literature review on water tank

• Open access
• Published: 22 February 2021

The effect of household storage tanks/vessels and user practices on the quality of water: a systematic review of literature

• Musa Manga 1 , 2 , 3 ,
• Timothy G. Ngobi 1 ,
• Lawrence Okeny 1 ,
• Pamela Acheng 1 ,
• Hidaya Namakula 1 ,
• Elizabeth Kyaterekera 3 ,
• Irene Nansubuga 4 &
• Nathan Kibwami 1  

Environmental Systems Research volume  10 , Article number:  18 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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Household water storage remains a necessity in many communities worldwide, especially in the developing countries. Water storage often using tanks/vessels is envisaged to be a source of water contamination, along with related user practices. Several studies have investigated this phenomenon, albeit in isolation. This study aimed at developing a systematic review, focusing on the impacts of water storage tank/vessel features and user practices on water quality.

Database searches for relevant peer-reviewed papers and grey literature were done. A systematic criterion was set for the selection of publications and after scrutinizing 1106 records, 24 were selected. These were further subjected to a quality appraisal, and data was extracted from them to complete the review.

Results and discussion

Microbiological and physicochemical parameters were the basis for measuring water quality in storage tanks or vessels. Water storage tank/vessel material and retention time had the highest effect on stored water quality along with age, colour, design, and location. Water storage tank/vessel cleaning and hygiene practices like tank/vessel covering were the user practices most investigated by researchers in the literature reviewed and they were seen to have an impact on stored water quality.

Conclusions

There is evidence in the literature that storage tanks/vessels, and user practices affect water quality. Little is known about the optimal tank/vessel cleaning frequency to ensure safe drinking water quality. More research is required to conclusively determine the best matrix of tank/vessel features and user practices to ensure good water quality.

Tank/vessel material and retention time of water most affect the water quality of stored water.

Cleaning of tank/vessel improves the microbiological and physicochemical quality of stored water.

The optimal tank/vessel cleaning frequency to ensure good drinking water quality is not defined in literature.

Sustainable Development Goal, Target 6.1, addresses universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water, implying that it is geared towards ensuring that all people in the world can access water in the right amounts, quality, and cost, in a sustainable manner. A 2019 report by the World Bank indicates that the proportion of the world’s population using safely managed drinking water services has been increasing, even before the adoption of the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). However, despite these efforts, the world still faces an invisible crisis of poor water quality, which threatens amongst other things, the wellbeing of humans (World Bank  2019 ). Water of both acceptable quality and sufficient quantity, is critical for proper human health and wellbeing. For many years, attention has been focused on both access to and quality of water, but while access to safe water has significantly improved worldwide, quality appears to be further declining and it has been deteriorating more than proportionally to the economic and population growth (Boretti and Rosa 2019 ). Good quality water is one that has acceptable chemical, physical, biological, and radiological characteristics, based on local and widely-acceptable international standards, such as World Health Organization standards. The diminishing quality of water can be attributed to contamination at different points of the water supply system including distribution and storage (Al-Bahry et al.  2009 ,  2011 ). Although many organizations both local and international have been directing vast efforts towards the improvement of water quality, water contamination is still rampant. Contamination, whether directly or indirectly, by human or animal excreta, particularly faeces is the most common and widespread health risk associated with drinking water (Raju et al.  2011 ; Manga et al.  2020 ; Fleming et al.  2019 ).

Water storage, the main feature of the indirect cold water supply system (see Fig.  1 ), and many other un-piped water supply systems has for many years been identified as a source of contamination of domestic water. In fact, because of this, the kitchen sink in the indirect cold water supply system receives water directly from the mains, instead of the storage tank.

Indirect cold water supply system (Doctor DIY  2021 )

Household water storage is fraught with many challenges which ultimately result in compromising the quality of water (Nnaji et al.  2019 ). Water storage tanks do harbor several pathogens that cause different diseases and illnesses. Waterborne illnesses caused by bacteria found in contaminated household water storage tanks increases the risk of spreading waterborne diseases, and may lead to many infectious outbreaks (Khan and AlMadani  2016 ).

With the projection by the United Nations (2018) that nearly 6 billion people will be faced with clean water scarcity by 2050 (Boretti and Rosa 2019 ), there is a critical need to investigate sources of water contamination. Several studies many of which from the developing world, have investigated the impact of water storage on water quality. For instance, Schafer ( 2010 ), Ziadat ( 2005 ), Mohanan et al. ( 2017 ) and Douhri et al. ( 2015 ) focused on the impacts of storage material on water quality while Holt ( 2005 ) and Agensi et al. ( 2019 ) focused on the impacts of user practices on stored household water quality. However, to date, there is no single study found in literature, that comprehensively reviewed tank features and user practices in relation to household water contamination factors. Having such comprehensive knowledge would aid further research and policy into mitigating the impact of storage on household water quality. This review, therefore, seeks to fill this gap by systematically reviewing literature to answer the following research questions: (1) What features of storage tanks/vessels and user practices impact on household water quality? (2) How do the features of storage tanks/vessels and user practices affect household water quality? (3) What can be done to mitigate the effects of the storage tank/vessel features and user practices on water quality?

The methodology adopted included a systematic literature review approach in order to identify the most relevant articles to be included in the study, citation network analysis of the selected articles and a quality appraisal framework (Colicchia and Strozzi  2012 ; Anthonj et al.  2020 ; Venkataramanan et al.  2018 ).

Search strategy

Literature searches were conducted in ScienceDirect, PubMed, Scirus, and Web of Knowledge using the following search terms: “water quality in tanks” or “drinking water quality under indirect water supply” or “drinking water in storage tanks” or “domestic water” or “household water storage” or “water contamination in storage containers and vessels’’ or “domestic water contamination” or “contamination in tanks”. The databases were selected because they were leading databases on scientific research. Searches were also conducted in the Google and Google Scholar search engines, where the first 50 hits were checked for potentially relevant papers.

On identifying some relevant papers, additional studies were obtained from the reference lists and their titles were used as search terms on Google and Google Scholar search engines, leading to databases from which related studies were found by choosing the “show similar studies” search option while searching the databases.

Selection criteria

Published peer reviewed papers and grey literature obtained from the comprehensive searches were considered eligible to be included in the review only if they met the following criteria:

Reported on water quality in storage tanks, vessels, or containers in households;

Based on empirical research;

Published by Accredited Organizations;

Were written in English;

Published between 2000 and 2019.

Studies that did not meet the above criteria were excluded. Full texts of publications that met the criteria were retrieved and reviewed in detail by a group of reviewers for quality, assessment of bias, and relevance to study objectives.

The selection methodology process of records included in this study is as shown in Fig.  2 . A total of 1091 records were obtained from peer-reviewed journal database searches using the search strategy mentioned in " Search strategy " Section. From web searches, a total of 15 records of grey literature related to the subject were found. There were 117 duplicate records and these were discarded. The remaining had their abstracts and executive summaries screened to check their eligibility to be included in the review. A total of 952 of the obtained records whose abstracts and executive summaries were scanned did not meet the criteria. These focused mainly on distribution and sources of water rather than household tank storage, and on this premise they were eliminated. Therefore, 37 records were found eligible for full-text review but only 22 of them met the criteria for inclusion in the review. From citation network analysis, 2 relevant papers were found and included in the study. Eventually, 24 publications were purposively selected to be reviewed, based on the selection criteria discussed above.

Selection process

Data extraction

Basing on the research questions, data was extracted from the selected records to complete this study. The data collected from the reviewed final sample of studies included: Storage tank or vessel features investigated; Household user practices in regards to the stored water and storage tanks; Geographical location of the studies; and Water quality indicators used (see Table  1 ; Fig.  3 ). This data was envisaged to be adequate for this review study.

After ensuring that all reviewers had a similar understanding of the data extraction process and the type of data that was targeted, they independently analyzed the records that were included in the final sample of literature and extracted the data. To check the consistency of the data, the reviewers maintained an online google sheet and google document such that all reviewers could highlight the discrepancies and inconsistencies in the data. All identified relationships in the final sample of studies or their supplementary materials were considered, whether established quantitatively or qualitatively. These were tabulated in a Microsoft Excel database for analysis.

Geographical distribution of the studies; the majority in developing countries

Quality appraisal

To characterize the quality of the publications or records selected and included in this review, a framework was developed for quality appraisal and this framework was guided by previous studies (Venkataramanan et al.  2018 ; Jack et al.  2010 ; Heale and Twycross  2015 ; Loevinsohn  1990 ; Pluye et al.  2009 ; Puzzolo et al.  2013 ; Spencer et al.  2003 ; Thomas et al.  2004 ). The developed framework was used to assess the quality of reporting and bias in each of the literature publications included in the study. The framework enabled the reviewers to check the elaborateness of the objectives of each study, the context, methodology appropriateness, randomization, independence of data collection, the statistical significance of results for quantitative studies, subjection to external peer-reviewing, and the conclusion appropriateness. Each of these appraisal criteria was assigned a score between 0 and 2 and the total score to categorize the overall risk of bias as high, moderate, or low was computed (Majuru et al.  2016 ). Table  2 shows the framework that was used for quality appraisal of the records that were included in the review. However, Table  3 shows the scoring and categorization of the overall quality of writing and risk of bias of each of the records that were included in the review. As can be seen, only one of the reviewed studies has a ‘high’ risk of bias because its overall quality of writing was low.

Ninety-2 % of the literature reviewed was quite identical in terms of paper content arrangement, methodology, and gist. Twenty-two of reviewed studies conducted a bacteriological and physicochemical analysis on water in storage tanks/vessels whereas 2 studies were specifically physicochemical analyses of tank/vessels water quality.

User practices like tank cleaning frequencies were investigated in a few of the reviewed research works. The studies reviewed were quantitative and qualitative from disciplines such as environmental engineering, water quality, and public health. To elaborate on how features and practices affect water quality, discussions of these phenomena were discussed in relation to the water quality indicators used in the studies. The results were presented under the following themes: Stored water contamination indicators; Water contamination in tanks/ vessels; and, Effects of user practices on water quality.

Stored water contamination indicators

The contamination indicators that were used to assess the quality of stored water in the reviewed research studies can be broadly categorized as biological and physicochemical.

Biological indicators of stored water contamination

The biological contamination indicators also known as the microbial or bacteriological indicators are widely used in the analysis of water quality in storage vessels. The use of bacteria as indicators of the sanitary quality of water, probably dates back to 1880 when Von Fritsch described Klebsiella pneumoniae and K. rhinoscleromatis as microorganisms characteristically found in human faeces (Geldreich  1978 ). In the publications reviewed in this study, multiple parameters were used to indicate microbial contamination, as shown in Fig.  4 .

Total coliforms are a group of related bacteria that are often useful indicators of other pathogens in drinking water. They were the most used microbiological contamination indicator, as it was considered in several studies (n = 17) of those reviewed. This was followed by E. coli and faecal coliforms that were considered in (n = 12) and (n = 8) studies, respectively. These are low numbers, considering the important role E. coli and faecal coliforms play in confirmation of faecal contamination.

Heterotrophic Aerobic Bacteria was another indicator considered by most of the reviewed studies. Some studies considered Klebsiella , Enterobacter , Serratia , Citrobacter , Tatumella , Escherichia vulneris (Al-Bahry et al.  2013 ), Salmonella spp., Legionella spp., Yersinia spp., Aeromonas spp., Pseudomonas , Pasteurella spp. (Duru et al.  2013 ), Slime Forming Bacteria, Iron Related Bacteria (Schafer and Mihelcic  2012 ), and phytoplankton species (Duru et al.  2013 ) as the other indicators of microbial contamination.

