list of symbols in research paper

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List of Abbreviations for a Thesis or Dissertation

• By DiscoverPhDs
• September 14, 2020

What are Abbreviations and Acronyms?

An abbreviation is a shortened version of a term or phrase, e.g. kg for kilogram or Dr. for doctor.

An acronym is a type of abbreviation constructed from the first letters of a term, e.g. FRP for Fibre Reinforced Polymer or STEM for Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths.

List of Abbreviations in a Thesis or Dissertation

If your thesis or dissertation contains several symbols or abbreviations, it would be beneficial to include a list of abbreviations to assist your reader. This is a list sorted in alphabetical order that gives their definitions.

This will not only help the reader better understand your research, but it will also improve the flow of your paper, as it prevents continually having to define abbreviations in your main text.

Where Does a List of Abbreviations Go?

When including a list of abbreviations, insert them near the start of the report after your table of contents. To make it clear that your document contains an abbreviated list, also add a separate heading to your table of contents.

Note: The page number for your list of abbreviations should continue from the page number that proceeds it; there is no need to reset it for this section.

Rules for Using Abbreviations and Acronyms

The first time you use an abbreviation or acronym, it is good practice to write out the full terminology or phrase followed by the abbreviation or acronym encased in parenthesis.

After defining an abbreviation or acronym for the first time in your main text, you no longer need to use the full term; for example:

Example of Acronyms in a Thesis or Dissertation

This allows the reader to understand your report without having to rely on the list of abbreviations; it is only there to help the reader if they forget what an abbreviation stands for and needs to look it up.

Note: In academic writing, abbreviations that are not listed should always be defined in your thesis text at their first appearance.

Abbreviated Exceptions

Very common abbreviations should not be included in your list because they needlessly overload your list with terms that your readers already know, which discourages them from using it.

Some examples of common abbreviations and acronyms that should not be included in your standard abbreviation list are USA, PhD , Dr. and Ltd. etc.

Example of List of Abbreviations for a Thesis or Dissertation

An example abbreviation list is as follows:

The above example has been extracted from here .

List of Symbols

You can add symbols and their definitions to your list of abbreviations, however, some people like to keep them separate, especially if they have many of them. While this format will come down to personal preference, most STEM students create a separate list of symbols and most non-STEM students incorporate them into their list of abbreviations.

Note: If you are writing your report to APA style, you will need to consider additional requirements when writing your list of abbreviations. You can find further information here .

Further Reading

Whether you’re writing a Ph.D. thesis or a dissertation paper, the following resources will also be of use:

• Title Page for an Academic Paper
• List of Appendices

Finding a PhD has never been this easy – search for a PhD by keyword, location or academic area of interest.

Self-plagiarism is when you try and pass off work that you’ve previously done as something that is completely new.

Stay up to date with current information being provided by the UK Government and Universities about the impact of the global pandemic on PhD research studies.

This article will answer common questions about the PhD synopsis, give guidance on how to write one, and provide my thoughts on samples.

Join thousands of other students and stay up to date with the latest PhD programmes, funding opportunities and advice.

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Is it really possible to do a PhD while working? The answer is ‘yes’, but it comes with several ‘buts’. Read our post to find out if it’s for you.

You’ll come across many academics with PhD, some using the title of Doctor and others using Professor. This blog post helps you understand the differences.

Guy is in the 3rd and final year of his PhD in Immunology and Microbiology at The University of Newcastle, Australia. His research primarily focuses on investigating roles of our immune system outside of the typical pathogen surveillance.

Jad is a 4th year PhD student at New York University Abu Dhabi/ New York. His project is title Smart Molecular Crystals: From Synthesis to Applications and has a particular interest in science communication.

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Nomenclature Guidelines

In this section, defining symbols.

Manuscripts with many symbols may benefit from a nomenclature list that defines all symbols at the beginning of the manuscript, inserted between the abstract and the introduction. If one is used, it must contain all the symbology used in the manuscript, and the definitions should not be repeated in the text. The nomenclature is not intended to serve as a glossary of terms, nor does it include definitions for acronyms or abbreviations, which should be defined in the text where they are first used. Abbreviations for standard units of measure never need to be defined.

