aimed at exploring the students' preparedness and engagement prior to and during the delivery of the business and management research module. Responses from these questions were grouped under the themed-category labelled “Preparedness”. The theme “Preparedness” was used because it reflects how students were prepared for the business and management research module, including their expectations and learning needs.

The third and fourth questions were aimed at exploring the students' critical thinking ability and their engagement with the module. Responses from these questions were grouped under the themed-category labelled “Engagement”. The theme “Engagement” was used because it reflects the students' ongoing interest in the module including challenges and their learning development from the module.

The fifth question was aimed at exploring the students' ability to manage the entire research process from question formulation through to analysis and interpretation of results. Responses from this question were grouped under the themed-category labelled “Aptitude”. The theme “Aptitude” was used because it reflects the students' personal and research skills development including their met expectations and learning needs.

Finally, participants were given the opportunity to make additional comments regarding the progressive review and delivery of the module through the sixth/ final question. Responses from this question were grouped under the themed-category labelled “Reformation”. The theme “Reformation” was used because it reflects the students' suggestions on how the business and management research Module can be further enhanced in its design and delivery.

It is important to note that the terms “Preparedness”, “Engagement”, “Aptitude” and “Reformation” were put together in view of the aim of this study as well as to categorise the participants' responses accordingly.

Preparedness of the students

The study identified a number of themes in an evaluation of students' expectations before and during the teaching sessions for the business and management research module. The students' “prior” expectations were generally focussed on their desire to gain or expand their knowledge on business and management research processes and on what to do to succeed in the module assessment. A careful review of the students' expectations “during” the teaching sessions show focused research needs as shown in Figure 2 .

Engagement of the students

The students' engagement throughout the duration of the module delivery and the conduct of their individual projects were analysed based on their perceptions on what they enjoyed, the challenges they encountered and their coping mechanisms. Most of the positive experiences shown by the interviewees' supportive comments express the learning or skills gained in conducting their business and management projects and confidence developed in the area of business and management research strategies ( Figure 3 ). With respect to the challenges that the students encountered while conducting their projects, references were made to a number of factors associated with different stages of their projects, the online mode of module delivery and personal issues such as managing and combining full-time study and full-time employment.

Aptitude of the students

In an attempt to explore the students' ability to manage their entire research process and demonstrate a consistent focus on their arguments, this study sought to find out the participants' perceptions on whether their “prior” and “during” module expectations were met as well as the participants' views on the benefits of the module to them on a personal basis. As illustrated in Figure 4 , the findings show strong positive affirmations from the participants. There are also demonstrations of understanding on the systematic stages of the research process.

Reformation of the module

As a way forward toward upgrading the business and management research module, the study drew insights from the participants. The findings, as shown in Figure 5 , uncover varied viewpoints, mostly around the timing allocated to the module delivery and quantitative/ statistical support sessions. Interestingly, some of the participants noted that they simply like the module design/ delivery as it is and do not think a redesign is necessary.

Evaluation of findings and discussions

This study presents verbatim quotes of the interview participants (in italics) as a way to reinforce the study findings. The participants' identifier numbers shown in Table 1 are written next to the quotes.

Business and management research expectations and learning needs

Being the final module that the students are expected to complete and pass before being considered for their MBA degree qualification, it is no surprise that some of the students' expectations prior to undertaking their business and management research projects were focused on the successful completion and submission of the project assessment. This is shown by comments from two of the interviewees: “ I had expectation on graduation” (INTC-UK2); “ I had a knowledge shortage. I wanted to know what is expected…in submission” (INTH-UK5) .

“we were not sure how to do research…to have some knowledge transfer” (INTH-UK5).

“I had little knowledge…Um, the advancement of knowledge especially on facial products…More socialisation with people…I became a specialist” (INTC-UK2).

“It has…broadened my knowledge in the area that I researched on.… it made me have a more critical thinking approach…making sure you are exactly on point in asking the right questions” (INTH-UK5).

“Applying the knowledge that is being learned to… specific business projects” (VNT-Hanoi2)

“I wanted to explore…business research process to apply in practical…” (VNL-Hanoi2)

“Mostly, I expect…to get the implication and recommendation to handle the situation we are facing (in the organisation); gaining knowledge to apply to my current organisation' I try to check my topic with my organisation… to deliver the project” (VNJ-HMC3).

“I had an expectation that the module will provide me a way we can know to start a business plan” (VNU-HMC2).

“I wanted to know more information on the business market” (VNT-HMC1).

In addition, one of two of the participants in part-time employment at the time of the module delivery also expected to acquire knowledge on business concepts in view of their career aspirations: “ I expected this module will give…an opportunity to study new knowledge….for…future when I want to start my own business…” (INTP-UK3) .

“I had questions such as “what am I gonna do for my dissertation? “will I find my topic?” (INTC-UK1)

“The subject of the research topic: because the topic I chose has also been chosen by another. So the difficulty is in decision making for the topic” (INTC-UK2).

“how to define a topic was confusing…but by end of the teaching week, I had idea on what to do my research on” (INTH-UK5).

“Therefore, what I expect was finding a suitable method for the research topic…to proceed” (VNK-Hanoi3).

“I expected that…my research is easy to find and not much difficult to understand but my thinking was wrong; some were easy to understand but some were difficult to understand” (INTP-UK3).

“Struggled with which methodology to go by… what should I use to support my research? These took a lot of time” (INTH-UK5).

“…due to my chosen topic, I had to travel back home to interview the participants. There were times when I couldn't find the appropriate literature to support my research” (INTP-UK4).

One of the participants noted that their met expectations were more in theory than in practice, which suggests a drawback: “Actually for me, the expectations were met more in theory than in practical” (VNU-HMC2) . The same participant suggested that the teaching sessions should be more tailored to their own environment: “ …to be met in practice, it can be based in more research in Vietnam market” (VNU-HMC2).

Business and management research learning experience and skills gained

“I also understood about the changes that I could suggest making it easier for women to work in bank” (INTP-UK4).

“When I finish and submit, I think I made a difference for myself” (VNJ-HMC3)

“The skills I developed doing this module are my study skills, research skills, analysing skills” (INTC-UK1).

“Absolutely…bring me many skills like developing independent working skills, problem solving skills, management skills, decision-making skills, market research, data analysis” (VNT-Hanoi2).

“Yes, the project provided insights for my organisation, and it meet the expectation, and it's good timing” (VNJ-HMC3).

“I think this module is very valuable for me so I know how to conduct a research and I learn about time management and I learn about how to conduct the survey, and know about the research questions” (VNJ-HMC3)

The above participants' positive comments suggest that the goal of the module to enable learners to be equipped with or develop the skills to undertake research on a high level ( Kilburn et al. , 2014 ), and of course on a practical basis in the workplace is a welcomed approach.

“The other challenge I faced was the fact that we had to do online classes…in my view if we were present physically in the class with teachers, it would have been better. (INTP-UK4).

“However it is also hard to catch up…ideas because the other students showed up without preparation. In addition, we…work full time and study therefore hard to follow the deadlines while lack of statistics and software experiences” (VNL-Hanoi1).

One of the participants commented on the opportunity for students to interact and share ideas in the teaching and learning environment: “ It ' s also interesting to listen to the others ' ideas to see how they implement the research on different industries and various cases” (VNL-Hanoi1). These insights indicate the strength of action learning sets and the workshop teaching method. Workshops enable dialogue and constructive interactions between learners and tutors ( Nzekwe-Excel, 2014 ). In their discussion on the role of action learning concept/ approach in executive management program, Johnson and Spicer (2006) and Kelliher and Byrne (2018) assert that the approach fosters learning, effective interactions, progress and knowledge transfer. In addition, Ronnie (2017) elucidates that there is an opportunity for collaborative dialogue and an atmosphere for students to build on each other's ideas: “I remember, I identified the wrong topic and my scope was very big and I get support from my classmates” (VNJ-HMC3) .

“ readily available tutor-support'; “quick response from the project supervisor, which helped speed the project process” (INTC-UK1).

“…were my supervisor kept on providing me feedback whenever, I mailed her any of my work completed” (INTP-UK4).

“I'm really thankful of the conversations I received from my tutors” (INTH-UK5).

“Um, I think for me, it's very helpful and Project Supervisor's guidance is helpful” (VNJ-HMC3).

“the Project Supervisor teach on how to take care of each work, how to use exact words for…” (VNU-HMC2).

A key component in undertaking business and management research projects is adherence to appropriate ethical procedures; the ethical procedure is expected to demonstrate research governance and integrity, particularly in the design of the data collection procedure/ tool. Interestingly, one of the interviewees highlighted the learning she gained while undergoing the rigorous ethical approval process: “For me, actually I learnt from…first of all is Ethics Form…teach on how to take care of each work, how to use exact words for each person…make the questionnaire for the customer service … (VNU-HMC2).

“For me, actually I learnt … first of all…” (VNU-HMC2).

“I did not fully understand the principles of qualitative research, so I encountered many difficulties in the process of analysing…. Although I failed to do a quality research…the study helped me understand important principles such as collecting and analysing data accurately. Besides, I also get better understood the importance of determining goals…, I also realized that not spending enough time to review theory and doing research is a major cause of this failure” (VNK-Hanoi3).

“For me I can make the questionnaire for…industry so we can control the quality of the service” (VNU-HMC2).

“However, what I have not really understood after the course is that I still have not fully understood how to effectively apply qualitative and quantitative analysis methods to other kinds of research” (VNK-Hanoi3).

“I prefer that I will identify the topic by myself and if I think it's too big, I will get guidance from my project supervisor and I will change by myself because actually I learn by myself a lot” (VNJ-HMC3).

“Providing the topics may be a good for those not knowing what they gonna do or kind of lost, that is students who are unsure of their career prospects. On the contrary, doing so, will limit students' ability to think outside the box, limit their creativity and initiation” (INTC-UK1).

“like to decide the title but at the same time have the tutor support on the recommendation on the topic, which my tutors did” (INTH-UK5).

“Well it depends on the students. Personally, I do recommend you choose me a topic because to be honest I don't know what to choose as it's the first time of the research. I think it will facilitate the students if you provide the students the topic to choose. It may also block the ability of the students to think outside the box” (INTC-UK2).

These show that the business and management research module provides a unique opportunity for learners to explore or examine an area of interest on a specific subject within the business and management discipline.

An exploration of the participants' comments on the “timing” theme broadly reflect management of the students' time throughout their business and management research process: “…challenge of time management” (VNJ-HMC3); “A challenge I had was to follow on the schedule...because we had to share our time…and working (VNT-HMC1)”; “Challenge I had was managing my time with respect to personal job commitments and attend the sessions as well, and commuting…from…most times made the project challenging” (INTC-UK1). These unimpressive comments also suggest a personal act of discipline, commitment and responsibility from the students are required to successfully complete their business and management research. A slightly different comment on “timing”: “Deadlines should note the holiday leave of professors as we have different new year holiday…we don ' t have holidays for Christmas and New Year” (VNL-Hanoi1) still highlights the need for students to develop the habit of good time management practice. The module assessment deadline is set well in advance before the module delivery and the students are made aware of the deadline in the first teaching session. In addition, the students are sent deadline reminders throughout the duration of the module/ their business and management research.