Microbial indicators used in the reviewed studies

Overall, the choices of indicators of microbial contamination appeared to be in line with WHO’s guidelines for water sampling and analysis, which require testing for indicators of faecal contamination as a minimum requirement. E. coli and faecal coliforms are the best indicators of faecal contamination because they confirm the presence of faecal matter, which are considered to pose the greatest risk to human health. Salmonella typhi. , a bacterium that causes typhoid fever; a very common infection in developing countries was not investigated by the reviewed studies.

Physicochemical indicators of stored water contamination

These are physical and chemical aspects of water used in determining whether its quality is acceptable or not. Some of the common physicochemical contamination indicators that were used in characterising the quality of water in the studies reviewed included: pH, Electrical Conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids, Total Suspended Solids, Turbidity, Temperature, Dissolved Oxygen, Iron Fe + , Cu, NO 3 − , PO 4 , Zn, Cr, Pb, Zn, K, Mn, Cl (free and residual). pH was the most widely used parameter for physiochemical characterisation of stored water in the studies included in this review (n = 12; 50 %).

pH is paramount in checking the corrosiveness of water and the lower the pH the more corrosive the water, because of its acidic tendencies at low pH values (World Health Organization  2007 ). The water source, the material of the water storage tank or vessel, the temperature, mineral absorption, dust, the level of bacterial activity in a vessel, and the duration of water storage before use, affect the pH of water (Duru et al.  2013 ; Packiyam et al.  2016 ).

Electrical conductivity (EC) came second in frequency of use as a water quality indicator among the studies included in the review. 10 of the 24 (42 %) studies considered EC as a dependent variable, as there was a correlation between the level of Total Dissolved solids (TDS) and EC (see Fig.  5 ). This is depicted in the study conducted by Akuffo et al. ( 2013 ), where the EC value increased with an increase in the TDS value. About 38 % of the reviewed 24 studies used TDS to describe the physicochemical nature of water stored (see Fig.  5 ). The esthetic quality of water in terms of colour is affected by the level of TDS (Oram  2020 ). The age and material of the tanks were found to affect the TDS of stored water (Nunes et al.  2018 ). However, no study of those included in this review undertook to determine the degree of correlation between the TDS and the EC. TDS has also been criticized as a poor parameter for measuring water quality as it does not detail the contents of the dissolved solids (Magnus  2019 ).

Heavy metals such as Fe + , Cu, and Mn were also used in the assessment of water quality in (n = 6), (n = 6), and (n = 5) studies, respectively (see Fig.  5 ). Heavy metals have an adverse effect when they accumulate in the human body as they can cause damage or reduce the mental central nervous function, lower energy levels, and damage body organs (Verma and Dwivedi  2013 ). Fe + was seen predominantly in tanks that were made of steel and it was in high concentration where the tanks were relatively old (Al-Ghanim et al.  2014 ; Chia et al.  2013 ; Chalchisa et al.  2017 ; Schafer and Mihelcic  2012 ; Nunes et al.  2018 ). The cleaning of the tanks also affects the concentration and accumulation of heavy metals. In a study by Ziadat ( 2005 ), it was noted that the level of heavy metals in water stored in tanks was elevated because the tanks were old and worn out, and had not been cleaned in a long time.

A study in Venezuela found temperature to be an important parameter of water quality because it affects the rate of microbial growth (Schafer and Mihelcic  2012 ). According to the same study, temperatures of 15 °C and/or higher inside water storage tanks can cause significant bacterial growth. Other physicochemical indicators that were included in some of the of the reviewed studies were odour and taste (Duru et al.  2013 ; Varghese and Jaya  2008 ). Figure  5 shows the frequency of the key physicochemical indicators of water quality used in the studies reviewed.

Physicochemical indicators used in the studies reviewed

Water contamination in household tanks

Due to intermittent water supply problems in many parts of the world, especially developing countries, water storage using tanks as well as small containers such as jerry-cans are commonly used by households to reserve water for use throughout the day. Rural communities use small containers that can easily be transported from the water sources to homes, while urban communities have piped water, therefore use water storage tanks to reserve water. There is a great deal of concern regarding in-house microbial contamination during handling and storage of water in developing countries (Akuffo et al.  2013 ).

Ziadat ( 2005 ) evaluated the impact of residential storage tanks on drinking water quality in comparison to its drinking water source, through analysis of major anions, cations, and heavy metals. It was found that the water in storage tanks had higher ionic concentrations compared to the sources. Rusting was suggested as a possible cause since most of the tanks had rusted. However, according to the WHO, most chemicals arising in drinking water are of health concern only after extended years of exposure rather than months. The study by Graham and VanDerslice ( 2007 ) investigated the effectiveness of large household water storage tanks for protecting the quality of drinking water in El Paso County, Texas, and found that the water from the tanks was generally of poor quality. Longer storage periods of household water were noticed for households with large water tanks, which may have potentially increased the risk of contamination, and also led to chlorine volatilisation.

The study by Schafer and Mihelcic ( 2012 ) found that water storage impacts on water quality through storage tank material, which is most likely because of different water temperatures inside the tank. It was further found that storage tank designs can affect water quality if they do not allow the tanks to be completely emptied during use or cleaning. This may however not be an issue of tank design, but rather, the workmanship of the plumbers, because provisions for the outlets and washouts are usually made by manufacturers and the plumbers use these provisions to install the washouts and outlets depending on the size of pipes to be connected. Interestingly, the age of water storage tanks was found not to have any significant impact on water quality. However, a study by Al-Ghanim et al. ( 2014 ) contradicted this and suggested that the high levels of TDS in some tanks were as a result of the tanks being old.

A study conducted in Pakistan by Al-Ghanim et al. ( 2014 ) revealed that all tanks were contaminated with heterotrophic bacteria: 80% contained coliforms, 30 % contained fecal coliforms, but E. coli was not detected. It was also found that 60 % of the tanks contained algal counts exceeding 103 unit/l. The study further revealed that different types of tank surfaces encouraged microbial growth differently. The quality of water in the different types of storage tanks was also investigated by Al-Bahry et al. ( 2013 ). Three types of water tanks were examined: glass-reinforced-plastic (GRP), polyethylene (PE), and galvanized iron (GI). Results showed that all water storage tanks supported microbial regrowth with high values of the microbial total count. Microbial regrowth varied with the type of the water storage tanks. Coliforms were isolated from all tanks but were abundantly found in GRP.

The study by Chalchisa et al. ( 2017 ) assessed the quality of drinking water in storage tanks in Ethiopia and found that water samples collected from drinking water storage tanks were positive for total coliforms and faecal coliforms. The result of this study showed that the drinking water was microbiologically contaminated in all sampling points. It was discussed that the high temperature after storage (up to 23.1 °C) increased the number of faecal coliforms in storage tanks. All these studies confirm that water storage impacts the quality of water in many ways.

Effects of household tank/vessel features on quality of stored water

Material of the water storage tank or vessel.

Various tank material types were found to be used in different regions from the literature reviewed as shown in Table  4 . It is important to note that plastic tanks were widely used in the different regions compared to the rest of the tank materials. However, no explanation was given in the literature studied to justify the usage of the different tank materials, whether it was the cost, convenience, availability of the tank material, or climatic conditions of the regions.

Tank material was found to be a leading cause of water contamination. There was a variation in the frequency of microbial contamination relative to each type of water tank (Al-Bahry et al. 2013 ). Water storage tank materials, which are in direct contact with water can contribute contaminants from either the material used for tank construction/ production or from internal coatings used to protect the tank materials from contact with the water (Akuffo et al.  2013 ).

The studies conducted by Akuffo et al. ( 2013 ), Al-Bahry et al. ( 2013 ), Schafer and Mihelcic ( 2012 ) and Schafer ( 2010 ) all agreed that tank material affects water quality through temperature. This could be because different materials have different thermal conductivity, for instance, steel have a higher thermal conductivity and cools faster than plastic under the same weather condition. Additionally, different materials have different heat capacities. A steel tank of a given size absorbs more heat than a plastic tank of the same size. A comparison between fiberglass, fiber cement and black polyethylene tank materials, showed that temperatures are generally higher in the polyethylene tanks throughout the day than in fiberglass, and fiber cement tank materials (Schafer and Mihelcic  2012 ) (see Fig.  6 ). As such microbial activity is expected to be higher in the polyethylene tanks than in other tank materials.

Temperature variation of stored water in tanks of different materials (Schafer and Mihelcic  2012 )

When the temperature of the water reaches above 15 °C, the occurrence of coliforms and heterotrophic bacteria is significantly higher (Khan and AlMadani  2016 ). An investigation conducted by Ogbozige et al. ( 2018 ) revealed that steel metal tanks have more EC than the plastic tanks, suggesting less mineral concentration in the steel metal tanks.

Different tank materials were also found to affect water quality because of the various unique features they possess (Table  5 ). For instance, Ziadat ( 2005 ) and Akuffo et al. ( 2013 ) found that heavy metals dissolve in water because of rusting. Plastic tanks allow certain types of bacteria to stick to the plastic surface and enable growth (Al-Ghanim et al.  2014 ). In the same vein, Jagals et al. ( 2003 ) and Al-Bahry et al. ( 2013 ) found that tank surfaces allow the growth of biofilm. Biofilms provide a variety of microenvironments for microbial regrowth (Al-Bahry et al.  2013 ). These films break loose from the sides especially during filling with no subsequent rinsing and form particulate suspensions in water which harbour significant numbers of viable bacteria (Jagals et al.  2003 ). This could be a major cause of water contamination particularly in developing countries because of the rampant intermittent water supply issues, which result into frequent emptying and refilling of water storage tanks, thus causing dislodging of biofilm into stored water. However, a comparison of the levels of biofilm formation on the different water storage tank materials has not been investigated to-date.

In a study by Mohanan, et al. ( 2017 ) it was concluded that conventional water storage vessels such as copper, brass, and clay possessed antimicrobial activity and were highly efficient against pathogenic bacteria than vessels made up of plastic, steel, and aluminium. In some other reviewed studies, there were contradictory findings on the contamination levels of the different water storage tank/vessel materials. For instance, Al-Bahry et al. ( 2013 ) found that glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) tanks contained the most contaminated water, and polyethylene (PE) tanks contained the least contaminated water. However, Schafer and Mihelcic ( 2012 ) found that PE tanks contained the most contaminated water while GRP tanks contained the least contaminated water. These results could, however, be attributed to other variables that may not have been investigated in these studies. These discrepancies demand further research to determine which materials are best suitable for household water storage. Table  4 shows the studies that focused on the different tank/vessel material and the corresponding values of water quality indicators as per the studies.

Residence/storage time

Tank size and capacity do have an effect on water quality. This is effect is realized through retention or residence time. Microbial growth increases as residence time increases (Schafer  2010 ). Previous studies such as Agensi et al. ( 2019 ) and Chia et al. ( 2013 ) found a significant associations between the duration of water storage and the level of contamination. For instance, Nnaji et al. ( 2019 ) found an average E. coli , total coliforms, and enterococci count of 3, 4, and 3 MPN/100ml on the first day and 8, 69, and 114 MPN/100ml respectively on the 35th day of water storage; heterotrophic plate count (HPC) of 5 CFU/ml on the 1st day and 31 CFU/ml on the 35th day of storage.