Style and Format

Nomenclature entries are listed alphabetically (capital letters before lowercase), in the following order: regular letters, Greek letters, numerals, and special symbols. Units of measure should be included in definitions where appropriate. Individual headings may be used to distinguish subscripts and superscripts from regular symbols. Follow AIAA formatting and typeface rules with respect to the use of italics, bold, or regular type.

Sample Nomenclature

• Subject guides
• Citing and referencing
• Abbreviations and symbols used in referencing

Citing and referencing: Abbreviations and symbols used in referencing

• In-text citations
• Reference list
• Books and book chapters
• Journals/Periodicals
• Newspapers/Magazines
• Government and other reports
• Legal sources
• Websites and social media
• Audio, music and visual media
• Conferences
• Dictionaries/Encyclopedias/Guides
• Theses/Dissertations
• University course materials
• Company and Industry reports
• Patents and Standards
• Tables and Figures
• Abbreviations used in referencing
• Medicine and Health sources
• Foreign language sources
• Music scores
• Journals and periodicals
• Government sources
• News sources
• Web and social media
• Games and apps
• Ancient and sacred sources
• Primary sources
• Audiovisual media and music scores
• Images and captions
• University lectures, theses and dissertations
• Interviews and personal communication
• Archival material
• In-Text Citations: Further Information
• Reference List: Standard Abbreviations
• Data Sheets (inc. Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS))
• Figures & Tables (inc. Images)
• Lecture Materials (inc. PowerPoint Presentations)
• Reports & Technical Reports
• Theses and Dissertations
• Reference list guidelines
• Journal articles
• Government and industry publications
• Websites, newspaper and social media
• Conference papers, theses and university material
• Video and audio
• Images, graphs, tables, data sets
• Personal communications
• In-text Citations
• Journals / Periodicals
• Encyclopedias and Dictionaries
• Interviews and lectures
• Music Scores / Recordings
• Film / Video Recording
• Television / Radio Broadcast
• Online Communication / Social Media
• Live Performances
• Government and Organisation Publications
• Medicine & health sources
• Government/organisational/technical reports
• Images, graphs, tables, figures & data sets
• Websites newspaper & magazine articles, socia media
• Conferences, theses & university materials
• Personal communication & confidential unpublished material
• Video, audio & other media
• Generative AI
• Indigenous knowledges

Harvard Contents

• Journals/Periodicals/Newspapers
• Social media
• Government sources/industry reports
• Legal sources (including Treaties and United Nations Declarations)
• Theses/dissertations
• Data, figures and images
• Speeches/broadcasts/ audiovisual/music scores/interviews
• Live performances
• Appendix A - Figure and table captions; Music notations
• Appendices B & C - Quick guides to referencing articles and in-text citations
• Appendix D - Sample Harvard style reference list

Abbreviations and symbols

Scientific Research and Methodology

C appendix: symbols, formulas, statistics and parameters.

Symbols used

Confidence intervals

Almost all confidence intervals have the form

\[ \text{statistic} \pm ( \text{multiplier} \times \text{s.e.}(\text{statistic})). \] Notes:

• The multiplier is approximately 2 for an approximate 95% CI (based on the 68–95–99.7 rule).
• \(\text{multiplier} \times \text{s.e.}(\text{statistic})\) is called the margin of error .
• Confidence intervals for odds ratios are slightly different, so this formula does not apply for odds ratios . For the same reason, a standard error for ORs is not given.