Another area where the students appeared to find challenging is in their data analyses and the technicality of their chosen data analysis software (SPSS): “I wish that we could have a workshop for 1 hour or…n the classroom…teach us a bit more about SPSS first because for some of us, that ' s the first time they hear about SPSS” (VNU-HMC2) . It is not surprising that this issue was raised again when asked on their views for recommendations on the review/ redesign of the module. Similarly, some of the themes identified as the participants' challenging experiences ( Figure 3 ) were identified as themes for the reformation of the module ( Figure 5 ).

Future direction for the business and management research module

Reflecting on the participants' recommendations for the business and management research module ( Figure 5 ) and in consideration of the main highlights from the study findings (discussed above), the review of the module will be addressed from two perspectives: module design and module delivery. It is important to note that the themes shown in Figure 5 have been defined in such a way that they are strategies aimed to be implemented in the review of the module's content and activities.

At present, qualitative and quantitative data analyses taught sessions are embedded in the module design, with an inclusion of independent/ additional support sessions available to students to take advantage of from the university learning development/ statistics team. However, the participants' responses or concerns around quantitative evaluations, including software usage (“Should have a separate session to train software/ statistics” (VNL-Hanoi1); “My challenge is knowledge about the statistics I used in my research because I never known and done it before” (INTP-UK3); “I think that choosing the right form of analysis (qualitative or quantitative) for different research objects is very important…the module should focus more deeply on…analysing information with specific examples” (VNK-Hanoi3)) suggest that students are not taking advantage of the additional support sessions tailored toward qualitative and quantitative/ statistical evaluations. Though research shows that it is not unusual for students to be anxious or concerned toward statistical evaluations ( Baglin et al. , 2017 ), it may be a step in the right direction to “formally” embed the additional support sessions on quantitative/ statistical evaluations and qualitative analysis in the module design and delivery to bridge this knowledge gap. The contents of the additional support sessions will need to be modified or updated accordingly for each cohort considering that students' research topics vary. Some degree of competence in statistical evaluations is expected from today's graduates in the workplace as shown in the outcomes from Harraway and Barker (2005) study; so the formalised additional support or specialised data analyses sessions may be one way to develop and harness this skill in students as they undertake their business and management research projects.

With respect to decision-making for the research topic, a possible way forward is to have two options including students deciding on their project topics themselves and students' choosing a topic from a list made available to the students. Making a list of project topics available could help trigger possible areas that the students may want to focus their research on. This may consequently minimise unnecessary anxiety, enable effective time management, foster/ boost the research profile of the institution as the predefined research topics will be put together in consideration of the institution's current research areas/ foci. In addition, aspirational research areas could be developed or expanded on through the predefined research topics; the list of topics could be put together to embrace a wider perspective and in consideration of locations where the module is taught or delivered, which is in view of one of the non-UK participants' comments: “If possible, … add more case-study in the module design and delivery; I think the case study should be … focussed in Vietnam (VNT-HMC1)” . Whether students define their project topic themselves or make a choice for a project topic based on a list of available topics, it is important that students are guided and supported on how to decide/define their project topic with careful consideration of what they have a passion for. In his discussion on a six-stage process for choosing a project topic, Fisher (2010) identifies interest as the first stage or fundamental requirement of the topic definition.

The theme “Diversified communication modes” refers to how information is communicated to (and with) the students enrolled on the module. An unsurprising comment from one of the participants “Use social media i.e. Whatsapp Facebook, Instagram and email students directly instead of expecting them to always check the Learning_Environment [1] site” (INTC-UK2) demonstrates the drive for IT embrace in today's society. With a module that already has the concepts of active-blended learning in its design, extending its communication platforms as a means to facilitate student engagement and success should be a straightforward process.

Concluding remarks and further research

The critical evaluations of the findings from the qualitative data discussed in the preceding sections of this paper show the relevance, benefits and challenges associated with the business and management research module in the personal and professional development of learners. This study contributes to knowledge and practice on teaching research methods and supporting students while they undertake their business and management projects as follows: the study findings provide useful insights on MBA students' preparedness for undertaking business and management research projects, the students' development of a range of personal, practical and research skills and triggers for enabling the students' engagement throughout the research process. Furthermore, outcomes of this study suggest that where the challenges associated with undertaking business and management research projects are adequately channelled toward developing practical skills required in the workplace through progressive support from the academic project supervisors, it will contribute toward creating a rewarding learning experience for learners as well as enabling effective applications of theory into practice.

While transcribing the data and carefully reviewing the participants' responses, and making initial notes, it was observed that factors such as gender, academic year when the module was delivered and place of module delivery did not uncover any obvious disparity in the participants' responses to the interview questions. Nevertheless, there is still an opportunity for further research on the possible effects of these factors on the students' academic performance/ grade achieved.

Interview themes: Knowledge acquired and application of business and management research techniques

Interview themes: expectations and learning needs from business and management research

Interview themes: Learning and skills gained in business and management research

Interview themes: Benefits associated with business and management research

Interview themes: review of business and management research module

Study participants

Learning_Environment = This is the acronym for the virtual learning environment of the higher education institution under study.

Aronson , J. ( 1994 ), “ A pragmatic view of thematic analysis ”, The Qualitative Report , Vol. 2 No. 1 , [online], available at: http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/BackIssues/QR2-1/aronson.html ( accessed 21 June 2019 ).

Baglin , J. , Hart , C. and Stow , S. ( 2017 ), “ The statistical knowledge gap in higher degree by research students: the supervisors' perspective ”, Higher Education Research and Development , Vol. 36 No. 5 , pp. 875 - 889 .

Baker , S.E. , Edwards , R. and Doidge , M. ( 2012 ), “ How many qualitative interviews is enough? Expert voices and early career reflections on sampling and cases in qualitative research ”, National Centre for Research Methods Review Paper , [online], available at: how_many_interviews.pdf(ncrm.ac.uk) ( accessed 16 January 2021 )..

Beardwell , J. and Claydon , T. (Eds) ( 2007 ), Human Resource Management: A Contemporary Approach , Pearson Education , London .

Braun , V. and Clarke , V. ( 2006 ), “ Using thematic analysis in psychology ”, Qualitative Research in Psychology , Vol. 3 No. 2 , pp. 77 - 101 .

Carr , J ( 2014 ), Teaching research methods in business and management , Workshop funded as part of one of HEA Social Science's strategic priorities 2013 – 14 , [online], available at: https://www.heacademy.ac.uk/teaching-research-methods-business-and-management ( accessed 28 June 2019 ).

Cassell , C. ( 2018 ), “ Pushed beyond my comfort zone: MBA student experiences of conducting qualitative research ”, The Academy of Management Learning and Education , Vol. 17 No. 2 , pp. 119 - 136 .

Chapdelaine , A. and Chapman , B.L. ( 1999 ), “ Using community-based research projects to teach research methods ”, Teaching of Psychology , Vol. 26 No. 2 , pp. 101 - 105 .

Clarke , V. and Braun , V. ( 2017 ), “ Thematic analysis: commentary ”, The Journal of Positive Psychology , Vol. 12 No. 3 , pp. 297 - 298 .

Cohen , L. , Manion , L. and Morrison , K. ( 2010 ), Research Methods in Education , 6th ed. , Routledge , London .

Creswell , J. ( 2013 ), Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Traditions , 3rd ed. , Sage , London .

Doyle , T. and Zakrajsek ( 2013 ), The New Science of Learning: How to Learn in Harmony with Your Brain , Stylus Publishing , Sterling, VA .

Dukes , S. ( 1984 ), “ Phenomenological methodology in the human sciences ”, Journal of Religion and Health , Vol. 23 No. 3 , pp. 197 - 203 .

Ekmekci , O. , Hancock , A.B. and Swayze , S. ( 2012 ), “ Teaching statistical research methods to graduate students: lessons learned from three different degree programs ”, International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education , Vol. 24 No. 2 , pp. 272 - 279 .

Fisher , C. ( 2010 ), Researching and Writing a Dissertation: An Essential Guide for Business Students , 3 rd ed. , Prentice Hall , Harlow .

Galliers , R.D. and Huang , J.C. ( 2012 ), “ The teaching of qualitative research methods in information systems: an explorative study utilising learning theory ”, European Journal of Information Systems , Vol. 21 No. 2 , pp. 119 - 134 .

Garnett , J. , Abraham , S. and Abraham , P. ( 2016 ), “ Using work-based and work-applied learning to enhance the intellectual capital of organisations ”, Journal of Work-Applied Management , Vol. 8 No. 1 , pp. 56 - 64 .

Guest , G. , Bunce , A. and Johnson , L. ( 2006 ), “ How many interviews are enough? An experiment with data saturation and variability ”, Field Methods , Vol. 18 No. 1 , pp. 59 - 82 .

Harraway , J.A. and Barker , R.J. ( 2005 ), “ Statistics in the workplace: a survey of use by recent graduates with higher degrees ”, Statistics Education Research Journal , Vol. 4 No. 2 , pp. 43 - 58 .

Howitt , D. and Cramer , D. ( 2008 ), Introduction to Research Methods in Psychology , 2nd ed. , Prentice Hall , Harlow .

Johnson , C. and Spicer , D.P. ( 2006 ), “ A case study of action learning in an MBA program ”, Education + Training , Vol. 48 No. 1 , pp. 39 - 54 .

Kelliher , F. and Byrne , S. ( 2018 ), “ The thinking behind the action (learning): reflections on the design and delivery of an executive management program ”, Journal of Work-Applied Management , Vol. 10 No. 1 , pp. 35 - 49 .

Kilburn , D. , Nind , M. and Wiles , R. ( 2014 ), “ Learning as Researchers and Teachers: the development of a pedagogical culture for social science research methods? ”, British Journal of Educational Studies , Vol. 62 No. 2 , pp. 191 - 207 .

Lewthwaite , S. and Nind , M. ( 2016 ), “ Teaching research methods in the social sciences: expert perspectives on pedagogy and practice ”, British Journal of Educational Studies , Vol. 64 No. 4 , pp. 413 - 430 .

Llamas , J.M.C. and Boza , A. ( 2011 ), “ Teaching research methods for doctoral students in education: learning to enquire in the university ”, International Journal of Social Research Methodology , Vol. 14 No. 1 , pp. 77 - 90 .