The study by Ogbozige et al. ( 2018 ) investigated the effect of storage duration on water quality in different material containers. The study revealed that the maximum retention period for storing water in all the container materials studied as inferred from the water quality was about 21 days, except for clay-pot material where the study showed that its retention period should not exceed 6 days; however, the uncoated steel metal tank was not recommended. It was concluded that black plastic containers preserved water quality better during storage, compared to coloured plastic containers, galvanized iron or coated steel containers, and clay pots.

Large storage tanks allow for longer water storage periods, which may potentially increase the risk of contamination and chlorine volatilisation (Graham and VanDerslice  2007 ). However, a factor that has not been well investigated by any of the reviewed studies is the fact that the residence time also depends on the household size and per capita water usage. A large tank serving a large household size or a small tank serving a small household size, both with high per capita water use, implies that the water residence time in the tank is very short, and thus it is less likely to get contaminated during storage. Conversely, a large tank serving a small household size with low per capita water use, may result into longer water residence time in the tank, and hence potentially more contamination during storage may be witnessed.

In the study by Al-Bahry et al. ( 2013 ) it was noted that the water distribution system started with low microbial contamination. However, when water was transferred to storage tanks, microbial contamination spread rapidly due to water stagnation. Static water is undesirable because this condition provides an opportunity for the suspended particles to settle in the tank as sediments and later stick on the sides of the tank. There is a need for further research on this phenomenon because it may also be argued that the biological and physical chemical contamination per unit of water in large tanks may be lower as compared to that in small tanks based of the amount of time the water is stagnant in the different tank sizes, given a constant number of users for all the tanks.

Tank/ vessel age, colour, design, and location

These four tank/vessel features were investigated by only a few studies; each was investigated by either one or two studies.

Tank age While Chia, et al. ( 2013 ) found a significant relationship between the age of the water storage tanks and the occurrence of a significant number of the pathogen species, Schafer and Mihelcic ( 2012 ) found no meaningful effect of tank age on water quality. The argument was that tanks that well-maintained tanks do not affect water quality even after many years of use. Proper maintenance ensures that undesirable conditions such as biofilm, rusts, broken covers, etc. are removed or restored to good conditions, enabling tanks to maintain good water quality.

Tank colour Chia et al. ( 2013 ) found that the colour of the tanks had a significant association with physicochemical parameters such as dissolved oxygen and biological oxygen demand, which also determined the occurrence and abundance of 9 (including 2 cyanobacteria) out of the 13 species reported in the study. Water storage tank colour may also affect water quality through temperature, since different colours absorb heat to varying extents, affecting the temperature of the water in the tanks differently. Darker colours absorb more heat than lighter colours. However, dark-coloured (plastic) tanks are more commonly used than light coloured tanks, especially in developing countries. Schafer ( 2010 ) found black polyethylene among the most common types of tanks in Bolivia. Chia et al. ( 2013 ) had a third of the water storage tanks investigated in Nigeria as black. In the same vein, the storage tanks provided by the government in El Paso County, Texas, USA and investigated by Graham and VanDerslice ( 2007 ) were also dark in colour. This could be further affecting water quality because high temperatures encourage bacteria growth as discussed above in the section of “ Material of the water storage tank or vessel ”.

Tank design This study review revealed that tank design affects water indirectly by affecting user practices. A study by Schafer ( 2010 ) reported that increased microbial growth in household storage tanks compared to water sources may be due to the design of household storage tanks, which sometimes complicates the complete emptying of the storage tank while in use or during washouts. However, the challenge of completely emptying the water storage tanks may also be attributed to the wrong pipe configuration of outlet and washout pipes on the tanks—as a result of poor workmanship of plumbers.

Tank location This affects water quality through temperature. In the study by Schafer ( 2010 ), the temperature of water in a black polyethylene tank was high when the tank was positioned under direct sunlight, but the temperature of water dropped when the tank was covered by a shade of a wall; while the temperature of water in a fibreglass tank continued to rise because it remained under direct sunlight. Bacterial growth would therefore be expected to be higher in the fiberglass tank than the black polythene tank. However, as earlier discussed in this same section under ‘colour’, a black tank absorbs more heat than lightly coloured tanks. The same study found that the temperature of water in the black polyethylene tank remained higher than that of the other types of tanks throughout the day, including the period when it was under the shade.

Effects of user practices on quality of household tank/vessel stored water

Tank/vessel covering.

Water storage tanks have an impact on the water quality if they are not handled in hygienic ways such as sealing or covering of the storage tanks (Chalchisa et al.  2017 ; Akuffo et al.  2013 ). Lack of tank covers, potentially increases the risk of contamination of stored water with animal and bird faeces, as well as dust and airborne particulates. This facilitates the growth of algae when the tanks are exposed to sunlight, and lead to undesirable changes in the taste, odor, and color of water (Al-Ghanim et al.  2014 ). Only a few of the reviewed studies investigated tank covering. There may be other implications of tank covering that were not investigated by the reviewed studies. For instance, if an elevated tank supplied by municipal water and located outside a house is not covered, rainwater my fall into the tank and thus increase the volume of water in the tank. Consequently, this would reduce the residual chlorine of the stored water.

Tank/vessel cleaning

Cleaning practices of water storage tank/vessel have impact on household water quality. Several studies did investigate tank cleaning (Rodrigo et al.  2010 ; Lévesque et al.  2008 ; Jagals et al.  2003 ; Schafer  2010 ; Nnaji et al.  2019 ). The study by Jagals et al. ( 2003 ) found that biofilm-like substances could build up in storage tanks or containers (especially in those not regularly cleaned), which could contribute to hazardous microbiological contamination of container-stored drinking water, especially if particles from the film become dislodged into, and ingested with the water. In a study by Lévesque et al. ( 2008 ), the effect of tank cleaning on water quality was investigated and the results showed that the contamination levels were almost the same for water tanks that had not been cleaned in a range of three years (2000 to 2002), but the contamination had strongly reduced in the year 2003 when the cleaning was carried out. Similarly, the study by Pesewu, et al. (2014) found that the recent cleaning of three (3) polyethylene tanks was responsible for lowering their total coliform and faecal coliform counts.

The study Schafer and Mihelcic ( 2012 ) found that the cleaning frequency of tanks impacts the quality of water in the storage tanks. The study found that storage tanks cleaned three (3) or more times per year had lower E. coli counts and turbidity than storage tanks cleaned less frequently (Table  6 ). The study by Chia et al. ( 2013 ) suggested that possible means of continuous contamination and recontamination that encourage the growth or re-growth of microalgae and cyanobacteria in the water storage tanks include inadequate periodic cleaning or scrubbing of the tanks. The study by Nnaji et al. ( 2019 ) found that total coliforms, enterococci, HPC, and E. coli counts increased with an increase in the intervals of regular cleaning as shown in Fig.  7 ; Table  6 .

(Adopted after Nnaji et al. ( 2019 ))

Effect of tank cleaning on the bacteriological quality of water

The study by Akuffo, et al.,(2013) also found that certain types of tanks (earthen) had less degree of contamination compared with other types (polyethylene and metal tanks) because among other reasons, they were cleaned more frequently. In Al-Ghanim, et al., ( 2014 ), it was found that 80 % of the tanks were not frequently cleaned, and therefore contained contaminated water. It can clearly be seen that results from the various studies do agree that cleaning practices of water storage tanks have a significant effect on the stored quality of water. However, the recommended cleaning frequency is still unclear.

Limitation of the study

This study only focused on studies written in the English language and there was no inclusion of studies or records made in other languages. As such, non-English studies that would provide knowledge on the subject studied may have been missed out. Also, the selection of grey literature was limited to theses and publications from accredited institutions and organizations, and thus there is a likelihood that some data may not have been captured from all the available grey literature.

Conclusions and recommendations

The objective of this study was to identify what water storage tank features and user practices affect water quality, how they affect water quality, and recommendations on how their effect can be mitigated. A systematic literature review was conducted to answer these questions. The identified features of water storage tanks that affect water quality include tank/ vessel material, colour, design, location, and retention time. The pronounce user practices that was seen to affect the water quality in storage tanks/vessels were cleaning; and covering. This study suggests tank/vessel material and retention time of water in tanks/ vessels as the key features that had the highest impact on water quality. However, there is a contradiction regarding the most suitable material to curb bacteriological contamination. Further research is recommended to expressly determine the tank/ vessel material that is best suited for bacteriological and physiochemical contamination.

While the practice of tank cleaning was seen to affect water quality, there is a need to carry out research to determine the optimal cleaning frequency of the storage tanks or vessels that guarantees safe drinking water quality. Additionally, use of proper cleaning methods and tools; reduction of water storage periods by using tank sizes that match the number of household members and per capita water use; covering tanks/vessels; treatment of water at the household level for instance by boiling or chlorination; regular maintenance of storage tanks/vessels including replacement of old tanks; community education, adoption, and promotion of appropriate water safety plans; use of light-coloured tanks/vessels; improvement of tank design to ease cleaning and maintenance; and locating tanks under shades are some of the measures that can significantly reduce contamination or pathogens in the stored household water, and improve household water quality.

Tank/ vessel cleaning was the most investigated practice, but there is a need to investigate other user practices that are envisaged to affect water quality like mixing water from different sources in storage vessels and chlorination or treatment of water in the storage vessel. Comprehensive inclusive studies should be conducted to assess the effect of other user practices on stored water quality, involving key informant interviews, surveys, and experimental tests with large samples to enhance the reliability of data, ensure dissemination of information, contribute to feasible recommendations and implementation of interventions. A multivariate contamination prediction model should be developed combining all the tank/ vessel features and maintenance/ user practices to determine the best matrix for safe storage of water at the household level. In addition, comparison of the economic implications of choosing different tank types through life cycle costing and cost benefit analysis would be useful.

Availability of data materials

Not Applicable. There are no linked research data sets for this review as no data was used for the research described in the manuscript.

Abbreviations

Biochemical oxygen demand

Dissolved oxygen

Electrical conductivity

Escherichia coli

Glass reinforced plastic

Heterotrophic plate counts

Most probable number

Sulfate/sulphate ion

Sustainable development goals

Total dissolved solids

Total suspended solids

Polyethylene

Total heterotrophic plate count

World Health Organization

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Acknowledgements

We acknowledge all the reviewers and the GIS expert Ms. Atuhaire Christine for the tremendous work done during this study and all the team members that contributed to this article.

This research was funded by Makerere University Research and Innovation Fund under grant [RIF 1/CEDAT/010]. This review paper constitutes a part of the research project on examining the effect household water storage tanks/ vessel features and related user practices on the quality of water. This study helped in identifying gaps in literature that could culminate in further research.

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MM, LO and TGN conceived and designed the review. TGN, LO, MM, PA, and HN extracted the data from the literature. MM, TGN, and LO summarized the data in tabular and graphical form and wrote the manuscript. NK, IN, and EK provided comments and feedback on the interpretation of the results and reviewed the manuscript. MM acquired funding. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Manga, M., Ngobi, T.G., Okeny, L. et al. The effect of household storage tanks/vessels and user practices on the quality of water: a systematic review of literature. Environ Syst Res 10 , 18 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-021-00221-9

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INTRODUCTION

Drinking water quality requirements, impacts of domestic water storage on water quality, consideration of water quality with respect to domestic storage in national and international legislation, conclusions and recommendations, acknowledgements, water quality aspects related to domestic drinking water storage tanks and consideration in current standards and guidelines throughout the world – a review.

