counseling and war veterans essay

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American Veterans and the Evolution of Mental Health: A Historical Review of Diagnoses and Depiction

This article reviews the interwoven history surrounding mental health diagnoses and military veteran depictions of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Including a detailed historical review focusing on three major time periods: WWI-Korean War (1915-1950s); Vietnam War (1960s-1980s); and the Gulf/Middle East conflicts (1981-Present). By noting prevailing connections throughout these time periods, including the continuity of stigma and the depictions of veterans as well as the evolution of changing interpretations in what images and depictions of veterans mean including their associated social and political usages. Finally, a number of implications, both positive and negative surrounding the interconnected nature of veterans and mental health (namely PTSD), are offered, with recommendations for future inquiry and policy.

Page/Article: 47-57
DOI: 10.21061/jvs.v4i1.67
Peer Reviewed

Neuroanthropology

Understanding the encultured brain, forever at war: veterans’ everyday battles with post-traumatic stress disorder.

Hundreds of thousands of US veterans are not able to leave the horrors of war on the battlefield. They bring the combat home and re-experience it in their minds each and every day, no matter how much time has passed.

“I don’t like people. I just live my life.”

Many PTSD veterans live a life riddled with divorce, unemployment, and loneliness because they are unable to form lasting social networks within civilian life. It is not uncommon for a war veteran plagued with PTSD to desire a solitary life in the mountains. One informant described Montana as the ideal locale – far away and quiet.

“I should have buried him.”

This veteran is still tormented by the fact he did not give an honorable burial to a fellow soldier. He knows he would have met a similar fate if he tried to leave his foxhole; yet his inability to act haunts his memory. He asks himself everyday why he didn’t even try to honor his fallen comrade. He also has never been able to justify why he wasn’t the soldier left unburied on that remote Pacific island.

“I didn’t even have the motivation to kill myself.”

Many of these men and women believe their situation will never improve. Some contemplate suicide as their only relief from the symptoms of PTSD. A number of the veterans we spoke with had thought about or even tried to end their own lives. They also participate in risky activities, threatening their life in a deliberate yet indirect way.

“I always feel like there is someone behind me – following me.”

Being on edge is the only way to survive in combat. Unfortunately, many PTSD veterans are unable to readjust within the civilian world. Everyday life becomes a battlefield.

Something as mundane as walking through a crowded grocery store aisle can be a source of intense anxiety for a veteran suffering from PTSD. Overwhelmed by a feeling that the shoppers behind them are enemies, PTSD veterans always feel as if they are under attack. A trigger as simple as the clashing of shopping carts can make them jump in fear of an imminent explosion. They are forever at war.

Over the course of 4 months, South Bend veterans with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) have revealed their daily realities to us, five undergraduates at the University of Notre Dame. In conjunction with a course taught by Dr. Daniel Lende entitled Researching Disease: Methods in Medical Anthropology, we have engaged in community-based research with members and supporters of PTSD, Vets, Inc . Here, with the approval and encouragement of these vets, we seek to give their experiences a well-deserved voice.

We’ve come to understand that PTSD is a debilitating condition. However, there tends to be a general lack of understanding of the condition itself as well as its symptoms, diagnoses, and treatments. Here are some things these PTSD veterans want every person to know:

Many older veterans have suffered from PTSD for decades without ever knowing they had the disease. These men and women insist that their quality of life would have been significantly improved with early intervention. This has been supported by numerous studies , which suggest that diagnosis soon after the traumatic event is critical for positive, long-term outcomes. Traumatic memories tend to become resistant to treatment over time. The quicker the symptoms can be addressed, the better the outlook for a PTSD veteran.

A clinical diagnosis serves as a profound moment for a veteran with PTSD. It confirms and validates the symptoms experienced by the individual. One informant describes his diagnosis: “It was like a nail on the head. Finally someone knew.”

Veterans with PTSD often believe that they are “crazy” before a formal diagnosis by a healthcare professional. Previous to having a diagnosis, these men and women have the symptoms but no explanation for their cause. They begin to question their sanity. They ask, as one veteran phrased it, whether or not “it’s all just in [our] heads.”

A formal diagnosis is an empowering facet of PTSD treatment because it lets veterans know that there is a physiological and psychological basis for their behavior. War has changed their brains and there are ways of learning to cope with those changes.

More than anything else, a diagnosis lets them know that they are not alone.

Many of the vets expressed that feeling alone in handling their condition and the isolation that often results are the most painful aspects of PTSD, often making it difficult for many PTSD vets to ask for help and seek treatment. Group therapy among PTSD veterans is a vital component of treatment because very few civilians have seen and experienced the same events that these men and women have. Nor can civilians understand the trials and tribulations of living with PTSD caused by war trauma. In this way, it can be seen that many PTSD veterans will only talk about their experiences with other veterans.

We have received direct feedback that group therapy benefits many of the veterans, as it provides an avenue for them to speak openly about their suffering. While many veterans destructively turn to alcohol and drugs as a means of coping, group therapy provides a healthy alternative and is an outlet for them to express their anger, fear, guilt and countless other emotions attributed to PTSD. In confidence they can tell each other things that they haven’t even told their husbands or wives. In the group they are getting these things out in a sensible manner. Telling their stories matters.

An important question in regards to group therapy is how it can be improved in order to provide the most benefits for the veterans that are returning home from war. The VA and several other organizations are examining what aspects of group therapy may be altered to make it as effective as possible for providing PTSD treatment to veterans.

One approach that veterans in South Bend are attempting is peer counseling. Those with PTSD consider a commitment to helping other veterans to be a central facet of managing the disease. Older members of the group want to reach out to soldiers returning from Afghanistan and Iraq with PTSD. They know better than anyone what it is like to live with PTSD and want to stress the importance of receiving early treatment. By counseling young veterans, these members hope to prevent a lifetime of suffering which they themselves had to live through. This then helps to validate their own suffering.

The peer counseling doesn’t just benefit one side of the relationship, however. By instilling them with some agency over the disorder, the counseling provides a method of coping in addition to more standardized treatment for the older group members. More generally, this emphasis on helping other veterans simply by making them as aware of PTSD as possible underscores the importance of awareness in the effort to improve its diagnosis and treatment among all veterans.

The substantial impact of PTSD on the lives of veterans afflicted by it makes greater understanding of this disorder of utmost necessity. With knowledge about PTSD, returning veterans can seek the early diagnosis and treatment they need, giving them a chance to reclaim their quality of life. Although many veterans we spoke with stressed that PTSD never goes away, with treatment, including group therapy, counseling, or medication, veterans can avoid a life ravaged by isolation, drug and alcohol use, depression, and the countless other daily struggles of PTSD.

Awareness and understanding can also foster the support of families that is often necessary to motivate vets to seek the treatment they need. Increasing the visibility of the prevalence of the disorder among veterans and working to remove the stigma associated with it can help veterans get the support they need and deserve. Finally, awareness among the general public will give veterans an additional level of acceptance and advocacy that may work to reduce the impact of PTSD on their lives.

A true knowledge about all aspects of PTSD needs to rise amongst veterans, their families, the public, and our policy-makers, so veterans currently suffering with PTSD and the soldiers returning from Iraq and Afghanistan may acquire the help needed to fight back in the war that rages within their subconscious.

For more information on PTSD and how to seek treatment please visit the helpguide . To learn more about the veterans of PTSD, Vets, Inc., who so graciously shared their stories, visit www.ptsdvets.com .

–//–

Written by: Christina Del Guzzo, Megan Ericson, Daniel Graciaa, Casey McNeill & Mark Quaresima

Acknowledgements: Many thanks to Dr. Michael Sheehan, PTSD Vets, Inc., and the many veterans who opened their hearts and shared their stories with us.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

The crisis in veterans' mental health and new solutions, veteran suicides increase 10-fold from 2006 to 2020..

Posted November 10, 2023 | Reviewed by Davia Sills

What Is PTSD?
Find a therapist to heal from trauma
Veterans suffer from high rates of mental health conditions, including PTSD, depression, and substance use.
Suicides among veterans increased 10-fold from 2006 to 2020.
New treatment strategies are desperately needed.
Addressing mental and metabolic health simultaneously may lead to better outcomes.

Every year on Veterans Day, we celebrate the brave individuals who have served our country. The mental health challenges that veterans face are both unique and profound. As they transition from service to civilian life, many carry the weight of experiences that significantly impact their well-being. Conventional treatment approaches for conditions such as PTSD , anxiety , depression , and substance abuse are invaluable, yet some veterans continue to struggle with symptoms.

A recent research study published in JAMA Neurology has unearthed a deeply troubling trend: a greater than 10-fold increase in suicide rates among U.S. veterans from 2006 to 2020. Clearly, our current treatment strategies are failing far too many veterans. This is where innovative perspectives, such as the brain energy theory of mental illness, offer fresh hope and understanding.

The brain energy theory, as outlined in this post , posits that mental health conditions are intricately linked with the brain's energy dynamics. A brain with balanced and optimal energy is crucial for mental wellness. For veterans, whose brains are often taxed by the rigors of service and the scars of trauma , ensuring adequate brain energy could be particularly transformative.

Brain energy is, in essence, the currency that powers every thought, emotion , and reaction. This energy stems from the complex interplay of nutrients, hormones , neurotransmitters, and mitochondrial function. For veterans, exposure to stressful environments, trauma, sleep disruption, and physical exertion can lead to a mismatch in energy supply and demand within the brain, potentially exacerbating mental health symptoms.

Research has demonstrated that PTSD, for example, is not just a manifestation of psychological distress but may also be linked to altered metabolism . This can affect the way the brain processes information and responds to stress. By targeting these metabolic processes, we might be able to offer veterans more effective interventions.

How, then, can the brain energy theory guide novel treatment strategies?

Nutritional Interventions: Tailored nutritional counseling aimed at optimizing brain energy production can be a powerful addition to veterans' treatment plans.
Exercise and Stress Reduction: Interventions such as targeted exercise regimens may not only enhance overall energy but also improve brain plasticity, resilience , and the regulation of stress hormones. Mind-body practices like yoga and meditation could further aid in rebalancing the brain's energy utilization and emotion regulation mechanisms.
Specialized Brain Energy Interventions: One promising area is the exploration of supplements, medications, and even light therapy that specifically support mitochondrial function and, consequently, brain energy. While still in the early stages of research, these interventions may offer relief for veterans whose mental health symptoms have been resistant to other treatments. One example is the application of red or near-infrared light to the scalp (transcranial photobiomodulation). In a pilot trial , this intervention was found to improve brain metabolism and reduce symptoms of traumatic brain injury and PTSD.
Enhanced Psychotherapy : Integrating brain energy optimization into behavioral therapies could amplify their effectiveness. By ensuring the brain is energetically equipped to engage with and benefit from therapy, we can enhance learning, neural growth, and the consolidation of therapeutic gains.
Comprehensive Care Teams: Coordinated care teams can ensure that veterans receive holistic support, addressing both mental and metabolic health.

The journey toward healing and mental wellness for veterans is both a collective and individual endeavor. By harnessing the principles of brain energy, we can open new avenues for treatment that honor the complexity of the brain and the diversity of experiences among veterans. With continued research and clinical application, this perspective holds the promise of not only alleviating symptoms but also restoring a sense of vitality and hope to those who have served.

As we move forward, it is essential to continue advocating for and investing in research that elucidates the intricate connections between metabolism and mental health. By doing so, we not only pay homage to the sacrifices of our veterans but also elevate our approach to mental health care for all.

Christopher M. Palmer, M.D. , is a Harvard psychiatrist and researcher working at the interface of metabolism and mental health. He is the director of the Department of Postgraduate and Continuing Education at McLean Hospital and an Assistant Professor of Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School.

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Military Counseling & Helping Veterans Deal With Trauma

You don’t have to become a soldier; there are many possibilities for more unusual jobs.

For instance, there are excellent opportunities for military counselors.

The size of the military in the United States is vast. In fiscal year 2020, the U.S. Army counted among its service members 1,005,725 soldiers (United States Army, 2021). This includes active soldiers only; with veterans and families added into the equation, the actual figure is even higher.

As military culture differs significantly from civilian life, service members and their families can experience considerable military-specific difficulties (Hall, 2016). There is great demand for counselors who are trained within this culture.

If you want to know more about this exciting role, please read on. You may decide by the end of this article that it is just the right job for you.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free . These science-based exercises will explore fundamental aspects of positive psychology including strengths, values, and self-compassion, and will give you the tools to enhance the wellbeing of your clients, students, or employees.

This Article Contains:

What is military counseling 4 real-life examples, how to use psychology to help veterans & soldiers, requirements of a military counselor, training in military therapy: 2 certificates, 2 best programs to consider, helpful forms and checklists for your sessions, top 3 books on the topic, positivepsychology.com’s resources, a take-home message.

Military counseling focuses on active service members and personnel, veterans, and military families (Forziat, Arcuri, & Erb, 2017).

The role of a military counselor is to provide support to active service members and veterans who may suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety, substance misuse problems, and self-harm from their experiences in the military (Exum, Coll, & Weiss, 2011).

Military counselors also help families who are facing difficulties. Relocation adjustments and marriage problems can be rife in this group (Beasley, MacDermid Wadsworth, & Watts, 2012).

1. Mental health disorders

Mental health issues commonly seen in the military population include PTSD, depression, and anxiety. These mental health issues are also seen in the general population, but the circumstances of military culture, such as combat and deployment, mean the risk factors are increased (Booth-Kewley, Larson, Highfill-McRoy, Garland, & Gaskin, 2010; Maguen et al., 2011).

Soldiers who return from a mission may often be diagnosed with PTSD (Falsetti & Resick, 1995). One such case was ‘Jared,’ a 36-year-old married service member returning from Afghanistan. He joined the army at the age of 20 (American Psychiatric Association, n.d.).

A few weeks after arriving in Afghanistan, a comrade was killed. After that, Jared’s personality changed. Later on, Jared was guarding a gate in the military and dosed off. An enemy mortar round sounded violently. It terrified him.

Jared began to feel ‘ easily triggered. ’ He attended a specialist clinic for veterans with military counseling services and described trouble controlling his rage, frequent arguments, intrusive thoughts about death, nightmares, anxiety, and anhedonia (loss of pleasure). This was highly distressing for Jared. He kept a handgun for protection, as he thought someone may harm him. Although he did not intend to harm anyone, he worried he may accidentally do so.

Jared was diagnosed with PTSD at the clinic and provided with specialist counseling. In this instance, a military counselor would have understood Jared’s mental health difficulties in the context of his military work.

2. Substance use disorders

All types of substance use disorders are seen in the military, from alcohol overuse to illicit drug use, including prescription drugs (Forziat et al., 2017).

In the United Kingdom, the leading veteran’s mental health charity, Combat Stress, has undertaken research into former service members (Murphy, Palmer, Westwood, Busuttil, & Greenberg, 2016). The study compared alcohol misuse between veterans and the general population over 18 months. They noticed that veterans presented at the hospital with physical health problems before being referred for alcohol support and counseling.

A veteran substance misuse case management service was piloted in various locations across the United Kingdom. This has helped veterans access specific counseling services to assist them with substance misuse, support abstinence, and prevent relapse.

3. Deployment

Military service brings deployment stressors (Beasley et al., 2012). As service members separate from civilian culture, they adopt new social norms and class structures in military culture (Hall, 2016).

They experience a mix of emotions such as anxiety, anger, excitement, confusion, and even ambivalence (Hall, 2016). Returning from deployment and readjusting to home life can also be stressful for service members (Sayer et al., 2010). They can feel isolated, experience disrespect from civilians, feel misunderstood, and generally struggle with the transition (Demers, 2011).

A case study examining the rekindling of marriage after combat deployment in five couples showed negative emotions and feelings of a changed reality, especially in couples where one or both partners had been diagnosed with PTSD (Melvin, Wenzel, & Jennings, 2015).