Manroop , L. ( 2017 ), “ A multiparadigm approach to job search scholarship ”, Organizational Psychology Review , Vol. 7 No. 4 , pp. 330 - 56 .

Morse , J. ( 1994 ), “ Designing funded qualitative research ”, in Denzin , N. and Lincoln , Y. (Eds), Handbook for Qualitative Research , Sage , Thousand Oaks, CA , pp. 220 - 235 .

Mullins , M.H. ( 2017 ), “ Actively teaching research methods with a process oriented guided inquiry learning approach ”, Journal of Teaching in Social Work , Vol. 37 No. 4 , pp. 309 - 321 .

Nzekwe-Excel , C. ( 2012 ), “ An exploratory study on the learning needs of foundation degree students ”, International Journal of Learning , Vol. 18 No. 6 , pp. 199 - 214 .

Nzekwe-Excel , C. ( 2014 ), “ Enhancing students learning experience: study-techniques and learning development ”, International Journal of Learning in Higher Education , Vol. 20 No. 1 , pp. 45 - 53 .

Ransford , E. and Butler , G. ( 1982 ), “ Teaching research methods in the social sciences ”, Teaching Sociology , Vol. 9 No. 3 , pp. 291 - 312 .

Ronnie , L. ( 2017 ), “ Dyadic processes in postgraduate education: insights from MBA student experiences ”, International Journal of Management in Education , Vol. 15 No. 3 , pp. 513 - 519 .

Rowe , L. , MossMoore , D.N. and Perrin , D. ( 2017 ), “ The challenges of managing degree apprentices in the workplace A manager's perspective ”, Journal of Work Applied Management , Vol. 9 No. 2 , pp. 185 - 199 .

Savage , M. and Burrows , R. ( 2007 ), “ The coming crisis of empirical sociology ”, Sociology , Vol. 41 No. 5 , pp. 885 - 899 .

Schaupp , L.C. and Vitullo , E.A. ( 2019 ), “ Implementing experiential action learning in the MBA: use of an international consulting experience ”, International Journal of Educational Management , Vol. 34 No. 3 , pp. 505 - 517 .

Tashakkori , A. and Teddlie , C. ( 2003 ), “ Issues and dilemmas in teaching research methods courses in social and behavioural sciences: US perspective ”, International Journal of Social Research Methodology , Vol. 6 No. 1 , pp. 61 - 77 .

Taylor , S.J. and Bogdan , R. ( 1984 ), Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods: The Search for Meanings , John Wiley & Sons , New York .

Toledano-O'Farrill , R. ( 2017 ), “ Professional application projects: work-based learning in the curriculum ”, Journal of Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning , Vol. 7 No. 1 , pp. 21 - 34 .

Wall , T. , Russell , J. and Moore , N. ( 2017a ), “ Positive emotion in workplace impact: the case of a workbased learning project utilising appreciative inquiry ”, Journal of Work-Applied Management , Vol. 9 No. 2 , pp. 129 - 146 .

Wall , T. , Bellamy , L. , Evans , V. and Hopkins , S. ( 2017b ), “ Revisiting impact in the context of workplace research: a review and possible directions ”, Journal of Work Applied Management , Vol. 9 No. 2 , pp. 95 - 109 .

Wiltshier , F. ( 2011 ), “ Researching with NVivo ”, Forum: Qualitative Social Research , Vol. 12 No. 1 , [online], available at: http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/1628/3146 ( accessed 19 June 2019 ).

Winn , S. ( 1995 ), “ Learning by doing: teaching research methods through student participation in a commissioned research project ”, Studies in Higher Education , Vol. 20 No. 2 , pp. 203 - 214 .

Zablotsky , D. ( 2001 ), “ Why do I have to learn this if I'm not going to graduate school? Teaching research methods in a social psychology of aging course ”, Educational Gerontology , Vol. 27 No. 7 , pp. 609 - 622 .

Corresponding author

Related articles, we’re listening — tell us what you think, something didn’t work….

Report bugs here

All feedback is valuable

Please share your general feedback

Join us on our journey

Platform update page.

Visit emeraldpublishing.com/platformupdate to discover the latest news and updates

Questions & More Information

Answers to the most commonly asked questions here

• Student Success
• Academic Life

Program Innovations: Promoting Success in Student Research

To enhance the student experience and increase access to experiential learning, colleges and universities have gotten creative with undergraduate research experiences.

By  Ashley Mowreader

You have / 5 articles left. Sign up for a free account or log in.

Undergraduate research can provide students with hands-on experience in a lab environment, as well as help them determine career opportunities they might not otherwise consider.

sanjeri/E+/Getty Images Plus

Undergraduate research opportunities are one way to provide experiential learning in many disciplines, introducing learners to research methods under the supervision of a faculty member and providing experience for a résumé.

A 2021 study from the University of Central Florida found student researchers are more likely to have higher grade point averages and graduation rates, and higher matriculation into graduate school, as well as life skills such as analyzing literature critically, observing and collecting data and communication.

However, not every student has equal access to undergraduate research opportunities. The study found non-STEM students, transfer students and part-time students are less likely to participate in research compared to their peers.

To increase student participation in undergraduate research and boost skill development among student researchers, institutions have created innovative models of work. Here are seven examples.

Survey Says

Around three in 10 students say they are required to participate in undergraduate research, according to a winter 2023 Student Voice survey from Inside Higher Ed , and a slightly smaller number (27 percent) believe that undergraduate research should be required in their program.

Four-year students are more likely to say undergraduate research is required in their program (32 percent) compared to their two-year peers (15 percent).

First-year research opportunities—University of Missouri

Career exposure in the first year can help students feel confident about their paths throughout college and provide a head start in building their résumés.

Mizzou is known for its Interdisciplinary Plant Group that hosts research scholars exploring innovations in plant biology and a first-year program that provides young researchers a leg up in their work, giving them research time with more experienced researchers and mentorship.

FRIPS, short for Freshman Research in Plants , supports 10 to 15 students annually, who work alongside a faculty member and their research group on plant biology. Students also meet regularly with their FRIPS scholars cohort and gain professional development training.

Each student’s work is funded by grant dollars from the National Science Foundation (NSF).

Graduates of FRIPS often go on to become Goldwater Scholars and NSF graduate research fellows. The program also creates a place of belonging and community for new students to the university.

Underrepresented minority students—Davidson College

Some students face systemic disadvantages in participating in co-curricular experiences because they may lack the social capital or be unfamiliar with the norms of higher ed to identify and participate in a faculty-led research experience.

At Davidson College in North Carolina, rising sophomores can participate in a four- to six-week summer intensive research fellowship program called RISE (Research in Science Experience) . This program is designed for students from historically marginalized groups including low-income and first-generation students.

The goal of RISE is to equip students to take on larger, more intensive academic-year and summer experiences for later in their college career. Each student receives $2,500 in scholarships and funds to cover on-campus housing, which the college arranges for all participants.

Jacquelline Nyakunu , a rising junior at Davidson, spent the summer with chemistry professor Cindy Hauser researching hookah, studying the smoking of shisha and the chemical composition of the tobacco. Nyakunu wrote in a blog post that the experience taught her about her passion for chemistry, built her research skills and solidified her career path as a pre-medicine student.

Editors’ Picks

• What Prompted Pittsburgh Technical College to Close?
• Affirmative Action Fallout Sours Donor Relations
• No, AI Should Not Be a Student’s Co-Pilot

Transfer students—University of California, Los Angeles

Transferring into a new institution can be a challenge for many students, and finding ways to get plugged in and connected to one’s field of interest can be just as hard.

UCLA offers an initiative exclusively for transfer students to both promote their academic success at the university and expose them to undergraduate research opportunities, the Transfer Research Entry Program (TREP).

To participate, each student must be an incoming transfer student with at least two years remaining at UCLA and be considering a career in research. Participants attend a one-week virtual bootcamp about research, which covers careers in research and how to write a cover letter and curriculum vitae. The program also provides networking opportunities for transfer students and academic survival skills for the transition to UCLA.

There’s no obligation to take a research role after the bootcamp, but students are encouraged to do so and given guidance on how to find their areas of interest, the application and interview process as well.

Financial support—University of Texas at El Paso

Financial need can be a barrier to participation for some students. The University of Texas at El Paso is a Hispanic Serving Institution (84 percent Hispanic), commuter school with a large population of Pell-eligible students (60 percent) and first-generation learners. Many students are working to support themselves and their families, explains Lourdes E. Echegoyen, director of the Campus Office of Undergraduate Research Initiatives.

As a result, UTEP staff realized a need to provide financial assistance through employment to give students high-impact activities.

University staff have identified grant funding from federal agencies, including the National Science Foundation, the National Institutes of Health, the Department of Education, and private foundations.

Students can receive financial support through stipends or tuition scholarships. The university’s student employment program also provides employment positions for undergraduate researchers across disciplines.

“Generally, full time students are supported to conduct research during the academic year from 10 to 19 hours per week—depending on the program—thus allowing students to remain on campus and be mentored as research trainees,” Echegoyen says.

UTEP leaders have seen the benefits of undergraduate research on retention and persistence among students, with one program focused on biomedical research having a 98 percent retention rate among students across four years, compared to a 37 percent retention rate among their peers who did not participate.&

Community partnerships—Roosevelt University

During the COVID-19 pandemic, Roosevelt University in Chicago partnered with The Field Museum to digitize and analyze data collected at the museum. Visitors had measured specimens of liverworts, but the data needed to be sorted and inaccurate measurements eliminated from the set to be most useful to scientists.

Students wrote code to screen and clean the data, helping set the researchers up for success and teaching students firsthand about research processes in a remote setting.

Career development—Elon University

At Elon in North Carolina, returning students can participate in undergraduate research over the summer in between academic terms, funded by the university. While career readiness is a natural component of research experiences, leaders at the university wanted to bolster student skills beyond the laboratory, says Eric Hall, professor of exercise and director of undergraduate research at Elon.

Now, student researchers attend regular professional-development workshops that inform and establish career competencies. The workshops are co-led by other campus partners, including the writing center, career services, the fellowships office and librarians, Hall says.

For the 2024 session, workshops include a session on LinkedIn on how the fellowships office can support student goals, professional writing for graduate school and industry, and navigating academic publishing.

The new initiative is still being evaluated, with formal data collection underway, but anecdotal evidence from post-assessments shows students enjoy and learn from the experiences.

Research in the classroom—California State Polytechnic University, Pomona

Cal Poly Pomona leaders wanted to expose more learners to undergraduate research, understanding that first-generation, Pell-eligible or historically underserved students have lower access to research opportunities, says Winny Dong, faculty director for the office of undergraduate research.

Rather than asking students to squeeze an additional responsibility into their schedules, faculty members brought research to the classroom, embedding experiences into required general education courses.