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Irene Slavik , Keila Roberta Oliveira , Peter Batista Cheung , Wolfgang Uhl; Water quality aspects related to domestic drinking water storage tanks and consideration in current standards and guidelines throughout the world – a review. J Water Health 1 August 2020; 18 (4): 439–463. doi: https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2020.052

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In many parts of the world, drinking water storage takes place in near-house or in-house tanks. This can impact drinking water quality considerably. International and numerous national standards and guidelines addressing the construction, installation and operation of domestic drinking water storage tanks are reviewed on their consideration of water quality aspects and the minimisation of health risks associated with drinking water storage. Several national and international standards and guidelines are reviewed in terms of drinking water quality requirements. Factors that have an impact on water quality in relation to the use of domestic drinking water storage tanks are summarised comprehensively. The impact of the domestic storage of drinking water on water quality, the points and locations of use, their positioning, the materials they are made of, their design and operation, as well as aspects of how they are operated and maintained is outlined and discussed in detail. Finally, the incorporation of aspects regarding water quality in drinking water storage tanks in standards and guidelines is presented and assessed. To make the use of domestic drinking water storage tanks safer and more efficient, recommendations for modifications, improvements and extensions of respective standards are made.

A review of domestic drinking water storage tanks.

Arrangement, construction, design, materials and operation are presented.

Impact on drinking water quality is reviewed and discussed.

Standards and guidelines are reviewed on consideration of water quality changes.

Recommendations for improvements of standards and guidelines are made.

The supply of drinking water always requires storage, as consumption is varying. Storage involves a risk of contamination before use. Especially in non-piped systems and piped systems with intermittent supply, storage is a crucial factor regarding water quality and thus public health. This is because in such systems the risk of a water quality impairment is especially high. Since the major part of the world's population obtains drinking water via in-house or near-house storage, impairment during domestic storage is of high importance and therefore requires a closer look.

To protect public health, international and national guidelines and standards for drinking water quality do exist. Those regulations are intended, if properly implemented, to ensure drinking water safety through elimination, or, as far as possible, removal of contaminants that bring about a certain health risk potential. The guidelines and legislations include a basis for assessing drinking water quality and limits for potentially hazardous contaminants. Consequently, those regulations provide the fundamentals to assess the impact of drinking water storage systems on drinking water quality.

In-house or near-house storage means using storage tanks. These domestic drinking water storage tanks differ in size, position, construction, materials and operation. This is due to the differences in the location of their use. Domestic drinking water storage tanks can be found both in sparsely populated regions and in more densely populated regions. Moreover, their application includes cold climates as well as warmer regions. Furthermore, the respective situation of the local water supply also greatly affects their design and operation.

In Arctic regions, storage tanks are used in buildings because large distances between the water source, location of treatment and the consumer must be overcome there. In addition, these regions are at the same time characterised by an extremely low population density. Consequently, water demand is quite low and highly variable. Moreover, the prolonged low temperatures in such regions make the use of pipes and outdoor locations difficult or even impossible ( Guyer 2013 ; Daley et al. 2018 ).

In warmer regions, domestic storage tanks are also used when the population density is very low and when long distances between the drinking water source and settlements must be overcome. By contrast, many other factors play a role in these parts of the world. The main reason for the need to use domestic storage tanks is the limited or scarce amount of water available. This limited water supply must be addressed by decentralised storage systems, mostly in the form of domestic storage tanks. Moreover, due to the water stress, in most cases there is no central water treatment. Consequently, for domestic drinking water storage systems, treatment or at least disinfection of the water is essential. This treatment directly before use is, in most cases, the best or only way to guarantee the required drinking water quality. Finally, interruptions to a central water supply, a water supply via wells and springs, as well as permanent, temporary or accidental contamination of water resources make drinking water storage close to or in households necessary.

In addition, in some places domestic storage tanks are used for historical reasons. This is, for instance, the case in the UK, where the water supply was intermittent at its beginning in the 19th century. Today, the historic domestic storage tanks still in operation are used to supply toilet cisterns and bathroom cold taps only ( Kilvington et al. 2004 ).

All in all, the main purpose of domestic drinking water storage tanks is to guarantee a complete and uninterrupted water supply. Besides this main purpose, they can also serve the purpose of providing enough pressure and firefighting reserves, which, however, play a subordinate role. The crucial aspect to be considered when domestic water tanks are used is water quality as a key factor for public health. This is because the storage of drinking water always means a change in its quality, since chemical, physical and microbiological processes take place during its residence in such systems ( USEPA 2002 ). Therefore, keeping the water quality as high as possible or – in other words – avoiding deterioration of the water quality is the main objective when using domestic drinking water storage tanks. This is crucial for the reduction of public health risks and it means to avoid anything hazardous to human health or that could contribute to a disease or an infectious condition in humans. Consequently, all efforts and measures must be directed towards that one objective. This means that, to prevent water quality problems, special attention must be paid to the construction, positioning, design, operation and maintenance of domestic drinking water storage tanks. Design and operation should aim at complete mixing, high exchange rates that result in short residence times and low temperature changes. Adverse conditions might bring about the consumption of disinfectants, cause the formation of disinfection by-products, and bacterial growth, as well as the formation of substances responsible for taste and odour.

In this review, special attention is paid to national and international standards and guidelines with respect to their specifications regarding drinking water quality in principle, and particularly with respect to their consideration of the use of domestic drinking water storage tanks. Issues regarding construction, positioning, materials as well as operation and maintenance of domestic drinking water storage tanks, and their impacts on water quality, are considered comprehensively. Moreover, the review contains an assessment of the suitability of current standards and guidelines, when applied properly, to prevent water quality deterioration in domestic drinking water storage tanks. The review is completed by recommendations concerning possible modifications, improvements and extensions of standards to make the use of domestic drinking water storage tanks safer and more efficient.

WHO guidelines

Renwick (2013) explains the approach of the World Health Organization (WHO) with respect to the published Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. These guidelines are not enforceable, but a basis and guiding principle for many governments and authorities worldwide in setting up their own national water quality standards. The WHO guidelines represent a ‘framework for safe drinking-water’ with the purpose of providing a ‘preventive, risk-based approach to managing water quality’ ( WHO 2011 ). In the guidelines, three main issues are highlighted: (1) health-based targets, (2) Water Safety Plans and (3) surveillance and control. The health-based targets include the definition of a tolerable burden of disease, orientation values of water quality characteristics, as well as technology and performance targets. Water Safety Plans aim at the assessment, monitoring and management of water systems as well as associated communication to make the identification, defence against and prevention of health risks possible. The objective of surveillance is to make sure that Water Safety Plans are being fulfilled and that the targets for human health are being met. Successful surveillance and control require appropriate inspection concepts. The WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality ( WHO 1997 ) provide useful and very effective advice, recommending the application of a semi-quantitative approach that includes logical questions and a simple scoring system. This should be applied as complementary to targeted sampling with subsequent water quality analysis of the water samples ( Robertson et al. 2006 ).

Since the WHO guidelines are sufficiently comprehensive and often more detailed than the national directives in developing countries, they are frequently used as the primary, if not the only, standard. This preferential application in developing countries also results from its good practicability.

North America

In the USA, authorities follow the Safe Drinking Water Act ( SDWA 2002 ), which is the main federal law that ensures the quality of drinking water. Under the SDWA, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sets standards for drinking water quality and oversees the states, localities and water suppliers who implement those standards. SDWA applies to every public water system in the United States, while the US EPA sets national standards for tap water, which help to ensure the quality of the water supply. Regarding water reservoirs, special attention is paid to the presence of Legionella sp. in water for consumption ( Storey et al. 2004 ; Thomas et al. 2004 ; Marciano-Cabral et al. 2010 ).

In contrast, not all drinking water aspects are regulated at a national level in Canada. As stated in the Guidance for Safe Drinking Water in Canada: From Intake to Tap ( DWS 2001 ), the provincial, territorial and federal governments have collaborated to establish the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality. According to this guideline, ‘provincial and territorial authorities are responsible for the implementation of these guidelines within their jurisdictions. At the federal level, the guidelines provide a benchmark and set out the basic parameters that every water system (public, semi-public and private) should strive to achieve in order to provide the cleanest, safest and most reliable drinking water supply possible’. Moreover, the Canadian authorities work with national and international standard-setting organisations, mostly the NSF International and the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), to develop appropriate standards focusing on water quality aspects ( Government of Newfoundland & Labrador 2011 ).

South America

In Brazil, there is a standard of the Brazilian Health Ministry for water treatment, distribution and storage – the Ordinance n. 5, formerly n. 518 ( Brazil 2004 , 2017 ). This standard includes recommendations and threshold values for drinking water quality parameters such as turbidity, iron and the residual free chlorine concentration. The limits and requirements also apply to water stored in domestic drinking water storage tanks.

The European Union Council Directive 98/83/EC of 1998 is the higher-level law for national sanitation and distribution system standards of the European member states related to water quality. In this directive, the quality of water intended for human consumption is addressed irrespective of its origin and whether it is supplied via a distribution network, from a tanker, in bottles or containers. The directive comprises parameters and parameters for water quality, that must be complied with. The requirements apply to the point at which drinking water emerges from the taps, from a tanker, and at which the water is filled into bottles or containers ( Council Directive 98/83/EC 1998 ). The Directive 98/83/EC specifies that, in cases where water quality does not meet the requirements, the obligations of the responsible authorities are nevertheless considered as fulfilled if non-compliance is due to the domestic distribution system or the maintenance thereof. However, there is still the requirement to ensure that the necessary remedial action to restore water quality is taken by the responsible person as soon as possible.

The German implementation of the Council Directive 98/83/EC of the European Union in a national law is the Drinking Water Ordinance ( TrinkwV 2001 ). The purpose of this regulation is to protect human health from adverse effects of any contamination of water intended for human consumption. The basic requirement of the Drinking Water Ordinance ( TrinkwV 2001 ) is that the water intended for human consumption must be free from pathogens, palatable and clean. Following the principles of the Council Directive 98/83/EC, there is no distinction regarding the origin of water for human consumption.

The German Drinking Water Ordinance ( TrinkwV 2001 ) regulates that, in cases of non-compliance with quality threshold values, which can be attributed to domestic installations or their inadequate maintenance, appropriate orders must be issued by the national authority concerned. In such cases, the owner or operator of the domestic distribution system must take appropriate measures to eliminate or minimise health risks.

In the United Kingdom (UK), regulations on water quality also follow the European Union Council Directive 98/83/EC of 1998 . For the implementation in national law, the application of domestic storage tanks had to be considered. This was done by the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations from 1999 ( HMSO 1999 ) – a specific standard including recommendations for storage cisterns. Moreover, the process of implementation resulted in the adoption of a series of standards such as the Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations from 2000 and 2001. A special feature of these regulations is the specific regularity framework for the countries England and Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland.

In South Africa there is a national standard that gives guidance with respect to the quality of water for domestic use ( South African Water Quality Guidelines – Domestic Use (DWAF) 1996 ). The document is primarily for water quality managers and provides information to assess water quality aspects with respect to human consumption and other domestic purposes. Included in the guidelines are definitions of water quality concepts, information regarding the application of the guidelines and information on different water quality constituents. The latter cover aspects of occurrence, interactions and measurement. In addition, information on data interpretation is given and treatment options are mentioned. To guarantee a high degree of transparency and reasonability, in addition comprehensive source information is given.

