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v.19(3); 2023 Aug
PMC10331260

The National Football League Concussion Protocol: A Review

Jaclyn jacobi.

1 Barrow Neurological Institute, Phoenix, AZ, USA

Erin B. Wasserman

2 IQVIA, Durham, NC, USA

Christina D. Mack

Morgan heinzelmann.

3 Cedars-Sinai Kerlan-Jobe Institute, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Javier Cárdenas

4 Rockefeller Neuroscience Institute, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA

Robb Rehberg

5 William Paterson University, Wayne, NJ, USA

6 Player Health & Safety Department, National Football League, New York, NY, USA

Gary Solomon

Allen sills, bert vargas.

7 Global Medical Response, Indianapolis, IN, USA

Associated Data

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-hss-10.1177_15563316231177207 for The National Football League Concussion Protocol: A Review by Jaclyn Jacobi, Erin B. Wasserman, Christina D. Mack, Morgan Heinzelmann, Javier Cárdenas, Robb Rehberg, Gary Solomon, Allen Sills and Bert Vargas in HSS Journal®

Supplemental material, sj-docx-2-hss-10.1177_15563316231177207 for The National Football League Concussion Protocol: A Review by Jaclyn Jacobi, Erin B. Wasserman, Christina D. Mack, Morgan Heinzelmann, Javier Cárdenas, Robb Rehberg, Gary Solomon, Allen Sills and Bert Vargas in HSS Journal®

Supplemental material, sj-docx-3-hss-10.1177_15563316231177207 for The National Football League Concussion Protocol: A Review by Jaclyn Jacobi, Erin B. Wasserman, Christina D. Mack, Morgan Heinzelmann, Javier Cárdenas, Robb Rehberg, Gary Solomon, Allen Sills and Bert Vargas in HSS Journal®

Supplemental material, sj-docx-4-hss-10.1177_15563316231177207 for The National Football League Concussion Protocol: A Review by Jaclyn Jacobi, Erin B. Wasserman, Christina D. Mack, Morgan Heinzelmann, Javier Cárdenas, Robb Rehberg, Gary Solomon, Allen Sills and Bert Vargas in HSS Journal®

Supplemental material, sj-docx-5-hss-10.1177_15563316231177207 for The National Football League Concussion Protocol: A Review by Jaclyn Jacobi, Erin B. Wasserman, Christina D. Mack, Morgan Heinzelmann, Javier Cárdenas, Robb Rehberg, Gary Solomon, Allen Sills and Bert Vargas in HSS Journal®

Supplemental material, sj-docx-6-hss-10.1177_15563316231177207 for The National Football League Concussion Protocol: A Review by Jaclyn Jacobi, Erin B. Wasserman, Christina D. Mack, Morgan Heinzelmann, Javier Cárdenas, Robb Rehberg, Gary Solomon, Allen Sills and Bert Vargas in HSS Journal®

Supplemental material, sj-docx-7-hss-10.1177_15563316231177207 for The National Football League Concussion Protocol: A Review by Jaclyn Jacobi, Erin B. Wasserman, Christina D. Mack, Morgan Heinzelmann, Javier Cárdenas, Robb Rehberg, Gary Solomon, Allen Sills and Bert Vargas in HSS Journal®

Supplemental material, sj-docx-8-hss-10.1177_15563316231177207 for The National Football League Concussion Protocol: A Review by Jaclyn Jacobi, Erin B. Wasserman, Christina D. Mack, Morgan Heinzelmann, Javier Cárdenas, Robb Rehberg, Gary Solomon, Allen Sills and Bert Vargas in HSS Journal®

Supplemental material, sj-pdf-9-hss-10.1177_15563316231177207 for The National Football League Concussion Protocol: A Review by Jaclyn Jacobi, Erin B. Wasserman, Christina D. Mack, Morgan Heinzelmann, Javier Cárdenas, Robb Rehberg, Gary Solomon, Allen Sills and Bert Vargas in HSS Journal®

Sport-related concussion remains an area of high concern for contact sport athletes and their families, as well as for the medical and scientific communities. The National Football League (NFL), along with the NFL Players Association and experts in the field, has developed protocols for the detection and management of sport-related concussions. This article reviews the NFL’s most recent concussion protocol including preseason education and baseline testing for players, concussion surveillance by gameday medical teams and neurotrauma consultants and athletic trainers, gameday concussion protocol and procedures, and return to participation guidelines.

Introduction

Sport-related concussion (SRC) continues to attract both media and scientific attention [ 22 ]. The burden of SRC, coupled with continued public interest, has led professional sports organizations to develop concussion guidelines and management protocols for the detection and treatment of concussive injuries in their players. The National Football League (NFL), in collaboration with the National Football League Players Association (NFLPA) and under the auspices of the NFL’s Head, Neck and Spine (HN&S) Committee and the NFLPA’s Mackey White Committee, published a concussion protocol in 2013 [ 26 ], followed by various revisions [ 9 ]. This protocol is reviewed at least annually, and the most up-to-date version is posted on the NFL website [ 25 ]. This article reviews the NFL’s current concussion protocol, describes NFL and NFLPA efforts to reduce concussion and manage this injury among NFL players, and offers strategies for concussion detection and management applicable to all levels of play in American football.

The HN&S Committee’s Concussion Protocol

Offseason and preseason activities.

In the NFL, efforts at concussion mitigation begin in the offseason with player education on (1) the signs and symptoms of concussion, (2) the specifics of the NFL protocol (including education on the roles of various medical personnel involved in the detection and management of concussive injury), and (3) the importance of reporting any indication of concussion, including those observed in other players. Every team’s medical staff performs annual preseason physical examinations on all players, including review of pertinent neurologic issues and details and outcomes of all prior concussions.

A club-designated neuropsychologist consultant (NPC) assists in conducting preseason baseline neurocognitive testing on all players at least once every 3 years. This may consist of a computerized neurocognitive test (eg, the immediate post-concussion assessment and cognitive testing [ImPACT]), specific traditional paper and pencil neurocognitive tests (NFL Paper and Pencil Battery), or a combination of these. Every 2 years, players also undergo baseline testing with the NFL’s Locker Room Comprehensive Concussion Assessment, based on the Sport Concussion Assessment Tool (SCAT) [ 6 ]. The SCAT is a standardized evaluation developed by the International Consensus Conference on Concussion in Sport that combines “red flags” (eg, deteriorating level of consciousness, double vision, severe or increasing headache) and observable concussion signs (eg, disorientation or confusion), the Glasgow Coma Scale, Maddocks’ questions (orientation questions specific to sport), a symptom checklist, a cognitive screening, and a neurologic examination (including a cervical spine evaluation, oculomotor testing, pupillary exam, finger-to-nose test, tandem gait, and a standardized balance assessment [modified Balance Error Scoring System]) [ 6 ]. All preseason baseline test results are uploaded into a league-wide electronic medical record system.

The Game Day Concussion Surveillance Team

The NFL’s HN&S Committee has made specific efforts to identify players with concussion quickly and accurately at the time of injury and remove them from play to mitigate further injury. Concussion identification in this hyperacute phase is often challenging due to the heterogeneity of presentations, the possibility of delayed symptom onset, a lack of validated biomarkers, under-reporting or lack of awareness of relevant symptoms, and the fact that routine imaging is typically normal [ 13 ]. Also, the NFL sideline environment, as in other professional sports, can pose logistical challenges to identifying concussed players: crowded sidelines, rapid speed of play, injuries away from the ball, and player pileups can hinder observations by medical staff. For this reason, it has been important to recruit and train experts at identifying concussive injury behavior and position them strategically on and around the field of play. Even when one of these professionals observes a visible sign of concussion [ 31 ], these findings are limited in sensitivity (73% of concussed individuals having any one sign) and specificity (65% of non-concussed individuals having any one sign) [ 8 ]. This emphasizes the importance of the rapid synthesis of available data about the player, the mechanism of suspected injury, and the examination findings into an informed return-to-play or remove-from-play decision.