The initiative makes it so all students are exposed to research and required to participate in some capacity, helping build their skills and pique interest for those who may consider a career in research.

Universities of Wisconsin Wants to Fire Joe Gow—Again

The chancellor of the University of Wisconsin at La Crosse was fired last year for making and distributing porn.

Share This Article

More from academic life.

Positive Partnership: Librarians Support Student Athlete Academics

University of Arizona librarians partnered with an athletics support program to help students hone their research and

Program Innovation: Painting Student Supports in a New Light

Colorado College staff created a new intervention to reframe student supports, encouraging all students to utilize se

Tribal College Expands to City Center, Promoting Access

Starting this fall, Native students in Minneapolis can take classes at Red Lake Nation College’s new site downtown, a

• Become a Member
• Sign up for Newsletters
• Learning & Assessment
• Diversity & Equity
• Career Development
• Labor & Unionization
• Shared Governance
• Academic Freedom
• Books & Publishing
• Financial Aid
• Residential Life
• Free Speech
• Physical & Mental Health
• Race & Ethnicity
• Sex & Gender
• Socioeconomics
• Traditional-Age
• Adult & Post-Traditional
• Teaching & Learning
• Artificial Intelligence
• Digital Publishing
• Data Analytics
• Administrative Tech
• Alternative Credentials
• Financial Health
• Cost-Cutting
• Revenue Strategies
• Academic Programs
• Physical Campuses
• Mergers & Collaboration
• Fundraising
• Research Universities
• Regional Public Universities
• Community Colleges
• Private Nonprofit Colleges
• Minority-Serving Institutions
• Religious Colleges
• Women's Colleges
• Specialized Colleges
• For-Profit Colleges
• Executive Leadership
• Trustees & Regents
• State Oversight
• Accreditation
• Politics & Elections
• Supreme Court
• Student Aid Policy
• Science & Research Policy
• State Policy
• Colleges & Localities
• Employee Satisfaction
• Remote & Flexible Work
• Staff Issues
• Study Abroad
• International Students in U.S.
• U.S. Colleges in the World
• Intellectual Affairs
• Seeking a Faculty Job
• Advancing in the Faculty
• Seeking an Administrative Job
• Advancing as an Administrator
• Beyond Transfer
• Call to Action
• Confessions of a Community College Dean
• Higher Ed Gamma
• Higher Ed Policy
• Just Explain It to Me!
• Just Visiting
• Law, Policy—and IT?
• Leadership & StratEDgy
• Leadership in Higher Education
• Learning Innovation
• Online: Trending Now
• Resident Scholar
• University of Venus
• Student Voice
• Health & Wellness
• The College Experience
• Life After College
• Academic Minute
• Weekly Wisdom
• Reports & Data
• Quick Takes
• Advertising & Marketing
• Consulting Services
• Data & Insights
• Hiring & Jobs
• Event Partnerships

4 /5 Articles remaining this month.

Sign up for a free account or log in.

• Create Free Account

Test-takers’ adaptability to computerized language testing in China: taking Test for English Majors as an example

• Published: 13 June 2024

Cite this article

• Wei Wang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7110-4833 1  

As information and communication technologies develop in China, language tests are shifting from conventional paper-and-pencil testing to computerized testing. The aim of this study is to investigate Chinese test-takers’ adaptability to computerized language exams, including their performance across testing modes and their perception of the transition to computerized language tests. The study was conducted at three universities in China and its participants were 206 English language majors. This research was designed as a mixed methods study. In this respect, participants’ performance in the exam was regarded as quantitative data and their perception of the exam as qualitative data. Quantitative data were gathered through two rounds of language tests and an after-test questionnaire, while qualitative data were collected through interviews. It was found that there was no statistically significant difference in test-takers’ scores between paper-and-pencil language testing and computerized language testing. It was revealed that candidates in China were generally able to adapt to computer-based language tests. The scores retrieved from the language test and questionnaire showed that Chinese candidates were most adapted to computerized listening tests, followed by reading and writing tests. Based on the research findings, the challenges posed by the change of testing modes to Chinese test-takers are summarized, and suggestions for teachers, language learners and language test administrators in China are provided. While this work explores students’ adaptability to computerized language testing specifically in China, the presented findings can provide insights for countries with a similar context.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Data availability

Data will be made available on reasonable request.

Bayazit, A., & Askar, P. (2012). Performance and duration differences between online and paper-pencil tests. Asia Pacific Educational Review , 13 (2), 219–226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-011-9190-9

Article   Google Scholar  

Brunfaut, T., Harding, L., & Batty, A. O. (2018). Going online: The effect of mode of delivery on performances and perceptions on an English L2 writing test suite. Assessing Writing , 36 , 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2018.02.003

Bryman, A. (2015). Social research methods (5th ed.). Oxford University Press.

Chan, S., Bax, S., & Weir, C. (2018). Researching the comparability of paper-based and computer-based delivery in a high-stakes writing test. Assessing Writing , 36 , 32–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2018.03.008

Chapelle, C. A., & Douglas, D. (2006). Assessing language through computer technology . Cambridge University Press.

Choi, I. C., Kim, K. S., & Boo, J. (2003). Comparability of a paper-based language test and a computer-based language test. Language Testing , 20 (3), 295–320. https://doi.org/10.1191/0265532203lt258oa

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Collie, R., Granziera, H., Martin, A., Burns, E., & Holliman, A. (2020). Adaptability among science teachers in schools: A multi-nation examination of its role in school outcomes. Teaching and Teacher Education , 95 , 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2020.103148

Dou, Y. (2022). A study on the score equivalence of online exam and traditional exam. Chinese Journal of Distance Education , (1), 73–84. https://doi.org/10.13541/j.cnki.chinade.2022.01.009

Ebrahimi, M. R., & Seyyed, M. H. T. (2019). Score equivalence, gender difference, and testing mode preference in a comparative study between computer-based testing and paper-based testing. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning , 14 (7), 128–143. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v14i07.10175

Fan, J., Frost, K., & Liu, B. (2020). Teachers’ involvement in high-stakes language assessment reforms: The case of Test for English Majors (TEM) in China. Studies in Educational Evaluation , 66 , 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2020.100898

Gamage, K., Pradeep, R., & de Silva, E. (2022). Rethinking assessment: The future of examinations in higher education. Sustainability , 14 (6), 3552–3566. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14063552

Giacobbe-Miller, J., Miller, D., Zhang, W., et al. (2003). Country and organizational-level adaptation to foreign workplace ideologies: A comparative study of distributive justice values in China, Russia and the United States. Journal of International Business Studies , 34 , 389–406. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400040

Goldberg, A., & Pedulla, J. (2002). Performance differences according to test mode and computer familiarity on a practice graduate record exam. Educational and Psychological Measurement , 62 (6), 1053–1067. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164402238092

Article   MathSciNet   Google Scholar  

Halamish, V., & Elbaz, E. (2020). Children’s reading comprehension and metacomprehension on screen versus on paper. Computers & Education , (145), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103737

Hallstedt, H. M., & Ghaderi, A. (2018). Tablets instead of paper-based tests for young children? Comparability between paper and tablet versions of the mathematical Heidelberger Rechen Test 1–4. Educational Assessment , 23 (3), 195–210. https://doi.org/10.1080/10627197.2018.1488587

Hamhuis, E., Glas, C., & Meelissen, M. (2020). Tablet assessment in primary education: Are there performance differences between TIMSS’ paper-and-pencil test and tablet test among Dutch grade-four students? British Journal of Educational Technology , 51 (6), 2340–2358. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12914

Hochlehnert, A., Konstantin, B., Andreas, M., et al. (2011). Does medical students’ preference of test format (computer-based vs. paper-based) have an influence on performance? BMC Medical Education , 11 (89), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6920-11-89

Holliman, A., Martin, A., & Collie, R. (2018). Adaptability, engagement, and degree completion: A longitudinal investigation of university students. Educational Psychology , 38 (6), 785–799. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2018.1426835

Holliman, A., Waldeck, D., Jay, B., Murphy, S., Atkinson, E., Collie, R., & Martin, A. (2021). Adaptability and social support: Examining links with psychological wellbeing among UK students and non-students. Frontiers in Psychology , 12 , 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.636520

Hosseini, M., Abidin, M. J. Z., & Baghdarnia, M. (2014). Comparability of test results of computer based tests (CBT) and paper and pencil tests (PPT) among English language learners in Iran. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences , 98 , 659–667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.03.465

Ilgaz, H., & Adanir, A. G. (2020). Providing online exams for online learners: Does it really matter for them? Education and Information Technologies , 25 (2), 1255–1269. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-019-10020-6

Isbell, D. R., & Kremmel, B. (2020). Test review: Current options in at-home language proficiency tests for making high-stakes decisions. Language Testing , 37 (4), 600–619. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532220943483

Jeong, H. (2014). A comparative study of scores on computer-based tests and paper-based tests. Behaviour & Information Technology , 33 (4), 410–422. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2012.710647

Jin, Y., & Fan, J. (2011). Test for English Majors (TEM) in China. Language Testing , 28 (4), 589–596. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532211414852

Keane, T., Linden, T., Hernandez-Martinez, P., et al. (2023). Digital technologies: Students’ expectations and experiences during their transition from high school to university. Education and Information Technologies , 28 , 857–877. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11184-4

Khoshsima, H., & Toroujeni, S. (2017). Comparability of computer-based testing and paper-based testing: Testing mode effect, testing mode order, computer attitudes and testing mode preference. International Journal of Computer , 24 (1), 80–99.

Google Scholar  

Liu, Y., & Liu, J. (2023). Comparing computer-based and paper-based rating modes in an English writing test. Assessing Writing , 57 (1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2023.100771

Liu, P., & Wang, F. (2012). An investigation on test-takers’ adaptability to computer-based CET 4&6. Modern Educational Technology , (6), 73–77. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1009-8097.2012.06.015

Marcos, L., Hilera, J. R., Barchino, R., et al. (2010). An experiment for improving students performance in secondary and tertiary education by means of m-learning auto-assessment. Computers & Education , 55 (3), 1069–1079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.05.003

Martin, A., Nejad, H., Colmar, S., & Liem, G. (2012). Adaptability: Conceptual and empirical perspectives on responses to change, novelty and uncertainty. Australian Journal of Guidance & Counselling , 22 (1), 58–81. https://doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2012.8

Martin, A., Nejad, H., Colmar, S., & Liem, G. (2013). Adaptability: How students’ responses to uncertainty and novelty predict their academic and non-academic outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology , 105 (3), 728–746. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032794

Nardi, A., & Ranieri, M. (2019). Comparing paper-based and electronic multiple-choice examinations with personal devices: Impact on students’ performance, self-efficacy and satisfaction. British Journal of Educational Technology , 50 (3), 1495–1506. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12644

Nguyen, Q., Rienties, B., Toetenel, L., Ferguson, R., & Whitelock, D. (2017). Examining the designs of computer-based assessment and its impact on student engagement, satisfaction, and pass rates. Computers in Human Behavior , 76 , 703–714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.03.028

Niglas, K. (2004). The combined use of qualitative and quantitative methods in educational research . Tallinn Pedagogical University.