Hypothesis testing

For many hypothesis tests , the test statistic is a \(t\) -scores, which has the form:

\[ t = \frac{\text{statistic} - \text{parameter}}{\text{s.e.}(\text{statistic})} \] Notes:

• Since \(t\) -scores are a little like \(z\) -scores, the 68–95–99.7 rule can be used to approximate \(P\) -values.
• Tests involving odds ratios do not use \(t\) -scores, so this formula does not apply for tests involving odds ratios .
• For tests involving odds ratios, the test statistic is a \(\chi^2\) score and not \(t\) -score. For the same reason, a standard error for ORs is not given.
• The \(\chi^2\) statistic is approximately like a \(z\) -score with a value of (where \(\text{df}\) is the ‘degrees of freedom’ given in the software output):

\[ \sqrt{\frac{\chi^2}{\text{df}}}. \]

• Mardigian Library
• Subject Guides

Formatting Your Thesis or Dissertation with Microsoft Word

• List of Abbreviations
• Introduction
• Copyright Page
• Dedication, Acknowledgements, & Preface
• Headings and Subheadings
• Citations and Bibliography
• Page Numbers
• Tables and Figures
• Rotated (Landscape) Pages
• Table of Contents
• Lists of Tables and Figures
• Some Things to Watch For
• PDF with Embedded Fonts

List of abbreviations

Microsoft Word can automatically create a List of Abbreviations and Acronyms. If you use a lot of abbreviations and acronyms in your thesis — and even if you only use a few — there is no reason not to include a list. The process is not at all difficult. See the video tutorial below to see how to create such a list.

• << Previous: Lists of Tables and Figures
• Next: Some Things to Watch For >>
• Last Updated: Mar 21, 2024 2:35 PM
• URL: https://guides.umd.umich.edu/Word_for_Theses

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How to Use Bullet Lists and Number Lists in a Research Paper

Academic articles often include lists, which organize the material and provide the reader with a quick overview of a section. There are different ways to format lists, but some general principles apply to all of them: they should be constructed in a parallel fashion, and they should be consistent. Numbers, letters, and bullet points are not required in all cases. Academic writers who use The Chicago Manual of Style will find various formats there, but four common list formats are presented here.

Types of List Formats

Run-in lists.

A run-in list, as the name suggests, is included as part of the general text. Elements can be separated in different ways, as shown in the examples below.

Separated with a Colon:   When a complete sentence is followed by a list of items, separate the sentence from the list with a colon.

E.g. “ Do not venture into the wilderness without these items: a knife, a book of matches, a flashlight, and a map. ”

Separated with Numbers:  When the list is part of the sentence, you can separate the items by numbering them.

E.g. “ The Housing Committee passed resolutions on (1) annual salaries, (2) fundraising efforts, and (3) community building. ”

Related: Need instant academic writing tips on your cell phone? Download the FREE Enago Academy mobile app now!

Vertical Lists

A vertical list should be preceded by a complete sentence that gives an overview of the points being listed. The list does not need to have a bullet point format and a punctuation mark is not at the end of the entries. For example:

Your admissions packet should include these items:

The three-page statement of purpose

The financial questionnaire

Your contact information

If the lead-in sentence is a complete one and all entries in the list are complete sentences, a punctuation mark should follow each entry. For example (using bullet points):

Make perfect banana bread every time by following these easy steps:

• Preheat the oven to 325 degrees.
• Grease an 8 x 8 baking dish.
• Combine all the dry ingredients (listed above).
• Gently fold in the wet ingredients (listed above).
• Pour the batter into the dish and bake for 45 minutes.

Again, note that because each entry in the list is a complete sentence, a final period is used.

Vertical Lists Punctuated as a Sentence

When a list is too long or convoluted to be presented as one sentence, you can use a vertical list that is punctuated like a sentence. This format is especially useful when the phrases include internal punctuations or the reader might find it difficult to follow the meaning. An example follows below.

Biology instructors have made significant changes to their curricula and classrooms, and today it is common to find

• innovative research techniques, especially those requiring knowledge of anatomy, in labs;
• greater focus on teamwork;
• in-class lectures customized for learning styles; and
• bilingual lesson plans.

Vertical Lists with Subdivided Items

A complex vertical list may be formatted in a way that resembles an outline, using numbers and letters to provide a logical structure. The lead-in (introductory) line should be a complete sentence, as seen in the example below.

Students should be prepared to discuss the following topics:

• Regional History
• Geography and landmarks
• Erosion in mountainous areas
• Notable Figures
• The first tribal chieftains
• The emergence of political divisions and leaders
• The role of women
• Cultural Developments
• The spread of language
• Music used to bind communities

The next time you read a research paper , look for lists and examine how they were constructed. Do the entries use a consistent format? Are the numbers and/or letters correctly placed and in the proper order? Is the lead-in line a complete sentence? If you find that these steps are all present, chances are that the author took the time to research the structure of lists and present them accurately. Now you can do the same.