As part of detection and diagnostic efforts, in 2011, the NFL positioned an athletic trainer (AT) spotter in the video booth [ 17 ] and added a second spotter the following year. The role of the AT spotter is to identify injuries, some that may have gone undetected by sideline medical staff, and to assist in describing the mechanism of injury and observed injury behavior. Athletic trainer spotters watch the game via an Injury Video Replay System (IVRS), which provides multiple views of each play from cameras positioned throughout the stadium. With the assistance of an IVRS operator, the AT spotter can review plays multiple times, at slower speeds, and from various camera angles. The AT spotter may activate the concussion protocol by alerting team medical staff of observed mechanisms of injury and injury behavior indicative of a possible head or neck injury. Once a potential injury is identified, the game video in which the injury occurred is “tagged” with an electronic label. Sideline medical personnel have dedicated video monitors (and IVRS operators) that are used to review injury video as part of their comprehensive evaluation of the athlete. The tagged injury video is replayed by the IVRS operator for the sideline medical personnel and is also saved for post-game review. Radio communication between AT spotters and sideline medical staff facilitates initiation and completion of evaluations. Athletic trainer spotters also can call a “medical timeout” if they observe that game play is about to continue and a player has yet to receive medical attention. An AT spotter must meet the following criteria: (1) be a certified AT, (2) have a 4-year undergraduate degree, (3) have a minimum of 10 years of athletic training experience, (4) have significant college or professional sports experience, (5) have not been employed by an NFL team for at least 5 years, and (6) cannot cover any games involving a team with which they were previously employed [ 17 ].

To augment the expertise of the AT spotter, the Unaffiliated Neurotrauma Consultant (UNC) program was initiated with a pilot program in 2012 to improve injury detection by stationing concussion experts on each sideline [ 18 ]. Unaffiliated Neurotrauma Consultants are experts in traumatic brain and spinal cord injury, defined by demonstrated experience with neurotrauma and the following qualifications: (1) board certified or board eligible physician in neurology, neurologic surgery, emergency medicine, physical medicine, and rehabilitation or (2) any primary care Certificate of Added Qualification sports medicine certified. Unaffiliated Neurotrauma Consultants must have documented independence from any NFL team and must be locally credentialed at the American College of Surgeons level I or II trauma center which is specifically designated by the stadium [ 11 ]. In 2017, UNCs began to undergo additional NFL-specific training which is now annual. Unaffiliated Neurotrauma Consultants are selected jointly by the NFL and NFLPA and are regularly evaluated with at least annual reviews. Unaffiliated Neurotrauma Consultants assist with identifying mechanisms of injury and injury behavior and are present for every neurologic evaluation conducted during a game. Ultimately, the team physician makes final game day return-to-play decisions [ 9 , 25 ]. Unaffiliated Neurotrauma Consultants, team physicians, team ATs, and AT spotters communicate via radio throughout the game and work in close partnership throughout evaluations. The success of the UNC program has led to the addition of a third UNC who is co-located in the booth with the AT spotters.

Game Day Concussion Protocols and Procedures

Game day begins with a medical huddle 60 minutes before kickoff (the “60-Minute Medical Meeting”) that includes the medical staff from both teams, game officials, UNCs, all medical emergency response personnel including paramedics, ambulance personnel, other medical staff, and the radio communications team. During this meeting, all medical staff are introduced to each other and review their roles and the established emergency action plan including identification of the designated trauma center. Prior to kickoff, 1 UNC is assigned to each team and 1 is assigned to the spotter booth. After the 60-Minute Medical Meeting, UNCs meet individually with the team medical staff they have been assigned to so that any logistical or player-specific concerns can be addressed.

During the game, if a player reports symptoms, exhibits signs, has brachial plexus or cervical root neuropraxia (also referred to as a “stinger” or “burner”), or is identified by others (club ATs, AT spotters, club physicians, coaches, teammates, referees, booth UNC, or sideline UNCs) as having any issue of concern for concussive injury, that player is immediately removed from competition and undergoes evaluation before returning to competition [ 25 ]. Medical staff follow the Concussion Game Day Checklist ( Fig. 1 ), a standardized, stepwise examination protocol to aid in medical decision-making. Initial concussion screening is typically conducted in a blue sideline tent allowing for privacy and isolation of the athlete from distractions that could hinder the examination. Upon this initial screening, the event history is reviewed (with video analysis from the booth UNC and AT spotters) for “no-go signs” including loss of consciousness, seizure or posturing, ataxia, confusion, and amnesia. If any of these signs is present, the player is taken to the locker room for more detailed evaluation and is not permitted to return to that game [ 25 ].

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is 10.1177_15563316231177207-fig1.jpg

The NFL’s Concussion Game Day Checklist. NFL National Football League, UNC unaffiliated neurotrauma consultant, SCAT Sport Concussion Assessment Tool, ATC Athletic Trainer Certified, LOC loss of consciousness.

In the absence of no-go signs, the checklist is continued and the player is prompted to describe details of the suspected injury and any symptoms. The Maddocks questions, 5 game-specific orientation questions, have been shown to be more sensitive and specific than standard orientation questions [ 21 ]. A neurologic examination is performed, with attention to the cervical spine, speech, gait, coordination, balance, eye movements, and pupils. The sideline UNC and team physician also review video of the play using the IVRS cart on each sideline. If the assessment is normal and concussion is not suspected, the team physician may clear the player to return to the game [ 25 ].

For suspected concussion or any concerning sign or symptom discovered in the sideline tent evaluation, the athlete is then taken to the locker room for the NFL’s Locker Room Comprehensive Concussion Assessment [ 9 , 25 ]. This assessment involves a more detailed evaluation including the SCAT; the results can be compared with an athlete’s preseason baseline SCAT results. The Madden rule states that any player diagnosed with a concussion must be removed from play, is escorted to and monitored in the locker room, and cannot return to competition on the same day (and not until after medical clearance).

Athletes not diagnosed with concussion and allowed to return to the game are re-evaluated periodically and screened for delayed-onset symptoms. They are reassessed before leaving the stadium and again the following day with, at a minimum, a focused neurologic exam and symptom checklist. If either of these is abnormal, a more thorough evaluation is performed, including the full NFL Locker Room Comprehensive Concussion Assessment.

Return-to-Participation

The NFL has a structured 5-phase concussion return-to-participation (RTP) protocol that must be completed in sequential order ( Fig. 2 ). The RTP protocol is based on up-to-date scientific data and recommendations from the Consensus Statement on Concussion in Sport and is reviewed and changed as needed [ 23 ] (This article precedes the publication of recommendations from the Sixth International Consensus Conference on Concussion in Sport held in Amsterdam in October 2022. Those recommendations may lead to a review and modification of the NFL protocol.). Throughout the stepwise RTP process, athletes are observed for signs and symptoms of concussion at progressively more intense levels of physical activity. There is no set timeline for RTP in the NFL, and there is no mandate for amounts of time between different phases, allowing players to progress at their own speed. A recent study of concussions in the NFL indicated that the RTP process requires a median of 9 days (a mean of 15 days), a metric that has remained stable over 6 years [ 19 ].

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is 10.1177_15563316231177207-fig2.jpg

The NFL’s return-to-participation protocol. NFL National Football League, ATC Athletic Trainer Certified, LOC loss of consciousness.

An athlete is monitored by a medical team member at each step of the RTP protocol. An independent neurologic consultant (INC), a credentialed physician with neurologic expertise, must confirm the team physician’s decision to clear the player from the concussion prior to full RTP. The INC may be consulted as needed to monitor the athlete’s recovery. In addition, the athlete must undergo repeat neurocognitive testing and a face-to-face clinical interview with the Club NPC (no earlier than completion of Phase 2 and no later than Phase 4). Post-injury neurocognitive testing typically includes the NFL paper and pencil battery of neurocognitive tests and computerized ImPACT testing. Athletes must demonstrate a return to their preseason neurocognitive baseline before exposure to football contact activities, unless the club physician determines there is a non–concussion-related cause.

Once the athlete demonstrates the ability to engage in all non-contact football activities without exacerbation of symptoms, the club physician may clear the player for full football activity involving contact in practice. If that is tolerated without signs or symptoms and the club physician concludes the player’s concussion has resolved, he or she may clear the player to return to full participation. Upon clearance by the club physician, the player must be examined by the INC; if the INC confirms the club physician’s conclusion that the player’s concussion has resolved, the player is considered cleared.

Concussion Reduction Efforts in the NFL

The NFL recorded 1302 concussions between 2015 and 2019. There was a statistically significant 23% decrease in game-related concussions between the 2015–2017 seasons and the 2018–2019 seasons [ 20 ]. This reduction may be attributed in part to the following factors.