Noubandegani, P. A. (2012). Students’ perceptions of computerized TOEFL test. Language Testing in Asia , 2 (2), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1186/2229-0443-2-2-73

Paleczek, L., Seifert, S., & Schöfl, M. (2021). Comparing digital to print assessment of receptive vocabulary with GraWo-KiGa in Austrian kindergarten. British Journal of Educational Technology , 52 (6), 2145–2161. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13163

Putwain, D., Loderer, K., Gallard, D., & Beaumont, J. (2020). School-related subjective well-being promotes subsequent adaptability, achievement, and positive behavioural conduct. British Journal of Educational Psychology , 90 (1), 92–108. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12266

Randy, E. B., James, B., Andreas, O., et al. (2008). Does it matter if I take my mathematics test on computer? A second empirical study of mode effects in NAEP. The Journal of Technology Learning and Assessment , 6 (9), 1–38.

Read, J. (2022). Test review: The International English Language Testing System (IELTS). Language Testing , 39 (4), 679–694. https://doi.org/10.1177/02655322221086211

Ricoy, M. C., & Sánchez-Martínez, C. (2023). Tablet-based praxis developed for children in primary education studying natural sciences and mathematics. Children , 10 (2), 250–264. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10020250

Roud, L., & Hidri, S. (2021). Toward a sociocultural approach to computerized dynamic assessment of the TOEFL iBT listening comprehension test. Education and Information Technologies , 26 , 4943–4968. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10498-z

Sawaki, Y. (2012). Technology in language testing. In G. Fulcher, & F. Davidson (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of language testing (pp. 426–437). Routledge.

Seo, D. G., & Jong, G. D. (2015). Comparability of online and paper-based tests in a statewide assessment program. Journal of Educational Computing Research , 52 (1), 88–113. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633114568856

Smith, B., & Caputi, P. (2007). Cognitive interference model of computer anxiety: Implications for computer-based assessment. Computers in Human Behavior , 23 (3), 1481–1498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2005.07.001

Stockinger, K., Rinas, R., & Daumiller, M. (2021). Student adaptability, emotions, and achievement: Navigating new academic terrains in a global crisis. Learning and Individual Differences , 90 , 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2021.102046

Toroujeni, S. (2022). Computerized testing in reading comprehension skill: Investigating score interchangeability, item review, age and gender stereotypes, ICT literacy and computer attitudes. Education and Information Technologies , 27 (2), 1771–1810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10584-2

Yan, C. (2012). We can only change in a small way’: A study of secondary English teachers’ implementation of curriculum reform in China. Journal of Educational Change , 13 , 431–447. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-012-9186-1

Yang, Y. (2019). An empirical research of the impact of different testing modes (CBLT and PBLT) on students’ test scores. Examinations Research , 1 , 78–85.

Yeom, S., & Jun, H. (2020). Young Korean EFL learners’ reading and test-taking strategies in a paper and a computer-based reading comprehension tests. Language Assessment Quarterly , 17 (3), 282–299. https://doi.org/10.1080/15434303.2020.1731753

Yu, G., & Zhang, J. (2017). Computer-based English language testing in China: Present and future. Language Assessment Quarterly , 14 (2), 177–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/15434303.2017.1303704

Zou, X., & Chen, Y. (2016). Effects of test media on different EFL test-takers in writing scores and in the cognitive writing process. Technology Pedagogy and Education , 25 (1), 79–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939X.2014.954140

Download references

Program by Department of Education of Anhui Province, China (Grant Number: 2022zybj097).

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

School of Foreign Studies, Tongling University, Tongling, 244061, China

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Wei Wang .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The author has declared no conflicts of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendix A. The questionnaire questions

I am able to adapt to the reading part of a computer-based TEM.

I am able to adapt to the writing part of a computer-based TEM.

I am able to adapt to the listening part of a computer-based TEM.

I am able to adapt to a computer-based TEM as a whole.

Computer-based language testing can better reflect the principle of fairness and justice.

The process of computer-based language testing is more reasonable.

Computer-based language testing can effectively test my English ability.

I prefer to read and answer questions in computer-based language test.

The design of computer-based language testing is more humanized.

I am able to adapt to computer operation.

When answering questions on a computer, I am able to adapt to the time limit.

I am able to adapt to screen reading.

I am able to adapt to using the function keys of computer-based language testing.

I am able to adapt to keyboard input.

I am able to adapt to the way of marking in computer-based language testing.

I am able to adapt to the distractions in computer-based language testing.

I am calm during a computerized exam.

I have a sense of security for the computer test system.

I have no obvious sense of visual and auditory fatigue.

I don’t feel nervous during a computerized exam.

Appendix B. The interview questions

Will the computerized testing mode of TEM affect your performance?

For the listening, reading and writing part of TEM respectively, do you prefer the computerized test or the traditional paper-and-pencil one? Why?

Do you often use the computer? Are you familiar with computer operation?

Are your current learning methods suitable for the computerized test? Have you made some preparations to better adapt to the computerized test?

How do you hope your teachers can help you better prepare for a computerized TEM?

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Wang, W. Test-takers’ adaptability to computerized language testing in China: taking Test for English Majors as an example. Educ Inf Technol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12843-4

Download citation

Received : 16 February 2023

Accepted : 05 June 2024

Published : 13 June 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12843-4

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Computerized language testing
• Adaptability
• Test for English Majors
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

• Open access
• Published: 11 June 2024

Co-designing a participatory evaluation of older adult partner engagement in the mcmaster collaborative for health and aging

• Marfy Abousifein 1 ,
• A. Tina Falbo 1 ,
• Joyce Luyckx 1 ,
• Julia Abelson 1 , 3 ,
• Rebecca Ganann 1 , 2 ,
• Brenda Vrkljan 1 , 4 &
• Soo Chan Carusone 1  

Research Involvement and Engagement volume  10 , Article number:  58 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

16 Accesses

Metrics details

Engagement of patients and the public in health research is crucial for ensuring research relevance and alignment with community needs. However, there is a lack of nuanced evaluations and examples that promote collaborative and reflective learning about partnerships with partners. The aim of this paper is to provide a case example of a participatory evaluation of the engagement of older adult partners in an aging-focused research centre. We outline our process of co-planning and implementing an evaluation of the McMaster Collaborative for Health and Aging’s engagement strategy through the use of multiple methods, including a standardized tool and qualitative approaches. The team chose to explore and capture the engagement experiences and perspectives of the older adult partners within the Collaborative using a survey (the Public and Patient Engagement Evaluation Tool (PPEET)), an art-based method (photovoice), and a focus group. We present a brief summary of the findings but primarily focus this paper on the experiences of using each methodology and tool, with an emphasis on promoting dialogue on the benefits, limitations, and challenges. We reflect on the process of co-planning and the integration of both standardized tools and qualitative approaches to adopt a holistic approach to evaluating partnership within the Collaborative. Ultimately, this case example aims to provide practical guidance for other research groups navigating the complexities of partnership engagement and evaluation, thereby promoting meaningful partnerships in research.

Plain English Summary

Engaging older adults in research is important to match research study goals with older adult needs and interests and can lead to better health outcomes and a more equitable healthcare system. Yet, older adults are often excluded from research due to the idea that they can be a challenging group with whom to work. The McMaster Collaborative for Health and Aging is a provincial research centre established to engage patients, researchers, and other key partners to improve the health of and the healthcare system for older adults. The Collaborative partners with older adults and caregivers in all its activities and projects. For example, older adults mentor students and advise on patient-partnered research projects and co-facilitate workshops. There are many frameworks and models to support research partnerships with people with lived experience. Yet, evaluating the quality and impacts of these partnerships is less common. This paper presents a case example of a participatory evaluation of older adult partners’ engagement in the Collaborative. Together, older adult partners and researchers decided on the project goals and methods. The evaluation used multiple methods to capture partners’ experiences and perspectives on the process and impact of their engagement in research. First, a survey called the Public and Patient Engagement Evaluation Tool (PPEET) was completed. Second, photovoice was used (a method involving photography for self-expression). Finally, a focus group was conducted (discussions with partners facilitated by researchers). We reflect on the benefits and limitations of each method and make recommendations for future evaluations. The paper underscores considering partner preferences and abilities when choosing evaluation methods for patient-partnered research.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Patient, caregiver, and public involvement in health and social care research can ensure that research goals and priorities are relevant and align with the goals, interests, and needs of both patients and the public [ 1 , 2 ]. Identifying patient-defined priorities has been shown to improve health outcomes and promote a “sustainable, accessible, and equitable healthcare system” [ 3 ]. Moreover, if the research population in question is marginalized or equity- denied, such as older adults, many argue there is a moral obligation that such research be conducted in collaboration with this population [ 3 ]. In Canada and other Western countries, individuals aged 65 + represent the fastest-growing segment of the population and the largest age group of users of the healthcare system [ 4 ]. Healthcare expenditure per person for the 80–85 age group in 2017 was more than double the average across all age groups in Canada [ 5 ]. To transform the health system to meet the needs of the aging population and support person-centred care, older adults should be engaged as partners in health research. Despite this need, older adults are engaged in research less often than other groups due to the perception that they are vulnerable or hard to engage as patient partners [ 6 ].

The Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) indicates in its Strategy for Patient-Oriented Research (SPOR) that patients should be engaged in ‘active and meaningful collaboration’ as partners in the research process [ 2 ]. A diverse array of frameworks, models, and best practices support SPOR’s objectives, including a recent focus on evaluating these partnerships [ 2 , 7 , 8 ]. Examples from the literature include (1) discussions of validated tools assessing patient engagement, such as the Patient Engagement in Research Scale (PEIRS) [ 2 ], (2) frameworks for guiding the integration of patient partners [ 7 ], and (3) a review of the literature regarding themes within these guiding frameworks [ 8 ]. While such literature builds a foundation for researchers to understand what is important when engaging partners and evaluating them, it lacks the detail and examples to guide researchers on how to do so in a good way and learn from the mistakes of others who have.