The findings from this study strongly suggest that counseling interventions focusing on military couples are needed to promote their relationship (Melvin et al., 2015). Once again, this is a niche area for military counselors. You can address specific military culture-related marital difficulties and promote a strong relationship.

4. Relocation and family stress

Military families relocate more frequently than civilian families because of one or both parents being in the military (U.S. Department of Defense, 2010).

The children of military families face a unique set of stressors, including establishing peer relationships (Kelley, Finkel, & Ashby, 2003), conflict within intergenerational relationships (Lowe, Adams, Browne, & Hinkle, 2012), multiple school transitions, and academic demands (Engel, Gallagher, & Lyle, 2010).

This is where a military counselor can step in. Military OneSource is an organization that provides a specific service to children and adolescents in military families. They have counselors who are licensed in military and family life counseling to help children and adolescents with general behavior, school, and relationships with family and peers (Military OneSource, 2020a).

Military couples counseling

If you would like to work as a military counselor, you may help couples with relationship difficulties embedded within the military culture. The problems may be related to ongoing trauma. Or, they may be psychological or relationship issues caused by the transition from deployment to civilian life (Military OneSource, 2020c).

A military counselor helps couples enhance their communication skills (Military OneSource, 2019). Military OneSource (2019) has specially trained military couples counselors who offer counseling to couples. In the United Kingdom, such counseling can be obtained through a referral from the Army Welfare Service (Army, n.d.).

Military grief counseling explained

A military counselor will often need to counsel individuals or families who have experienced grief and loss in tragic circumstances (Hall, 2016). This is not uncommon, given the military culture and the proximity its members often have to death (Maguen et al., 2011).

As a military counselor, you can help support the family of a deceased service member through one-to-one counseling. The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs Bereavement Counseling supports family members overwhelmed by grief (Military OneSource, 2020b).

The death of a parent can be very difficult for children (Military OneSource, 2020b). Several groups help grieving children and are run by military counselors. These are Comfort Zone Camp, the Dougy Center, SOFWOLF, Project Common Bond, and Snowball Express (Military OneSource, 2020b). You may wish to work in one of these or a similar organization.

The requirements of a military counselor vary and depend on whether you are working with individuals, couples, or families (Moore, 2011). Your ultimate goal will be to help veterans, active duty service members, and their families cope more effectively and lead healthier and more productive lives (Hall, 2016).

A military counselor performs health assessments often using psychological tests (Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs, 2016). You will teach active service members and veterans strategies to reduce stress and improve coping for those suffering from PTSD, anxiety, depression, and other mental health issues (Daniels, 2013).

As a military counselor, you will administer readjustment counseling to address relationship difficulties for individuals and families transitioning from deployment to civilian life (Hall, 2016).

At times, you may counsel individuals or families dealing with grief, loss, and tragedy (Hall, 2016). If more intensive treatment is required, you can refer someone for additional treatment (Moore, 2011).

You will also need to gain experience working in the military. Internships or other work experience may help you obtain the licensing requirements necessary (Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs, 2016).

There are different ways you can gain certifications and degrees. Here are some relevant certification options.

Clinical Military Counselor Certificate

The Clinical Military Counselor Certificate is an online, self-study, 12-hour course. It is aimed at professionals who are already trained counselors and need further training in this field.

There are practice guidelines and a training manual, five training modules, videotaped presentations, and written materials to guide counselors. The course covers assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of those in or associated with the military.

Find out more on Military Counseling Training .

Graduate Certificate in Military Resilience

The Graduate Certificate in Military Resilience is designed to equip you to assess trauma. It provides you with counseling and mental health support tools.

The certificate can be combined with other certificates to gain further credits for a fuller degree, or it can be used as a standalone module for counselors. It is an online course, accredited by Liberty University.

Find out more at Liberty Online .

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To become a qualified military counselor, you need an accredited master’s degree in counseling, focusing on active military or veterans counseling.

Master of Education

The William & Mary School of Education offers an online Master of Education (MEd) accredited by the Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs that focuses on clinical mental health counseling and a specialization in active military and veterans counseling.

This will supplement a counseling degree and can take three years in total (both degrees). Internship experiences will allow you to apply your knowledge and skills with active military and veteran clients.

Find out more at William & Mary School of Education .

Masters in Human Services

The Masters in Human Services – Military Counseling Degree is a one-year 100%-online master’s degree. Students will understand more about stress and trauma and learn how to help families and support veterans.

It is ideal if you want additional training or are entering military counseling for the first time. You will need to gain further practical experience before entering a military counseling career.

Find out more at Liberty University .

As a military counselor, you will often screen for trauma and PTSD.

The PCL-5 (Weathers et al., 2013) is a 20-item self-report checklist of PTSD symptoms based closely on the criteria in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders . Each item is rated from 0 (“not at all”) to 4 (“extremely”) to indicate the severity of a symptom.

It is a quick screening tool and takes a few minutes to complete. The psychological symptoms can then be addressed in the counseling sessions . You can monitor the client’s change over time by obtaining an initial score and repeating the measure during the course of treatment.

You can find a copy of the full scale at the National Center for PTSD .

2. The Relationships Dynamics Scale

The Relationships Dynamics Scale (Markman, Stanley, & Blumberg, 1994) assesses commitment and negative communication patterns in a relationship. It can be used with both partners as part of the counseling process .

There is a three-point scale and a total score. A higher score indicates more conflict in the relationship, and arising difficulties can be addressed in sessions.

You can find a copy of the full scale at York University’s Psychology Resource Centre .

3. A Toolkit for the Well Child Screening of Military Children

The Toolkit for the Well Child Screening of Military Children (Rauch, Ohye, Bostic, & Masek, 2012) has several valuable screening tools and is designed for children in military families. It can act as a valuable toolbox of forms, checklists, and resources for parents if a child is having difficulties.

The 35-item pediatric symptom checklist is available in different formats for children and adolescents. The total score shows whether or not there is psychosocial impairment. If you are working as a military counselor, you can use the checklists in your assessments and the resources to help parents.

You can find a copy of the materials as a public online resource on many mental health and pediatric sites.

Several books can be helpful for anyone wishing to pursue a career in military psychology. The information you will learn about active service members, veterans, and families will be invaluable in your work as a military counselor.

1. Counseling Military Families – Lynn K. Hall

There are specific chapters on the unique conditions for reservists, personnel, partners, and children. There is a particular chapter on treatment models and targeted interventions .

The book is most useful for transitioning families and those who resist seeking help.

Find the book on Amazon .

2. When Your Dad Goes to War – Maryann Makekau

Part of the Little Patriot Books series, this book is about the loss of a parent through war and deployment.

It is aimed at children and allows them to understand their feelings about their parent’s deployment.

3. Handbook of Counseling Military Couples – Bret A. Moore

It highlights couples’ relationships in the military and provides outlines to health professionals on how to address them.

In addition, the book also looks at marriage and divorce in military couples and compares them to civilian couples.

There are several worksheets, activities, and a masterclass that you will find beneficial in your work as a military counselor.

The following are some resources to help you work with some of the common challenges faced by military personnel and better tailor the support you provide:

Realizing Resilience Masterclass© This six-module resilience training template can help service members, their partners, and their children deal with challenges and build up their resilience.
Growing Stronger From Trauma This worksheet helps clients explore the silver linings of traumatic experiences while appreciating the strengths they have developed as a result.
Preventing Mental Health Relapse This worksheet can help military clients track the symptoms of mental health conditions, recognize triggers and relapse warning signs, and develop preventative coping mechanisms.
What is Working Within the Family? This activity can help service members and their families identify and share what they feel goes well within the family or household as a means to celebrate and build on successes.
Resolving Marital Conflicts This worksheet presents a series of questions exploring recurring conflicts that arise within a relationship and gives partners a chance to evaluate present and possible coping strategies for addressing them.

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Military counseling can be a fulfilling career if you wish to venture into this line of work. This specific population is regularly in need of support and assistance with specialist counseling services.

The route to becoming a military counselor is somewhat flexible. Generally, undertaking a psychology or counseling degree is an essential foundation. An additional component of military counseling as a supplemental certificate, degree, or program is required. You will also need to gain some work experience to implement your theoretical knowledge into practice.

To see if this career path is ideal for you, the recommended counseling books are worth a read, as you will gain valuable insight into this career. You will learn about the dynamics and specifics of this population of clients.

If you decide to enter the military counseling field, you may find it very rewarding, knowing you have a positive influence on a vital component of your country.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free .

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Military OneSource. (2020b, November 3). Bereavement camps: An opportunity to grieve and heal. Retrieved June 21, 2021, from https://www.militaryonesource.mil/family-relationships/gold-star-surviving-family/understanding-grief/bereavement-camps-an-opportunity-to-grieve-and-heal/
Military OneSource. (2020c, November 25). Military separation: What to expect when your service member transitions to civilian life. Retrieved July 15, 2021, from https://www.militaryonesource.mil/military-life-cycle/friends-extended-family/military-separation-transitioning-to-civilian-life/
Moore, B. A. (2011). Handbook of counseling military couples . Routledge.
Murphy, D., Palmer, E., Westwood, G., Busuttil, W. & Greenberg, N. (2016). Do alcohol misuse, service utilisation, and demographic characteristics differ between U.K. veterans and members of the general public attending an NHS general hospital? Journal of Clinical Medicine , 5 (11), 95.
Rauch, P., Ohye, B., Bostic, J., & Masek, B. (2012). A toolkit for the well child screening of military children . The Home Base Program. Retrieved June 15, 2021, from https://web.jhu.edu/pedmentalhealth/images/NNCPAP%20files/Military%20Children%20Dec%2015%20USE.pdf
Sayer, N., Noorbaloochi, S., Frazier, P., Carlson, K., Gravely, A., & Murdoch, M. (2010). Reintegration problems and treatment interests among Iraq and Afghanistan combat veterans receiving V.A. medical care. Psychiatric Services , 61 (6), 589–597.
United States Army. (2021). In Wikipedia . Retrieved July 20, 2021.
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Stop Feeling Sorry for American Veterans

Some of the men and women returning from the service genuinely need help. But most do not -- and they're tired of being pitied.

Judging from media accounts, I'm the rare American veteran who isn't homeless, homicidal, or suicidal.

To be sure, the toll of almost 11 years of constant war has been high. Divorce among military families is at record levels at a time when it's declining among the civilian population. As best we can tell, veterans are half again as likely to be homeless as non-veterans. And more soldiers have killed themselves this year than have died on the battlefield.

These trends are damning and shameful. Thankfully, society has taken notice. In the past few years, there's been more investment in counseling services and other programs to help ameliorate the trauma of war and the pain of separation from family.

At the same time, it's fair to note that the comparative statistics are skewed, and that once we control for age, sex, and level of education, veterans are doing better in all these categories than their non-veteran counterparts. It's vital that we make this distinction, lest we falsely blame service for problems better explained by other variables.

A classic case of that was a poignant Atlantic essay by Iraq War vet Alex Horton, " Lonely Men on Campus: Student Veterans Struggle to Fit In ." It tells the tale of three veterans of our recent conflicts who left the service to go to college, only to find that they had little in common with students who hadn't shared their life-altering experiences. Theirs is an important story; we lure a lot of men and women into military service with the promise of paying for their education. We should ensure them the best possible chance of collecting on that debt with solid transitional counseling and on campus services.

But it's just as important not to let anecdotal evidence mislead us into thinking that most veterans are struggling to cope with life outside the structure of the service. That couldn't be further from the truth. Indeed, according to the Census Department , America's veterans are more likely to have a high school diploma than non-veterans, and have a much higher median income.

That's not surprising, when you think about it. While the public may see veterans as saps who volunteered to do a dangerous job because they lacked other options, the fact of the matter is that simply getting into the military requires meeting demanding thresholds of physical and mental health, passing a criminal background check, and having a high school diploma. After selection, many wash out during entry-level training. I'm by no means arguing that every man or woman who's ever served in our armed forces is a candidate for MENSA. But the selection process weeds out the weakest elements, and the training and mentoring system inculcates work habits and social skills that are invaluable in coping with life.

But we have to compare apples to apples. So, for example, when we look at the veterans in Horton's piece who were struggling in college, we see they were different from the rest of the gang in rather important other ways as well. They were a decade older than their peers. They held demanding jobs in addition to going to class. One had two small children. It's hardly surprising that they didn't fit in with 18-year-old kids just out of high school; their combat service was the least of their differences.

For a more accurate picture, we should be comparing these college-going veterans with other non-traditional students. Almost by definition, someone who starts university at 28 is different from cohorts who started at 18. They were probably already different coming out of high school in terms of academic aptitude, family structure, socioeconomic status, or some combination of factors. Males, who make up 94 percent of the veteran population, are much less likely to go to college than females throughout the overall population. The military also disproportionately attracts young people from the South and rural areas, as well as those whose parents attended college themselves. All of these factors make it significantly less likely for any person to attend college, military experience or not.

A non-veteran who enrolled in college after several years working in entry-level jobs might also show up on campus with emotional scars and a worldlier outlook than fresh-faced, optimistic kids who don't know better. And studies have shown that they're much more likely than traditional students to feel isolated and frustrated.

As with their non-traditional peers, a lot of veterans who start college later in life don't make it. For that matter, neither do roughly 40 percent of those who do go to college right out of high school. Many may not have been prepared for college to begin with. In other cases, life may have intervened and the need to earn a paycheck trumped the desire for further education.

Being a veteran doesn't guarantee you smooth sailing the rest of your life, but it doesn't sentence you to a life of struggle, either. There's no doubt that getting shot at and seeing friends killed in explosions are life-changing experiences. But most veterans, even those deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan, don't have those experiences. And even most of those who do come away from them without any permanent damage.

Some, alas, do. It's criminal that we haven't done a better job of figuring out how to deal with post-traumatic stress and aren't providing maximum resources to the minority of veterans who suffer with it. We owe it to them.

Otherwise, though, veterans don't need our pity. Most of us got out with our physical and mental health intact, along with valuable leadership training, improved confidence, and transferable job skills. Additionally, many of us qualified for and took advantage of a generous benefits package, including the G.I. Bill.

And, it's worth noting, the last few generations of veterans were all volunteers; we haven't had a draft since 1973. For that matter, the 11th anniversary of 9/11 is fast approaching; that means all of our junior enlisted personnel and most of our junior officers volunteered during wartime. We chose to serve our country, got paid pretty well to do it, and reaped plenty of other benefits, tangible and otherwise.

We owe those who suffered permanent wounds, physical or psychological, the best care we can give them. We owe the families of those who never came home our sympathies, support, and generous benefits.

Speaking for the rest of us--the vast majority of those who served--you don't owe us anything. Indeed, as Andrew Exum , who led Army Rangers in both Iraq and Afghanistan, argues, you're probably already doing too much. You don't need to stop us and thank us for our service; you already paid us for it.

And you sure as hell don't need to feel sorry for us. On the whole, we're doing better than the rest of you.

What are the biggest problems facing veterans returning home from conflict?

The majority readjust to life off the battlefield with few difficulties. But a significant number—44% who’ve served in Iraq and Afghanistan, according to one survey—say they’ve had problems readjusting after their return.

What kinds of problems do they face after their return?

Some of the most significant are health related. A considerable number of veterans who served in Iraq and Afghanistan have suffered traumatic brain injuries (TBIs), with about one in five experiencing a mild form of TBI commonly known as a concussion. Other common problems include posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, anxiety, problematic alcohol use, and thoughts of suicide. Many veterans suffer from more than one health condition.

In addition, many women and men experienced sexual trauma, including harassment and assaults, while in the military. That can have both mental and physical effects.

Three military service members share their stories of what it’s like returning home.