Renwick (2013) discussed the Ghana Standard No. 175-1:2008, which outlines water quality standards for both municipal drinking water and packaged (bottled) drinking water ( Ghana Standards Board 2008 ). The Ghana standard refers to the WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality ( WHO 2011 ) in connection with the standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater of the American Public Health Association (2012) . In this standard, a minimum free chlorine residual of 0.2 mg/L is specified and for Escherichia coli the demand is that none should be detected in a 100 mL sample. Renwick (2013) , furthermore, states that ‘there are no requirements listed for sanitary surveys or operator certifications, but during conversations with GWCL staff it was apparent that staff were aware of the WHO framework for drinking water quality’.

Middle East and Asia

In Oman, a country which also uses storage tanks in buildings, there is a standard for drinking water – the Omani Standard No. 8/2012 ( DGSM 2012 ). This standard is also based on the International Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality of the World Health Organization. It includes requirements for aesthetic characteristics, total residual chlorine, biological and microbiological characteristics. There is no standard regarding criteria for water quality in domestic storage tanks or other aspects of water distribution and storage. However, there is a general use of total and faecal coliforms as quality indicators for drinking water, as stated by Al-Bahry et al. (2011) .

The legal basis in Japan is the Waterworks Law published by the Japan Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. This includes articles on private water supply facilities, hygiene measures and water quality standards ( Japan Ministry of Health Labour & Welfare 1957-1 , 1957-2 , 1957-3 ).

Relevant water quality aspects

In principle, water quality aspects can be categorised as chemical, physical and microbiological issues, as shown in Table 1 . Quality changes associated with chemical reactions include the loss of disinfectant residual, disinfection by-product formation, development of taste and odour, increase in pH, corrosion, build-up of iron and manganese, the occurrence of hydrogen sulphide, and leachate from internal coatings ( Kirmeyer et al. 1999 ). Microbiological problems occur in cases where microorganisms are introduced into storage facilities, grow and proliferate. As identified by Smith et al. (1990) , microbial growth is supported by increases in water temperature, the availability of nutrients and minerals, the occurrence of corrosion products, a lack of disinfection residual and stagnation periods (low or no flow). The impacts of physical processes on water quality are related to the accumulation of sediments, contaminant entries and temperature effects like thermal stratification. Moreover, changes in temperature can cause chemical or microbiological problems in turn.

Causes of changes in water quality in drinking water storage tanks

Adapted from USEPA (2002) .

The decay of the disinfection agent and the formation of by-products are the most common chemical problems that can cause microbiological processes which may result in water quality deterioration. Factors such as the concentration of organic material, the presence and state of biofilms, nitrification processes, conditions regarding ultraviolet radiation and temperature can affect disinfectant consumption. Regarding domestic storage tanks, wall effects are of special importance due to the bigger suface-to-volume ratio when compared with large central storage reservoirs. The loss of disinfectant residual is often intensified by oversized storage volumes, poor water mixing rates, inappropriate maintenance (cleaning) and structural defects (lack of sealing), which can cause contamination (e.g., Grayman & Clark 1993 ; Clark et al. 1996 ; Kirmeyer et al. 1999 ; USEPA 2002 ; Hannoun et al. 2003 ; Grayman et al. 2004 ; Mahmood et al. 2005 ; Basile et al. 2008 ; Schafer & Mihelcic 2012 ; Matsinhe et al. 2014 ; Miyagi et al. 2017 ).

The formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) results from chemical reactions of the disinfectant with organic substances. Different kinds of by-products formed can be attributed to the type of disinfectant used. The DBP formation depends on the contact time, disinfectant residual, temperature, pH, precursor concentration and bromide ion concentration ( Kirmeyer et al. 1999 ).

The presence of disinfectant residuals and their by-products, biological activity, emissions from materials in contact with water and external contamination may contribute to the development of taste and odour ( Burlingame & Anselme 1995 ). In a study by Rigal (1992) , impairments of the taste of drinking water in contact with thermoplastic materials were described and attributed to the release of phthalates, aldehydes, ketones, alkanes and fatty carboxylic acids from the materials investigated.

Changes in pH are of special importance regarding corrosion, since effective corrosion control passivating layers require stable pH conditions. Otherwise, corrosion can occur and particles as well as other corrosion by-products can be released into the water. As a result, additional chemical and microbiological processes may take place and the corrosion itself can be accelerated. There is also the possibility of microbial induced corrosion by iron-oxidising and sulphur-reducing bacteria, which often coexist and establish a biofilm on exposed metal surfaces ( Little 1990 ). In contrast, biofilms on storage tank walls can represent a kind of barrier to corrosion processes ( O'Conner et al. 1975 ; Abernathy & Camper 1998 ).

Especially during stagnation periods, compounds can be released from tank materials to the drinking water, depending on the chemical composition, the rate of migration and the water temperature ( Kirmeyer et al. 1999 ). If the leachates contain organic compounds, bacterial growth can be supported. Otherwise, changes in pH and ion composition can result. A study indicating the bacterial growth-promoting effect of nutrients leached from coatings on storage facilities was performed by Ellgas & Lee (1980) . Van der Kooij (1993) and Schoenen & Wehse (1988) also attributed the observed bacterial growth to the release of growth-promoting substances from materials being in contact with drinking water.

Since the loss of disinfectant residual and increases in temperature are typical of domestic drinking water storage tanks, the propensity for regrowth and biofilms is increased. This is further supported by the high surface-area-to-volume ratio and by stagnation and long residence times, respectively. The water age can be higher due to oversizing of tanks and short circuit flows between the inlet and outlet. Poor mixing (including thermal stratification, swirls, zones without flow – dead zones) can exacerbate water quality problems by creating zones within the storage tank where the water age significantly exceeds the average water age throughout the facility ( Grayman et al. 1999 ; USEPA 2002 ). Long residence times and higher temperatures of up to 22 °C are optimal for microbiological growth ( Kerneis et al. 1995 ; Uhl et al. 2002 ; Uhl & Schaule 2004 ). An increase in heterotrophic plate counts, as a consequence of an increased temperature and the concentration of biodegradable organic matter that resulted in decreases in free chlorine residual, was shown by Ndiongue et al. (2005) . The impact of nutrients available for bacterial growth and of the level of disinfectant residual on bacterial biomass and production was investigated by Prévost et al. (1998) , who showed that bacterial growth was slower at low nutrient levels.

In systems where free ammonia is present, nitrification can occur. The nitrification process can cause a degradation of chloramine residuals, a consumption of dissolved oxygen, a slight decrease in pH and increases in the heterotrophic bacterial populations as well as in the concentrations of nitrite, nitrate and organic nitrogen. Sufficiently high flow rates and mixing are suitable measures to avoid stagnation and long retention times and thus nitrification.

In water distribution systems, poor mixing promotes sediment accumulation, leading to increased disinfectant demand, microbial growth, DBP formation and increased turbidity within the bulk water ( USEPA 2002 ). These effects are not just reductions in quality by themselves, but they can also cause further quality problems. For example, Egorov et al. (2003) assumed a relation between turbidity and gastrointestinal illness due to the consumption of non-boiled tap water. Quality problems especially arise at low concentrations of the disinfectant. Beuhler et al. (1994) reported on elevated levels of coliforms associated with accumulated sediment.

If there is a temperature difference between the water entering a tank or reservoir and the water inside, stratified layers will form ( USEPA 2002 ). This should be prevented by an optimised mode of reservoir operation, or techniques should be applied to promote mixing, respectively. Using hydraulic simulations that consider mixing in drinking water storage tanks ( Clark et al. 1993 ; Mau et al. 1995 ; Hannoun et al. 2003 ) and the thermal stratification ( Gualtieri et al. 2004 ), conclusions can be drawn on measures to minimise adverse effects on water quality. A simple method in design to prevent or minimise stagnation and poor mixing is to separate the inlet and outlet ( Clark et al. 1993 ). Moreover, the application of turbulent jet inflow with a long path can promote better mixing inside the tank ( USEPA 2002 ).

The water temperature is also of special importance, since it can accelerate chemical processes ( USEPA 2002 ). Chemical reactions can lead to changes in pH, alter taste and odour, and promote disinfectant decay and disinfection by-product formation, as well as leaching of substances from reservoir or tank materials.

The entry of contaminants can directly affect water quality. In cases of uncovered storage facilities or due to missing caps and closures, it will be possible for worms or insects to enter storage tanks. Microorganisms can also be introduced in storage systems from windblown dust, debris and rainwater. Moreover, leakages present a potential risk of contamination from animal excrement, as reported by Geldreich (1996) , who could trace back a Salmonella contamination to birds defiling a storage facility.

Health risks due to domestic drinking water storage

The most relevant health-based target in relation with drinking water quality is to prevent the introduction, growth and spread of pathogens. The majority of studies and investigations by far focus and deal with aspects referring to the presence and growth of bacteria and pathogens in domestic drinking water storage systems. Health effects of relevant pathogens are listed in Table 2 . Table 3 provides a supplementary summary of results from literature studies focusing on water quality in relation to bacterial presence and associated health risks.

Health effects of relevant pathogens associated with domestic storage

Summary of literature studies with focus on the presence and growth of bacteria and pathogens in domestic drinking water storage systems

Impact of domestic storage tank position

Position and materials of domestic drinking water storage tanks have a strong impact on water quality since they determine the chemical, physical and microbiological processes taking place during storage. With respect to position, domestic drinking water storage tanks can be connected directly to a public water supply network via a pipeline. Otherwise, they can be arranged completely independently of public networks. In cases where domestic drinking water storage tanks are connected by a pipeline to a public water supply network, they can be installed at house service connections or integrated into residential buildings. Depending on the installation site at or in the house, the storage tanks can be classified into street-level tanks and roof-level tanks. In some cases, combinations of both exist. Roof-level tanks, as shown in Figure 1 (left), are located on the highest part of a building and are connected to the internal house installations by pipes. In the case of combinations where storage tanks interact, the street-level tanks are operated to feed roof-level tanks by a pumping system ( USEPA 2002 ). The roof-level tank then provides the drinking water for the individual tapping points. An example of a combined system is shown in Figure 1 (right).

Concepts of domestic water supply: (Left) supply from a roof-level tank; (Right) supply from a combined system consisting of a street-level tank, a pumping system and a roof-level tank.

In many cases roof water tanks are used as a kind of backup due to the intermittent public water supply. According to Tamari & Ploquet (2012) , roof tanks are most commonly used in Latin America, South Asia, the Middle East, Mediterranean countries and in Africa. For roof positions, shading is relevant to prevent bacterial growth due to heating by direct sunlight ( Miyagi et al. 2017 ). Water storage tanks with continuous water flow bypassed from the public water main were developed in Japan to deal with interruptions of water supply caused by earthquakes ( Ishizuka et al. 2006 ). Edwards & Maher (2008) considered water quality in storage facilities and recommended focusing on planning aspects regarding the location of storage facilities relative to the distribution system besides water mixing within tanks and a maximum turnover to maintain water quality. Table 4 provides an overview of different situations regarding positioning of drinking water storage tanks as described in the literature.