To support this paradigm shift in research and ensure that research is being done through authentic partnerships, where risks and harms are minimized, we must not just change how we do research but also evaluate these changes and respond to these findings. Tools and guidance exist to evaluate partnerships, such as those published by the United Kingdom’s National Co-ordinating Centre for Public Engagement (NCCPE) [ 9 ]. NCCPE promotes creative evaluation method exploration through their “Evaluation Inspiration Board” where researchers can share their experience with different evaluation methods [ 9 ]. However, published case examples to demonstrate application of such tools and reflections on their use are limited [ 9 , 10 ]. Reed at al.propose a common standard for evaluating partnership based on NCCPE’s tools, however, the proposal does not focus on evaluations of partnerships that are done in partnership and was not developed in partnership [ 10 ]. Consequently, there is a focus on the researcher-identified goals when assessing partner engagement in research. While there is an increasing number of evaluation papers published that draw on quantitative data and involving patient partners, there is still a lack of case examples about evaluating partnerships [ 2 , 7 , 8 ]. More nuanced evaluations regarding the impact of partnerships and examples of evaluations that empower a reflective approach to partnerships are needed to promote learning from experiences. By bringing a participatory approach to the evaluation of patient partner engagement, we hope to demonstrate how this practice might become more embedded in future participatory projects ultimately promoting meaningful partnerships from both the researcher and partner perspective. There is a prevailing saturation of reports on evaluation outcomes, and a relative dearth of discussion on methodology and considerations for process. Addressing this gap, this paper focuses on the methodology and process of an evaluation rather than evaluation results [ 11 , 12 ].

The McMaster collaborative for health and aging

The Ontario SPOR SUPPORT Unit (OSSU) is a network of 14 leading health research centres located in the province of Ontario, Canada that encompasses eight research initiatives that engage researchers, patients and other partners in patient-oriented research to improve the health of Ontarians and the health care system [ 13 ]. OSSU provides infrastructure, expertise and support to people engaged in patient-oriented research, promotes knowledge transfer and exchange of the latest research evidence, and aims to improve health policy and clinical practices in Ontario [ 13 ].

As one of the research centres in the OSSU network, the McMaster Collaborative for Health and Aging (herein, the Collaborative) aims to improve the health and well-being of older Canadians by advancing patient-oriented health research on aging [ 13 , 14 ]. The aim of the Collaborative, is to optimize the health and longevity of the aging population as well as transform the experience of aging by upholding transparency and collaboration [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ]. The Collaborative manifests such goals by collaborating with older adults in all activities [ 15 ]. Examples of these activities include (1) supporting and advancing patient-oriented research with a focus on advancing health equity and optimizing aging, (2) mobilizing knowledge to improve healthcare systems and practices to ultimately improve the health and well-being of older Canadians, and (3) supporting patient-oriented research capacity building and partnerships. The Collaborative’s mandate is to provide capacity building and support patient-oriented research on aging [ 15 ].

Within the Collaborative, a group of nine older adult partners (women = 5, men = 4), aged 60–80, meet monthly via Zoom with the managing director. In 2023, each partner had been part of the Collaborative for a minimum of 6–12 months. Partners have diverse health and health care experiences. The group includes individuals living with multiple chronic diseases and those with disabilities requiring mobility aids, such as motorized wheelchairs, as well as those with lived experiences as caregivers to older adults living with physical and/or cognitive decline. The team advises and supports the Collaborative’s operations and initiatives, including workshop planning and mentorship of graduate students on engagement strategies. Depending on their interests and experience, these partners also assume more specialized roles, such as serving on the graduate funding review committee or Leadership Council or co-presenting at workshops. Partners receive individual support to facilitate meaningful participation at a level and depth that works for them and to mitigate barriers due to education or health status. Partners receive an honorarium for their contributions ($25 CAD/hour).

Conventional evaluations of partnerships are typically from the researchers’ perspectives and employ traditional methods like focus groups. The Collaborative presents an opportunity to evaluate the involvement and perspectives of older adult partners in such initiatives and roles while facilitating introspection and learning from the partnership. To improve our own work and strengthen our working partnerships, we conducted a participatory evaluation of older adult engagement with the Collaborative using multiple methods.

This paper provides a case example of a participatory evaluation of the engagement of older adult partners in an aging-focused SPOR research centre, the McMaster Collaborative for Health and Aging. We outline our process of co-planning and implementing an evaluation of the Collaborative’s engagement strategy through the use of multiple methods, including a standardized tool and qualitative approaches.

Positionality statement

In the spirit of self-reflexivity, MA acknowledges her standpoint as a Canadian immigrant and health sciences undergraduate student researcher who led the participatory evaluation of the engagement of older adult partners in the Collaborative. Prior to this project, MA was not involved in the engagement of the partners in the Collaborative thereby, reducing the potential for bias and power dynamics within the process of evaluation. While this means that MA has not established a relationship with the partners, the supervisor (SCC) and other research team members have been the main point of contact for the partners throughout their time with the Collaborative. As a result, members of the research team were familiar with the older adults, which provided a foundation of trust, allowing for constructive critiques and power-sharing. MA facilitated all activities described in this paper.

Funding for the student lead was provided by a McMaster Institute for Research on Aging Undergraduate Summer Research Fellowship.

Co-designing the evaluation

The full team of older adult partners ( n  = 9) were invited to participate in this participatory evaluation project. All nine were interested but two partners required a short leave from the Collaborative, due to health and personal reasons, during the planning and data collection phases of this study. The team of researchers, including older adult partners, the student lead, and research team, identified the overarching goals of the project. The primary goal was to evaluate the engagement and experience of older adults in the Collaborative, during each individual’s involvement, to identify what they identified as successes from their perspective and to identify ways to improve partnership approaches going forward. We aimed to use the outputs of the evaluation to inform and promote meaningful improvements within the Collaborative’s operations and partnerships.

A participatory approach was chosen to evaluate partnership as studies show that participatory evaluation advances a research team or organization’s capacity to meaningfully engage diverse stakeholders [ 18 ]. In participatory approaches, techniques sensitive and responsive to community needs are used to engage stakeholders and ensure a team/organization’s approaches are as effective as possible [ 18 ]. Additionally, working in partnership to develop the evaluation aligns with the values and goals of the Collaborative. Power redistribution is a crucial benefit of participatory approaches considering that partners have decision making power in the design and thus impact of evaluations. Research shows that participatory evaluations lead to more ownership and institutional buy-in and thus increase the likelihood that outcomes of the results will be used to improve partnerships by promoting accountability [ 19 , 20 , 21 ].

In May 2023, as a first step to planning the evaluation, MA and SCC invited all nine older adult partners to a 90-minute meeting. Seven partners attended and two absences were due to health and personal reasons. The objective of this meeting was to decide on the evaluation methods. To come to this decision, we discussed the distinction and strengths and limitations of qualitative and quantitative research methods, and the partners were presented with different options that have been used in evaluation studies (including standardized surveys, focus groups, poetry-based data collection, and photovoice). Each option’s description, advantages, and disadvantages were presented in accessible language. Then, as a team, we discussed the options, and the partners were encouraged to ask questions and offer suggestions for other methods with the aim of choosing the methods most appropriate for our team and the study objectives. The partners wanted an evaluation plan that would provide a holistic portrayal of their experiences and allow for multiple methods of self-expression, increasing evaluation accessibility. This perspective has been supported in the literature as the use of both quantitative and qualitative methods bring different strengths to the research and can improve the depth and breadth of the research outcomes [ 22 , 23 ].

As a group, we decided to use the Public and Patient Engagement Evaluation Tool (PPEET) [ 24 ]. This tool has been specifically designed for qualitative and quantitative analysis (see evaluation methods below). Partners identified that capturing experiences qualitatively was valuable to provide individuals with the opportunity to vocalize thoughts and perspectives that cannot be captured with numbers, ultimately leading to a more holistic evaluation. They wanted to capture these qualitative aspects through more than one mode of data collection and emphasized the benefits of including personal reflections as well as reflections based on discussion with the whole partner group. We presented them with the pros and cons of focus groups, and art-based methods, such as poetry and photovoice activities. The group was interested in an arts-based approach as well as a more traditional focus group. These methodological decisions were reached through discussion followed by consensus with 100% agreement by all members. To increase dialogue, meeting facilitators often invited and encouraged quieter partners to express their perspectives and welcomed diverse and contradictory opinions.

For planning the focus group and arts-based methods, a voting system was used to decide on the interview questions (see “focus group” section for questions) as well as the type of arts-based method we would use; these voting data were gathered online through Microsoft Forms. For those who needed help accessing and using the forms, they were provided with alternative options such as voting via a phone call/email or provided individual support with using the form. Focus group questions were developed, in partnership with the Collaborative partners, to address aspects of the Collaborative partners’ experiences which they felt were not sufficiently captured by the PPEET alone. Partners wanted additional opportunities to provide unrestricted feedback as well as the opportunity to discuss successes and limitations of partnership as a group. Additionally, the partners agreed on the use of photovoice as their arts-based method to answer the following prompt: “What would the ideal partnership/engagement of older adults be in the Collaborative?” The photovoice method was chosen by the partners, as they appreciated the individual and reflective elements of the method [ 25 , 26 ]. They liked that the method provided them time alone with the prompt and allowed expression of their ideas in non-verbal ways. This method was appropriate for the prompt since it inquired about idealistic expectations of partnership, which partners shared required time and reflection to determine the answer for.

These methodological decisions were largely led by what was perceived as the best way to address the evaluation objectives.

The evaluation methods

Public and patient engagement evaluation tool (ppeet) [ 24 ].

The PPEET survey is available in multiple languages, such as English, French, and Dutch. The survey was created in 2011 as a product of a Canadian collaboration at McMaster University composed of researchers and public and patient engagement practitioners. Many benefits of the PPEET lie in its continuous improvement, as a result of surveying diverse stakeholders who implemented the tool and shared their experiences of success and challenges. This feedback led to the latest version of the PPEET published in 2018. Due to its wide usage, there is a rich literature validating the tool for different cultures and settings thereby improving its applicability to assessing partnerships in range of circumstances [ 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ].

For this project, we used the participant questionnaire version 2.0 from the PPEET, which assesses various features of engagement, including: (1) the organization’s capacity for meaningfully engaging diverse stakeholders and culture of public and patient engagement, (2) participants’ assessments of their engagement, and (3) the planning, execution and impact of the engagement activity after it has been completed. The participant questionnaire is designed to obtain participants’ assessments of features of an engagement initiative. This 22-question survey includes sections on communication and support for participation, sharing views and perspectives, and impacts and influence of the engagement initiative. Respondents are asked to indicate their level of agreement, from strongly disagree to strongly agree, with statements such as “I am able to express my views freely.” The questionnaire included additional open-ended questions. The partners had the opportunity to complete this questionnaire from July to September of 2023. Individual support over the phone was provided to mitigate impairments or barriers with technology use. The PPEET allowed for anonymous expression of perspectives, which is important to allow partners to mention negative aspects in their experience. A total of seven partners participated.

Photovoice serves as a qualitative method employed to tackle intricate and sensitive subjects, providing individuals with a platform to candidly express their viewpoints [ 25 , 26 ]. By employing photographs taken and chosen by the participants, individuals are able to contemplate and delve into the motives, emotions, and experiences that underlie their selected images.