In many ways, the Veterans Health Administration (VHA), which provides health care to a great number of veterans, offers care that is as good as or better than that provided by private or non-VHA public practices. But the accessibility and quality of services vary across the system. Several studies have shown, for example, that a large number of veterans don’t receive any treatment following diagnoses of posttraumatic stress disorder, substance use disorder, or depression. Many veterans don’t know how to apply for veterans’ mental health care benefits, are unsure if they are eligible, or are unaware that mental health care benefits are available.

Are there other barriers to getting good care?

Yes. Veterans have reported other barriers to seeking VHA health care services, including:

difficulty getting to medical facilities because of their inconvenient location or a lack of transportation;
concerns about taking time off work and potentially harming their careers; and
fear that discrimination (due to the stigma around mental health issues) could lead to a loss of contact with or custody of their children or to a loss of medical or disability benefits.

They need a full spectrum of health care services—including prevention, diagnostics, treatment, rehabilitation, education, counseling, and community support—to deal with a wide-ranging set of physical and medical issues.

These services need to be focused on the problems specific to veterans. In some cases, that means increasing the number of health care providers offering a particular service. For example, many veterans don’t have access to mental health care professionals, so increasing the number of clinicians with expertise in this area could be helpful. In other cases, focusing specifically on veterans’ needs means providing more effective treatments, which may require new research to accomplish. For instance, improved treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and substance use disorders need to be developed.

There are a number of ways, including:

Continuing education for health care professionals and periodic evaluations of their treatment methods to help ensure that patients are receiving high-quality, evidence-based services. If clinicians don’t provide care based on scientific evidence, patients may receive poor quality care.
A so-called “interoperable” electronic health record (one that makes it possible for different systems to exchange information) used by all health care providers.
Greater communication and coordination among the dozens of public and private programs that serve veterans and their families.

What about problems apart from health-related issues?

In addition to health problems, some returning service members have other difficulties—such as economic or social challenges—readjusting to civilian life. For example, at times the unemployment rate for veterans who served after September 11, 2001, has been almost twice the rate for non-veterans who are about the same age. But overall, there is a lack of data and research to assess the economic, social, and health impacts of deployment on military service members and their families, which makes it difficult to know exactly their needs.

Several federal departments and agencies collect data on the physical, psychological, social, and economic challenges facing veterans, but no database combines demographic and deployment data with health outcomes, treatment, access to care, or employment before and after deployment. If these data were linked and integrated, many key questions about the reintegration of veterans into civilian life could be answered.

There are more than 18 million veterans, per the 2017 American Community Survey from the U.S. Census Bureau. About half of those veterans are enrolled in the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs health care program.

The troops engaged in Iraq and Afghanistan have included more women, parents of young children, and reserve and National Guard troops than in previous conflicts. Troops have been younger, more diverse, and have had a wider range of family backgrounds. They often served longer deployments with shorter intervals at home between missions.

The greater diversity of recent troops has created new kinds of needs among veterans. For example, women veterans who served in Iraq and Afghanistan have a higher need for mental health care compared with women who served in other wars, likely due to the differences in the types of roles they had in the military. They are also more likely than male veterans to believe that they are not entitled to or eligible for veterans’ mental health services. Similarly, tailoring treatment to racial, ethnic, sexual minority, and homeless groups has been a challenge.

What’s the view down the road?

The depth and breadth of challenges faced by veterans varies and are the result of a complex interaction of many factors. Previous wars have demonstrated that veterans’ needs peak several decades after their war service. VHA needs to be ready to deliver the services veterans and their families will need in the years ahead.

Take a Deep Dive

To learn more about this important topic, see Returning Home from Iraq and Afghanistan: Assessment of Readjustment Needs of Veterans, Service Members, and Their Families and Evaluation of the Department of Veterans Affairs Mental Health Services .

Know it all? Prove it.

a. about 4 million
b. about 12 million
c. about 18 million
a. are the same as veterans from other conflicts in our country’s history
b. include more women and parents of young children
c. are beneficiaries of a health care system that is easy to navigate
a. posttraumatic stress disorder
b. depression
c. problematic alcohol use
d. all of the above
a. about 1 in 100
b. about 1 in 50
c. about 1 in 5
a. Provide continuing education for clinicians and periodic evaluations to help ensure patients are receiving high-quality, evidence-based services.
b. Limit communication among the public and private programs that serve veterans and their families.
c. They already have the care they need.

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96 Veterans Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best veterans topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on veterans, ⭐ simple & easy veterans essay titles.

The Paralyzed Veterans of America Organization In this case, the decision by PVA to use quantitative factors is due to the large amount of funding involved and the large amount of those funds used in sending the mails.
Homelessness in the Veteran Community Such social conditions may consist of bureaucracy, the lack of government investments, class distribution, the lack of ethical considerations within the scope of the legislation, and many others which can deprive the mentioned population of […]
Veterans’ Reintegration and Culturally Sensitive Nursing Lastly, it is necessary to identify the components of profound nursing evaluation of veterans and to determine the cultural competencies required to address the issue.
The Veterans Benefits Administration’s Policy The article is relevant to my study as it provides helpful information about the veterans’ educational benefits and what some of their dependents get from the department of veteran affairs after service.
The Intervention in Addressing Veterans Affairs The goal of the service connection evaluation is to measure the program’s effectiveness in addressing veterans’ healthcare struggles by finding out problems in the process and possible solutions.
Opioid Crisis and the Veteran Population The first alternative is to reduce the frequency of opioid prescriptions by providing relevant education and training for Hawaii clinicians to encourage them to utilize alternative treatment methods for veterans in need of pain management.
Mental Disorders in Veterans: Impact of Posttraumatic Growth In addition, the fact that the impact of PTG is influenced by demographics and ethnicity is indicative of the relevance of the issue.
Posttraumatic Growth in Veteran Learners: Specialization Plan Therefore, the current Specialization Plan aims to analyze the research on the problem of rehabilitation through PTG in veteran learners, identifying major theories and conceptual frameworks used to address this issue.
Psychological Health Issues Among Veterans In general, veterans are believed to be a separate and elite part of the society due to the high level of contribution to the country’s protection and devoted duty.
Post-Traumatic Growth in Student War Veterans The current study focuses on the effect of the posttraumatic growth concept as a strategy that could alleviate the consequences of PTSD and the opioid epidemic in Veteran students, implementing the Delphi method to examine […]
Post-9/11 Veterans: Transition to the Business World In this case, when in uniform, the post-9/11 veteran managers are required to be responsible for the health and welfare of other humans.
Post-Traumatic Growth Among US Military Veterans The first goal of this research is to describe the Prevalence of PTG overall and in the five domains. The second goal is to describe the nature of the association between PTG and PTSD symptoms […]
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Opioid Use in Veterans This study examined the proportion of United States veterans who had PTSD and engaged in the use of illegal opioids to cope with it or had done so in the past.
Mental Health Services Access for Veterans Given the extreme intensity of the job that veterans have performed as well as the variety of adverse effects that follow from it, ensuring improved outcomes in the area of mental health for them is […]
Suicides Among Veterans in the US: Causes and Related Factors This means that low awareness is a widespread problem that must be addressed by the initiators of social support and healthcare programs.
Smoking and Stress Among Veterans The topic is significant to explore because of the misconception that smoking can alleviate the emotional burden of stress and anxiety when in reality, it has an exacerbating effect on emotional stress.
Needs and Asset-Based Assessment of Veterans The community can propose the construction of physical exercise and healthcare services, nutrition and feeding programs, mental counseling services, and housing of the retired soldiers in the region.
Posttraumatic Growth in Veterans Therefore, the current research aims to establish the factors of posttraumatic growth that facilitate goal-setting in war veterans after undergoing PTG therapy or experiencing PTG.
Veterans’ Transition to Civilian Life The main idea that the authors wanted to convey was that PLA helps military servants find application to their skills and contributes to a higher rate of college graduation among veterans.
Zaccari et al. (2020). “Yoga for Veterans With PTSD”: Content, Strength, and Weaknesses This discussion reviews the strengths and weaknesses of the method, sampling, and validity of Zaccari et al.research. The assertions reported in the article are supported by cited and referenced scientific studies, which enhances the validity […]
Veterans From Ethnic Minorities and the Opioid Epidemic The opioid crisis is a condition of prevalent overdose-related deaths in the population connected to “the misuse of and addiction to opioids”.
Health Care Within Aging White Veterans With Dementia Since this condition is heavily linked with damage to the brain, these people should be addressed in a friendly manner to avoid misunderstanding.
Community Outreach Program for Veterans’ Mental Health Outcomes The issue at the center of this document is the high level of suicide risk in the veteran population and the urgent need to address this problem through therapy to prevent suicide in veterans.
Veterans’ Transition From Military to Civilian Life The VA has established several programs that provide medical, financial, and other forms of support to veterans to help them adapt to civilian life.
Vietnam Veterans Memorial by Maya Ying Lin They deemed the Wall insufficient and bland, a shameful Wall of the war without resolution. The Wall attracts many visitors to commemorate the casualties of the Vietnam War.
Post-9/11 Veterans in Business The objective of the study is to explore how the adoption of a military mindset might influence the company culture and identify the competitive advantages of the post-9/11 veterans in the business setting.
Factors That Enable Iraq War Veterans to Integrate Into the Civilian Sphere Within the framework of the discussed topic of the project, hypotheses will be established in the next question, but now it is clear that it will be necessary to test them statistically with the help […]
Veterans’ Mindset Impact on Corporate Culture By exploring the views and attitudes of the employees of these companies, the proposed project will contribute to the development of a solution to a number of issues.
Veterans Readiness and Employment Program Evaluation Although this initiative is also known as the Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment Program, the current variation of the name more accurately reflects the nature of the actions being taken and the primary purpose of helping […]
The National Intensive Case Management Program for Homeless Veterans: Critique The program is assessed using the four principles of community psychology, which include problems addressed, values reflected in the program approach and methods, conceptual foundation of the program, and action and research tools.
Veteran Peer Suicide Prevention The two completing needs of the veterans in the United States are the ability to access healthcare services and the lack of policies and practices that are specifically designed to address the healthcare needs of […]
Opioid Use and Addiction in Afghanistan and Iraq Veterans My chosen topic integrates the welfare of veterans of recent wars, such as conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan, the prescription of opioids for trauma, general mental well-being, and adaptation to civilian and even academic life.
Opioid Use in Veteran Students The relationship between pain management, transition to civilian life, and possible opioid misuse is also central to the theme of the paper.
The Issue of Homeless Veterans I learned a lot in the framework of the issue of homeless veterans. Among the primary problems, there is the absence of programs for the rapid adaptation of servicemen to a peaceful life.
A Socially-Sustainable Living Community for Veterans Third, the presence of public space in the open air is a vital feature of this project. Fresh air has a beneficial effect on human health, and within the framework of this design, every veteran […]
Opioid Misuse and Academic Achievement of Veteran Students The proposed research aims at closing the gap in the existing literature by studying the influence of opioid misuse on the academic achievement of veteran students.
The US Military Veterans’ Mental Healthcare System The study’s main objective was to examine the Veterans’ gratification with VA mental health caring, its occurrence of delayed care, and the links of such results.
“Experiences of Military Spouses of Veterans With Combat-Related PTSD” by Yambo Spouses living with PTSD veterans are unprepared and struggling to deal with issues that their husbands experience.
Gender-Related Effects on the Veterans’ Welfare As cited in Military, “women now make up 20 percent of the Air Force, 19 percent of the Navy, 15 percent of the Army and almost 9 percent of the Marine Corps,” which indicates a […]
Ex-Military Adaptation: Veteran Care Grant Proposal The adaptation process and strategies for its implementation are expressed in the project through a consistent approach to the employment of veterans.
The Effects of Including Co-Curricular Activities on Veteran Student Performance In 2008, the Post-9/11 Veterans Educational Assistant Act was passed, granting new opportunities for veterans to access higher education.
Analysis of The Veteran Affairs Data Breach The majority of the data in the hard drive was linked to the veterans and their spouses. The 2006 incident was the second occurrence since 2004 that the VA was found in violation of the […]
Transition Experiences of First-Generation Latino Veterans Both veterans and migrants are minority populations and have difficulties with acquiring good jobs and education, finding appropriate housing options, and receiving healthcare.
Cognitive Processing Therapy and Evidence Based Interventions for Veterans Diagnosed With PTSD According to the evidence attained, comprehensive and extensive evidence is crucial in providing a clear correlation of the benefits accrued from CPT in comparison to other forms of treatment.
The Veterans Health Information Systems and Technology Architecture: Evaluating the Improvements One of such changes is the addition of a graphical user interface that is in the form of a CPRS. The purpose of this project is to raise the operation standards at PHE.
Veterans Affairs: Hospitals and Marketing VA has a marketing plan; the plan ensures the facility can reach to the target market; the marketing plan adopted by the company follows the principle of 4P’s; it ensures that the services or the […]
Veterans Affairs Medical Center: Quality Assurance It is important to note that the nursing department is a reflection of the overall organizational structure of the hospital. The main aim of this is to improve the standards of quality of a service […]
Veterans Affairs Hospital Accreditation Conversely, to achieve the goals, the Department focuses on harnessing talent and investing in human capital relative to needs, experience, and expectations of the clients as outlined in the Department’s integrated objectives.
Veterans Affairs Hospital Risk Management Program To undertake the process, the risk management program has the following areas to address; The fact that the major patients of the facility are old people means that there are high chances that they have […]
Veterans Affairs Case Management Program This is because the needs of veterans are diverse and hence, they tend to be complex, but all the same, the program has managed to meet the needs of its members.
Veterans Affairs Hospital Utilization Management Program The main agendas of the system are as follows: Making their services quality through their members (members according to the company include staffs, community, suppliers, experts, and family of the patient; the definition also extends […]
A Veterans Affairs Healthcare Program to Deliver Hospital Care in the Home As for the study In Mader et al, the limitations in the study might prevent the generalization of the described case to other settings.
Mental Disorders of Veteran Students In case the client does not make her appointments and think of additional methods to encourage her. Other information: The client’s primary strengths are family, success in her military service, positive relationships with her boyfriend, […]
Crisis Intervention in Veteran’s Mental Health The military has always been forced to respond to the mental healthcare needs of combat veterans because of the role that they play.
Veterans: Health, Education and Employment The numbers of divorces that have occurred between 2000 and 2004 in the military have increased by 53% and this has a lot to do with the stresses that a family may go through in […]
How the Veteran’s Affairs System Is Failing Veterans The aim of the department was to ensure that all veterans and their families would be looked after by the state for the supreme sacrifices that they had made in the line of duty to […]
Problems of Veterans in the Works of E. Hemingway and T. Nordenberg The social adaptation of veterans in civil world is one of the main problems which may lead to veterans’ estrangement if they are not accepted by society.
The Gulf War Veteran Case: The Question of Pressing Charges In the case of the veteran, the question of pressing charges would be settled after a settling a few other issues at first.
Ethics: Disabled Veterans Affirmative Action Program This is evident in the fact that they had a higher percentage jobs in the government than in the private sector.
Housing and Urban Development: Veterans Affairs Supportive Housing Program It is possible to apply the points and arguments of the scholars to the public sector in a practical sense by engaging more veterans in the program.
Veterans Health Administration Integrative Care Model The purpose of the following study is to provide a thorough research on the influence of the practices conducted on mental health and to examine the overall effectiveness of the integrative care system in delivering […]
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Veteran Community The creation of special programs for the rehabilitation of veterans helped alleviate the problem of PTSD during the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan and facilitated the development of a support system that is currently used.
Post-9/11 Veterans Educational Assistance Improvements Act of 2010 The Post-9/11 Veterans Educational Assistance Improvements Act of 2010 is one of the primary laws governing the provision of financial assistance to veterans of the US armed forces to pursue higher educational and vocational training.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Missouri Veterans Unfortunately, the implemented policies have failed to meet the needs of different veterans, such as the Welcome Back Veterans, the Veterans Health Administration, and the Military Health System. Louis has several policies and programs aimed […]
Social Work in the Military With Homeless Veterans The purpose of this statement is to immediately provide the patient with emotional support and encouragement while establishing initial rapport at the same time.
Veterans With Disabilities: Integration and Employment In this paper, the researcher looks at the main barriers to employment and integration back to the society that the veterans face, and the manner in which the existing policies can be amended to help […]
Veteran’s Biopsychosocial-Spiritual Assessment The Bio-Psycho-Social framework is a widely-used approach that is based on the importance of a systematic view of the individual’s behavior and actions along with the integration of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors with human […]
Psychological Trauma Care in Military Veterans He is hesitant to open up to anyone and spends time in the company of his marine friends. The clinician must be direct and candid when talking to the patient about the risks of their […]
Veteran Service Representatives for US Military Secondly, I would like to work as a veteran service representative to counsel recruits and ensure they understand that the bloody scenes that are common in the battlefields should not discourage them from doing their […]
Elderly Veterans’ Needs, Services, and Policy The Department of Veterans Affairs was established to provide adequate services and benefits to meet the changing needs of many elderly veterans.
Integrative Restoration Therapy for Combat Veterans A number of these studies explore the effects of iRest on combat veterans and the adverse outcomes of their military service.
Veteran Health Administration Program The hospital seems to offer quality care to patients, and one of the studies done showed that patients with diabetes got more care than in other health care systems.
Preventing Suicide in the Military and Veterans Surveys and psychological questionnaires after the military personnel returned from the war can be very helpful in determining the type of disorder.
Health Programs for Veterans and Their Effectiveness Now, the major American nursing associations for veterans such as Military Officers Association and Veterans Healthcare Association are advocating for the healthcare protection of veterans and their families.
The Vietnam War and Its Effects on the Veterans Although numerous books and articles contain memories of those who lived to tell the tale, the best way to learn about the Vietnam War and to understand how war changes people is to talk to […]
Veteran Affairs Negotiations and Game Theory This paper explores the relevance of the two theories in understanding current negotiations about the provision of improved veteran healthcare services in the country.
Mental Health Care Services for Veterans To guarantee that this requirement is met and the policy falls within federal jurisdiction, it is essential to address four dimensions of the program.
Health IT at the US Department of Veterans Affairs Much of the discussion has been on the recording of health data in a safe and secure manner. Despite the success observed by the department, one cannot be oblivious to the limitations of the system.
Service Disabled Veteran-Owned Small Business Contracting The SDVOSB sole source contracts do not allow competition among the small businesses as the contract is awarded to the bidding small firm that is qualified.
Veterans Health Administration in Northern California The organization mentors and monitors its employees using the best Performance Management System. The healthcare facility has hired the right supervisors and managers to monitor the system.
Memorial Day in the US: Veterans Benefits An analysis of the history of America’s treatment of war veterans, since the American Revolution, demonstrates a poor job in terms of caring for veterans.
The Level of Unemployment Among Veterans Veterans are some of the most important segments of the USA’s population, bearing in mind that they sacrificed their lives and time to serve the nation in the past.
Homeless Veterans Causes and Effects The inability of the Department of Veterans Affairs to fast track compensation and funding for disabled veterans is linked to homelessness among many veterans.
The Challenges of Women Veterans of Nevada The situation in the state shows that the society pays insufficient attention to the problems of women veterans. The participants of the program gave their views on the situation and explained the challenges which women […]
Cultural Immersion of Homeless Veterans Veterans value their country and therefore the Department of Veterans Affairs should make an effort to ensure that the lives of all veterans are improved.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Veterans Patient education is important in order to eradicate any form of misconception that the patients may have about PTSD, and enhance the levels of understanding of the patients, along with an improvement on their ability […]
Veteran Health Administration: Electronic Systems It is from such sessions that the staff will get a chance to learn from individuals who have prior significant experiences as well as knowledge in their areas of specialization.
Veterans Health Administration System Development Lifecycle Evidence in support of this is identified in the GAO report which highlights the fact that despite spending large sums on money and time on the VA project implementation is yet to be done on […]
Reintegration of Women Combat Veterans Feminists observe that the subjection of women to the power of men originated from the rise of private property, the family, and the state.
The Problem of Homeless Veterans in US The records at the department of Veteran affairs in the US indicate that majority of the homeless veterans are males, and only four percent are females. The needs and the demands of the homeless veterans […]
Homeless Veterans in the United States The lack of jobs leads to idleness which is the major cause of the veterans’ addiction to drug abuse. The alarming increase in the number of the homeless veterans is due to continuing war in […]
Ethical Problems of the Disabled Veterans in the Workplace Affirmative action refer to measures that have been put in place to create balance of some sort and at the same time address historical and documented acts of injustices among the category of persons for […]
The Effects of PTSD on Families of Veterans Drug abuse may result from the inadequacies in the coping abilities of family members as they try to come into terms with the suffering of their fellow family member.
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder in Veterans and How Family Relationships Are Affected Both qualitative and quantitative data shall be used with numbers being used to provide evidence of the occurrence and magnitude of the effects of the condition on the population.
How PTSD Affects Veteran Soldiers’ Families The effects are even worse to the partner who is left behind; whether wife or husband because they are required to care for the children and the thought of being the sole bread winner makes […]
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Counseling in Moscow : U.S., Soviet Vets Share Grief of War