Overview of different situations regarding positioning of drinking water storage tanks

Regarding the tank position, the most important impact factor on water quality is the temperature. Increasing temperatures due to warm ambient conditions or direct sunlight result in increased bacterial growth and accelerate chemical processes.

Impact of domestic storage tank material

The storage tanks used mainly consist of plastic material (polyethylene and glass-fibre reinforced plastic). This includes regions in Nicaragua and Bolivia ( Macy & Quick 1998 ), rural Thailand ( Mintz et al. 1995 ), Bangladesh ( Sobsey et al. 2003 ), South Africa ( Momba & Kaleni 2002 ) and Zambia ( Mintz et al. 1995 ) as well as Native American village homes ( Faubion 1994 ). In addition, a variety of other materials are used for domestic drinking water storage tanks, as summarised in Table 5 .

Overview of different materials used for domestic drinking water storage tanks

The materials of which storage tanks are made are of special relevance with respect to water quality. This relates primarily to the leaching of compounds from the tanks into the stored drinking water. For quality aspects, not only the tank material itself has to be taken into consideration, but also fittings, coatings and re-lining products. The leached substances can be harmful themselves or can adversely affect odour and taste. In addition, they can act as nutrients for microorganisms and thus cause bacterial growth, which in turn, increases the potential health risk. As a result of corrosion, harmful particles can be formed or at least provide a habitat for microorganisms, and consequently support microbial growth as well. According to Al-Bahry et al. (2011) , special attention must be paid to styrene, an integral solvent used in Oman for the manufacturing of glass-reinforced plastic tanks. This is due to the proven carcinogenicity and mutagenicity of styrene to humans ( Manolis et al. 1994 ). In addition, Al-Bahry et al. (2011) mention a problem in Oman regarding a lead-containing paint used to coat the inner surfaces of glass-reinforced plastic tanks to prevent sunlight penetration and to inhibit algal growth. This paint is used despite paints and coatings containing lead being prohibited according to the American standard on paints, related coating and aromatics ( ASTM 1992 ) and WHO guidelines for drinking water quality ( WHO 1997 ).

On the other hand, the extent of light penetration and thus of changes in temperature also depends on the material. As described by Evison & Sunna (2001) , the light penetration was higher in fibreglass tanks than in tanks made of polyethylene, whereas no light penetrated cast iron tanks. Since increases in temperature promote bacterial growth, light penetration should be prevented through the choice of an appropriate material when positioning of the storage tanks in a dark place is not possible.

When considering the materials of which storage tanks are made, the compatibility with physical and chemical agents has to be taken into consideration in cases of on-site treatment performed within the tanks. In the case of the use of oxidising disinfectants (e.g., chlorine), the tank material must not exert an oxidant demand or take part in chemical reactions forming excessive concentrations of toxic DBPs ( Sobsey 2002 ). When solar or heat treatments are applied, the tank material must be capable of withstanding high temperatures and must allow, if necessary, the penetration of UV radiation and/or the absorption of heat energy ( Sobsey 2002 ).

Impact of design and operation of domestic storage tanks

Mixing and volumetric exchange.

Since the tank geometry has a significant impact on the residence time and mixing, and consequently on the water quality, the design of storage tanks is of high importance. It is known that mixing is best achieved in spherical or cubic tanks. As described by Kennedy et al. (1993) , the higher the height-to-width ratio of a storage tank, the poorer the mixing characteristics will be. In such cases, the tanks rather behave as plug-flow vessels. Also, Mahmood et al. (2005) regard mixing in storage tanks as particularly important to maintain water quality. An optimisation to achieve good mixing characteristics should focus on the tank configuration, inlet pipe diameter and orientation, adequate volume turnover, fill time and inflow rate. Grayman et al. (2004) also focused on the mixing and ageing of water in storage facilities and their effects on water quality. The authors recommended minimising the retention time and avoiding dead zones. Since the operation regime also has an impact on the mixing characteristics, the flow regime in storage tanks can behave somewhere between these two extremes. Grayman et al. (2004) furthermore state that ‘tanks operated under plug-flow conditions will generally lose more disinfectant than tanks operated under mixed-flow conditions’. Therefore, storage tanks should be designed to encourage good mixing. According to Mahmood et al. (2005) , the key design parameters for complete mixing are the inlet pipe diameter and its orientation. As key operational parameters they mention adequate volume turnover and fill time. Considering design and operation with respect to mixing characteristics, also the water depth in the tank at the time of filling must be considered, since complete mixing is more difficult at high water levels. Better mixing should be possible when the tanks are of smaller size ( Evison & Sunna 2001 ).

Not only should tanks be designed to ensure the best possible mixing and maximum volumetric exchange, but also the operation mode should focus on this by means of the fill–drain cycle. When there is no possibility of emptying domestic tanks completely, the remaining sediments can act as a long-term habitat for microorganisms ( Tokajian & Hashwa 2004 ). Consequently, incoming water will immediately be contaminated and thus increase the potential health risk.

Also, with respect to (re)contamination, an appropriate design of storage tanks, especially in-house vessels and roof tanks, may help to maintain water quality. Some traditional models of in-house vessels make contamination less likely due to their narrow-necked form and when they are equipped with a faucet or spouts as well as tightly fitting lids ( Mintz et al. 1995 ). Without pouring devices, hands, cups and dippers are used, which bring a higher risk of faecal contamination ( Sobsey 2002 ). Having these devices, however, can be even more effective in reducing waterborne diseases than chemical disinfection by using chlorine tablets in these traditional models ( Deb et al. 1986 ). However, there are still some disadvantages of the traditional models that can be overcome by modern design, as proposed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) and summarised by Mintz et al. (1995) . These design criteria include an appropriate standard volume, a stable base, an appropriate handle, a single opening (5 to 8 cm in diameter) with a strong, tightly fitting cover, a cleanable spigot, devices that allow air to enter as water is extracted, as well as volume indicators and illustrations of safe water handling practices. According to Chaidez et al. (1999) , for roof tanks, a cover to avoid contamination of the stored water by bird excrement and organic debris is especially important. Graham & VanDerslice (2007) also recommend ‘the use of small-mouthed containers, that provide for easy fill-up and dispensing, and prevent people from contaminating the drinking water during storage’. The advantage of narrow nozzles in comparison to wide openings with respect to observed levels of coliform bacteria is stressed by Akuffo et al. (2013) as well. Special attention should always be paid to all tank openings, as emphasised by Artiola et al. (2012) . In addition to openings for entry and exit of water, there is a need for inspection hatches and ventilation ports for larger domestic storage tanks. Since ventilation ports serve the purpose of allowing air to enter and escape the tank with decreasing or rising water levels, respectively, appropriate covers or screens are needed. These covers should at least keep out rodents and other small animals, as well as insects. Special filters can even prevent the entry of dust and microorganisms. However, they are hardly, if ever, used in domestic drinking water storage tanks. Consequently, the contamination of water stored near domestic settings by dust entry is more likely if the storage tanks are located in dry and therefore dusty environments. Without special filters, green algae, bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi, pollen and spores can enter the tanks via dust ( Artiola et al. 2012 ).

The impact of size is highlighted by Miyagi et al. (2017) , who explain the causal relationship between a mismatch in tank size and water demand with low turnover and stagnation, and the resulting loss of residual disinfectant that can, in turn, allow the growth of bacteria. The authors also describe a reason for and effects of the installation of over-sized domestic storage tanks in Okinawa. Especially families with children install large roof tanks to secure their water supply. However, when the grown-up children have left the household, the tanks remain despite decreasing water demand. Furthermore, cleaning the water storage tanks at the recommended intervals becomes increasingly difficult for the now-elderly residents and may even be neglected. Due to the observed low concentrations of residual chlorine when the tank size per inhabitant is greater than 1 m 3 , the authors recommend smaller tank sizes than this volume.

On-site treatment

However, the operation of domestic storage tanks not only means the filling and emptying regime. For the purpose of maintaining or even improving microbiological water quality and consequently keeping the potential health risk low, an on-site or point-of-use treatment in combination with safe storage in appropriate vessels or tanks is particularly important. Effective treatment of household water includes ‘filtration with ceramic filters, chlorination with storage in an improved vessel, solar disinfection in clear bottles by the combined action of UV radiation and heat, thermal disinfection (pasteurisation) in opaque vessels with sunlight from solar cookers or reflectors and combination systems employing chemical coagulation-flocculation, sedimentation, filtration and chlorination’, as summarised by Sobsey (2002) . Sobsey et al. (2003) report on a study performed in settlements in Bolivia and Bangladesh, where storage tanks were operated in combination with a disinfection step. Based on such studies, systems aiming to improve the microbiological quality of collected household water by treatment in combination with a protected storage in appropriate tanks are being implemented worldwide. These include combinations of chlorination and storage in narrow-mouth plastic tanks ( Mintz et al. 1995 , 2001 ; Reiff et al. 1995 ; Quick et al. 1996 ) and solar disinfection in clear, plastic, disposable beverage bottles prior to in-house storage ( Conroy et al. 1996 , 1999 ). In Japan, storage tanks (with a capacity of 5 m 3 ) equipped with an electrolysis system to control bacterial growth have been developed ( Ishizuka et al. 2006 ). In this system, chlorine is produced intermittently by electrolysis and acts as a disinfectant to secure the supply of drinking water when long-term storage (up to six months) is necessary. The authors conclude that an application is possible in countries or regions that do not have good water treatment and supply systems, since the electrolysis system can be run by using a normal car battery.

Impact of maintenance and control of domestic storage tanks

The main objective of maintenance and control measures is to guarantee that the water quality after storage is sufficient. Therefore, monitoring should, in any case, include the final point of water supply, i.e., the household tap or spout. For integrated monitoring regarding quality control, in addition, appropriate sample points placed in the entire distribution system are recommended. The control of water quality in domestic storage tanks should focus on the presence of a disinfectant residual and the concentration of bacteria and pathogens. This alignment ensures the timely detection and recognition of health risks and makes effective and timely action possible. The relevance of appropriate monitoring is emphasised by Tokajian & Hashwa (2004) , who conclude that ‘proper and continuous monitoring of the quality of water stored in domestic tanks would effectively reduce any potential health hazards to consumers in countries employing domestic storage systems to overcome water shortage problems’. Lautenschlager et al. (2010) recommend including spot tests for in-house drinking water installations in routine monitoring plans. Due to the authors' reference to Switzerland, this will only be applicable in countries rich enough to afford this monitoring. Schafer (2010) also points out that guidelines for water quality and, based on this, monitoring programmes mainly focus on source water or water leaving treatment facilities, respectively, but not the point of consumption. Consequently, the quality of the consumed water is rather unknown and with it the potential health risk. A test for total coliform bacteria and E. coli after cleaning and disinfection of domestic storage tanks is recommended by Artiola et al. (2012) . In cases where there are long distances between the sampling point and a laboratory for analysis of the water samples, the use of on-site testing kits is reasonable ( Bartram & Balance 1996 ). An important point to produce reliable results is professional handling by trained personnel ( Robertson et al. 2006 ).