Rule Changes

Within the NFL, concussion risk is the greatest in games [ 16 ], during kickoffs and punts [ 16 ], while tackling or being tackled [ 20 ], and among certain positions (cornerbacks, linemen, and tight ends) [ 16 , 20 ]. These data have led to rule changes targeting higher-risk plays in an effort to reduce the likelihood of concussion. Since 2002, over 50 evidence-based safety-related rule changes have been implemented [ 27 ], including alterations in the structure of the kickoff play, elimination of blind-side blocks, use of the helmet during play, and expansion of defenseless player protection.

Equipment Changes

Helmet design has been a focus of improved safety. In 2018, many helmets that were determined to be under-performing in laboratory tests were prohibited from on-field use [ 2 ]. These decisions were based on testing performed by biomechanical engineering experts contracted with the NFL and NFLPA. Innovations in helmet design have also led to the availability of position-specific helmets that account for the unique location and speed of head impact for certain positions. A helmet specific to the offensive and defensive line position was introduced for the 2021 season, and a quarterback-specific version has been introduced for the 2023 season. Another initiative involving the use of a soft-shell helmet cover (a version of the Guardian Cap designed specifically for NFL players) was required for certain positions during the 2022 preseason in an effort to reduce the force of head impact for positions with historically higher numbers of concussions [ 10 ]. It will be required for additional positions for the 2023 preseason, regular season, and post-season.

Beyond Professional Football: Improving Football Safety at All Levels

Participation in youth, middle school, and high school sports has been shown to have significant health, psychological, and social benefits [ 7 , 32 ], all increasingly important as young people face exceptional mental and physical health challenges [ 14 , 15 ]. As with any activity, it is important to weigh the benefits of sports participation against the risk of potential injury, including concussion. Youth may be at greater risk for concussion and prolonged recovery than professional athletes due to a number of physical, developmental, and health-related factors [ 30 ], as well as varied access to trained medical and sideline resources like ATs and physicians. Consequently, effective, low-cost strategies to reduce concussion risk for younger football players are important.

Many of the NFL initiatives used to prevent, identify, and manage concussion can be adapted to younger football players. Education of players, coaches, and parents is an effective low- or no-cost mitigation strategy; basic and no-cost concussion education is available for student-athletes, parents, and coaches through the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [ 11 ]. A recent study indicated that high school students who receive concussion education express increased intentions to report symptoms and demonstrate improved concussion knowledge [ 4 ].

Resources available for the public to aid in the identification of concussion include the Concussion Recognition Tool (CRT), which includes a list of red flags that warrant emergency department evaluation, signs and symptoms of concussion, and a brief cognitive exam [ 5 ]. The CRT was designed to help guide people without medical training on when an athlete should be removed from play or seek additional care. Continued discussion of the benefits of identification and self-reporting of symptoms among young athletes remains a key factor.

The U.S.A. Football’s Heads Up program aims to refine tackling and blocking techniques and has been shown to result in lower concussion rates by up to 32% [ 29 ]. This reinforces the important role that coaches have in injury prevention and suggests that contact training and restrictions are major modifiable factors in concussion prevention among youth and adolescents [ 28 ]. The benefits of adopting this at youth levels can carry safe playing styles through high school, collegiate, and professional football.

Similar to rule changes implemented in the NFL, leagues may also consider implementing their own data-driven rule changes to mitigate concussion risk based on their own unique observations and needs. At the league and team levels, decisions to limit or eliminate contact in practice can be considered, as this approach has been shown to decrease concussion incidence in the Ivy League [ 3 ].

Widespread recognition of the importance of ATs and the benefit of their active role in player education, injury evaluation, and partnership with physicians in the RTP process could affect concussion recognition and management. Athletic trainers are at the frontline of concussion care in American high schools; however, as many as 34% of secondary schools do not have access to an AT and only 51% of schools have a full-time AT [ 1 ]. Athletic trainers positively influence the care of concussed students [ 24 ], and finding ways to fund AT access in all secondary schools nationwide is imperative.

Other potentially useful, low-cost strategies include adoption of baseline testing with computerized tests, which can be helpful in RTP decision-making, especially when access to a neuropsychologist is limited. Baseline testing with other sport-specific tools (eg, SCAT) to assist in evaluation also can be helpful.

In summary, nearly all professional sports organizations have taken measures to reduce concussion risk and improve outcomes for their athletes. The NFL has established a comprehensive approach to its concussion program, from prevention through detection, management, and return, which may provide useful strategies for other sporting leagues.

Supplemental Material

The author(s) declared the following potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: J.J., MD, and M.H., MD, report no potential conflicts of interest. C.M., PhD, MSPH, and E.B.W, PhD, are full-time employees of IQVIA, which is a paid research consultancy with the National Football League. J.C., MD, R.R., PhD, ATC, and G.S., PhD, are paid consultants to the NFL Player Health and Safety Department. A.S., MD, is a salaried employee of the National Football League. B.V., MD, is a contracted neurotrauma expert for Global Medical Response and a compensated member of the NFL’s Head, Neck and Spine Committee. He is a full-time employee of Eli Lilly and owns stock in the company; however, the content of this article reflects his own work as a subject-matter expert and is not affiliated in any manner with Eli Lilly.

Funding: The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Human/Animal Rights: All procedures followed were in accordance with the ethical standards of the responsible committee on human experimentation (institutional and national) and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2013.

Informed Consent: Informed consent was not required for this review article.

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Timeline: Six Studies of Head Trauma in Football That Helped Establish Link to CTE

Author: Daniel Rapaport

A highly–publicized study published Tuesday in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) found evidence of chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) in 110 out of the 111 studied brains of former NFL players.

CTE occurs when repeated head trauma leads to the buildup of "tau," an abnormal protein, in the brain. Tau negatively effects how the brain's blood vessels function and eventually erodes nerve cells themselves. Symptoms, which generally do not manifest until years after the repeated trauma, range from mood disorders on the more mild end to crippling dementia in more serious cases.

That the NFL has a head trauma problem isn't news to anyone—the 2015 film Concussion , chronicling the life of Dr. Bennet Omalu, who discovered CTE for the first time in a football player, publicized the issue even beyond sports fans—but the most recent study is the latest evidence that football can lead to traumatic brain injury.

Warren Sapp to donate brain for research on concussions, head trauma

Even though we still have a lot to learn about how football affects the brain, McKee's latest study was far from the first to suggest a link between the sport and CTE. Still, the link hasn't always been so widely accepted. For years, the NFL fought back—mainly through its paradoxically named Mild Traumatic Brain Injury committee—with shoddy studies aiming to counter mounting evidence that repeated blows to the head causes long-term cognitive and neurological dysfunction. The NFL acknowledged the link between football and CTE for the first time just last year.

Here's a look back at some of the most influential studies examining how head trauma affects NFL players.

A study published by the American Academy of Neurology states that repeated concussions can cause brain damage. The study lays out three Grades of concussions: Grade 1 is characterized by "transient confusion," no loss of consciousness and symptoms that lass less than 15 minutes; Grade 2 by the same criteria as Grade 1 except symptoms last more than 15 minutes; Grade 3 by any loss of consciousness. The study sets out guidelines for when a player should or should not return to the field. It would be three more years before researchers examined how head injuries affected a group of ex-pro football players.

First two claims in NFL concussion settlement total $9 million

At an annual meeting of the American Academy of Neurology, Dr. Barry Jordan and Dr. Julian Bailes present the first survey of head injuries in former professional football players. The study, which was funded by the NFL Players Association, surveyed 1,090 former players. According to the self-reported surveys, 60 percent of the players had suffered at least one concussion and 26 percent reported suffering at least three concussions. The survey administered questions on a wide range of health topics, and the players were not informed that the purpose was to examine neurological effects in an attempt to avoid over-reporting of symptoms.

Players that suffered at least one concussion were found to be more likely to experience neurological symptoms than those who did not suffer a concussion. These symptoms include problems with memory and concentration, confusion, speech or hearing difficulties, numbness or tingling in extremities, and headaches.

Dr. Kevin Guskiewicz and Bailes, who together authored a 2005 study linking concussions with early-onset Alzheimer's disease, publish the results of another survey of 2,552 players in Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. The survey, which was administered as a general health questionnaire, examined former players whose average age was 53.8 and whose average professional football career lasted 6.6 years. Compared with players who reported suffering no concussions, players who suffered at least one concussion were 1.5 times more likely to be diagnosed with depression, while players who suffered at least three concussions were three times more likely to receive that diagnosis.