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Until he met Shad Meshad, Alexander Kalandarishvili thought nobody would ever understand the horror of what he had gone through as a Soviet soldier in Afghanistan.

Friends had been killed before his eyes. Ambushes, land mines and rocket bombardments made fear of his own death constant. There was always the terror of being taken prisoner, of a death that Soviet soldiers were told would be slow and full of torture at the hands of Afghanistan’s Muslim rebels, the moujahedeen.

“You feel you have stepped into a room where the only way out is death, and you don’t want that,” Kalandarishvili said. “So, somehow you survive--you fight, you hide, you yourself kill, and you survive.

‘It Changes Your Soul’

“But it changes you, it changes your soul, and afterward you are not the same, never what you were before, never what you might have been, never what people still expect you to be.”

Perhaps the worst of it all, Kalandarishvili said, was that when he and other Afghantsi came home, no one seemed to understand this.

But Shad Meshad, a former U.S. Marine who counsels other American veterans of the Vietnam War, understood immediately and with greater compassion than Kalandarishvili and other Afghantsi had encountered here.

“We did understand immediately because we had been there,” Meshad said. “Ours was a different war, in a different country, in different circumstances politically, but what it did to us and what Afghanistan did to these men was the same.

Impact Nearly Identical

“The same anger is there, in us and in them. The same residue from the stress of combat is there. They have the same difficulties--though they are just beginning to see them--in adjusting to civilian life. Similarities I expected, but the psychological impact was very nearly identical.

“And this means that, with our experience with the Vietnam vets, we can probably help the Soviet Afghantsi get through what is bound to be a very difficult period for them and for society as a whole.”

Meshad, executive director of the Vietnam Veterans Aid Foundation in El Segundo, Calif., was one of 19 U.S. specialists on psychological counseling and physical rehabilitation who came to the Soviet Union for two weeks of intensive consultations. They met with Soviet physicians, psychiatrists, other civilian and military officials and the Afghantsi themselves, who are trying to develop programs for veterans of the nine-year war in Afghanistan.

Speaking “soul to soul,” as Russians describe deeply personal conversations, the Vietnam veterans spent night after night, sometimes going until dawn, in emotional rap sessions with dozens of Afghan veterans they met in Moscow and Leningrad.

“These are our brothers,” Alexander Lavrov, who served in western Afghanistan from 1984 to 1986, said of the American visitors.

‘We Knew They Are Brothers’

“They have been where we have been, seen what we have seen, felt what we have felt,” Lavrov said. “Almost as soon as we started to speak, they knew and identified with us. Language did not matter, different cultures did not matter, different social background did not matter. . . . We knew they are brothers.”

For the first time, many of the Afghan veterans said, they felt someone understood the anxieties that still haunt them.

“We are back in the Soviet Union, but often our hearts and our heads are not,” Lavrov said.

“When we sleep, we often see Afghanistan. We see our dead friends, we see the mountains and battlefields there, we see our soldiers’ lives. . . . But when we tell people this, they don’t want to hear, and some even become frightened and almost run away from us.”

The Americans, who came prepared to see more differences than similarities and who had intended to take a calm, measured, almost cool approach to the talks, were drawn into conversations that quickly transcended the camaraderie of old soldiers to become the intense, talk-it-out rap sessions that Meshad and others have used to promote the healing process among veterans of the Vietnam War.

Need for Trust

“All warriors have to regain trust, we told them, because as a soldier you learn to trust yourself and your weapon,” Meshad said. “First, you have to develop a trust bond outside yourself.

“Then they need to trust enough to share. And once you tell your darkest moment, you come out of the dark. . . . This was the process we tried . . . to take a few of the Afghantsi through so that they could see how it is done, how they can help one another and what kind of help works.”

Much of the American experience in counseling appeared to the U.S. specialists to be broadly applicable to the Soviet veterans.

“Afghan veterans appear to have an identical set of problems to our Vietnam vets,” said the Rev. William Mahedy, an Episcopal priest who served as a military chaplain in Vietnam and now is a campus chaplain at both UC San Diego and San Diego State. “We established an immediate bond of brotherhood.

“They see themselves in us, and we see ourselves in them. . . . We want to help here all that we can.”

Advice on Outreach Programs

Mahedy, Meshad and two other American specialists in counseling agreed to advise Soviet authorities on establishing outreach programs to assist the Afghantsi in adjusting, and they promised to assist the Soviet veterans to develop self-help groups.

“We have told the vets here that they have to do it themselves,” Mahedy said. “They already knew that they could not look to their government for much, but we have tried to explain the value of doing it themselves, of working out these problems themselves as part of the therapeutic process.”

Charles Figley, a psychology professor at Purdue University and an authority on the post-traumatic stress syndrome, said that Soviet officials are only becoming aware of the anger, hostility and alienation felt by many of the Afghan veterans, who are believed to number more than 500,000.

“The emotional problems of these men and women have only been seen up to now when they reach a serious, acute, even critical stage,” Figley said. “Many other predictable problems, such as alcohol and chemical dependency, get little attention, and personally I am very concerned about suicides among the Afghantsi, such as we have seen among our Vietnam vets.”

Although Soviet authorities are moving belatedly to establish special rehabilitation and recuperation programs for the Afghan veterans, particularly the physically disabled, the Afghantsi themselves complain that their deeper needs are not understood and that they encounter ignorance or indifference when they seek psychological counseling.

‘Just So Much Cannon Fodder’

“We say, ‘Afghantsi,’ and people still pretend to respect us,” one of the Soviet veterans told the Americans. “But we do not get half the care that (World War II) veterans get, and that makes it clear that we were really just so much cannon fodder in Afghanistan, that it was an adventurist war.”

Mahedy, the author of “Out of the Night: The Spiritual Journey of Vietnam Vets,” said that in the rap sessions, which ran almost every night, he found a profound degree of alienation among the Afghan veterans and a search for a spiritual meaning for their lives.

“Vietnam vets came back to a country deeply divided over the war, but the Afghan vets come back to a country that almost succeeded in ignoring their war,” he said. “This realization compounds the psychological impact of the war. They not only think about what they have been through, but they feel that almost nobody cares.”

Igor Medvedev, one of the Afghan veterans who met with the Americans, said that some government assistance in obtaining better housing, employment and education would give the veterans the feeling that, regardless of the merits of the war, they had served their country and that their country appreciated their sacrifices.

“Somehow we are being held guilty by the people for being there,” Medvedev said, “and we are starting to feel that they are guilty for letting the government send us there and not protesting about the war they now say they didn’t want. . . . Our alienation from society is growing, not shrinking.”

Not Geared to Help Veterans

Figley said that the Soviet health care system is not yet geared to provide much psychiatric help to the veterans. “We were disappointed that there had not been much of a scientific or clinical attempt to deal with the emotional problems of these men and women,” he said. “Psychiatry is very oriented to the physiology and biochemistry . . . and psychology focuses more on observable behavior than on psychotherapy.”

To give Soviet psychiatrists an idea of their counseling techniques, the Americans took a group of Afghan veterans into rap session at a research institute here. “It was a bit of a guerrilla attack, catching them by surprise and almost occupying the place,” Figley said. “But we wanted to make sure our discussions did not remain theoretical. It worked. Rap sessions are very powerful, to watch as well as participate in.”

In organizational terms, the Soviet health care system has almost no concept of outreach, Meshad added, “and that means that those Afghantsi who are angry and hostile to the government will not get the help they need simply because they will never go to a hospital or a clinic.”

Soviet authorities, alarmed by recent violence by Afghan veterans, expressed interest in establishing here the kind of centers that Figley, Mahedy and Meshad helped the Veterans Administration start for Vietnam veterans in the United States. The three Americans and Jack Smith, director of the Center for Stress Recovery in Cleveland, agreed to advise this country on that kind of program.

Help From American Experts

Other American specialists said they would advise on orthopedic surgery, artificial limbs, computers to assist invalids and mobility for the disabled. Their trip here was organized by Earth Stewards Network, a Seattle-based group promoting international exchanges. A second group of Vietnam veterans is due here next month.

“People-to-people diplomacy makes a lot of sense in this case,” Mahedy said at the end of his trip here.

“Bringing the veterans of Vietnam and Afghanistan together may help wake up the American and Soviet people to what is going on in the world, in each other’s country. . . . I hope this helps our countries see one another in a new light. American soldiers in Vietnam were fighting Soviet soldiers in surrogate, and the Soviets in Afghanistan were, in some ways, fighting American surrogates. What these Afghan veterans told us was that they want peace, no more wars, and we agree.”

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Why are Veterans Important and Why They Should Never be Forgotten

Why are veterans important? Military veterans are among the most important members of our society. They have committed years of their lives to serving and protecting our country, and they deserve our gratitude and respect. Veterans have sacrificed their time, health, and often even their own lives to preserve our freedom and safeguard our nation. It is crucial to acknowledge the contributions and sacrifices of our veterans and honor their service. In this blog post, we will discuss why veterans are so important and why they should never be forgotten.

Veterans Defend Our Freedom:

One significant reason our veterans are important is that they defend our freedom. Veterans served and they are the ones who willingly stand in the line of fire to ensure that we can live our lives without fear of oppression or tyranny. They protect us from external threats while ensuring that our way of life is preserved. They leave their homes, families, and livelihoods to defend our nation, and they do so without asking for anything in return except appreciation.

Veterans Sacrificed their Lives for our Safety:

Veterans’ contributions cannot be understated, especially those who have paid the ultimate price by sacrificing their own lives for our safety. They serve their country with selflessness and sacrifice and bear the heavy burden of their service on behalf of American citizens. We must honor their brave actions and never forget the price they paid for our freedom.

Veteran’s Protection of our Communities:

Veterans play a crucial role in their communities, too. They come home and serve as doctors, lawyers, and other vital professionals. They continue to keep us safe by protecting and serving our communities and bringing their discipline, experience, and leadership to civilian offices. They embody strength, discipline, and moral values, which are models that younger generations can emulate.

Veterans Provide Inspiration to Younger Generations:

Veterans’ contributions also provide inspiration and motivation to younger generations. They set an excellent example of self-discipline, perseverance, and honor for children and adults alike. As the younger generation learns to value the contributions of veterans, the importance of their roles will continue to be passed down and instilled in future generations.

Veterans Deserve Our Respect and Support:

Lastly, veterans deserve our continuous support and care. They experienced extreme hardships and trauma during their service years that often follow them into their civilian lives. It is our duty as Americans to honor and support their sacrifice by helping them navigate civilian life. Providing necessary resources, mental health care, and other support systems could immensely improve their quality of life.

How We Can Better Support Our Veterans After Their Service

Veterans deserve our respect and gratitude for serving our country. They risked their lives to protect us and our freedom, and in return, we should support them in any way we can. However, thousands of veterans face physical and mental challenges daily, and many of them struggle to fit in and adjust to normal life post-military. Below, we delve into how we can better support our veterans’ needs after their service.