Maintenance actions are also aimed at avoiding the deterioration of water quality. This primarily means regular cleaning of the tanks and controlling the integrity of all storage tank components. By cleaning, sediments, biofilms and other deposits are removed and, with this, microorganisms and their habitats, as well as other harmful substances. Al-Omari et al. (2008) report that cleaning of roof storage tanks in Jordan guarantees low levels of total heterotrophic plate counts. In a study by Schafer (2010) , it was found that E. coli counts and turbidity were lower in storage tanks that were cleaned at least three times per year compared to storage tanks cleaned less frequently. Cleaning in this study area in Bolivia meant chemical treatment by using bleaching agents, detergents or disinfectants. Aish (2013) also recommends frequent cleaning of drinking water storage tanks in conjunction with proper disinfection to minimise bacterial contamination. In most cases, quality problems arise when cleaning and disinfection are insufficient, which unfortunately is the case very often. Maputo, Mozambique, can be taken as an example. According to Matsinhe et al. (2014) , the maintenance of domestic storage tanks there ‘is often poor, cleaning and disinfection is hardly done’. Moreover, lids were missing, or the tanks were ‘locked for long periods, meaning that they were hardly opened for cleaning, maintenance and repair work’.

As described in detail by Artiola et al. (2012) , cleaning and disinfection procedures depend on the size of the domestic storage tank. The procedures described by these authors include (1) scrubbing and washing of internal surfaces with soapy water and a brush, (2) rinsing and flushing to remove all of the soap as well as all bottom sediments and residues, (3) filling with fresh water with added disinfectant that is left for a sufficient period of time to take effect and (4) drainage of all the disinfected water and refilling with potable water. For large outdoor tanks with full access to the inner surface, the filling step can be replaced by a procedure where sprayers and soft brushes are used to wet all the inner surfaces of a tank with a highly concentrated disinfecting solution. After a certain period of exposure, the surfaces are washed with clean water using a hose and the wash water is drained off. This wash and drain step must be repeated at least once.

In addition, Artiola et al. (2012) recommend to include the following aspects in maintenance plans: the replacement of electrical components, inspections of level indicators and control devices, visual inspections of the water surface and the bottom of the tank with respect to pollution and sediment accumulation, inspection of access hatches, inspections with respect to corrosion of tank materials, as well as the identification and repair of leaks.

Impact of stagnation in in-house installations

Apart from these considerations on water quality due to domestic drinking water storage, there is research that focuses on stagnation in in-house installations and its impact on drinking water quality monitored at the water taps. In Brazil, where domestic storage tanks are generally used, the occurrence of Acanthamoeba in tap water was investigated by Winck et al. (2011) in municipal schools of the State of Rio Grande do Sul. From the 136 tap water samples analysed, 23% tested positive for free-living amoebae. In studies by Mazieri et al. (1994) and Levin et al. (1991) , the occurrence of Legionella sp. in tap water of Brazilian hospitals was demonstrated. Since the favourable temperature range for Legionella growth is 25–42 °C ( ASHRAE Standard 2000 ), there is a potential for contamination in cold water systems in tropical, subtropical and desert regions. The increase in temperature is supported by stagnation.

Lautenschlager et al. (2010) investigated the impact of stagnation periods in domestic water supply systems in Switzerland on the bacterial cell concentrations and the cells' composition. From the determination of the cell concentrations, the adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) concentrations and heterotrophic plate counts, it was concluded that bacterial growth mainly occurred during overnight stagnation periods of between 8 and 20 hours. After a 5 min flushing of the taps, the cell concentrations and water temperature decreased to levels generally found in drinking water networks.

In Germany, Völker et al. (2010) investigated warm water systems inside buildings and found Legionella sp., Pseudomonas sp., Enterococcus sp. and E. coli . The number exceeded the threshold values set by the German Drinking Water Ordinance ( TrinkwV 2001 ).

With the knowledge of the aspects and relationships regarding water quality in drinking water storage tanks as discussed above, it is of special interest how this knowledge is incorporated in national and international legislation relevant for the use of these facilities for water supply. For this purpose, numerous standards, guidelines and specific recommendations of local authorities were comprehensively reviewed with respect to presence and applicability of demands and requirements that support or focus on the prevention of water quality deterioration during domestic storage. However, a direct assessment of the usefulness of the reviewed standards and guidelines in terms of water quality in domestic drinking water storage tanks only was possible to a limited extent, since drinking water storage in on-site water tanks and cisterns is mostly taken into account in a more general way instead of specific consideration.

The World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality serve as a basis for national water quality standards or even as the only standard for drinking water quality. Since the WHO guidelines represent a ‘framework for safe drinking-water’ with the purpose of providing a ‘preventive, risk-based approach to managing water quality’ ( WHO 2011 ), they do not include any detail with relation to domestic storage of drinking water. Consequently, authorities can only have an influence on domestic water storage by monitoring and controlling drinking water quality and public health. In such cases, guidance for appropriate drinking water storage is rather reactive than proactive.

To be applied for water storage tanks in the USA, the American Water Works Association (AWWA) published the following standards, including:

minimum requirements for the design, construction, inspection and testing of

new welded carbon steel tanks for the storage of water at atmospheric pressure (ANSI/AWWA D100-11)

new cylindrical, factory-coated, bolted carbon steel tanks for the storage of water (ANSI/AWWA D103-09)

composite elevated tanks that use a welded steel tank for watertight containment and a single pedestal concrete support structure (ANSI/AWWA D107-10)

wire- and strand-wound, circular, prestressed concrete water-containing structures (ANSI/AWWA D110-13)

concrete tanks using tendons for prestressing (ANSI/AWWA D115-06)

thermosetting fibreglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) tanks for the storage of water (ANSI/AWWA D120-09)

bolted above-ground thermosetting fibreglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) panel-type tanks for potable water storage (ANSI/AWWA D121-12)

coating systems for coating and recoating the inside and outside surfaces of steel tanks used for potable water storage in water supply service (ANSI/AWWA D102-14)

automatically controlled, impressed-current cathodic protection systems intended to minimise the corrosion of interior submerged surfaces of steel water storage tanks (ANSI/AWWA D104-11)

sacrificial anode cathodic protection systems intended to minimise the corrosion of interior submerged surfaces of steel water storage tanks (ANSI/AWWA D106-16)

Thus, concrete and detailed guidelines to guarantee drinking water quality during domestic storage are thus available and practically applicable.

In Canada the B126 SERIES-13 – Water cisterns standard is intended to ensure the proper design, installation and location of drinking water storage systems to help prevent health risks from contaminated drinking water and accidents. As highly concentrated excerpts of this standard, fact sheets exist (e.g., Scott & Corkal 2006 ; Manitoba Conservation & Water Stewardship 2014 ) to provide basic information on how to maintain safe drinking water in on-site storage systems (tanks and cisterns). These fact sheets include information on construction material, basic design components, placement and installation, maintenance, disinfection and cleaning, inspection and monitoring.

Besides the general limits and requirements of the Brazilian Ordinances ( Brazil 2004 , 2017 ), cold water installations in buildings, including drinking water storage tanks, are addressed in the standard NBR 5626 ( ABNT 1998 ), a technical standard from the Brazilian Association of Technical Standards (ABNT). The NBR standard includes recommendations on the dimensioning and maintenance of storage facilities and installations inside buildings, which may have an impact on water quality and can therefore contribute to prevent deterioration of drinking water quality. NBR 5626 recommends as the best solution a combined supply system, in which both water taps outside buildings and storage tanks are connected to the public distribution system, whereas taps inside buildings are supplied from the individual in-house storage tanks. This standard defines how the flow rate and the pipe diameter must be calculated. However, it does not describe exactly how the tank volume needs to be determined. It is recommended to consider the demand pattern, although this is often unknown. Consequently, the common volume stored is two times the daily consumption. Although some considerations related to the inlet and outlet of storage tanks are given, there is no technical specification on the design, construction or operation of storage tanks in order to prevent stagnation in practice.

In Germany, the continuously provided drinking water is almost exclusively stored in central service reservoirs. Consequently, drinking water supply from small units and non-stationary plants plays a subordinate role. The areas of application are restricted to substitute or emergency supplies due to reconstruction work, failures or interruption of the public supply or even crisis situations and disasters. There is only one guideline that deals with the aspects of drinking water supplied from small units and non-stationary plants: DIN 2001 (2015) . Part 3 provides guidance for the supplied water, planning, construction, operation and maintenance of these units. The standard includes, inter alia, system requirements depending on raw water quality, requirements for planning and construction, demands on water abstraction, treatment and supply, requirements for weather protection and energy supply, as well as requirements for the materials in contact with water. Quality aspects are also addressed. The quality requirements of the Drinking Water Ordinance ( TrinkwV 2001 ) apply. In the case of an emergency supply, the provisions of the law on securing water supply and associated ordinances ( WasSiG 2005 ) shall be taken into account. According to this law, water must be such that consumption and use does not constitute a health risk. The water must be free of substances in a concentration harmful to health. In contrast to the limits given in the Drinking Water Ordinance ( TrinkwV 2001 ), the standard values of selected chemical parameters aim at a limited period of a maximum of 30 days.

In the United Kingdom, the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations from 1999 consider the general maintenance of quality, the positioning and isolation of storage tanks, the capacity as well as materials and design aspects to avoid overflow and stagnation. Inspection and redundancy are not included in this standard. With the implementation of the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations (1999) (1999 No. 1148), a requirement arose that cisterns should be covered with a ‘rigid, close fitting and securely fixed cover which is not airtight, but which excludes light and insects from the cistern’. Unfortunately, the regulations are not retrospective. This means that they do not have to be applied to storage cisterns that were installed before this legislation was set into power ( Kilvington et al. 2004 ).

For African countries, to our knowledge, only the WHO guidelines as general water quality requirements are available. There is neither a legislation nor a specific standard or guideline available that focuses on the use of domestic drinking water storage and related aspects of drinking water quality.

The Omani Standard No. 8/2012 ( DGSM 2012 ) only focuses on general water quality requirements. There is no standard regarding criteria for water quality in domestic storage tanks or other aspects of water distribution and storage.

To guarantee high drinking water quality in domestic storage tanks, Japanese law requires the inspection and cleaning of tanks larger than 10 m 3 at least once a year, with notification of water supply quality ( Miyagi et al. 2017 ). A correct management is also required for storage systems smaller than 10 m 3 , but notification is not enforceable in such cases. These legal regulations are, furthermore, complemented by a notification regarding handling procedures for private water supply facilities ( Japan Ministry of Health Labour & Welfare 1985 ).

Domestic drinking water storage is required:

when there is no piped water supply,

when available raw water resources cannot be used due to contamination and/or missing treatment,

when there is an intermittent water supply,

to ensure water supply in cases of temporary restrictions due to emergency situations (e.g., power blackouts, earthquakes or accidental contamination).

Since storage always means a deterioration in water quality, the use of domestic drinking water storage tanks poses a serious threat to human health and consequently requires special efforts with respect to tank design, operation and maintenance, as well as quality control. The deterioration of water quality due to domestic storage can be attributed to long residence times of the water in such systems in conjunction with poor mixing. Consequently, the disinfectant residual will decrease, which may result in microbiological growth. Moreover, corrosion processes will be supported, as well as the leaching of compounds from the materials in contact with the drinking water. Further causes and factors for changes in drinking water quality are the formation of disinfection by-products due to reactions of the disinfectant chlorine with the material of the tank, the development of taste and odour, increases in pH and temperature, the precipitation of iron and manganese, the formation of hydrogen sulphide, nitrification processes, sediment build-up, and the introduction of contaminants. The major conclusion is that storage is always accompanied by an increasing risk of contamination and quality deterioration.