We employed the photovoice approach to support our partners as they reflect on their own experiences and those of others, prompting them to create or capture images that convey their thoughts and analyze the images chosen by others.

Five partners first attended a 90-minute virtual photovoice workshop on Zoom, where they participated in interactive activities to gain/further their understanding of photography and how we can use photovoice.

Supported by the research team to present her experiences, one partner shared her journey of completing a photovoice activity (using a different prompt unrelated to this project) to provide reflections on the process and an example for others. At the end of the workshop, the partners were invited to develop a submission composed of a description and image response to the prompt “What would the ideal partnership/engagement of older adults be in the Collaborative?”. The recording of the workshop was available for those who did not attend. About a week later, 5 out of 9 partners shared their submissions and engaged in a 90-minute virtual discussion on Zoom regarding the impact, process, and responses to the photovoice prompt. One person was not able to submit due to health reasons but participated in the discussion by sharing reflections and experiences of viewing others’ submissions.

In addition to the recorded training workshop, partners were offered individual support through additional phone calls/Zoom.

Focus group

The focus group aimed to encourage the partners to express their individual and collective experiences as older adult partners within the Collaborative. There were two sections to the focus group guide: (1) Overview and Impact of Participation within the Collaborative and (2) Partnership Challenges and Successes. The focus group, which lasted 90 min, took place online (via Zoom) and was attended by 6 out of 9 partners. See focus group questions below:

Section 1: Overview and impact of participation within the Collaborative

What impact has your participation in the Collaborative, as a partner, had on you?

How has your participation in the Collaborative as a partner influenced your self advocacy/general advocacy skills? (if at all)

What different perspectives do you bring to the Collaborative?

Section 2: Partnership challenges and successes.

What are some anticipated challenges for others who may be more marginalized due to social or health-related factors when participating or adopting the role of a partner? (Socioeconomic, gender/sex, race/ethnicity, religion/spirituality, physical and mental/cognitive capabilities)

Reciprocity is an important principle for partnership; what do you feel like you are “getting back” from your involvement in the Collaborative?

When you think about how this team works together as a group (a) what makes the initiative successful? (b) what gets in the way of success?

Most focus group questions were developed in collaboration with the partners whileothers were added by the research team in response to findings from the PPEET and other evaluation methods.

Partnership during the analysis and knowledge mobilization phases

The student researcher and the Collaborative’s managing director conducted a thematic analysis and developed multiple outputs to engage the partners in a conversation about the preliminary findings and outputs. The aim of this was to help ensure that partner perspectives were appropriately interpreted and important themes were not missing. The preliminary findings were also used to identify and discuss potential next steps for the Collaborative to maintain and/or improve meaningful partnerships. We created and shared (1) an accessible video, presentation, and document, reviewing the methods and summarizing the findings and (2) an action report with clear next steps on how we could mobilize the study findings, as a starting point for discussion.

The research team and older adult partners met to reflect on the process as well as discuss the preliminary findings and ideas for sharing and putting the lessons learned into action.

Discussion questions included:

Did any of the quotes stand out to you as being extra powerful or perhaps not representative of the theme?

Do the themes represent your experience and/or the group discussions?

Is anything missing?

Additionally, two partners met with the Collaborative leaders and student researcher to discuss the project findings and, more specifically, how this work could contribute to the academic literature. The aim of these follow-up meetings was to decide on key messages and methods for mobilizing this knowledge within the academic and local community, including the current manuscript. As a result of the partners’ desire to see how outcomes of the evaluation inform the partnerships at the Collaborative, we created a report with key messages discussing the actions that were present and will be continued, that will be stopped, and will be started to promote meaningful partnerships. Examples include starting initiatives to acknowledge and celebrate partners, review communication to improve clarity, and continue welcoming diverse perspectives.

Considering that the findings have been presented in multiple formats (video, presentation, and accessible report), the project has become more accessible for sharing with larger audiences in the greater community of students, older adults, and other researchers with and without experience in partnership.

Reflections on challenges, benefits, and limitations

There were benefits and limitations, identified by the research team and partners, associated with each method (see Table  1 ). Together, the methods complement one another by creating a study methodology that captures the nuances of each partner’s respective experiences, the process of partnership, and the evaluation of the partnership. Using multiple methods for partnership evaluation offers a range of benefits (see Table  1 ). Together, these methods created a comprehensive evaluation of partnership.The research team and partners determined that both quantitative and qualitative methods were needed for this participatory evaluation, and within each, multiple methods were desired to accommodate preferences and capture different elements of the partners’ perspective on their engagement.

The success of the PPEET survey in meeting the objective of providing space to discuss negative aspects of partnership anonymously was clear. Specifically, more negative aspects of partnership were mentioned in the PPEET than other methods of evaluation. For example, the partners shared their desire for more accessible communication methods such as reviewing all communications to improve clarity and reduce the length of emails.

The outputs produced by the photovoice activity were diverse. Submissions included photos with symbolic creations (e.g., knitted material to reflect different perspectives woven together) and objects to answer the prompt, abstract art, and photographs that portrayed meaning more literally (e.g., image of holding hands to indicate support). During the discussion, some partners shared how it took them a lot of time and trial and error to embody their perspective with an artistic method as well as figure out what their perspective is. This displays how the objectives of using photovoice in order to allow for time to reflect on the prompt individually and portray perspective in a way that words may not allow were met. Ultimately, the method was successful in this regard.

Photovoice was more challenging for the partners than anticipated. Despite the photovoice training session, which aimed to simplify the process and provide guidance, some felt that they did not possess the necessary skills to enact this approach. Some also expressed hesitation, knowing that their submissions would be visible to other partners and identified as their own. This displays how participation and contributions may be influenced by partners’ desire to appear a certain way. Voicing their perspective that their submissions reflect them as individuals, the partners discussed the extensive time spent reflecting on the prompt, contemplating what they wished to express, how to portray it using photography and capturing an image they were pleased with. The research team provided the partners with approximately two weeks to complete their submission. This was done to accommodate schedules and avoid overwhelming the partners. However, some expressed that the longer time signaled greater expectations for the submissions and thus increased the stress of the activity. To mitigate these challenges, MA and SCC met with one of the partners for insight on how to make the photovoice process more accessible and to offer additional support. This meeting led to further conversations with the group of partners to provide rationale for the longer time frame and the photovoice activity expectations. Despite these challenges, partners expressed an appreciation for the opportunity to reflect on partnership as they listened to each other share their submissions and experiences. For many partners, photovoice was a creative channel for self-reflection and expression, and sharing their experiences in ways not confined to words alone. As such, photovoice might serve as a complementary or alternative strategy to tackle linguistic and cultural challenges inherent in many traditional forms of communication and research methods.

While photovoice presented challenges for some partners, the focus group was more accessible to the group. Its success was evident in the extensive reflections made by each partner as well as the diverse perspectives shared. It was notable how the partners built upon each others’points to indicate agreement or disagreement, leading to in depth discussion and allowing for collective reflections to share experiences regarding engagement within the Collaborative.

Another encountered challenge across the overall project was attendance. Although all partners were offered the opportunity to participate in all these methods and project stages, some were absent during some activities due to health issues or scheduling conflicts. It is important to be flexible and understanding when engaging with older adults to adapt your project to fluctuating health and competing priorities of partners [ 3 , 31 ].

Ultimately, this project displays the numerous methods by which older adult partners can be engaged in the research process as partners and the valuable insights that they bring. Below we provide recommendations to guide meaningful partnership with older adults, thereby debunking the perception that the population is difficult to engage.

Recommendations

We recognize that while including multiple methods within an evaluation of partnerships is beneficial, it may not be feasible for all evaluations due to time and resource constraints. We suggest that the partners and research team assess their goals and the partnership context to choose the most appropriate tools and methods. For example, if the evaluation entails discussing sensitive topics, an individual arts-based method such as photovoice may allow for self-expression in nonverbal and creative ways, time to reflect, and the opportunity to decide what to share in a private setting (if the photovoice activity is completed individually and on partners’ own time). While photovoice provides multiple benefits when discussing sensitive topics, it is worth noting that partners mentioned how they felt that their submissions represented them, which made some of them hesitant to share or conscious of their contributions. Thus, in such situations, using photovoice but analyzing the submissions or not sharing them widely is recommended [ 32 ]. It is important to discuss with the partners their level of comfort with sharing submissions. This discussion is crucial in encouraging more people to gain confidence and participate in the activity if privacy was their concern. Partner population and capabilities should also be considered when choosing tools and methods. For example, if the partners are not comfortable expressing their ideas visually and prefer traditional methods, accommodations should be made. Conversely, if partners have language barriers, using photovoice may be a better option than a focus group. As well, opportunities for sharing their insights one-on-one with a member of the research team can also be offered if they do not feel comfortable sharing in a group format.

In summary, we share the experience of implementing a participatory evaluation of older adult partners’ engagement in a research Collaborative. The emphasis on co-planning and using both standardized tools and qualitative approaches underscores the comprehensive approach that was taken to assessing the partnerships within the Collaborative. We hope this case example offers helpful guidance to other groups as they think through the different approaches to partnership and its evaluation. We encourage researchers to consider if or how it may be beneficial to: (1) include partnership in every phase of the evaluation process, (2) Use multiple methods to capture experiences in different ways, (3) Provide individual and customizable support to partners to mitigate barriers due to background, health status, and resources.

Study limitations

While we offer practical guidance on participatory evaluations, we want to emphasize that such guidance was based on the experience of our partners; other research teams should consider the appropriateness of these methods for their evaluation aims and alignment with the skills and preference of their partners when considering adopting these methods. It is important to note that a benefit of participatory approaches is that they are flexible to group needs and study objectives. Ultimatly, project objectives and partner preference should be the main drivers for evaluation approaches.

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Staniszewska S, Brett J, Simera I, Seers K, Mockford C, Goodlad S, et al. GRIPP2 reporting checklists: tools to improve reporting of patient and public involvement in research. BMJ. 2017;358:j3453. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.j3453 .

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Hamilton CB, Hoens AM, McKinnon AM, McQuitty S, English K, Hawke LD, et al. Shortening and validation of the Patient Engagement in Research Scale (PEIRS) for measuring meaningful patient and family caregiver engagement. Health Expect. 2021;24(3):863–79. https://doi.org/10.1111/hex.13227 .

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Markle-Reid M, Ganann R, Ploeg J, Heald-Taylor G, Kennedy L, McAiney C, et al. Engagement of older adults with multimorbidity as patient research partners: lessons from a patient-oriented research program. J Multimorb Comorb. 2021;11:2633556521999508. https://doi.org/10.1177/2633556521999508 .