1) Improve Access to Medical, Mental and Emotional Health Support:

Given that veterans’ physical or mental health has been compromised as a result of long deployment periods, it’s essential that we provide them with easy access to medical care. The Department of Veterans Affairs offers a range of benefits, including healthcare , counseling programs, and disability compensation , among other benefits for veterans and their family members. Additionally, there are many non-profit community-based organizations and charities that offer mentorship, job training, financial aid , and transitional housing that can provide the necessary resources and support for veterans.

2) Advocate for Better Employment Opportunities:

It’s critical to secure adequate jobs that guarantee stability and growth to ensure financial independence for veterans after their service. Finding employment can be a challenge for veterans, particularly those who may have physical or mental health issues. Organizations such as Veterans Affairs can train veterans on valuable job skills and even offer hiring bonuses to companies that employ veterans. Proactive measures by businesses to support veterans looking for employment, including understanding their needs, can significantly improve the veteran’s chances of success.

3) Provide Housing Assistance:

Homelessness can be a major issue that veterans face when transitioning back to civilian life. Veterans may have physical, mental, and emotional problems that hinder them from making enough money to afford housing or pay their rent. Providing transitional housing assistance can help ease the transition from military forces to civilian life. Additionally, non-profit organizations such as Department of VA Supportive Housing (HUD-VASH) can provide rental assistance and support for those at risk of homelessness or who have lost their homes.

4) Donate and Volunteer:

There are various non-profits, community support groups, and organizations directly focused on supporting veterans, that you can donate to. Donations can go a long way in providing essential resources for veterans facing a range of challenges. Volunteering can also help combat issues of loneliness and depression faced by many veterans. Community service involves working alongside veterans, helping engage meaningful activities that foster connection, and working with other volunteers to provide support.

5) Stay Engaged and Informed:

Ultimately, the best way to support veterans is to stay engaged and informed. Your support can go a long way in advocating policies or benefiting veterans as they transition to civilian life. Stay informed about veterans’ issues, policy changes, and the benefits that are available to them. You can follow veteran support organizations on social media, sign up for newsletters, or volunteer regularly. You can also participate in events, forums, or rallies organized by veteran’s advocacy groups to stay active and connected.

Supporting veterans’ needs after serving our nation should be a top priority for all of us. Veterans face significant challenges transitioning from military to civilian life and may need help in accessing healthcare, housing, employment, and other resources. It’s our responsibility to provide the necessary support for our heroic veterans and ensure that their sacrifices aren’t forgotten. Through various channels like community organizations, charities, donations, and volunteering, we can work together to ensure that veterans are empowered to lead productive and fulfilling lives post-service.

The History and Importance of Veterans

Veterans have played an integral role in shaping our world as we know it today. The sacrifices they made during their time in the military should never be forgotten and we should always remember them. This long-standing tradition of service to the country dates back centuries, back to the settling of territories in the Americas. The role of veterans and military personnel has evolved a lot over time, but their contributions are always appreciated. Let’s delve into the history of veterans, their role in conflicts, their service to our nation, and their impact on American society.

Armed Forces

The history of veterans can be traced back to the American Revolution, in which the brave men and women fought for our nation’s independence from Great Britain. The foundation for a professional military was laid out during this period. This move gave structure to what came to be known as the armed forces. These early veterans set the tone for future generations of servicemen and women that followed them.

The Civil War is perhaps one of the most significant conflicts where veterans played a crucial role. In addition to the Union and Confederate armies, many African American soldiers, who were believed to be unfit for service, joined the Union forces. The civil war veterans set the foundation for caring for wounded and ill soldiers after the conflict, pioneering the introduction of veteran organizations like the Grand Army of the Republic.

In the 20th century, veterans played a crucial role in the Global two World Wars, World War I and II, among other conflicts. Armistice Day marked the end of World War I. During World War II, approximately 16 million Americans served in the military, and people were encouraged to support the war effort by purchasing war bonds and maintaining production levels of war goods.

VA System (VA)

The Veterans Affairs (VA) system was established in the early 1900s to care for veterans’ needs in return for their service to the country. After World War II, the number of veterans leaped, necessitating a more robust VA system to take care of their needs post-military service. The VA operates hospitals and other health care facilities throughout the United States and provides various services, including disability compensation and pension benefits, education and training benefits, home loan benefits, and more.

The history of veterans stretches back centuries, and their sacrifices and service are to be respected and admired. Veterans have made incredible contributions to the country, and their impact can be seen in virtually all aspects of American life. It is essential to honor veterans always, not just during military holidays like Veterans Day or Memorial Day. We must acknowledge their contributions and continue to show gratitude by funding programs that support them, not just the VA, but creating job opportunities, scholarships, and other services to make their transition to civilian life easier. Let us always ensure veterans, national guard, army, navy, coast guard etc.. receive the respect, appreciation, and recognition they deserve for their unwavering service to our nation by standing for the national anthem.

Conclusion:

Veterans fought for us, and have played, and continue to play, a significant role in shaping our nation’s history and future. We must never forget their sacrifices, dedication, and commitment to our country’s well-being. As a nation, it is our collective responsibility to show support and appreciation to these brave individuals who have served us with courage, honor, and sacrifice, and the ones in active duty.

Not just on the national holiday of veteran’s day, but every day. Their contributions are priceless, and it is our duty to never forget their sacrifices and remind the younger generation of their legacy. We must continue to honor our veterans, providing them with the support they need upon their return home while recognizing their contributions to society. They are a part of our history, our present, and our future.

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Pulling For Veterans Trailer Rental: Bringing Awareness

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Pulling For Veterans Trailer Rental is a 501c3 nonprofit organization that is bringing awareness to military Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The community can rent out a pull trailer as a rolling memorial on your vehicle honoring our brothers and sisters who...

Supportive Services for Veterans Families (SSVF): A Comprehensive Guide

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Living with a PTSD Disability: How to Apply for Benefits

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PTSD disability is a very real thing. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental illness condition that occurs when a person experiences or witnesses a traumatic event. Individuals living with stressor related disorders often have to deal with intrusive...

Chapter 13 Introductory Essay: 1945-1960

Written by: Patrick Allitt, Emory University

By the end of this section, you will:.

Explain the context for societal change from 1945 to 1960
Explain the extent to which the events of the period from 1945 to 1960 reshaped national identity

Introduction

World War II ended in 1945. The United States and the Soviet Union had cooperated to defeat Nazi Germany, but they mistrusted each other. Joseph Stalin, the Soviet dictator, believed the Americans had waited too long before launching the D-Day invasion of France in 1944, leaving his people to bear the full brunt of the German war machine. It was true that Soviet casualties were more than 20 million, whereas American casualties in all theaters of war were fewer than half a million.

On the other hand, Harry Truman, Franklin Roosevelt’s vice president, who had become president after Roosevelt’s death in April 1945, believed Stalin had betrayed a promise made to Roosevelt at the Yalta summit in February 1945. That promise was to permit all the nations of Europe to become independent and self-governing at the war’s end. Instead, Stalin installed Soviet puppet governments in Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Rumania, Hungary, and Bulgaria, the parts of Europe his armies had recaptured from the Nazis.

These tensions between the two countries set the stage for the Cold War that came to dominate foreign and domestic policy during the postwar era. The world’s two superpowers turned from allies into ideological and strategic enemies as they struggled to protect and spread their systems around the world, while at the same time developing arsenals of nuclear weapons that could destroy it. Domestically, the United States emerged from the war as the world’s unchallenged economic powerhouse and enjoyed great prosperity from pent-up consumer demand and industrial dominance. Americans generally supported preserving the New Deal welfare state and the postwar anti-communist crusade. While millions of white middle-class Americans moved to settle down in the suburbs, African Americans had fought a war against racism abroad and were prepared to challenge it at home.

The Truman Doctrine and the Cold War

Journalists nicknamed the deteriorating relationship between the two great powers a “ cold war ,” and the name stuck. In the short run, America possessed the great advantage of being the only possessor of nuclear weapons as a result of the Manhattan Project. It had used two of them against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki to end the war in the Far East, with destructive power so fearsome it deterred Soviet aggression. But after nearly four years of war, Truman was reluctant to risk a future conflict. Instead, with congressional support, he pledged to keep American forces in Europe to prevent any more Soviet advances. This was the “ Truman Doctrine ,” a dramatic contrast with the American decision after World War I to withdraw from European affairs. (See the Harry S. Truman, “Truman Doctrine” Address, March 1947 Primary Source.)

President Harry Truman pictured here in his official presidential portrait pledged to counter Soviet geopolitical expansion with his “Truman Doctrine.”

The National Security Act, passed by Congress in 1947, reorganized the relationship between the military forces and the government. It created the National Security Council (NSC), the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the office of Secretary of Defense. The Air Force, previously a branch of the U.S. Army, now became independent, a reflection of its new importance in an era of nuclear weapons. Eventually, NSC-68, a secret memorandum from 1950, was used to authorize large increases in American military strength and aid to its allies, aiming to ensure a high degree of readiness for war against the Soviet Union.

What made the Soviet Union tick? George Kennan, an American diplomat at the U.S. Embassy in Moscow who knew the Soviets as well as anyone in American government, wrote an influential article titled “The Sources of Soviet Conduct.” Originally sent from Moscow as a long telegram, it was later published in the journal Foreign Affairs under the byline “X” and impressed nearly all senior American policy makers in Washington, DC. The Soviets, said Kennan, believed capitalism and communism could not coexist and that they would be perpetually at war until one was destroyed. According to Kennan, the Soviets believed communism was destined to dominate the world. They were disciplined and patient, however, and understood “the logic of force.” Therefore, said Kennan, the United States must be equally patient, keeping watch everywhere to “contain” the threat.

Containment became the guiding principle of U.S. anti-Soviet policy, under which the United States deployed military, economic, and cultural resources to halt Soviet expansion. In 1948, the United States gave more than $12 billion to Western Europe to relieve suffering and help rebuild and integrate the economies through the Marshall Plan. The Europeans would thus not turn to communism in their desperation and America would promote mutual prosperity through trade. The Berlin crisis of 1948–1949 was the policy’s first great test. (See the George Kennan (“Mr. X”), “Sources of Soviet Conduct,” July 1947 Primary Source.)

Berlin, jointly occupied by the major powers, lay inside Soviet-dominated East Germany, but access roads led to it from the West. In June 1948, Soviet forces cut these roads, hoping the Americans would permit the whole of Berlin to fall into the Soviet sphere rather than risk war. Truman and his advisors, recognizing the symbolic importance of Berlin but reluctant to fire the first shot, responded by having supplies flown into West Berlin, using aircraft that had dropped bombs on Berlin just three years earlier. Grateful Berliners called them the “raisin bombers” in tribute to one of the foods they brought.

After 11 months, recognizing their plan had failed, the Soviets relented. West Berlin remained part of West Germany, making the first test of containment a success. On the other hand, the United States was powerless to prevent a complete Communist takeover in Czechoslovakia, whose government had shown some elements of independence from Moscow’s direction. (See The Berlin Airlift Narrative.)

Alarm about the Czech situation hastened the American decision to begin re-arming West Germany, where an imperfect and incomplete process of “de-Nazification” had taken place. The United States also supervised the creation in 1949 of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), an alliance of Western nations to forestall Soviet aggression in central Europe. The U.S. government also continued research on and development of new and more powerful nuclear weapons. Americans were dismayed to learn, in 1949, that the Soviets had successfully tested an atomic bomb of their own, greatly facilitated by information provided by Soviet spies. Europe and much of the world were divided between the world’s two superpowers and their allies.

Secretary of State Dean Acheson sits at a desk on a stage signing the North Atlantic Treaty. Three men stand around him behind the desk. They face a crowd sitting in pews.

U.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson along with the foreign ministers of Canada and 10 European nations gathered to sign the North Atlantic Treaty on April 4 1949 founding NATO.

Postwar Uncertainty

The postwar years were politically volatile ones all over the world, due to widespread decolonization. Britain, though allied with the United States during World War II, had been weakened by the conflict and could no longer dominate its remote colonies. The British Empire was shrinking drastically, and this made the Truman Doctrine all the more necessary. In 1947, an economically desperate Britain reluctantly granted India and Pakistan the independence their citizens had sought for years. Britain’s African colonies gained independence in the 1950s and early 1960s. The United States and the Soviet Union each struggled to win over the former British colonies to their own ideological side of the Cold War. (See the Who Was Responsible for Starting the Cold War? Point-Counterpoint and Winston Churchill, “Sinews of Peace,” March 1946 Primary Source.)

Israel came into existence on May 14, 1948, on land that had been a British-controlled mandate since the end of World War I. The Zionist movement, founded in the 1890s by Austro-Hungarian journalist Theodore Herzl, had encouraged European Jews to immigrate to Palestine. There, they would buy land, become farmers, and eventually create a Jewish state. Tens of thousands, indeed, had migrated there and prospered between 1900 and 1945. Widespread sympathy for the Jews, six million of whom had been exterminated in the Nazi Holocaust, prompted the new United Nations to authorize the partition of Palestine into two states, one Jewish and one Arab. From the very beginning, these two states were at war, with all the neighboring Arab states uniting to threaten Israel’s survival. President Truman supported Israel, however, and in the ensuing decades, most American politicians, and virtually all the American Jewish population, supported and strengthened it.

In 1949, a decades-long era of chaos, conquest, and revolution in China ended with the triumph of Mao Zedong, leader of a Communist army. Against him, America had backed Chiang Kai-Shek, the Chinese Nationalist leader, whose defeated forces fled to the offshore island of Taiwan. American anti-communist politicians in Washington, DC, pointed to the growing “red” (Communist) areas of the map as evidence that communism was winning the struggle for the world. Domestically, Truman and the Democrats endured charges that they had “lost” China to communism.

War in Korea

Korea, one of the many parts of Asia that Japan had conquered in the earlier twentieth century but then lost in 1945, was now partitioned into a pro-Communist North and an anti-Communist South. In June 1950, the Truman administration was taken by surprise when North Korea attacked the South, overpowering its army and forcing the survivors back into a small area of the country’s southeast, the Pusan perimeter. Truman and his advisors quickly concluded they should apply the containment principle to Asia and procured a resolution of support from the United Nations, which was unanimous because the Soviet representatives were not present in the Security Council during the vote. See the Truman Intervenes in Korea Decision Point.)

A group of soldiers gather around a large cannon-like gun.

U.S. troops were sent to Korea shortly after Truman’s decision to apply containment to the region. Pictured is a U.S. gun crew near the Kum River in July 1950.

An American invasion force led by General Douglas MacArthur thus made a daring counterattack, landing at Inchon, near Seoul on the west coast of the Korean peninsula, on September 15, 1950. At once, this attack turned the tables in the war, forcing the North Koreans into retreat. Rather than simply restore the old boundary, however, MacArthur’s force advanced deep into North Korea, ultimately approaching the Chinese border. At this point, in October 1950, Mao Zedong sent tens of thousands of Chinese Communist soldiers into the conflict on the side of North Korea. They turned the tide of the war once again, forcing the American forces to fall back in disarray.

After a brutal winter of hard fighting in Korea, the front lines stabilized around the 38th parallel . MacArthur, already a hero of World War II in the Pacific, had burnished his reputation at Inchon. In April 1951, however, he crossed the line in civil-military relations that bars soldiers from dabbling in politics by publicly criticizing one of President Truman’s strategic decisions not to expand the war against the Chinese. MacArthur was so popular in America, he had come to think the rules no longer applied to him, but they did. Truman fired him with no hesitation, replacing him with the equally competent but less egotistical General Matthew Ridgway. The war dragged on in a stalemate. Only in 1953, after the inauguration of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, was a truce declared between the two Koreas. It has held uneasily ever since. (See The Korean War and The Battle of Chosin Reservoir Narrative.)