References:

• Get It Write. Handling Vertical Lists.  Retrieved from http://www.getitwriteonline.com/archive/101406VerticalLists.htm

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How to Order and Format Author Names in Scientific Papers

As the world becomes more interconnected, the production of knowledge increasingly relies on collaboration. Scientific papers, the primary medium through which researchers communicate their findings, often feature multiple authors. However, authorship isn't merely a reflection of those who contributed to a study but often denotes prestige, recognition, and responsibility. In academic papers, the order of authors is not arbitrary. It can symbolize the level of contribution and the role played by each author in the research process. Deciding on the author order can sometimes be a complex and sensitive issue, making it crucial to understand the different roles and conventions of authorship in scientific research. This article will explore the various types of authors found in scientific papers, guide you on how to correctly order and format author names, and offer insights to help you navigate this critical aspect of academic publishing.

The first author

The first author listed in a scientific paper is typically the person who has made the most substantial intellectual contribution to the work. This role is often filled by a junior researcher such as a Ph.D. student or postdoctoral fellow, who has been intimately involved in almost every aspect of the project.

The first author usually plays a pivotal role in designing and implementing the research, including the formation of hypotheses, experimental design, data collection, data analysis, and interpretation of the findings. They also commonly take the lead in manuscript preparation, writing substantial portions of the paper, including the often-challenging task of turning raw data into a compelling narrative.

In academia, first authorship is a significant achievement, a clear demonstration of a researcher's capabilities and dedication. It indicates that the researcher possesses the skills and tenacity to carry a project from inception to completion. This position can dramatically impact a researcher's career trajectory, playing a critical role in evaluations for promotions, grants, and future academic positions.

However, being the first author is not just about prestige or professional advancement. It carries a weight of responsibility. The first author is generally expected to ensure the integrity and accuracy of the data presented in the paper. They are often the person who responds to reviewers' comments during the peer-review process and makes necessary revisions to the manuscript.

Also, as the first author, it is typically their duty to address any questions or critiques that may arise post-publication, often having to defend the work publicly, even years after publication.

Thus, first authorship is a role that offers significant rewards but also requires a strong commitment to uphold the principles of scientific integrity and transparency. While it's a coveted position that can be a steppingstone to career progression, the associated responsibilities and expectations mean that it should not be undertaken lightly.

The middle authors

The middle authors listed on a scientific paper occupy an essential, albeit sometimes ambiguous, role in the research project. They are typically those who have made significant contributions to the project, but not to the extent of the first author. This group often includes a mix of junior and senior researchers who have provided key input, assistance, or resources to the project.

The roles of middle authors can be quite diverse. Some might be involved in specific aspects of data collection or analysis. Others may bring specialized knowledge or technical skills essential to the project, providing expertise in a particular methodology, statistical analysis, or experimental technique. There might also be middle authors who have contributed vital resources to the project, such as unique reagents or access to a particular patient population.

In some fields, the order of middle authors reflects the degree of their contribution. The closer a middle author is to the first position, the greater their involvement, with the second author often having made the next largest contribution after the first author. This order may be negotiated among the authors, requiring clear communication and consensus.

However, in other disciplines, particularly those where large collaborative projects are common, the order of middle authors may not necessarily reflect their level of contribution. In such cases, authors might be listed alphabetically, or by some other agreed-upon convention. Therefore, it's crucial to be aware of the norms in your specific field when deciding the order of middle authors.

Being a middle author in a scientific paper carries less prestige and responsibility than being a first or last author, but it is by no means a minor role. Middle authors play a crucial part in the scientific endeavor, contributing essential expertise and resources. They are integral members of the research team whose collective efforts underpin the progress and achievements of the project. Without their diverse contributions, the scope and impact of scientific research would be significantly diminished.