September 2009

Researchers at the University of Michigan's Institute for Social Research publish a study funded by the NFL Players Care Foundation. The survey of 1,063 players asked a broad range of questions and was aimed at painting a general picture of retired players' post-NFL life. While the final report suggests that playing in the NFL was a "very positive experience for most retired players," the report does acknowledge that surveyed retirees aged 30-49 were 19 times more likely than the general population to have been diagnosed with dementia, Alzheimer's or other memory-related diseases. More than six percent of retirees over 50 had been given that diagnosis, compared with just 1.9 percent of the general population of men that age.

Supreme Court leaves $1B NFL concussion settlement in place

September 2012

In September 2012, researchers from the CTE Center at Boston University publish a study in Brain: A Journal of Neurology documenting 15 cases of CTE in the brains of former NFL players. While this isn't the first to link CTE with ex-NFLers—Omalu observed CTE in the brain of former Steeler and Hall of Famer Mike Webster in 2005—the study more than doubles the number of documented cases of CTE in former football players. The study acknowledges a large selection bias, as the work is made possible by NFL players who donate their brains for posthumous research, ostensibly motivated by the belief that they're suffering neurological dysfunction.

By this point, the link between football and CTE is well-known and widely accepted in the scientific community. Further cementing the link, BU's CTE Center expands on its 2012 and 2014 work (the latter of which found CTE in 76 of 79 studied brains), announcing the results of a study of 202 deceased football players' brains. Of the 111 brains of former NFL players that were examined, researchers find evidence of CTE in 110. The study looks at the brains of players as young as 23 and as old as 89 and includes players of all positions. The study also suggests that a longer football career can lead to more severe cases of CTE, as brains of deceased men who stopped playing had less severe cases than those who played professionally. Authors of the study acknowledge the same selection bias, as the brains studied were donated by players for neurological research.

"This not a population-based sample and these numbers aren't the prevelance of this disease in the general population of football players," co-author of the study Dr. Jesse Mez told Sports Illustrated . "What this study does establish well is that there is likely a connection between football and CTE."

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Football Concussions—The NFL’s Worst Fear—May Be More Likely On Fake Grass Fields, Study Suggests

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Athletes playing on turf playing fields may have a greater risk of suffering a concussion than ones playing on grass, according to University of Hawaii research published Friday, particularly noteworthy as concerns about head trauma in the National Football League continue to grow.

Half of NFL teams play their home games on artificial turf.

The research found a “significantly greater deceleration impact” on turf than on grass, the paper’s authors Nathaniel Villanueva and Ian Chun wrote in an abstract of the research published Friday and presented at an American Academy of Pediatrics conference this weekend.

Researchers strapped a football helmet and sensors to a life-like mannequin and dropped the mannequin on its front, back and side a total of 1,710 on 10 different grass fields and nine turf fields, measuring the fall’s impact with sensor data.

First invented in the 1950s, the artificial turf market hit a value of $3.2 billion last year and is growing quickly, with turf fields exploding in popularity in amateur and professional ranks in recent years, with scores of high schools nationwide opting for fake grass.

The study comes at a particularly crucial moment in concussion discourse, as the NFL players’ union conducts an investigation into the league’s handling of Miami Dolphins quarterback Tua Tagovailoa’s health after Tagovailoa suffered a gruesome head and neck injury last week when thrown to Paycor Stadium’s artificial turf, four days after suffering a different potential head injury under disputed circumstances.

Chun wrote in an email to Forbes it’s reasonable to conclude “harder playing surface poses an increased risk of injury,” but added he would caution against “generalizing the results of our research to a professional level,” noting turf NFL fields “have strict guidelines and manuals on how to maintain their fields to playing standards which are undoubtedly stricter” than the local high school fields where the research was conducted.

Key Background

Previous research has found a greater risk of lower-body injuries on turf and worries about rubber pellets frequently found on turf fields being carcinogenic have previously made waves, but there is little prior research done on how playing surfaces may affect head trauma. Turf’s increasing prevalence is largely due to the significantly lower maintenance costs for the surface. Turf fields typically consist of a layer of concrete followed by the artificial grass and then crumb rubber designed to cushion the impact of falls. Much of the concern about concussions in football centers on the prevalence of the chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), a degenerative degenerative brain condition with symptoms including severe depression and mood swings which has been found in 99% of the brains of former NFL players, several of whom died by suicide.

50%. That’s how many NFL teams play their home games on artificial turf fields, according to NBC Sports. Among the 30 NFL stadiums, 14 have turf, including MetLife Stadium and SoFi Stadium, the respective shared home stadiums for the New York Giants and New York Jets and the Los Angeles Chargers and Los Angeles Rams.

Chief Critic

JC Tretter, the president of the NFL players’ union, called for the league to make all playing surfaces natural grass in a 2020 essay. Tretter cited league injury data between 2012 and 2018 showing players were 28% more likely to suffer non-contact lower extremity injuries on turf than on grass. A petition for all NFL teams to install grass playing surfaces took off in February after then Rams receiver Odell Beckham Jr. tore his anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) in the Super Bowl at SoFi Stadium, with stars like the San Francisco 49ers’ Joey Bosa backing the measure.

The NFL’s Concussion-Research Controversy, Explained

ESPN ’s Outside the Lines had previously reported that the NFL had backed away from funding a major study looking at the relationship between football and brain disease because it would be overseen by a researcher who’s been critical of the league. At the time, the NFL called the report “inaccurate,” but now Outside the Lines has published an even more comprehensive look at the league’s funding of concussion-related research, calling it “a secretive funding apparatus with its own set of rules, one that often rewards league doctors, punishes critics and, some researchers believe, steers research away from potentially uncomfortable truths about the relationship between football and brain disease.” Here’s what you need to know about the bombshell report.

How much money is the NFL putting toward research? Quite a bit. The league and its partners, according to the report, have committed more than $100 million for research studies. The league is funding what ESPN calls a “broad spectrum” of research using, for instance, neuroimaging and blood samples. It’s also funding new technologies such as goggles that measure changes in eye movement associated with head trauma. The NFL ’s 2012 pledge of $30 million to the National Institutes of Health was the largest individual donation in the league history, and the NFL became one of the 13 largest donors to the Foundation for the NIH , which raises private money for NIH research.

So what’s the problem? Even when the league first made its pledge, senior officials at the NIH debated whether to even accept it, in part because of concerns that the league would try to control how it was used. Indeed, years later, some in the research community believe the league has done just that. According to the report, “in at least six instances over the past two years, NFL -affiliated grants totaling several million dollars have gone to scientists or institutions directly connected to the league, the data show.” The report points out the pitfalls of industry-funded research, noting that the tobacco industry funded thousands of studies with the goal of denying a connection between smoking and lung disease. In the NFL ’s case, according to the report, some believe the league “steers research away from potentially uncomfortable truths about the relationship between football and brain disease.” It’s also worth noting that the league’s track record on the issue isn’t great. In 1994, the league formed its own research committee, which repeatedly denied a link between the sport and brain disease. It was disbanded in 2009, at which point the league began working with respected researchers, with commissioner Roger Goodell saying the league was “going to let the medical people decide” whether there’s a link.

How exactly does the league allegedly try to control research? The report cites three examples. One is the NIH study that the league allegedly backed out of funding because it was to be funded by a Boston University researcher who’s been critical of the league in the past. (That particular situation is complicated further by the way it was challenged: Dr. Richard Ellenbogen, the co-chairman of the NFL ’s powerful Head, Neck and Spine Committee, participated in the call as an adviser to the league, even though he was also an applicant for the same grant. One researcher who works with the NIH said that this “undermines the integrity of the entire peer-review process.”) The NIH ultimately used taxpayer money to fund the study.

In another example, the league had funded a report that questioned the accuracy of helmet sensors. According to the expert who edited the paper, the researchers hired by the league set unattainable standards for the sensors’ accuracy, and later used the results to justify suspending the implementation of the sensors in the NFL .

In a third example, ESPN points to a dispute it previously reported on between the NFL and the union that “significantly diminished a previously announced $100 million Harvard study on player health, with the league ultimately declining to participate.”

For its report, ESPN spoke with two researchers from Purdue University who will no longer accept money from the NFL because they say they’ve seen too many examples of influence and scientific bias. According to one of those researchers: “A while back, we talked about all the folks who have ended up on the Head, Neck and Spine Committee, and we think there’s a pretty clear demarcation between the research they did before they were funded by the league or tied to the NFL , and the research they did after they were tied to the league.” The ESPN report notes that some researchers believe Kevin Guskiewicz, once a harsh NFL critic and now the chair of its Subcommittee on Safety Equipment and Playing Rules, has softened his previous positions. (He says that his positions have remained consistent.)