In order to minimise the impacts on water quality, measures with respect to the design and construction, operation and maintenance of drinking water storage facilities must be taken. For drinking water suppliers, it would be advantageous for these measures to be offered and described in national or international standards and guidelines. However, notably in countries where domestic drinking water storage tanks are intensively used, the available and applicable standards mainly focus on the water quality parameters that have to be met, but do not give advice or specifications on aspects of design and construction or the operation and maintenance of these special storage facilities or storage systems in general. Consequently, an international standard, similar to the Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality of the World Health Organization ( WHO 2011 ), but regarding the aspects mentioned above, is recommended.

With respect to design and construction, an international standard should address possibilities for dealing with the specific disadvantages of drinking water storage. Advice should be given on the installation of baffles, recirculation and pumping systems, inflow diffusers, mechanical mixers, risers on outlet pipes, as well as aeration and ventilation systems. Moreover, the coverage and sealing of storage tanks needs consideration. The same applies to suitable sizing, the location of inlet and outlet pipes, and the provision of overflow and drainage pipes. In addition, the selection of the materials in contact with the drinking water should be taken into account.

Regarding the operation of domestic drinking water storage tanks, the turnover and exchange rate, respectively, and the fluctuation of the water level must be considered. In addition, water treatment needs to be addressed to reduce biodegradable organic compounds and the ammonium concentration as well as the bacterial input, and to prevent corrosion and the loss of disinfectant residual. In water distribution systems, the pump operation is automatically controlled on the basis of storage tank levels, and distribution pressures relative to programmed set points: as consumption increases, the levels and pressures drop, and pumps are turned on ( Jentgen et al. 2007 ). According to Clark et al. (1993) , the water level in most domestic reservoirs does not vary a great deal, remaining at 70–75% of the tank capacity. This analysis underscores the importance of concrete specifications regarding the fluctuation of the water level in a drinking water storage tank. The specifications should also include situations where several tanks interact. In Brazil, for example, it is common for hydraulic systems to consist of a street-level storage tank connected to another storage tank on the roof, which distributes the water to each floor of the building. Such systems are usually operated by pump control. Whenever the water level of the roof tank changes, it is refilled from the street-level tank with a float switch control. Consequently, the water level in the storage tanks may not change significantly. Moreover, for domestic drinking water storage tanks, an appropriate fluctuation of the water conflicts with the purpose of those storage facilities, which is to guarantee an uninterrupted supply for households within periods of non-supply from the main public water stations. Therefore, the determination of the minimum reserve necessary to be maintained in the tank and the pumping regime are of special importance. For example, pumping could be performed at longer time intervals and last longer compared to current practices, where pumps are switched on and off again and again for short periods of time.

For the maintenance of domestic drinking water storage tanks, advice and specifications can be based on Technical Note No. 3 of the World Health Organization ( WHO 2005 ) on ‘Cleaning and disinfecting water storage tanks and tankers’. Maintenance aspects should include cleaning, disinfection and inspection procedures. The publication by Artiola et al. (2012) represents a good basis for maintenance guidance. It seems reasonable to transfer the measures mentioned and explained there into an appropriate standard.

With respect to the application of national and international standards and guidelines, it is of special importance to make binding specifications about who is responsible for compliance and verification. In this context, it is of special importance to take the water quality at the consumers' taps into account. This brings the owners of houses into play, since they are mostly responsible for the water supply within a building. This means that the responsibility for many actions essential to control drinking water quality in buildings is often outside the mandate of the local drinking water supplier. Moreover, even if the responsibilities for managing building water supplies are clear, awareness and application of drinking water standards and guidelines are often limited. Consequently, initiating and setting up educational supporting programmes are considered as necessary.

K. R. Oliveira acknowledges a scholarship by CAPES – Brazilian Federal Agency for Support and Evaluation of Graduate Education within the Ministry of Education of Brazil, for a stay at TU Dresden, during which part of this work was conducted. Lisbeth Truelstrup Hansen, Technical University of Denmark, National Food Institute, Research Group for Microbiology and Hygiene, is thanked for very important advice regarding the use of household water storage tanks in very cold areas.

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Literature Review: Real Time Water Quality Monitoring and Management

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• Deepika Gupta 19 ,
• Ankita Nainwal 19 &
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With the advent of this new era of water crisis, save water is the cry all over. Water sources are encroached from every existence on Earth. Saving water needs a systematic monitoring approach to determine its quality. Availability of Internet of Things (IoT) and remote sensing techniques mark the ease of congregating, analyzing and handling of real time data to further accelerate measures taken upon. Real-time water quality monitoring and management initiates prompt alarm ensuring timely response to water contamination in protecting and conserving the aquatic habitat, improving crop production by controlling quality of irrigated water, etc. This paper upheavals the water quality parameters required due consideration for monitoring real time water quality along with the available remote sensors. Also it briefs the review of parameters covered so far. Further it proposes the methodology suitable to the needs of detecting real time water contaminations based on the challenges of existing management system and IoT.

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Gupta, D., Nainwal, A., Pant, B. (2021). Literature Review: Real Time Water Quality Monitoring and Management. In: Kumar, R., Quang, N.H., Kumar Solanki, V., Cardona, M., Pattnaik, P.K. (eds) Research in Intelligent and Computing in Engineering. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol 1254. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-7527-3_88

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Water quality improvement through rainwater tanks: a review and simulation study.

1. Introduction

2. methodology, 3.1. review on measured water quality data, 3.2. numerical simulation results, 4. discussions, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Imteaz, M.A.; Boulomytis, V.T.G.; Yilmaz, A.G.; Shanableh, A. Water Quality Improvement through Rainwater Tanks: A Review and Simulation Study. Water 2022 , 14 , 1411. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14091411

Imteaz MA, Boulomytis VTG, Yilmaz AG, Shanableh A. Water Quality Improvement through Rainwater Tanks: A Review and Simulation Study. Water . 2022; 14(9):1411. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14091411

Imteaz, Monzur Alam, Vassiliki Terezinha Galvão Boulomytis, Abdullah G. Yilmaz, and Abdallah Shanableh. 2022. "Water Quality Improvement through Rainwater Tanks: A Review and Simulation Study" Water 14, no. 9: 1411. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14091411

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A review of the literature on the underground (buried) storage tanks

The main objective of fluid storage tanks construction is to construct safe and low-cost storage tanks which are resistant against earthquake. But in the computer design methods for the design of low cost and high performance storage tanks, little attention has been paid to development of quantities. In this study, first the underground tanks were compared to non-underground storage tanks and the results showed that underground tanks had better performance in terms of maximum displacement and stress against their wall. Afterwards, the impact of changes made in the underground tanks through the depth of underground tank, the type of soil around the tank, the distribution of dynamic pressure by different fluids, the impact of water depth on the tank frequency, and ratio of length to height on frequency of the tank, was investigated. The results of this study suggest that any increase in the tank depth leads to an increase of the tension and displacement and with softer soil around the tank more critical results will be achieved. In addition, the fluid dynamic pressure distribution is strongly linked to the specific weight of the fluid. With any rise in the water level of the tank or increase of length to height ratio, the frequency of the tank is reduced. KEYWORDS: underground tanks, dynamic pressure of fluids, the depth of underground tank. _________________________________________________________________________________________ 1. INTRODUCTION Water has long been a determining factor in human life and its presence is one of the amenities of life. That's why people have always been trying to save water and use it in their lives. Early humans, inspired by nature, used any device for water storage. With civilization of human being and construction of elevated structures the need for water and reserving that is felt more than ever before. Considering urban constructions and lack of surface space for water storage tank, and considering that tank is a structure that plays a critical role in vital arteries, construction non-flat tanks (above or below the ground level) is one of the inevitable water storage strategies. Tanks, in terms of their placement, are divided into 2 categories of air and land tanks. Land tanks also can be divided into three categories as follows: 1. buried tanks buried concrete tanks are the tanks that are located at a proper depth under the ground and their walls and roof is covered with soil. In addition to their advantages in terms of camouflage against environmental factors, these tanks are also very suitable for heat exchange. In cold regions, buried tanks should be used to prevent freezing of water (1). Some examples of buried tanks are shown in Figure 1. 2-half-buried tanks Tanks whose wall is often embanked up to half of its height and there is virtually no soil on the tank roof. These tanks are not suitable in terms of camouflage, temperature changes and the expansion and contraction of the roof slab, and according to the terms of passive defense, are not recommended for use in urban drinking water network (1). Examples of half-buried water tanks are presented in Figure 2. 3. Visible tanks These tanks are usually constructed in a visible way in terms of landscape architecture and symbolism, and also in accordance with the environment in order to organize urban, historical and tourism landscapes (1). Examples of visible water tanks are shown in Figure 3. 737

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Journal of emerging technologies and innovative research

Syed Mohammad Ali

In order to study the most economical configuration between rectangular and circular underground water tanks to store a given volume of water, fifty tanks in each have been designed changing the ratio of length to breadth dimensions in case of rectangular water tanks and height to depth ratio in case of circular water tanks.. A program has been developed using C-language for the design of water tanks and all the tanks have been designed using this program. All the designs have been based on the recommendations of I.S 3370.Based on these designs, those dimensions of tanks which will lead to least amount of concrete, steel and total cost to store a given volume of water have been found out. These findings will be useful for the designers of underground water tanks.

Asad Kadhum

IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering

Amin moradi

Dr. Ahmed Ajel Ali Al Majtomi

In general there are three kinds of water tanks-tanks resting on ground, underground tanks and elevated tanks. The tanks resting on ground like clear water reservoirs, settling tanks, aeration tanks etc. are supported on the ground directly. The walls of these tanks are subjected to pressure and the base is subjected to weight of water and pressure of soil. The tanks may be covered on top. The tanks like purification tanks, Imhoff tanks, septic tanks, and gas holders are built underground. The walls of these tanks are subjected to water pressure from inside and the earth pressure from outside. The base is subjected to weight of water and soil pressure. These tanks may be covered at the top. Elevated tanks are supported on staging which may consist of masonry walls, R.C.C. tower or R.C.C. columns braced together. The walls are subjected to water pressure. The base has to carry the load of water and tank load. The staging has to carry load of water and tank. The staging is also designed for wind forces. From design point of view the tanks may be classified as per their shape-rectangular tanks, circular tanks, intze type tanks. spherical tanks conical bottom tanks and suspended bottom tanks. Design requirement of concrete (I.S.I) In water retaining structures a dense impermeable concrete is required therefore, proportion of fine and course aggregates to cement should be such as to give high quality concrete. Concrete mix weaker than M200 is not used. The minimum quantity of cement in the concrete mix shall be not less than 300 kg/m 3. The design of the concrete mix shall be such that the resultant concrete is sufficiently impervious. Efficient compaction preferably by vibration is essential. The permeability of the thoroughly compacted concrete is dependent on water cement ratio. Increase in water cement ratio increases permeability, while concrete with low water cement ratio is difficult to compact. Other causes of leakage in concrete are defects such as segregation and honey combing. All joints should be made watertight as these are potential sources of leakage. Design of liquid retaining structures is different from ordinary R.C.C, structures as it requires that concrete should not crack and hence tensile stresses in concrete should be within permissible limits. A reinforced concrete member of liquid retaining structures is designed on the usual principles ignoring tensile resistance of concrete in bending. Additionally it should be ensured that tensile stress on the liquid retaining face of the equivalent concrete section does not exceed the permissible tensile strength of concrete as given in table 1. For calculation purposes the cover is also taken into concrete area.

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