Heckman GA. Integrated care for the frail elderly. Healthc Pap. 2011;11(1):62–8. https://doi.org/10.12927/hcpap.2011.22255 . discussion 86–91.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Globerman S. Aging and Expenditures on Health Care In:Fraser Institute; 2021. https://www.fraserinstitute.org/studies/aging-and-expenditures-on-health-care . Accessed 18 March 2024.

McNeil H, Elliott J, Huson K, Ashbourne J, Heckman G, Walker J, et al. Engaging older adults in healthcare research and planning: a realist synthesis. Res Involv Engagem. 2016;2(1):10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40900-016-0022-2 .

Feeney M, Evers C, Agpalo D, Cone L, Fleisher J, Schroeder K. Utilizing patient advocates in Parkinson’s disease: a proposed framework for patient engagement and the modern metrics that can determine its success. Health Expect. 2020;23(4):722–30. https://doi.org/10.1111/hex.13064 .

Harrison JD, Auerbach AD, Anderson W, Fagan M, Carnie M, Hanson C, et al. Patient stakeholder engagement in research: a narrative review to describe foundational principles and best practice activities. Health Expect. 2019;22(3):307–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/hex.12873 .

Evaluation | NCCPE [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2024 May]. https://www.publicengagement.ac.uk/evaluation .

Reed MS, Duncan S, Manners P, Pound D, Armitage L, Frewer L, et al. A common standard for the evaluation of public engagement with research. Res all. 2018;2:143–62. https://doi.org/10.18546/RFA.02.1.13 .

Article   Google Scholar  

Friesen P, Lignou S, Sheehan M, Singh I. Measuring the impact of participatory research in psychiatry: how the search for epistemic justifications obscures ethical considerations. Health Expect. 2021;24:54–61. https://doi.org/10.1111/hex.12988 .

Vat LE, Finlay T, Jan Schuitmaker-Warnaar T, Fahy N, Robinson P, Boudes M, Diaz A, Ferrer E, Hivert V, Purman G, Kürzinger ML. Evaluating the return on patient engagement initiatives in medicines research and development: a literature review. Health Expect. 2020;23(1):5–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/hex.12951 .

Government of Canada. CIHR. About SPOR. https://cihr-irsc.gc.ca/e/51036.html (2018). Accessed 18 March 2024.

McMaster Collaborative for Health and Aging. About us. https://collaborative-aging.mcmaster.ca/about-us/ (2024). Accessed 18 March 2024.

McMaster Collaborative for Health and Aging. Older Adult and Caregiver Partners. https://collaborative-aging.mcmaster.ca/about-us/our-members/older-adults-caregivers/ (2024). Accessed 18 March 2024.

MIRA | Collaborative for Health & Aging. Patient Partners. https://miracollaborative.ca/patient-partners/ (2021). Accessed 18 March 2024.

MIRA | Collaborative for Health &, Aging. https://miracollaborative.ca / (2021). Accessed 18 March 2024.

Switzer S, Chan Carusone S, Guta A, Strike C. A seat at the table: Designing an activity-based Community Advisory Committee with people living with HIV who use drugs. Qual Health Res. 2019;29(7):1029–42. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732318812773 .

Cousins JB, Chouinard JA. Participatory evaluation up close: an integration of Research-based knowledge. IAP; 2012. p. 308.

Chouinard JA. The case for participatory evaluation in an era of accountability. Am J Eval. 2013;34(2):237–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/109821401347814 .

Cole A, Lacombe-Duncan A, Roche B, Hendrickson T. Working Together: The Paloma-Wellesley Guide to Participatory Program Evaluations. 2010.

Carr LT. The strengths and weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative research: what method for nursing? J Adv Nurs. 1994;20(4):716–21. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.1994.20040716.x .

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Benzies KM, Allen MN. Symbolic interactionism as a theoretical perspective for multiple method research. J Adv Nurs. 2001;33(4):541–7. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.2001.01680.x .

Abelson J, Li K, Wilson G, Shields K, Schneider C, Boesveld S. Supporting quality public and patient engagement in health system organizations: development and usability testing of the Public and Patient Engagement Evaluation Tool. Health Expect. 2016;19(4):817–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/hex.12378 .

Budig K, Diez J, Conde P, Sastre M, Hernán M, Franco M. Photovoice and empowerment: evaluating the transformative potential of a participatory action research project. BMC Public Health. 2018;18(1):432. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5335-7 .

Wang C, Burris MA, Photovoice. Concept, Methodology, and use for Participatory needs Assessment. Health Educ Behav. 1997;24(3):369–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/109019819702400309 .

Garratt A, Sagen J, Børøsund E, Varsi C, Kjeken I, Dagfinrud H, Moe RH. The public and patient engagement evaluation tool: forward-backwards translation and cultural adaption to Norwegian. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2022;23(1):556. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-022-05514-3 .

Moore A, Wu Y, Kwakkenbos L, Silveira K, Straus S, Brouwers M, Grad R, Thombs BD. The patient engagement evaluation tool was valid for clinical practice guideline development. J Clin Epidemiol. 2022;143:61–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2021.11.034 .

Bavelaar L, van Tol LS, Caljouw MA, van der Steen JT. Dutch translation and first steps in validation of the PPEET to evaluate public and patient engagement. TSG-Tijdschrift voor Gezondheidswetenschappen. 2021;99:146–53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12508-021-00316-9 .

Ogourtsova T, Gonzalez M, Zerbo A, Gavin F, Shikako K, Weiss J, Majnemer A. Lessons learned in measuring patient engagement in a Canada-wide childhood disability network. Res Involv Engagem. 2024;10(1):18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40900-024-00551-9 .

Giunta N, Thomas ML. Integrating assessment and evaluation into partnership initiatives: Lessons from the community partnerships for older adults. Journal of Applied Gerontology. 2015;34(5):609 – 32. https://doi.org/10.1177/0733464813487587 .

Hannes K, Parylo O. Let’s play it safe: ethical considerations from participants in a photovoice research project. Int J Qualitative Methods. 2014;13(1):255–74. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940691401300112 .

Download references

Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge the McMaster Collaborative for Health and Aging’s older adult partners for their effort and dedication to the design and implementation of this project.

Funding for the McMaster Collaborative for Health and Aging is provided by the Ontario SPOR SUPPORT Unit, which is supported by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Province of Ontario and partner Ontario hospital foundations and institutes. The first author is funded by a MIRA Undergraduate Summer Research Fellowship.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

McMaster Collaborative for Health and Aging, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada

Marfy Abousifein, A. Tina Falbo, Joyce Luyckx, Julia Abelson, Rebecca Ganann, Brenda Vrkljan & Soo Chan Carusone

School of Nursing, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada

Rebecca Ganann

Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence and Impact, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada

Julia Abelson

School of Rehabilitation Science, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada

Brenda Vrkljan

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

MA, ATF, MK, JL, JA, RG, BV, and SCC led the conception and design of this project. MA wrote the first draft of the manuscript. All listed authors edited and revised the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Marfy Abousifein .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

Project approved by the Hamilton Integrated Research Ethics Board (#7640).

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary Material 1

Rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Abousifein, M., Falbo, A.T., Luyckx, J. et al. Co-designing a participatory evaluation of older adult partner engagement in the mcmaster collaborative for health and aging. Res Involv Engagem 10 , 58 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40900-024-00595-x

Download citation

Received : 21 March 2024

Accepted : 03 June 2024

Published : 11 June 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40900-024-00595-x

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Partnership
• Patient and public involvement

Research Involvement and Engagement

ISSN: 2056-7529

• General enquiries: [email protected]

Reference Examples

More than 100 reference examples and their corresponding in-text citations are presented in the seventh edition Publication Manual . Examples of the most common works that writers cite are provided on this page; additional examples are available in the Publication Manual .

To find the reference example you need, first select a category (e.g., periodicals) and then choose the appropriate type of work (e.g., journal article ) and follow the relevant example.

When selecting a category, use the webpages and websites category only when a work does not fit better within another category. For example, a report from a government website would use the reports category, whereas a page on a government website that is not a report or other work would use the webpages and websites category.

Also note that print and electronic references are largely the same. For example, to cite both print books and ebooks, use the books and reference works category and then choose the appropriate type of work (i.e., book ) and follow the relevant example (e.g., whole authored book ).

Examples on these pages illustrate the details of reference formats. We make every attempt to show examples that are in keeping with APA Style’s guiding principles of inclusivity and bias-free language. These examples are presented out of context only to demonstrate formatting issues (e.g., which elements to italicize, where punctuation is needed, placement of parentheses). References, including these examples, are not inherently endorsements for the ideas or content of the works themselves. An author may cite a work to support a statement or an idea, to critique that work, or for many other reasons. For more examples, see our sample papers .

Reference examples are covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Chapter 10 and the Concise Guide Chapter 10

Related handouts

• Common Reference Examples Guide (PDF, 147KB)
• Reference Quick Guide (PDF, 225KB)

Textual Works

Textual works are covered in Sections 10.1–10.8 of the Publication Manual . The most common categories and examples are presented here. For the reviews of other works category, see Section 10.7.

• Journal Article References
• Magazine Article References
• Newspaper Article References
• Blog Post and Blog Comment References
• UpToDate Article References
• Book/Ebook References
• Diagnostic Manual References
• Children’s Book or Other Illustrated Book References
• Classroom Course Pack Material References
• Religious Work References
• Chapter in an Edited Book/Ebook References
• Dictionary Entry References
• Wikipedia Entry References
• Report by a Government Agency References
• Report with Individual Authors References
• Brochure References
• Ethics Code References
• Fact Sheet References
• ISO Standard References
• Press Release References
• White Paper References
• Conference Presentation References
• Conference Proceeding References
• Published Dissertation or Thesis References
• Unpublished Dissertation or Thesis References
• ERIC Database References
• Preprint Article References

Data and Assessments

Data sets are covered in Section 10.9 of the Publication Manual . For the software and tests categories, see Sections 10.10 and 10.11.

• Data Set References
• Toolbox References

Audiovisual Media

Audiovisual media are covered in Sections 10.12–10.14 of the Publication Manual . The most common examples are presented together here. In the manual, these examples and more are separated into categories for audiovisual, audio, and visual media.

• Artwork References
• Clip Art or Stock Image References
• Film and Television References
• Musical Score References
• Online Course or MOOC References
• Podcast References
• PowerPoint Slide or Lecture Note References
• Radio Broadcast References
• TED Talk References
• Transcript of an Audiovisual Work References
• YouTube Video References

Online Media

Online media are covered in Sections 10.15 and 10.16 of the Publication Manual . Please note that blog posts are part of the periodicals category.

• Facebook References
• Instagram References
• LinkedIn References
• Online Forum (e.g., Reddit) References
• TikTok References
• X References
• Webpage on a Website References
• Clinical Practice References
• Open Educational Resource References
• Whole Website References