What’s the NFL ’s response to all of this? A league spokesperson said in an email to ESPN that “As it relates to head health, the league is funding scientific and medical research by leading independent experts around the world to advance understanding of brain injuries. This research is moving forward, and as it does, we will use it to improve how our athletes train and play the game.”

Ellenbogen said it’s wrong to suggest the league is trying to control research. From the report:

“ What you are seeing is just how well-intentioned scientists debate the different approaches, how competitive the grants are, and fortunately how much interest there is in this research,” he wrote. “This is not about the NFL stopping [brain research]. Quite the opposite. … The NFL directly or indirectly funded much of it to the tune of millions.”

Is anyone else looking into these claims? Yes. Outside the Lines says that as a result of its reporting, four Democrats on the House Energy & Commerce Committee have requested information about the NFL ’s funding relationship from the NIH and FNIH . The report says that both agencies say they are working to comply with that request.

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Concussions in the National Football League: A Current Concepts Review

Affiliations.

1 Vanderbilt Sports Concussion Center, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, USA [email protected].
2 Vanderbilt Sports Concussion Center, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
3 Vanderbilt Sports Concussion Center, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, USA Department of Neurological Surgery, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
PMID: 25899432
DOI: 10.1177/0363546515580313

Background: Significant attention has been directed toward the immediate and long-term effects of sport-related concussions on athletes participating in contact sports, particularly football. The highest level of football, the National Football League (NFL), has received significant attention and criticism regarding player management and safety after mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). Several review articles have reported data related to concussion in the NFL, but a succinct review and synthesis of data regarding NFL concussions is currently lacking.

Purpose: To (1) review systematically the published data regarding concussion in the NFL and assess limitations of the studies, (2) elucidate areas where further research is needed, and (3) identify methods to improve future investigations of concussion in the NFL.

Study design: Systematic review of literature.

Methods: English-language titles and abstracts published between 1900 and September 2014 were searched systematically across electronic databases, and a review was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement. Peer-reviewed journal articles were included if they contained NFL concussion data with or without additional associated long-term effects. Reviews, editorials, letters to the editor, and comments were not included.

Results: Of the 344 records screened for review, 88 articles were assessed for eligibility. There were 31 studies that met the inclusion criteria and formed the basis of the evidence synthesis. Included in the current review were 8 case-control studies (Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine evidence level 3b), 6 descriptive epidemiological studies (level 4), 6 cross-sectional studies (level 4), 6 cohort studies (level 2b), and 5 case series (level 4).

Conclusion: The study of concussions in the NFL has been limited by lack of recent empirical data, reliance on self-reported concussion history, and ascertainment bias of brains donated for autopsy studies. The scientific community as well as the public should be cautious in interpreting the current literature surrounding concussion.

Keywords: NFL; chronic traumatic encephalopathy; concussion; neuropsychological testing.

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Frequently Asked Questions

All social science research is challenged by the potential of omitted explanatory variables. We agree that here may be other explanatory variables, particularly intervening variables (e.g., investments in player development), that explain our findings. Unfortunately, we did not have access to such data over time on each NFL team organization. Several features of our research permit us to infer that there is, in fact, a relationship between the presence of a critical mass of women executives and reduced numbers of player arrests:

A strong dataset that contains 12 years of team organization data and player arrests that revealed a statistically significant relationship between having a critical mass of women executives and reduced player arrests. Other team organization variables, such as team win percentage, that we might have expected would relate to player arrests, did not.
Important control variables were included in our model to rule out alternative explanations for our findings. These include year, team win percentage, region of the country in which the team is located, number of employees, and the proportion of women in management.
We build upon previous research on demographic composition and firm outcomes (Ali & Konrad, 2017; Hunt, Layton, & Prince, 2015; Joshi & Roh, 2009; Matsa & Miller, 2013; Tsui & Gutek, 1999; Zhang, Zhu, & Ding, 2013).
We have a strong theoretical argument for our hypotheses. Specifically, we draw upon upper echelons theory, which emphasizes the key role played by TMT executives in organizational decision making (Carpenter, Geletkanycz, & Sanders, 2004; Hambrick & Mason, 1984), as well as critical mass theory (Kanter, 1977; Torchia, Calabrò, & Huse, 2011), which explains how women must be represented sufficiently in an organization for them to affect change. We also rely on intergroup relations theory to recognize and understand conceptually the gender-related dynamics at the upper levels of a men’s professional sport team organization. We theorize that the presence of a critical mass of women executives influences employee misconduct through three avenues: (1) changes to workplace culture; (2) the shaping of strategic priorities, and (3) improved strategic decision making. With sufficient numbers of an underrepresented group such as women, it becomes possible for group members to push back on negative pressures and stereotypes, build coalitions, participate more fully in conversations about strategic priorities, and contribute ideas and perspectives to the decision making process (Allport, 1954; Chesterman, Ross-Smith, & Peters, 2005; Konrad et al., 2008; Pfeffer, 1981; Kossek & Zonia, 1993; Torchia, Calabrò, & Huse, 2011; Wahid, 2019).

Please see the complete version of the paper for full information on the works cited.

Player arrests are a visible indicator of player misconduct that is accessible publicly via the USA Today database . Little research has examined off-the-job misconduct of high-profile employees, nor has misconduct research considered the role of women on top management teams. We acknowledge the limitations of the player arrests variable here .

We developed a theoretical rationale for, and conducted similar analyses on, the relationship between having a critical mass of the racial/ethnic minorities and player arrests. Almost all minority executives in the team organizations were African-Americans, as identified by reports from the Institute for Diversity and Ethics in Sport , University of Florida. We found no significant association between the presence of a critical mass of minority executives (both women and men) and player arrests.

The Editor asked us to move the race/ethnicity analyses to the paper’s Appendix, and this is where the empirical results on race/ethnicity can be found. We were torn about this decision because we believed that we had a solid theoretical rationale for why there should be a negative relationship between the presence of minority executives and player arrests (i.e., the presence of a critical mass of minority executives will result in fewer player arrests). A second reason this issue concerned us is because empirical examination of NFL team organizations seems incomplete without examination of the effects of minority executives, given that 68% of the players are African-Americans (Besttickets.com, 2014). Our very skilled Editor on the paper felt that the need to focus the paper outweighed these concerns and, in the end, we concurred.

We are sensitive to the risk of stereotyping professional football players as poorly behaved because of the extensive news media coverage of NFL player arrests; pervasive, negative stereotypes about African-American men in particular; and the sometimes easily accessed social media content related to the misconduct. The arrests in the data include both Black men and White men. We strongly discourage discussion of the study as an indictment of NFL players. As we state in the paper introduction, NFL players actually have lower rates of arrests than the U.S. general population (Leal, Gertz, & Piquero, 2015).

In addition, we try to contextualize NFL players’ situations by referring to “the complex adjustment and social pressures experienced by NFL athletes (Carter, 2009).” The Carter study documented how it is not uncommon for individuals who join NFL teams to be faced with a number of personal and professional challenges, including the loss or alteration of social support systems.

We have developed this website to encourage interested readers to consider our full paper to understand what our study is and is not able to conclude empirically. The study is an examination of player arrests at the team level, for purposes of understanding organizational factors, such as top management team gender composition, that affect the number of arrests that a team experiences.

Carter, E.M. (2009). Boys gone wild . Lanham, MD: University Press of America, Inc.

Leal, W., Gertz, M., & Piquero, A.R. (2015). The national Felon league?: A comparison of NFL arrests to general population arrests. Journal of Criminal Justice , 43(5), 397-403. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2015.08.001

Seventy-one of the 324 arrests (21%) in our data involved domestic violence. We could locate no national statistics for domestic violence arrests as a proportion of total arrests. However, as best we can tell, we believe that our data are representative of a general population because they are in line with the incomplete national statistics that we were able to locate:

FBI statistics indicate that about 15.4% of all men’s arrests are for domestic violence (inferred from statistics on murder, rape, assault, and crimes against children and families).
FBI data indicates that arrests nationally for domestic violence peak during the 25-29 age group, with the next highest domestic violence arrest rates for ages 20-24. These age groups are substantially represented in our NFL player data. For this combined age group 20-29, the inferred proportion of arrests that are due to domestic violence average 17%.

Note that the FBI data appear to be the most comprehensive available but its website notes that not all police jurisdictions report these statistics.