Prosperity and the Baby Boom

The late 1940s and early 1950s were paradoxical. They were years of great geopolitical stress, danger, and upheaval, yet they were also a time of prosperity and opportunity for millions of ordinary American citizens. Far more babies were born each year than in the 1930s, resulting in the large “ baby boom ” generation. Millions of new houses were built to meet a need accumulated over the long years of the Great Depression and the war. Suburbs expanded around every city, creating far better and less-crowded living conditions than ever before. Levittown housing developments were just one example of the planned communities with mass-produced homes across the country that made homeownership within the reach of many, though mostly white families, thanks to cheap loans for returning veterans (See the Levittown Videos, 1947–1957 Primary Source). Wages and living standards increased, and more American consumers found they could afford their own homes, cars, refrigerators, air conditioners, and even television sets—TV was then a new and exciting technology. The entire nation breathed a sigh of relief on discovering that peace did not bring a return of depression-era conditions and widespread unemployment. (See The Sound of the Suburbs Lesson.)

An American family sits in a living room around a television.

Television became a staple in U.S. households during the 1940s and 1950s.

Full employment during the war years had strengthened trade unions, but for patriotic reasons, nearly all industrial workers had cooperated with their employers. Now that the war was over, a rash of strikes for better pay and working conditions broke out. In 1945, Truman expanded presidential power by seizing coal mines, arguing it was in the national interest because coal supplied electricity. He then forced the United Mine Workers to end their strike the following year.

Although coal miners won their demands, the power of organized labor waned over the next few decades. Republican members of Congress, whose party had triumphed in the 1946 mid-term elections, passed the Taft-Hartley Act in 1947, aiming to curb the power of unions by banning the closed shop, allowing states to protect the right to work outside the union, setting regulations to limit labor strikes and excluding supporters of the Communist Party and other social radicals from their leadership. Truman vetoed the act, but Congress overrode the veto. In 1952, Truman attempted to again seize a key industry and forestall a strike among steelworkers. However, the Supreme Court decided in Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer (1952) that Truman lacked the constitutional authority to seize private property, and steelworkers won significant concessions.

Watch this BRI AP U.S. History Exam Study Guide about the Post-WWII Boom: Transition to a Consumer Economy to explore the post-World War II economic boom in the United States and its impacts on society.

Joseph McCarthy and the Red Scare

Fear of communism, not only abroad but at home, was one of the postwar era’s great obsessions. Ever since the Russian Revolution of 1917, a small and dedicated American Communist Party had aimed to overthrow capitalism and create a Communist America. Briefly popular during the crisis of the Great Depression and again when Stalin was an American ally in World War II, the party shrank during the early Cold War years. Rising politicians like the young California congressman Richard Nixon nevertheless discovered that anti-Communism was a useful issue for gaining visibility. Nixon helped win publicity for the House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC), whose hearings urged former communists to expose their old comrades in the name of national security, especially in government and Hollywood. In 1947, President Truman issued Executive Order No. 9835, establishing loyalty boards investigating the communist sympathies of 2.5 million federal employees. (See The Postwar Red Scare and the Cold War Spy Cases Narratives.)

The most unscrupulous anti-communist was Senator Joseph R. McCarthy (R-WI), who used fear of communism as a powerful political issue during the early Cold War. He made reckless allegations that the government was riddled with communists and their sympathizers, even including Secretary of State George Marshall. Intimidating all critics by accusing them of being part of a great communist conspiracy, McCarthy finally overplayed his hand in publicly televised hearings by accusing the U.S. Army of knowingly harboring communists among its senior officers. The Senate censured him in December 1954, after which his influence evaporated, but for four years, he had been one of the most important figures in American political life. Although he was correct that the Soviets had spies in the U.S. government, McCarthy created a climate of fear and ruined the lives of innocent people for his own political gain during what became known as the “Second Red Scare.” (See the McCarthyism DBQ Lesson.)

Joseph McCarthy turns to talk to Roy Cohn who sits next to him.

Senator Joseph McCarthy (left) is pictured with his lawyer Roy Cohn during the 1950s McCarthy-Army clash.

Be sure to check out this BRI Homework Help video about The Rise and Fall of Joseph McCarthy to learn more about Joseph McCarthy and his battle against communists in the U.S. government.

Several highly publicized spy cases commanded national attention. Klaus Fuchs and other scientists with detailed knowledge of the Manhattan Project were caught passing nuclear secrets to the Soviet Union. In 1950, Alger Hiss was prosecuted for perjury before Congress and accused of sharing State Department documents with the Soviets. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were tried for espionage in 1951 and executed two years later. Julius was convicted of running a spy ring associated with selling atomic secrets to the Russians, though the case against Ethel’s direct involvement was thinner.

From Truman to Eisenhower

After the 1946 midterm election, in which Republicans won a majority in the House and the Senate, the Democratic President Truman struggled to advance his domestic program, called the Fair Deal in an echo of Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal. For instance, Truman was the first American president to propose a system of universal health care, but the Republican Congress voted it down because they opposed the cost and regulations associated with the government program and called it “socialized medicine.” Truman did succeed in other areas. He was able to encourage Congress to pass the Employment Act of 1946, committing the government to ensuring full employment. By executive order, he desegregated the American armed forces and commissioned a report on African American civil rights. He thus played an important role in helping advance the early growth of the civil rights movement.

Truman seemed certain to lose his re-election bid in 1948. The Republicans had an attractive candidate in Thomas Dewey, and Truman’s own Democratic Party was splintering three ways. Former Vice President Henry Wallace led a Progressive breakaway, advocating a less confrontational approach to the Cold War. Strom Thurmond, a South Carolina senator, led the southern “Dixiecrat” breakaway by opposing any breach in racial segregation. The Chicago Daily Tribune was so sure Dewey would win that it prematurely printed its front page with the headline “Dewey Defeats Truman.” One of the most famous photographs in the history of American journalism shows Truman, who had upset the pollsters by winning, holding a copy of this newspaper aloft and grinning broadly.

Truman smiling holds up a newspaper with a headline that reads

President Truman is pictured here holding the Chicago Daily Tribune with its inaccurate 1948 headline.

Four years later, exhausted by Korea and the fierce stresses of the early Cold War, Truman declined to run for another term. Both parties hoped to attract the popular Supreme Allied commander, Dwight D. Eisenhower, to be their candidate. He accepted the Republicans’ invitation, defeated Adlai Stevenson in November 1952, and won against the same rival again in 1956.

Rather than roll back the New Deal, which had greatly increased the size and reach of the federal government since 1933, Eisenhower accepted most of it as a permanent part of the system, in line with his philosophy of “Modern Republicanism.” He worked with Congress to balance the budget but signed bills for the expansion of Social Security and unemployment benefits, a national highway system, federal aid to education, and the creation of National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). In foreign policy, he recognized that for the foreseeable future, the Cold War was here to stay and that each side’s possession of nuclear weapons deterred an attack by the other. The two sides’ nuclear arsenals escalated during the 1950s, soon reaching a condition known as “ mutually assured destruction ,” which carried the ominous acronym MAD and would supposedly prevent a nuclear war.

At the same time, Eisenhower and Secretary of State John Foster Dulles supported the “New Look” foreign policy, which increased reliance on nuclear weapons rather than the more flexible but costly buildup of conventional armed forces. Despite the Cold War consensus about containment, Eisenhower did not send troops when the Vietnamese defeated the French in Vietnam; when mainland China bombed the Taiwanese islands of Quemoy and Matsu; when the British, French, and Egypt fought over the Suez Canal in 1956; or when the Soviets cracked down on Hungary. Instead, Eisenhower assumed financial responsibility for the French war effort in Vietnam and sent hundreds of military advisers there over the next several years. (See the Dwight D. Eisenhower, Farewell Address, January 1961 Primary Source.)

Birth of the Civil Rights Movement

Encouraged by early signs of a change in national racial policy and by the Supreme Court’s decision in Brown v. Board of Education (1954) , African American organizations intensified their efforts to challenge southern segregation. Martin Luther King Jr., then a spellbinding young preacher in Montgomery, Alabama, led a Montgomery bus boycott that began in December 1955. Inspired by the refusal of Rosa Parks to give up her seat on a city bus, African Americans refused to ride Montgomery’s buses unless the company abandoned its policy of forcing them to ride at the back and to give up their seats to whites when the bus was crowded. After a year, the boycott succeeded. King went on to create the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), which practiced nonviolent resistance as a tactic, attracting press attention, embarrassing the agents of segregation, and promoting racial integration. (See the Rosa Parks, Martin Luther King Jr., and the Montgomery Bus Boycott Narrative and the Rosa Parks’s Account of the Montgomery Bus Boycott (Radio Interview), April 1956 Primary Source.)

In 1957, Congress passed the first federal protection of civil rights since Reconstruction and empowered the federal government to protect black voting rights. However, the bill was watered down and did not lead to significant change. In August, black students tried to attend high school in Little Rock, Arkansas, but were blocked by National Guard troops. Over the next few weeks, angry crowds assembled and threatened these students. President Eisenhower decided to send in federal troops to protect the nine black students. In the postwar era, African Americans won some victories in the fight for equality, but many southern whites began a campaign of massive resistance to that goal.

Check out this BRI Homework Help video about Brown v. Board of Education to learn more about the details of the case.

Thus, the pace of school desegregation across the south remained very slow. White southerners in Congress promised massive resistance to the policy. When it came to the point, however, only one county, Prince Edward County, Virginia, actually closed down its public schools rather than permit them to be desegregated. Other districts, gradually and reluctantly, eventually undertook integration, but widespread discrimination persisted, especially in the South.

Mexican Americans, like African Americans, suffered from racial discrimination. Under the bracero program, inaugurated during the 1940s, Mexicans were permitted to enter the United States temporarily to work, mainly as farm laborers in the western states, but they too were treated by whites as second-class citizens. They were guest workers, and the program was not intended to put them on a path to U.S. citizenship. (See The Little Rock Nine Narrative.)

A crowd of Mexican workers fill a courtyard.

Pictured are Mexican workers waiting to gain legal employment and enter the United States as part of the “ bracero ” program begun in the 1940s.

The Space Race

The desegregation of schools was only one aspect of public concern about education in the 1950s. The Soviet Union launched an artificial orbiting satellite, “Sputnik,” in 1957 and ignited the “ Space Race .” Most Americans were horrified, understanding that a rocket able to carry a satellite into space could also carry a warhead to the United States. Congress reacted by passing the National Defense Education Act in August 1958, devoting $1 billion of federal funds to education in science, engineering, and technology in the hope of improving the nation’s scientific talent pool.

NASA had been created earlier that same year to coordinate programs related to rocketry and space travel. NASA managed to catch up with the Soviet space program in the ensuing years and later triumphed by placing the first person on the moon in 1969. Better space rockets meant better military missiles. NASA programs also stimulated useful technological discoveries in materials, navigation, and computers. (See the Sputnik and NASA Narrative and the Was Federal Spending on the Space Race Justified? Point-Counterpoint.)

Another major initiative, also defense related, of the Eisenhower years was the decision to build the interstate highway system. As a young officer just after World War I, Eisenhower had been part of an Army truck convoy that attempted to cross the United States. Terrible roads meant that the convoy took 62 days, with many breakdowns and 21 injuries to the soldiers, an experience Eisenhower never forgot. He had also been impressed by the high quality of Germany’s autobahns near the war’s end. A comprehensive national system across the United States would permit military convoys to move quickly and efficiently. Commerce, the trucking industry, and tourism would benefit too, a belief borne out over the next 35 years while the system was built; it was declared finished in 1992. See The National Highway Act Narrative and the Nam Paik, Electronic Superhighway , 1995 Primary Source.)

New Roles for Women

American women, especially in the large and growing middle class, were in a paradoxical situation in the 1950s. In one sense, they were the most materially privileged generation of women in world history, wealthier than any predecessors. More had gained college education than ever before, and millions were marrying young, raising their children with advice from Dr. Spock’s best-selling Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care (1946), and enjoying labor-saving domestic devices and modern conveniences like washing machines, toasters, and electric ovens. Affluence meant many middle-class women were driving cars of their own. This 1950s advertisement for Ford automobiles persuaded women to become a “two Ford family.” At the same time, however, some suffered various forms of depression and anxiety, seeking counseling, often medicating themselves, and feeling a lack of purpose in their lives.

This situation was noticed by Betty Friedan, a popular journalist in the 1950s whose book The Feminine Mystique , published in 1963, helped ignite the new feminist movement. Its principal claim was that in America in the 1950s, women lacked fulfilling careers of their own, and material abundance was no substitute. (See the Dr. Benjamin Spock and the Baby Boom Narrative.) A feminist movement emerged in the 1960s and 1970s seeking greater equality. In the postwar period, however, not all women shared the same experiences. Millions of working-class and poor women of all races continued to work in factories, retail, domestic, or offices as they had before and during the war. Whether married or single, these women generally did not share in the postwar affluence enjoyed by middle-class, mostly white, women who were in the vanguard of the feminist movement for equal rights for women.

By 1960, the United States was, without question, in a superior position to its great rival the Soviet Union—richer, stronger, healthier, better fed, much freer, and much more powerful. Nevertheless Eisenhower, in his farewell address, warned against the dangers of an overdeveloped “military-industrial complex,” in which American traditions of democracy, decentralization, and civilian control would be swallowed up by the demands of the defense industry and a large, governmental national security apparatus. He had no easy remedies to offer and remained acutely aware that the Cold War continued to threaten the future of the world.

A timeline shows important events of the era. In 1946, George Kennan sends the Long Telegram from Moscow. In 1947, the Truman Doctrine is announced, and the first Levittown house is sold; an aerial photograph of Levittown, Pennsylvania, shows many rows of similar houses. In 1948, the Berlin Airlift begins; a photograph shows Berlin residents, watching as a plane above them prepares to land with needed supplies. In 1950, North Korean troops cross the thirty-eighth parallel. In 1952, Dwight D. Eisenhower is elected president; a photograph of Eisenhower is shown. In 1953, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg are executed for espionage; a photograph of the Rosenbergs behind a metal gate is shown. In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court rules on Brown v. Board of Education, and Bill Haley and His Comets record “Rock Around the Clock”. In 1955, the Montgomery bus boycott begins; a photograph of Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr. is shown. In 1957, Little Rock’s Central High School integrates, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) launches Sputnik; a photograph of American soldiers on the street with the Little Rock Nine outside of the school is shown, and a photograph of a replica of Sputnik is shown.

Timeline of events in the postwar period from 1945 to 1960.

Additional Chapter Resources

Eleanor Roosevelt and the United Nations Narrative
The G.I. Bill Narrative
Jackie Robinson Narrative
The Murder of Emmett Till Narrative
The Nixon-Khrushchev Kitchen Debate Narrative
William F. Buckley Jr. and the Conservative Movement Narrative
Truman Fires General Douglas MacArthur Decision Point
Eisenhower and the Suez Canal Crisis Point-Counterpoint
Richard Nixon “Checkers” Speech September 1952 Primary Source
Critics of Postwar Culture: Jack Kerouac On the Road (Excerpts) 1957 Primary Source
Kennedy vs. Nixon: TV and Politics Lesson

Review Questions

1. The major deterrent to Soviet aggression in Europe immediately after World War II was

that the Soviets lost 20 million people during the war
the Truman Doctrine
the United States’ possession of atomic power
the presence of U.S. troops in western Europe after World War II was over

2. Why did the United States maintain large armed forces in Europe after World War II?

To stop renewed German aggression
To halt Soviet aggression despite the wartime alliance
To help the British relinquish their empire
To maintain high levels of employment at home

3. The memorandum NSC-68 authorized

the formation of the CIA
the creation of the Department of Defense
increases in the size of U.S. military forces
the formation of an independent air force

4. The United States’ first successful application of its policy of containment occurred in

Prague Czechoslovakia
Moscow U.S.S.R.
Berlin Germany
Bombay India

5. During the late 1940s the Truman Administration supported all the following countries except

Republic of Korea
People’s Republic of China

6. When North Korea invaded South Korea the Truman Administration resolved to apply which strategy?

The Truman Doctrine
Containment
A plan similar to the Berlin Airlift
The bracero program

7. Events in which European country led the United States to allow the re-arming of West Germany?

East Germany
Czechoslovakia

8. The Taft-Hartley Act was most likely passed as a result of

fear of labor involvement in radical politics and activities
concern that strong labor unions could rekindle a depression
fear that labor would restrict the freedom of workers
desire to make the labor strike illegal

9. Why was it reasonable to expect Truman to lose the presidential election of 1948?

McCarthyism was creating widespread dislike of the Democratic Party.
Truman had been unable to win the Korean War.
The Democratic Party split into three rival branches including one dedicated to racial segregation.
The Democrats had controlled Congress since 1933.