The last author

In the listing of authors on a scientific paper, the final position carries a unique significance. It is typically occupied by the senior researcher, often the head of the laboratory or the principal investigator who has supervised the project. While they might not be involved in the day-to-day aspects of the work, they provide overarching guidance, mentorship, and often the resources necessary for the project's fruition.

The last author's role is multidimensional, often balancing the responsibilities of project management, funding acquisition, and mentorship. They guide the research's direction, help troubleshoot problems, and provide intellectual input to the project's design and interpretation of results. Additionally, they usually play a key role in the drafting and revision of the manuscript, providing critical feedback and shaping the narrative.

In academia, the last author position is a symbol of leadership and scientific maturity. It indicates that the researcher has progressed from being a hands-on contributor to someone who can guide a team, secure funding, and deliver significant research projects. Being the last author can have substantial implications for a researcher's career, signaling their ability to oversee successful projects and mentor the next generation of scientists.

However, along with prestige comes significant responsibility. The last author is often seen as the guarantor of the work. They are held accountable for the overall integrity of the study, and in cases where errors or issues arise, they are expected to take the lead in addressing them.

The convention of the last author as the senior researcher is common in many scientific disciplines, especially in the life and biomedical sciences. However, it's important to note that this is not a universal standard. In some fields, authors may be listed purely in the order of contribution or alphabetically. Therefore, an understanding of the specific norms and expectations of your scientific field is essential when considering author order.

In sum, the position of the last author, much like that of the first author, holds both honor and responsibility, reflecting a leadership role that goes beyond mere intellectual contribution to include mentorship, management, and accountability.

Formatting author names

When it comes to scientific publishing, details matter, and one such detail is the correct formatting of author names. While it may seem like a minor concern compared to the intellectual challenges of research, the proper formatting of author names is crucial for several reasons. It ensures correct attribution of work, facilitates accurate citation, and helps avoid confusion among researchers in the same field. This section will delve deeper into the conventions for formatting author names, offering guidance to ensure clarity and consistency in your scientific papers.

Typically, each author's full first name, middle initial(s), and last name are listed. It's crucial that the author's name is presented consistently across all their publications to ensure their work is correctly attributed and easily discoverable.

Here is a basic example following a common convention:

• Standard convention: John D. Smith

However, conventions can vary depending on cultural naming practices. In many Western cultures, the first name is the given name, followed by the middle initial(s), and then the family name. On the other hand, in many East Asian cultures, the family name is listed first.

Here is an example following this convention:

• Asian convention: Wang Xiao Long

When there are multiple authors, their names are separated by commas. The word "and" usually precedes the final author's name.

Here's how this would look:

• John D. Smith, Jane A. Doe, and Richard K. Jones

However, author name formatting can differ among journals. Some may require initials instead of full first names, or they might have specific guidelines for handling hyphenated surnames or surnames with particles (e.g., "de," "van," "bin"). Therefore, it's always important to check the specific submission guidelines of the journal to which you're submitting your paper.

Moreover, the formatting should respect each author's preferred presentation of their name, especially if it deviates from conventional Western naming patterns. As the scientific community becomes increasingly diverse and global, it's essential to ensure that each author's identity is accurately represented.

In conclusion, the proper formatting of author names is a vital detail in scientific publishing, ensuring correct attribution and respect for each author's identity. It may seem a minor point in the grand scheme of a research project, but getting it right is an essential part of good academic practice.

The concept of authorship in scientific papers goes well beyond just listing the names of those involved in a research project. It carries critical implications for recognition, responsibility, and career progression, reflecting a complex nexus of contribution, collaboration, and intellectual leadership. Understanding the different roles, correctly ordering the authors, and appropriately formatting the names are essential elements of academic practice that ensure the rightful attribution of credit and uphold the integrity of scientific research.

Navigating the terrain of authorship involves managing both objective and subjective elements, spanning from the universally acknowledged conventions to the nuances particular to different scientific disciplines. Whether it's acknowledging the pivotal role of the first author who carried the project from the ground up, recognizing the valuable contributions of middle authors who provided key expertise, or highlighting the mentorship and leadership role of the last author, each position is an integral piece in the mosaic of scientific authorship.