Federal Bureau of Investigation. 2018. Crime in the United States, Table 39: Arrests, Males, by Age. Downloaded on May 17, 2020.

Dr. Graham has a Ph.D. in Industrial and Labor Relations from Cornell University and is a Professor of Sport Management at the David B. Falk College of Sport and Human Dynamics at Syracuse University. Dr. Graham is an expert on management and organizations, and she has over 20 peer-reviewed scholarly papers on these topics.

Dr. Walia has a Ph.D. in Economics from Kansas State University and is an Assistant Professor of Public Health at the David B. Falk College of Sport and Human Dynamics at Syracuse University. Dr. Walia is an expert on economics, and statistical modelling and analysis. She is also part of a research team examining concussions among football players.

Mr. Robinson is an attorney licensed to practice law in the District of Columbia. He earned his J.D. and sports law certificate from Tulane Law School, where he coached their alternative dispute resolution team. He began work on this study as a sport management undergraduate student at Syracuse University. He most recently spent two seasons working in the Brooklyn Nets front office, specializing in salary cap management, and collective bargaining agreement compliance.

Dr. Graham is a long-time Buffalo Bills fan, from all the way back to the Joe Ferguson era. Dr. Walia is a fan of the Cincinnati Bengals. Mr. Robinson played Center at Freedom High School in Northern Virginia, and the Philadelphia Eagles are his team.

Most of the data are publicly available from internet sources as listed in the Research Methodology section of the paper. Data on team organization size and the proportion of women in management were obtained via a confidentiality agreement with the U.S. Department of Labor* and these are not publicly available.

* The first two authors accessed the data on employer EEO-1 filings as unpaid researchers on temporary assignment with EEOC through an Intergovernmental Personnel Act (IPA) agreement. As part of this agreement, they entered into a confidentiality agreement which prohibits disclosure of any individual team organization data.

A study of racial profiling and NFL player arrests;
Examination of team organization culture and its effects on player arrests;
Qualitative interviews with NFL and NBA team organization executives to examine their decision-making processes.

For more information, please contact Dr. Mary E. Graham at [email protected] .

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The Relationship of Fantasy Football Participation with NFL Television Ratings

Permissions : This work is protected by copyright and may be linked to without seeking permission. Permission must be received for subsequent distribution in print or electronically. Please contact [email protected] for more information.

For more information, read Michigan Publishing's access and usage policy .

An estimated 30 million people participate in fantasy football leagues, yet little academic research has been conducted on this topic. While there are many factors that can contribute to the television rating of a sports event, this study asks if fantasy football participation can serve as an additional motivating factor for fans to watch National Football League (NFL) games on television. Results provide some evidence that games with more NFL players starting in a high percentage of fans’ fantasy football leagues have higher Nielsen ratings, although there are differences for the games on NBC vs. ESPN, percentage of starting fantasy players, teams’ combined winning percentage, and closeness of game.

Fantasy Sports, NFL, Television Ratings

Fortunato, J. A. (2011). The relationship of fantasy football participation with NFL television ratings. Journal of Sport Administration & Supervision 3(1), 74-90. Published online September, 2011.

Introduction

Fantasy football, where fans compile player statistics from actual professional games to compete against opponents in their fantasy matchups, continues to be a phenomenon with an estimated 30 million people participating in fantasy leagues (Pucin, 2009). According to Nielsen Media Research more than 1.2 billion minutes were spent on fantasy websites in 2008 (Kimball, 2008). Despite these fantasy sports participation statistics, Baerg (2009) points out that little academic research has been conducted on this topic.

The purpose of this study is to examine whether fantasy football participation can serve as an additional motivating factor for fans to watch National Football League (NFL) games on television. The primary research question is: does a game having more NFL players that are starting in a high percentage of fans’ fantasy football leagues lead to an increase in that game’s television rating? To address this question this study analyzed the relationship between games that featured NFL players starting in a high percentage of fantasy leagues for that particular week and the television rating for the games that were televised on NBC’s Sunday Night Football and ESPN’s Monday Night Football. There are several factors that can contribute to the television rating of a sports event, therefore, it must be clearly noted that it is not being argued here that fantasy football participation is the dominant factor influencing viewing, but rather testing to see if there is a relationship between fantasy football participation and viewing NFL games on television. Because there are so many factors that can influence a television rating, the variables of teams’ combined winning percentage and margin of victory in the game are also analyzed in comparison to the television rating for the NFL games on NBC and ESPN.

The issue of audience motivations for media use has long been discussed in the mass communication literature. In the specific context of motivation of media use for sports content, researchers have identified the unknown outcome of the game as the motivating factor that most influences the behavior of watching. For sports fans, another major motivation is seeing favorite teams and players win or teams and players they do not like lose (e.g., Gantz, 1981; Wann, Schrader, & Wilson, 1999; Wenner & Gantz, 1998; Zillman, Bryant, & Sapolsky, 1989). Therefore, the unknown outcome of fans’ favorite team’s games influences the behavior of viewing their games on television. These researchers, however, were only evaluating fans’ motivations to watch these games based on their results factoring into the actual, real-life sports league standings. The question that emerges is: couldn’t these same motivations for watching teams and players win or lose extend to the unknown outcome of fans’ games in their fantasy football leagues? Could the unknown outcome of fans’ fantasy team’s games influence the behavior of viewing NFL games on television?

Literature Review

Some of the seminal works in the field of mass communication try to account for the motivational factors in the media use behavior of the audience (e.g., Blumler & Katz 1974; Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch 1974; Rosengren, Wenner, & Palmgreen 1985). Rubin (1984, 2002) identifies two media-use orientations toward a medium and its content that are based on audience motives, attitudes, and behaviors: (1) ritualized media use and (2) instrumental media use. Ritualized media use focuses on how people use their leisure time and which medium they attend to when multiple media options are available. In ritualized media use the tendency is to use the medium regardless of the content.

Instrumental media use focuses on purposive exposure to specific content and is more intentional and selective on the part of the individual audience member (e.g., Rubin, 1984, 2002). It is the content available through a particular medium at a particular time that motivates the media use behavior. In the context of sports content this instrumental mass media use can be a factor in a person organizing his or her day so as to be done with any other activities and be available to watch the game live at the time it is being played.

Television networks attempt to tap into both the ritualized and instrumental media use orientations by aligning certain programming with the leisure time of their desired audience (e.g., Fortunato, 2008). The NFL and its television partners have created a consistent programming schedule for the times that NFL games are played to capitalize on the ritualized nature of television viewing (Sunday afternoon at 1:00 and 4:00 est., Sunday night, Monday night, and a few games on Thursday night or Saturday night at the end of the season on the NFL Network). The NFL and its television partners then try to schedule the best teams and the best players to participate in the televised games, especially the games in prime-time, as the means to help increase the instrumental viewing component (e.g., Fortunato, 2008).

Several researchers have examined the motivational factors for the media use behavior of the audience in the very specific context of sports (e.g., Trail, Anderson, & Fink, 2000; Trail & James, 2001; Wann & Branscombe, 1993; Wenner & Gantz, 1998). It is the characteristics of the sports audience that make the motivational factors of this group’s media use unique. The sports audience has been described as very loyal and watching sports has been found to satisfy emotional needs (e.g., Gantz & Wenner, 1995; Mullin, Hardy, & Sutton, 2007; Wann, et. al., 1999; Zillmann et. al., 1989). Wenner and Gantz (1998) point out “concerns with seeing ‘who wins’ and how one’s ‘favorite does’ are among the strongest individual motivations for sports viewing. These tend to combine with the enjoyment that comes with experiencing the ‘drama and tension’ and the excitement of ‘rooting’ for a player or team to win” (p. 236).

Zillmann, Bryant, and Sapolsky (1989) recognize the sports fans desire to see their favorite teams win and that fans also display emotions towards teams they do not like in their disposition theory of sportsfanship. The disposition theory claims that enjoyment of watching sports contests and athletic excellence, “depends to some extent, at least, on the particular person displaying such excellence, and on the particular team to which this person belongs. People applaud great play on the part of their favorite athletes and teams. The same excellence, the same mastery of skills, seems to be far less appreciated, possibly even deplored, when it is exhibited by disliked athletes or resented teams” (p. 256). For example, fans in Green Bay will applaud the skills of Packers quarterback Aaron Rogers, but now deplore the similar skills of a player they once cheered, former Packer quarterback and current member of the Minnesota Vikings, Brett Favre. Along with an obvious interest in watching their favorite team’s games, in applying the disposition theory of Zillmann et. al. (1989), Fortunato (2004) also found that fans have a strong interest in watching games when their favorite team is not playing, but the outcome of the game has an impact on their favorite team’s position in the league standings.