10. Why were many middle-class women dissatisfied with their lives in the 1950s?

They were excluded from most career opportunities.
The cost of living was too high.
Fear of losing their traditional roles caused them constant anxiety.
They opposed the early civil rights movement.

11. All the following were Cold War based initiatives by the Eisenhower Administration except

the creation of NASA
the National Defense Highway Act
the National Defense Education Act
the Taft-Hartley Act

12. Anti-communist crusader Senator Joseph McCarthy overplayed his advantage in the Red Scare when he

claimed members of the president’s Cabinet were known communists
charged Martin Luther King Jr. with being a communist
asserted the U.S. Army knowingly protected known communists in its leadership
hinted that President Eisenhower could be a communist

13. As a presidential candidate Dwight Eisenhower recognized the significance of all the following except

the success of some New Deal programs
the Cold War’s impact on U.S. foreign policy
racial integration
mutually assured destruction (MAD)

14. Which of the following statements most accurately describes the United States’ foreign policy during 1945-1960?

The United States distanced itself from the global free-market economy.
The United States based its foreign policy on unilateral decision-making.
The Cold War was based on military policy only.
The United States formed military alliances in reaction to the Soviet Union’s aggression.

15. Betty Friedan gained prominence by

supporting women’s traditional role at home
promoting the child-rearing ideas of Dr. Benjamin Spock
researching and writing about the unfulfilling domestic role of educated women
encouraging more women to attend college

16. Before leaving the office of the presidency Dwight D. Eisenhower warned the nation of the danger of

falling behind in the space race
having fewer nuclear weapons than the Soviet Union
allowing the growth of the military-industrial complex
overlooking communists within the federal government

Free Response Questions

Explain President Harry Truman’s reaction to the Taft-Hartley Act.
Describe President Truman’s role in advancing civil rights.
Describe Dwight D. Eisenhower’s reaction to the New Deal programs still in existence when he was elected president.
Explain the main reason for the United States’ military participation in Korea.

AP Practice Questions

Truman stands on a rug labeled Civil Rights. A crazy-looking woman â€œMiss Democracy stands off the rug looks angrily at Truman and says You mean you'd rather be right than president?

Political cartoon by Clifford Berryman regarding civil rights and the 1948 election.

1. The main topic of public debate at the time this political cartoon was published was the

deployment of U.S. troops in Korea
dropping of the atomic bomb on Japan
integration of the U.S. military

2. Which of the following groups would most likely support the sentiments expressed in the political cartoon?

Progressives who argued for prohibition
William Lloyd Garrison and like-minded abolitionists
Antebellum reformers in favor of free public education
Members of the America First Committee

“It would be an unspeakable tragedy if these countries which have struggled so long against overwhelming odds should lose that victory for which they sacrificed so much. Collapse of free institutions and loss of independence would be disastrous not only for them but for the world. Discouragement and possibly failure would quickly be the lot of neighboring peoples striving to maintain their freedom and independence. Should we fail to aid Greece and Turkey in this fateful hour the effect will be far reaching to the West as well as to the East. We must take immediate and resolute action. I therefore ask the Congress to provide authority for assistance to Greece and Turkey in the amount of $400 0 000 for the period ending June 30 1948.”

President Harry S. Truman The Truman Doctrine Speech March 12 1947

3. President Truman’s speech was most likely intended to increase the public’s awareness of

rising tensions over oil reserves in the Middle East
the Cold War and the struggle against Communism in Europe
the United States’ need for access to the Black Sea
the need to rebuild Europe after World War II

4. The immediate outcome of the event described in the excerpt was that

the United States unilaterally rebuilt Europe
worldwide freedom of the seas was guaranteed for all nations
the United States’ foreign policy of containment was successfully implemented
Europe was not as vital to U.S. interests as initially believed

5. Based on the ideas in the excerpt which of the following observations of U.S. foreign policy in the post World War II years is true?

The United States was making a major shift in foreign policy from its stance after World War I.
More people opposed the idea of U.S. involvement in world affairs.
A majority believed that U.S. foreign policy was being dictated by the United Nations.
The United States needed to reassert the “Good Neighbor Policy” but with a focus on Europe.

“Women especially educated women such as you have a unique opportunity to influence us man and boy and to play a direct part in the unfolding drama of our free society. But I am told that nowadays the young wife or mother is short of time for the subtle arts that things are not what they used to be; that once immersed in the very pressing and particular problems of domesticity many women feel frustrated and far apart from the great issues and stirring debates for which their education has given them understanding and relish. . . . There is often a sense of contraction of closing horizons and lost opportunities. They had hoped to play their part in the crisis of the age. . . . The point is that . . . women “never had it so good” as you do. And in spite of the difficulties of domesticity you have a way to participate actively in the crisis in addition to keeping yourself and those about you straight on the difference between means and ends mind and spirit reason and emotion . . . In modern America the home is not the boundary of a woman’s life. . . . But even more important is the fact surely that what you have learned and can learn will fit you for the primary task of making homes and whole human beings in whom the rational values of freedom tolerance charity and free inquiry can take root.”

Adlai Stevenson “A Purpose for Modern Women” from his Commencement Address at Smith College 1955

6. Which of the following best mirrors the sentiments expressed by Adlai Stevenson in the provided excerpt?

Women should be prepared to return to a more traditional role in society.
The ideals espoused by Republican Motherhood should be upheld.
The United States would not have won World War II if women had not worked in factories.
Women had the opportunity to influence the next generation of citizens.

7. The reference that “many women feel frustrated and far apart from the great issues and stirring debates for which their education has given them understanding and relish” is a reference to the ideas espoused by

Martin Luther King Jr.
Betty Friedan
Dr. Benjamin Spock

Primary Sources

Eisenhower Dwight D. “Eisenhower’s Farewell Address to the Nation.” http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/ike.htm

Eisenhower Dwight D. “Interstate Highway System.” Eisenhower proposes the interstate highway system to Congress. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/special-message-the-congress-regarding-national-highway-program

“‘Enemies from Within’: Senator Joseph R. McCarthy’s Accusations of Disloyalty.” McCarthy’s speech in Wheeling West Virginia. http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/6456

Friedan Betty. The Feminine Mystique . New York: W. W. Norton 1963.

Hamilton Shane and Sarah Phillips. Kitchen Debate and Cold War Consumer Politics: A Brief History with Documents . Boston: Bedford Books 2014.

Kennan George F. American Diplomacy . New York: Signet/Penguin Publishing 1952.

King Martin Luther Jr. “(1955) Martin Luther King Jr. ‘The Montgomery Bus Boycott.'” http://www.blackpast.org/1955-martin-luther-king-jr-montgomery-bus-boycott

King Martin Luther Jr. Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story . New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers 1958.

MacLean Nancy. American Women’s Movement 1945-2000: A Brief History with Documents . Boston: Bedford Books 2009.

Marshall George C. “The ‘Marshall Plan’ speech at Harvard University 5 June 1947.” http://www.oecd.org/general/themarshallplanspeechatharvarduniversity5june1947.htm

Martin Waldo E. Jr. Brown v. Board of Education: A Brief History with Documents . Boston: Bedford Books 1998.

Schrecker Ellen W. The Age of McCarthyism: A Brief History with Documents . Boston: Bedford Books 2016.

Story Ronald and Bruce Laurie. Rise of Conservatism in America 1945-2000: A Brief History with Documents. Boston: Bedford Books 2008.

Truman Harry. “A Report to the National Security Council – NSC 68 April 12 1950.” https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/research-files/report-national-security-council-nsc-68

Truman Harry. “The Fateful Hour (1947)” speech. http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/harrystrumantrumandoctrine.html

Suggested Resources

Ambrose Stephen and Douglas Brinkley. Rise to Globalism: American Foreign Policy since 1938. Ninth ed. New York: Penguin 2010.

Branch Taylor. Parting the Waters: America in the King Years 1954-63 . New York: Simon and Schuster 1988.

Brands H.W. American Dreams: The United States Since 1945 . New York: Penguin 2010.

Brands H.W. The General vs. the President: MacArthur and Truman at the Brink of Nuclear War . New York: Anchor 2016.

Cadbury Deborah. Space Race: The Epic Battle Between American and the Soviet Union for Dominion of Space. New York: Harper 2007.

Cohen Lizabeth A. A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America . New York: Vintage 2003.

Coontz Stephanie. The Way We Never Were: American Families and the Nostalgia Trap . New York: Basic Books 2016.

Dallek Robert. Harry S. Truman . New York: Times Books 2008.

Diggins John Patrick. The Proud Decades: America in War and Peace 1941-1960 . New York: W. W. Norton 1989.

Fried Richard. Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective . Oxford: Oxford University Press 1991.

Gaddis John Lewis. The Cold War: A New History . New York: Penguin 2005.

Halberstam David. The Coldest Winter: America and the Korean War. New York: Hyperion 2007.

Hitchcock William I. The Age of Eisenhower: America and the World in the 1950s. New York: Simon and Schuster 2018.

Johnson Paul. Eisenhower: A Life. New York: Penguin 2015.

Lewis Tom. Divided Highways: Building the Interstate Highways Transforming American Life. Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press 2013.

May Elaine Tyler. Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era . New York: Basic 2008.

McCullough David. Truman. New York: Simon and Schuster 1993.

Patterson James T. Grand Expectations: The United States 1945-1974. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996.

Whitfield Stephen J. The Culture of the Cold War. Baltimore MD: Johns Hopkins University Press 1996.

Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness

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Veteran Treatments: PTSD Interventions

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has resulted in high social costs in terms of the lingering inability of veterans to adapt to societal norms. These costs accrue to individual veterans, their families, friends, and others. In addition, society suffers from the lost productivity of veterans. There is a need to pay greater attention to the extant literature regarding the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of various interventions. This study reviews the most relevant research regarding PTSD, veterans, interventions, treatment, counseling, job training and medication. Increasing awareness of the existing state of knowledge can lead to better targeting of resources and better health outcomes.

1. Introduction

Many veterans who are devoid of visible disabilities have acquired invisible scars that negatively affect them throughout their lifetimes. Both visible and invisible scars have severe repercussions for families, friends, communities and the collective society. Mental health disorders, divorce, alcoholism, drug abuse, homelessness, depression, unemployment, underemployment, and criminal activity represent some of the negative side effects of traumatic stress. Suicides and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are tangible indicators of the invisible wounds of military service [ 1 , 2 , 3 ].

Payments for PTSD have escalated in recent years. Some trace the escalation to a 2010 rule change by the U.S. Veterans Administration that is associated with an increase in the approval of PTSD claims. The 2010 rule dispenses with the need to corroborate that hostile military action produces stress disorder (Office of Public and Intergovernmental Affairs, 2010). Ambiguities and inconsistencies in diagnoses also contributed to rising costs. In a 2005 report, the Department of Veterans Affairs, Office of Inspector General concluded that in 25% of the PTSD cases reviewed, inconsistencies occurred in rating methods as well as the process of verifying evidence. Error rates ranged from a high of 40.7% (Maine) to a low of 11% (Oregon). Over the lifetimes of the veterans, the questionable payments approximated many billions of dollars [ 3 ].

PTSD claims increased rapidly between 1999 and 2004. According to a 2005 Veterans Affairs report, between 1999 and 2004 the number of total veterans receiving disability compensation grew by less than 15% while the number of PTSD cases in this time-period grew by almost 80%. Veteran compensation for PTSD expanded to represent more than 20% of all compensation payments [ 4 ].

The monetary payments that veterans receive are not the only costs that are associated with PTSD. Other costs include marital problems, family violence, raising children with behavioral difficulties, problems of trust, closeness, communication, drinking, intimacy, friendships, physical violence and drug abuse [ 3 , 5 , 6 ]. The social costs of PTSD are high. Given the high costs, it is useful to gain a greater understanding of the academic literature addressing PTSD. Such a review of existing literature provides a fuller understanding of what we know and do not know about PTSD.

This study describes the most relevant academic research according to Google Scholar criteria. Identified articles are indicative of currency and interest among scholars and the wider Internet audience. Some high-quality research may not be included in the identified articles because they do not comport with the Google Scholar criteria. Descriptions of veteran PTSD research included in this study, therefore, are not all inclusive of PTSD research. Identification prioritizes prevalence and circulation among other factors.

This study describes highly accessed PTSD research. This strategy is similar but not identical to meta-analysis in the sense that it pools various studies in an effort to make inferences. The medical definition of meta-analysis refers to a quantitative statistical analysis that is applied to separate but similar experiments of different and usually independent researchers and that involves pooling the data and using the pooled data to test the effectiveness of the results. More generally, researchers have applied the term meta-analysis to the analysis of prior analyses [ 7 ]. Researchers regard meta-analysis highly. Meta-analysis ranks at the top in the hierarchy of clinical evidence according to its freedom from various biases [ 8 ]. This study also employs content analysis. Content analysis refers to a method for studying documents and means of communication, which might be texts, pictures, audio or video. One of the key advantages of using content analysis is its non-invasive nature, in contrast to simulating social experiences or conducting surveys. Practices and philosophies of content analysis vary between academic disciplines. However, all content analysis studies involve systematic reading or observation of texts or artifacts that researchers assign labels to indicate the presence of meaningful pieces of content [ 9 ].

This paper combines aspects of content analysis and meta-analysis; it uses the google research tool for the selection of relevant studies. The criteria for the selection of the 20 articles (10 each for each of the two areas of investigation) includes a search of scholarly work using key words, a sorting based on relevance, and selection of the 10 most relevant scholarly articles for each avenue of inquiry. Google Scholar ranks relevance by multiple criteria. These criteria include weighing the full text of each document, where it was published, whom it was written by, as well as how often and how recently it has been cited in other scholarly literature. A previous study uses similar criteria in choosing research for meta-analysis [ 10 ]. This study ranks the most relevant manuscripts considering two foci of analysis. The first area of inquiry uses a search of the keywords PTSD, veterans, interventions and treatment. The second uses the keywords PTSD, veterans, counseling, job training and medication. The first search focuses on general veteran PTSD research. The second focuses more specifically on the type of treatments. Books are not included in the relevance rankings. Both groups of publications use PTSD and veterans in the content search. However, the distinction between the more general interventions used to identify the first group and the more specific terminology of counseling, job training and medication used to identify the second group was sufficiently distinctive to produce two entirely different cohorts. None of the identified articles appears in both groups.

Previous studies delineate methodologies for identifying prior research [ 11 , 12 ]. This study adds to the body of research that leverages electronic media for identifying relevant research. The study utilizes key terms PTSD, veterans, interventions, and treatment for identifying research based on criteria developed by Google Scholar, a highly visible source of data in the electronic age. In contrast, the study utilizes the terms counseling, job training and medication in an effort to target the specific type of intervention for veterans with PTSD. The goal of the search is to make inferences about the prevalence of obvious types of treatment.

Table 1 delineates the 10 most relevant manuscripts for the keywords PTSD, veterans, intervention and treatment. The table identifies relevance, year published, authors, titles and publisher of these scholarly works.