Furthermore, beyond the order of authors, the meticulous task of correctly formatting the author names should not be underestimated. This practice is an exercise in precision, respect for individual identity, and acknowledgement of cultural diversity, reflecting the global and inclusive nature of contemporary scientific research.

As scientific exploration continues to move forward as a collective endeavor, clear and equitable authorship practices will remain crucial. These practices serve not only to ensure that credit is assigned where it's due but also to foster an environment of respect and transparency. Therefore, each member of the scientific community, from fledgling researchers to seasoned scientists, would do well to master the art and science of authorship in academic publishing. After all, it is through this collective recognition and collaboration that we continue to expand the frontiers of knowledge.

Header image by Jon Tyson .

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New CLTC White Paper Addresses Dual-Use Hazards of AI Foundation Models

How can developers of artificial intelligence (AI) ensure that their models cannot be used by a terrorist, state-affiliated threat actor, or other adversary to develop chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear (CBRN) weapons, or to carry out a major cyberattack?

A new report by a team of researchers from the Center for Long-Term Cybersecurity and AI Security Initiative addresses this critically important question. The paper, Benchmark Early and Red Team Often: A Framework for Assessing and Managing Dual-Use Hazards of AI Foundation Models — authored by Anthony M. Barrett, Krystal Jackson, Evan R. Murphy, Nada Madkour, and Jessica Newman — assesses two methods for evaluating the “dual-use” hazards of AI foundation models, which include large language models (LLMs) such as GPT-4, Gemini, Claude 3, Llama 3, and other general purpose AI systems.

The first approach relies on the use of open benchmarks, sets of questions that can be used to query an AI model to assess whether it will share details necessary to develop a CBRN or cyber attack. Such benchmarks are low in cost, the authors explain, but have limited accuracy, as the questions and answers used in publicly available benchmarks should not include security-sensitive details. Thus, using benchmarks alone may make it difficult to discern models with “general scientific capabilities” as opposed to models “with substantial dual-use capabilities for CBRN or cyber attacks.”

The second approach relies on using closed red team evaluations, in which teams of experts on CBRN and cyber assess a model’s potential to disclose potentially harmful information. Red teams are higher in cost than benchmarks, the authors write, as they “require specialized expertise and take days or weeks to perform,” but they can achieve higher levels of accuracy, as the experts on the red team can incorporate sensitive details in their assessments.

“We propose a research and risk-management approach using a combination of methods including both open benchmarks and closed red team evaluations, in a way that leverages advantages of both methods,” the authors write. “We recommend that one or more groups of researchers with sufficient resources and access to a range of near-frontier and frontier foundation models: 1) run a set of foundation models through dual-use capability evaluation benchmarks and red team evaluations, then 2) analyze the resulting sets of models’ scores on benchmark and red team evaluations to see how correlated those are.”

The authors argue that open benchmarks should be used frequently during foundation model development as a quick, low-cost measure of a model’s dual-use potential. Then, if a particular model gets a high score on the dual-use potential benchmark, more in-depth red team assessments of that model’s dual-use capability should be performed. They call this approach the “Benchmark and Red team AI Capability Evaluation (BRACE) Framework,” summarized as “Benchmark Early and Red Team Often,” or more accurately, “Benchmark Early and Often, and Red Team Often Enough.”

The report includes recommendations for three distinct groups: researchers who create benchmarks and red teaming evaluations of CBRN and cyber capabilities of foundation models, developers of foundation models, and evaluators of dual-use foundation models. The paper additionally discusses limitations and mitigations for the BRACE approach, for example, if model developers try to game benchmarks by including a version of benchmark test data in a model’s training data.

This paper aims to advance the conversation by providing greater clarity around some existing and near-term risks of dual-use foundation models that can be used to cause significant harm to people and communities,” the authors write. “The research we propose could inform subsequent use of benchmarks and red teaming by foundation model developers and evaluators, with an approach to effectively and efficiently identify foundation models with substantial dual-use capabilities for risk management purposes.”

Benchmark Early and Red Team Often: A Framework for Assessing and Managing Dual-Use Hazards of AI Foundation Models

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