These theoretical concepts of ritualized and instrumental viewing, the unknown outcome of the game, or seeing how a favorite team or player performs were, however, only described in motivating the audience to watch actual, real-life sports events. This paper applies these motivations to fans watching football on television because of their fantasy football participation. Fans now might be motivated to watch NFL games to root for the players on their fantasy team. Or, in applying the disposition theory, fans might be motivated to watch the game to root against an NFL player on a fantasy team that they are competing against that week or a game that features an NFL player who is on a fantasy team that is in the same division in their fantasy league. It is still the unknown outcome of the game, the concern for seeing how players perform, and the fans’ desire to win that serve as the motivating factor in an instrumental media use behavior of the audience.

Fantasy Sports

Academic research about the phenomenon of fantasy sports is continuing to develop. Several articles chronicle the history, participant demographic profile, economic impact, and cultural impact of fantasy sports (Baerg, 2009; Davis & Duncan, 2006; Roy & Goss, 2007). One prominent area in the study of fantasy sports focuses on the motivations of fantasy sports participants (e.g., Bernhard & Eade, 2005; Davis & Duncan, 2006; Farquhar & Meeds, 2007; Kaplan, 1990; Rein, Kotler, & Shields, 2006; Roy & Goss, 2007). Roy and Goss (2007) contend that fantasy sports participation is motivated by both internal psychological variables and external social variables. They explain the internal psychological variables are the ability to: (1) exert control as the owner of a team with the ability to select the players, make trades, and put together a starting lineup, (2) the desire to escape reality in getting away from daily routines and stress, and (3) the feeling of achievement obtained by being successful in defeating the competition in a fantasy matchup.

Other scholars have elaborated on these internal motivations. Regarding the control motivation Kaplan (1990) emphasizes the ability to personalize a team through activities such as creating a team name and logo. Davis and Duncan (2006) identify the ability to demonstrate ones sports knowledge in drafting players, while the ability to gather information and statistics about the actual sport and its players has also been consistently found in the literature as a motivating factor for fantasy participation (e.g., Farquhar & Meeds, 2007; Rein, et. al., 2006). Several authors comment on the competition aspect of fantasy sports participation. Farquhar and Meeds (2007) argue that the fantasy sports participants’ desire for victory motivated their behavior for joining a fantasy league. Bernhard and Eade (2005) claim that the gambling involved could be a motivating factor for fantasy participants.

Roy and Goss (2007) document the external variables of being a part of a community with shared interests and the opportunity to socialize with family, friends, and colleagues.

Other scholars also comment on the motivational value of building and maintaining social relationships (e.g., Bernhard & Eade, 2005; Davis and Duncan, 2006; Rein, et. al., 2006). Bernhard and Eade (2005) stressed the importance of the Internet in assisting with the socialization aspect of playing fantasy sports with participants permitted to post comments on league message boards.

Roy and Goss (2007) also applied marketing principles of product, price, and promotion in their analysis. The fact that participating in fantasy sports is made easy through online Web sites and often free or of little expense contributes to the number of fantasy players. These forms of media facilitate the ability to engage in competition, an important motivating variable as discussed above. The fantasy-game competition is easy to follow through the Internet with Web sites updating real-time statistics and through the traditional media of watching games on television. Russo and Walker (2006) emphasize the intersection of fantasy participation and television viewing. Baerg (2009) points out because fantasy sports are an increasingly important part of the sports culture, traditional media outlets are devoting more attention to fantasy sports.

While the motivations for fan participation in fantasy sports have been provided, sports leagues and television networks would be interested in how this fantasy sports participation is a motivating factor for another behavior vital to the sports business, the watching of games on television. There is some evidence of this relationship. Birch (2004) identifies that fans’ focus on individual performance can make games more attractive. Davis and Duncan (2006) provide some evidence from fantasy players who state their motivation for watching a game is due to having a player participating in the real game on their fantasy team. Still, there needs to be additional evidence based on an important statistical measure, such as television ratings, that can further substantiate the impact of fantasy sports. Baerg (2009) claims that scholars need to pay more attention to the fantasy sports industry, specifically identifying how fantasy sports fits into the content delivery strategy of television networks as one area of desired inquiry.

The Football Industry: Televising, Scheduling, and Ratings

The relationship of fantasy football participation with the television ratings of NFL games might provide the NFL and television networks another resource in scheduling its games. Executives from the NFL and its prime-time television partners (NBC for Sunday night games and ESPN for Monday night games) try to select games that are so attractive they will lead to the instrumental viewing as described by Rubin (1984, 2002). The selection of which teams will appear on nationally televised games is the first step in setting up the entire schedule of games for the NFL (e.g., Fortunato, 2008). Formulating the schedule for the upcoming season in the spring is a challenge for the NFL and its television partners. For example, the New Orleans Saints won the Super Bowl, but were never on NBC’s Sunday Night Football during the 2009 regular season, while the Chicago Bears had a record of 7-9 in 2009, but appeared in three games on NBC.

This difficulty created the need for the NFL to allow NBC to have a flexible schedule for the last seven weeks of the NFL regular season (e.g., Fortunato, 2008). In 2009, NBC exercised its option to flex out of one previously scheduled game and into a more desirable matchup once when in week thirteen it did not broadcast the game between the New England Patriots and the Miami Dolphins and instead televised the Minnesota Vikings at the Arizona Cardinals. NBC does not have to choose its week seventeen matchup until six days prior to the game when it knows which game will have the greatest playoff implications. In 2009 NBC selected the Cincinnati Bengals at the New York Jets for its week seventeen game.

This study, therefore, attempts to address two concerns of scholars: the continued study of audience motivations for mass media use and the need for a more extensive examination into the influence of fantasy sports as expressed by Baerg (2009). With the popularity of fantasy football, it is valuable to provide some measure of this relatively new, but increasingly important phenomenon with a traditional measure of sports popularity and a major component of the sports business model, television ratings.

Research Questions

In accessing whether fantasy football participation can serve as an additional motivation to watch NFL games, the primary research question is:

Research Question One : Does a game having more NFL players that are starting in a high percentage of fans’ fantasy football leagues lead to an increase in that game’s television rating?

Trying to determine if there is a relationship between the variable of NFL players starting in fantasy leagues with that game’s television rating is important because it provides some measure of the cultural impact of fantasy sports as well as the passion and media use behavior of fantasy football participants.

To provide a more comprehensive analysis and acknowledge that the factors of team’s combined winning percentage and margin of victory also have a relationship with the television rating of a sports event, the following research questions are also identified:

Research Question Two : Does a game between teams with higher winning percentages lead to an increase in that game’s television rating?
Research Question Three : Does a game between teams with higher winning percentages lead to an increase in the number of NFL players starting in fans’ fantasy football lineups?
Research Question Four : Does a game between teams with higher winning percentages from the 2008 season lead to an increase in the game’s television rating when those teams played in 2009?
Research Question Five : Does a game with a smaller margin of victory lead to an increase in that game’s television rating?

To respond to these research questions, correlations were conducted between NFL players starting in fantasy football leagues for that particular week and the television rating for that particular game. The NFL games that were broadcast on NBC’s Sunday Night Football and ESPN’s Monday Night Football during the 2009 regular season are chosen because they are played at a time when there is no competition from other NFL games and these games are televised to the entire country. The games on Sunday afternoon televised on Fox or CBS are in many instances regionalized broadcasts with each city seeing the game of its local team. Using the NBC Sunday night games and ESPN Monday night games provide a sample size of 33 games.

CBS Sportsline is used to provide the percentage of fantasy leagues that an NFL player was starting in for that particular week. CBS Sportsline is used because CBS is also a broadcast rights holder for NFL games with the ability to cross-promote between the television network and the Web site. Roy and Goss (2007) comment on the important role that CBS Sportsline has played in cross-promoting fantasy football through its broadcast network. For every NFL player CBS Sportsline provides the percentage of fantasy leagues in which he is owned and the percentage of fantasy leagues that he is starting in for that particular week. For example, Peyton Manning, Indianapolis Colts Quarterback, in the week two game against the Miami Dolphins was owned in 100 percent of CBS Sportsline fantasy leagues and fantasy owners had him starting in 99 percent of those leagues. For each game on NBC and ESPN the percentage of fantasy leagues that the relevant fantasy players were starting in was gathered. The relevant fantasy players are the team’s quarterback, running backs, wide receivers, tight end, kicker, and team defense. It is the players at these positions real-game statistics that account for fantasy points. It is only the players starting measure that is being used in this analysis as only those players’ statistical performance influences the outcome of the fantasy games for that particular week.