General treatment and intervention studies.

As a whole, the studies delineated in Table 1 identify a wide variety of authors and publication outlets. Steven Southwick assists in two of the manuscripts. Articles appear in an array of journals; two manuscripts appear in the journal Clinical Psychology Review . Psychology journals are the major outlets for publication. With regard to the question of general treatment and intervention, two foci exist: (1) a treatment focus and (2) a problem focus.

Three of the 10 general treatment and intervention studies deal with meta-analysis [ 16 ] or controlled experiments [ 15 , 17 ]. Murphy, et al. (2009) study the awareness of the need to change among patients [ 17 ]. The authors find that poor response to PTSD treatment may be due not to inadequate interventions or biologically driven symptoms but from ambivalence or lack of awareness about the need to change. They posit that traumatized combat veterans may not see coping styles (e.g., social isolation, mistrust of others) as psychiatric symptoms but as functional strategies. The authors conclude that there is a need to focus on readiness to change. Ulmer, et al. (2011) found that newly developed interventions can address nightmare problems but do not fully remove all aspects of PTSD-related sleep difficulties [ 15 ].

Three articles describe innovative treatments/therapy for PTSD. Vujanovic et al. (2013) focuses on the application of meditation to trauma-related mental health struggles [ 21 ]. They note that as the utilization of “mindfulness-based” interventions increases, more research is necessary to determine how the intervention might alleviate psychological problems. Cukor et al. (2009) reviews emerging psychotherapeutic and pharmacologic interventions (including propranolol, ketamin, prazosin, and methylendioxymethaphetamine) for the treatment of PTSD [ 19 ]. Their paper states that the high rate of treatment failures for PTSD calls for the innovation and dissemination of alternative treatments. The authors review emerging interventions for the treatment of PTSD. They examine the evidence for a range of interventions, from social and family-based treatments to technological-based treatments and describe recent findings regarding novel pharmacologic approaches. The article gives special emphasis to virtual reality as a treatment.

Southwick et al. (2006) present “logotherapy” (healing through meaning) as an innovative adjunctive treatment for PTSD [ 22 ]. Logotherapy is future-oriented, focuses on personal strengths and places responsibility for change on the patient. The main tenets of logotherapy include “tragic optimism” or optimism in the face of human suffering guilt and certain death. Tragic optimism encompasses the human potential to transform suffering into human achievement and guilt into meaningful action. The authors view logotherapy as an adjunctive therapy, enhancing rather than supplanting other treatment approaches. They demonstrate how providers can apply logotherapy to the treatment of veterans with PTSD in a variety of therapeutic settings. The study concludes that through a variety of means, including Socratic dialogue, topical discussion using quotations, volunteerism, collective service projects, and group process, veterans can rediscover meaning in their lives. Veterans can see post-traumatic stress as a “heavy gift” and see themselves stronger because of their symptoms.

The final four general articles delineated in Table 1 link PTSD with specific problems that emanate from stress disorder. Bremner et al. (1996) address the effects of alcohol and substance abuse on PTSD patients [ 13 ]. They note that an increase in alcohol and substance abuse typically parallels the increase in symptoms of PTSD. Family and relationship problems are the focus of attention in two articles [ 14 , 18 ]. These studies describe numbing, anger, divorce, and severe relationship problems as aspects of PTSD. The final article explores cause of death among male veterans who receive treatment for PTSD. Authors find that behavioral causes (e.g., accidents, substance abuse, suicide, homicide or shooting by police) reduce the life expectancy of PTSD patients [ 19 ].

Table 2 describes the most relevant research inserting the key words PTSD, veterans, counseling, job training and medication. A variety of researchers publish in this area; however, the scholarship of Edna Foa is most prominent. Scholarship appears in multiple journals; the publication outlet Journal of Traumatic Stress is most prominent for the articles identified in Table 2 .

Specific PTSD treatment and intervention studies.

Articles describe numerous treatment options. Hyer et al. (1996) discuss the effect of placing people in a novel setting, such as a wilderness [ 24 ]. The authors test whether an “Outward Bound Experience” of 5 days in a novel setting has positive effects on PTSD patients. They conclude that the “Outward Bound Experience” did not outperform inpatient programs although many veterans rated the experience positively. Another study (relevance 4) examine Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) Therapy concluding that EMDR can produce significant improvements in reducing anxiety, anger, depression, isolation, intrusive thoughts, flashbacks, nightmares and relationship problems [ 26 ]. EMDR asks patients to recall distressing images while conducting actions such as side-to-side eye movements or hand tapping. The paper suggests that EMDR training is a more effective treatment for PTSD than those traditionally provided in an in-patient PTSD-specific program. A third study (relevance 9) explores the effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) programs. MBSR uses a combination of meditation, body awareness, and yoga [ 31 ]. The authors conclude that MBSR can achieve significant improvements in PTSD symptoms.

In addition to these studies of various treatments, one manuscript (relevance 7) addresses prolonged exposure and three other types of treatments in rape victims [ 29 ]. The authors conclude that prolonged exposure (re-experiencing the traumatic event through remembering it and engaging with, rather than avoiding it) produces better outcomes on reducing PTSD symptoms than other techniques. Only one article (relevance 6) addresses the needs of veterans for vocational rehabilitation, independent living, and family support [ 28 ]. Authors provide a comprehensive listing of resources for veterans with traumatic brain injury and post-traumatic stress disorder.

The final five articles found in Table 2 (relevance 1,3,5,8,10) address Prolonged Exposure (PE) therapy in one manner or another [ 23 , 25 , 27 , 30 , 32 ]. Foa et al. (2005) specifically explored the impact of Prolonged Exposure therapy on female assault survivors [ 30 ]. The plethora of research on this treatment is testament to its currency and relevance. A consensus view is that Prolonged Exposure is effective in reducing the symptoms of PTSD in veterans who receive care in clinics. Studies indicate that prolonged exposure therapy has yielded gains infrequently or never seen in the past with PTSD patients [ 23 ], which is one of the success stories of clinical psychology and psychiatry [ 32 ] and has proven its effectiveness in the treatment of PTSD [ 25 ]. In addition, research finds that PE can effectively treat rape survivors [ 29 , 30 ] and is a well-established treatment for PTSD [ 27 ].

4. Discussion

A review of the general treatment and intervention studies ( Table 1 ) reveals two basic streams of research. One describes treatments for PTSD; another describes the problems associated with PTSD. Relevant articles describe innovative approaches and techniques such as logotherapy, “mindfulness” and novel drugs. Recent research offers insights into how to mitigate the effects of PTSD. Keynan et al. (2016) argue that excluding veterans with combat PTSD (CPTSD) from eligibility for special recognition (such as the Purple Heart) strengthens their stigma and has detrimental implications for their wellbeing [ 33 ]. The authors contend that reclassifying PTSD to PTSI (posttraumatic stress injury) may mitigate the stigma of their wounds, increase their willingness to seek aid, and improve their chance to heal. Steenkamp et al. (2015) reviewed evidence from clinical trials of psychotherapies for PTSD in military and veteran populations. They found that two trauma therapies (cognitive processing therapy and prolonged exposure) are most frequently studied [ 34 ]. These treatments attained clinically meaningful symptom improvements; however, large proportions of patients retained their PTSD diagnosis after treatment.

A review of the more specific treatment and intervention literature ( Table 2 ) focuses upon Prolonged Exposure (PE) as an effective treatment for PTSD. Some of the literature addresses relatively novel approaches such as mindfulness and Eye Movement Desensitization Reprogramming (EMDR). It is worth noting that despite keyword searches that utilize “counseling” and “job training”, only one article [ 28 ] has a focus on rehabilitation and offers practical recommendations for counseling professionals. A dearth of attention to the practical problems of veteran reintegration into society through employment or education seems to represent a deficiency in the literature. Poor employment prospects of PTSD patients may contribute to this relative lack of attention. The literature, however, is not completely devoid of employment-related studies. Ellison et al. (2018) found that veteran peer interventions can have positive effects with veterans subsequently spending greater amounts of time on education activities [ 35 ]. Amara et al. (2018) discovered that an array of factors such as severity of traumatic brain injury, drug abuse, age, education, and marital status were related to employment status of male and female post-9/11 veterans. Unemployment rates were similar for male and female veterans evaluated in the Veterans Health Administration for traumatic brain injury [ 36 ].

5. Conclusions

PTSD among veterans represents a significant problem for society, for families and individuals. Meta-analysis of relevant literature indicates that psychology and psychiatry academic journals are most prominent in pushing the boundaries of knowledge concerning PTSD treatments. The meta-analysis indicates some consensus on the viability of Prolonged Exposure therapy compared to other treatments. Given the high societal costs of PTSD, it is incumbent upon medical researchers to continue to explore treatment options. It is distressing, however, that the most relevant extant research does not assign greater attention to issues of job training, job placement, and social integration. Researchers should recognize that PTSD is a health issue but that job training, education, and job placement can also play an important role in veteran rehabilitation.

The research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

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Optimistic About the War in Ukraine, Putin Unleashes a Purge at Home

Despite years of criticism, President Vladimir V. Putin has only now changed his defense minister and allowed high-level corruption arrests.

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Russian soldiers marching in formation in Moscow.

By Paul Sonne and Anatoly Kurmanaev

Reporting from Berlin

Periodic outcries over incompetence and corruption at the top of the Russian military have dogged President Vladimir V. Putin’s war effort since the start of his invasion of Ukraine in early 2022.

When his forces faltered around the Ukrainian capital, Kyiv, the need for change was laid bare. When they were routed months later outside the city of Kharkiv, expectations of a shake-up grew. And after the mercenary leader Yevgeny V. Prigozhin marched his men toward Moscow, complaining of deep rot and ineptitude at the top of the Russian force, Mr. Putin seemed obliged to respond.

But, at each turn, the Russian president avoided any major public moves that could have been seen as validating the criticism, keeping his defense minister and top general in place through the firestorm while shuffling battlefield commanders and making other moves lower on the chain.

Now, with the battlefield crises seemingly behind him and Mr. Prigozhin dead, the Russian leader has decided to act, changing defense ministers for the first time in more than a decade and allowing a number of corruption arrests among top ministry officials.

The moves have ushered in the biggest overhaul at the Russian Defense Ministry since the invasion began and have confirmed Mr. Putin’s preference for avoiding big, responsive changes in the heat of a crisis and instead acting at a less conspicuous time of his own choosing.

“We have to understand that Putin is a person who is stubborn and not very flexible,” said Abbas Gallyamov, a former Putin speechwriter who now lives outside Russia. “He believes that reacting too quickly and rapidly to a changing situation is a sign of weakness.”

The timing of Mr. Putin’s recent moves is most likely a sign that he has greater confidence about his battlefield prospects in Ukraine and his hold on political power as he begins his fifth term as president, experts say.

Russian forces are making gains in Ukraine , taking territory around Kharkiv and in the Donbas region, as Ukraine struggles with aid delays from the United States and strained reserves of ammunition and personnel . Top officials in the Kremlin are feeling optimistic.

“They likely judge the situation within the force as stable enough to punish some in the military leadership for its prior failures,” said Michael Kofman, an expert on the Russian military and a senior fellow at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.

Demand for change at the top of the Russian military has been pent up since the invasion’s earliest days, when stories circulated about Russian soldiers going to war without proper food and equipment and losing their lives while answering to feckless military leaders.

The anger crested with an aborted uprising led last year by Mr. Prigozhin , who died in a subsequent plane crash that U.S. officials have said was most likely a state-sanctioned assassination .

Mr. Prigozhin , a caterer turned warlord who grew rich on state contracts, was an unlikely messenger. But he put high-level corruption on the minds of Russia’s rank and file and the public more broadly, releasing profanity-laced tirades against Sergei K. Shoigu, then the defense minister, and Russia’s top uniformed officer, Gen. Valery V. Gerasimov. At one point, Mr. Prigozhin filmed himself in front of a pile of dead Russian fighters and denounced top officials for “rolling in fat” in their wood-paneled offices.

His subsequent failed mutiny showed that the problems festering in the Defense Ministry under Mr. Shoigu for over a decade had boiled over and that the populace craved renewal, said a person close to the ministry who spoke on the condition of anonymity in order to discuss sensitive topics.

The Russian leader now appears to be moving against the very officials that Mr. Prigozhin had been attacking.

The first harbinger of change arose last month with the arrest of Timur Ivanov , a protégé of Mr. Shoigu and the deputy defense minister in charge of military construction projects whom the Russian authorities have accused of taking a large bribe. He has denied wrongdoing. Mr. Ivanov previously attracted the attention of Aleksei A. Navalny’s Anti-Corruption Foundation for his and his wife’s conspicuously lavish lifestyle, including yacht rentals on the French Riviera.

Then, this month, days after Mr. Putin began his new term as president, the Kremlin announced that he had replaced Mr. Shoigu and chosen Andrei R. Belousov, one of his longtime economic advisers, as the new defense minister. Mr. Shoigu was moved to run the Russian Security Council, where he would still have access to the president but would have little direct control over money.

Mr. Belousov has no military experience . But he boasts a relatively clean image and a long government career untainted by large corruption scandals.

“If you want to win a war, corruption at a larger scale impacting the results on the battlefield is, in theory at least, not something you want,” said Maria Engqvist, the deputy head of Russia and Eurasia studies at the Swedish Defense Research Agency.

Still, Ms. Engqvist called high-level corruption in Russia “a feature, not a bug.”

“Corruption is a tool to gain influence, but it can also be used against you at any given time, depending on whether you say the wrong thing at the wrong time or make the wrong decision at the wrong time,” she said. “So you can be ousted with a reasonable explanation that the public can accept.”

Ms. Engqvist said the changes also raised questions about how long General Gerasimov would stay in his position as chief of the general staff and top battlefield commander in Ukraine.

The arrests at the Defense Ministry have gathered pace this month, with four more top generals and defense officials detained on corruption charges. Dmitri S. Peskov, the Kremlin spokesman, denied on Thursday that the arrests represented a “campaign.”

The corruption charges against top Defense Ministry officials have come alongside promises of greater financial and social benefits for the rank-and-file soldiers, an apparent attempt to improve morale and mollify populist critics.

Mr. Belousov used his first remarks after his nomination as defense minister to describe his plans to cut bureaucracy and improve access to health care and other social services for veterans of the war. And on Thursday, the speaker of Russia’s lower house of Parliament, Vyacheslav V. Volodin, and Finance Minister Anton G. Siluanov expressed support for exempting fighters in Ukraine from proposed income-tax increases.

The high-level arrests are unlikely to root out vast corruption in the Russian military establishment, but they could make top officials think twice before stealing at a particularly large scale, at least for a period, said Dara Massicot, a senior fellow at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.

“It will introduce a chill into the system and make everyone pause as they try to figure out the new code of accepted behavior,” Ms. Massicot said.

Beyond sending an anticorruption message, at least one of the arrests seemed to be aimed at settling a political score.

Maj. Gen. Ivan Popov, a top Russian commander who led forces holding off Ukraine’s counteroffensive, chided the Russian military leadership in a widely seen recording last year after he was removed from his post. He was apprehended on Tuesday on fraud charges, according to the state news agency TASS. He denied wrongdoing, his lawyer said.

“The bottom line is that the war exposed a lot of different problems — corruption, incompetence and openness to public expressions of insubordination — that the leadership feels a need to address,” said Samuel Charap, a senior political scientist at the RAND Corporation. “Now is a good time to do this, precisely because there isn’t a short-term acute risk on the battlefield.”

Paul Sonne is an international correspondent, focusing on Russia and the varied impacts of President Vladimir V. Putin’s domestic and foreign policies, with a focus on the war against Ukraine. More about Paul Sonne

Anatoly Kurmanaev covers Russia and its transformation following the invasion of Ukraine. More about Anatoly Kurmanaev

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