Two versions of the fantasy player measure were used for the analysis: (1) the number of NFL players starting in greater than 50 percent of the fantasy leagues on CBS Sportsline for that particular week and the game’s television rating and (2) the number of NFL players starting in greater than 90 percent of the fantasy leagues on CBS Sportsline for that particular week and the game’s television rating.

The second measure is the television rating for the NFL games on NBC’s Sunday Night Football and ESPN’s Monday Night Football for the 2009 regular season. For the NFL and its television partners television ratings are still the most important audience feedback measure (e.g., Fortunato, 2008). The television ratings have a direct impact on the business model of the sports industry. Sports leagues and television networks sign a broadcast rights contract where the network agrees to pay a sports league a certain dollar amount for a certain number of years for the rights to televise that league’s games in order to provide the networks’ advertisers access to desired audiences (e.g., Fortunato, 2008; Wenner, 1989). A higher television rating has an initial economic benefit to the network and eventually the league benefits when it negotiates its next broadcast rights contract. The ratings data presented here are provided by Nielsen Media Research and available through the Sports Media Watch website, http://sportsmediawatch.blogspot.com .

A third measure used in this study is the teams’ winning percentage at game time, and overall from the prior year. For both the NBC and ESPN games, correlations were conducted to test the relationship between teams’ combined winning percentage at the time of the game, and from the overall prior year, with the television rating for that game. As discussed above, a teams’ prior season performance is a major factor in the number of prime-time games the team appears in for the upcoming season when the schedule is made.

It is important to note, and logical to assume, that NFL teams with a high winning percentage would be the teams with many players that are starting in a high percentage of fantasy leagues – after all, it is yards gained (passing, running, or receiving), touchdowns, and defensive performance that lead to NFL team success and determine fantasy success. A correlation was thus conducted using winning percentage and the number of NFL players starting in a high percentage of fantasy leagues for that particular week.

The final measure is the margin of victory in the game with the idea that closer, more competitive games might hold viewers longer and increase the rating.

Tables One (NBC) and Two (ESPN) provide the Nielsen ratings for each analyzed game.

The average rating for the NBC Sunday night games in 2009 was an 11.6 (SD=1.59). The highest rated game was the week two matchup between the New York Giants and the Dallas Cowboys, 15.1. The lowest rated game was the week seven contest between the Arizona Cardinals and the New York Giants, 9.1. The average rating for the ESPN Monday night games in 2009 was 9.0 (SD=1.83). The highest rated game was the week four contest between the Green Bay Packers and the Minnesota Vikings, 13.2. The lowest rated game was the week ten matchup between the Baltimore Ravens and the Cleveland Browns, 6.5.

Week	Game	Rating
1	Chicago at Green Bay	12.6
2	New York Giants at Dallas	15.1
3	Indianapolis at Arizona	10.7
4	San Diego at Pittsburgh	11.0
5	Indianapolis at Tennessee	9.7
6	Chicago at Atlanta	10.9
7	Arizona at New York Giants	9.1
9	Dallas at Philadelphia	13.1
10	New England at Indianapolis	13.7
11	Philadelphia at Chicago	10.6
12	Pittsburgh at Baltimore	11.5
13	Minnesota at Arizona	12.5
14	Philadelphia at New York Giants	12.7
15	Minnesota at Carolina	11.0
16	Dallas at Washington	10.9
17	Cincinnati at New York Jets	10.0
		11.6 avg (SD= 1.59)

Week	Game	Rating
1	Buffalo at New England	8.9
1	San Diego at Oakland	7.6
2	Indianapolis at Miami	9.4
3	Carolina at Dallas	9.9
4	Green Bay at Minnesota	13.2
5	New York Jets at Miami	8.4
6	San Diego at Denver	8.3
7	Philadelphia at Washington	8.1
8	Atlanta at New Orleans	7.7
9	Pittsburgh at Denver	9.9
10	Baltimore at Cleveland	6.5
11	Tennessee at Houston	7.7
12	New England at New Orleans	12.9
13	Baltimore at Green Bay	8.3
14	San Francisco at Arizona	8.3
15	New York Giants at Washington	7.3
16	Minnesota at Chicago	10.4
		9.0 avg. (SD= 1.83)

Percentage of Starting Fantasy Players, and of Games Won

For the games on NBC there was an average of 8.25 (SD=2.14) NFL players starting in greater than 50 percent and an average of 3.25 (SD=2.28) players starting in greater than 90 percent of the fantasy leagues on CBS Sportsline for that particular week. Three games had eleven NFL players starting in greater than 50 percent of fantasy leagues: Green Bay Packers at Chicago Bears in week one, Arizona Cardinals at New York Giants in week seven, and Dallas Cowboys at Philadelphia Eagles in week nine. The games in the last two weeks of the season between the Dallas Cowboys at the Washington Redskins and the Cincinnati Bengals at the New York Jets had only four players starting in over 50 percent of fantasy games for those weeks’ games. The week ten game between the New England Patriots and the Indianapolis Colts had the most NFL players starting in over 90 percent of fantasy leagues with seven. Four games had only one player starting in over 90 percent of fantasy leagues: Pittsburgh Steelers at Baltimore Ravens in week twelve, Philadelphia Eagles at New York Giants in week fourteen, Dallas Cowboys at Washington Redskins in week sixteen, and Cincinnati Bengals at New York Jets in week seventeen (See Table Three).

Game	Fantasy Players over 50% start	Fantasy Players over 90% start	2009 win %	2008 win %	Margin of Victory
Chi/GB	11	5	.56	.47	6
NYG/Da	l7	5	1.00	.66	2
Indy/Ari	8	5	.75	.66	21
SD/Pitt	9	3	.50	.63	10
Tenn/Indy	7	4	.50	.78	22
Chi/Atl	8	4	.75	.63	7
Ari/NYG	11	2	.73	.66	7
Dal/Phil	11	4	.71	.56	4
NE/Indy	9	7	.88	.72	1
Phil/Chi	10	2	.50	.56	4
Pitt/Balt	7	1	.52	.72	3
Minn/Ari	9	4	.77	.59	13
Phi/NYG	9	1	.63	.66	7
Minn/Car	8	3	.62	.69	19
Dal/Wash	4	1	.46	.53	17
Cin/NYJ	4	1	.60	.41	37
Avg.	8.25 (SD= 2.14)	3.25 (SD= 2.28)	.66 (SD=.15)	.62 (SD=.096)	11.25 (SD=9.7)

For the games on ESPN there was an average of 6.65 (SD=2.32) NFL players starting in greater than 50 percent and an average of 2.7 (SD=1.76) players starting in greater than 90 percent of the fantasy leagues on CBS Sportsline for that particular week. Two games had ten NFL players starting in greater than 50 percent of fantasy leagues: Green Bay Packers at Minnesota Vikings in week four and New England Patriots at New Orleans Saints in week twelve. Three games had only three players starting in greater than 50 percent of fantasy leagues: New York Jets at Miami Dolphins in week five, Baltimore Ravens at Cleveland Browns in week ten, and New York Giants at Washington Redskins in week fifteen. The week twelve game between the New England Patriots and the New Orleans Saints had the most players starting in over 90 percent of fantasy leagues with six. Three games on ESPN did not have any NFL players starting in over 90 percent of fantasy leagues: New York Jets at Miami Dolphins in week five, Pittsburgh Steelers at Denver Broncos in week nine, and New York Giants at Washington Redskins in week fifteen (See Table Four).

Game	Fantasy Players over 50% start	Fantasy Players over 90% start	2009 win %	2008 win %	Margin of Victory
Buf/NE	6	4	.50	.56	1
SD/Oak	7	3	.56	.41	4
Indy/Miami	5	3	.50	.72	4
Car/Dal	7	2	.25	.66	14
GB/Minn	10	5	.83	.50	7
NYJ/Miami	3	0	.50	.63	4
SD/Den	9	1	.78	.50	11
Phil/Wash	8	4	.50	.53	10
Atl/NO	9	4	.83	.59	8
Pitt/Den	6	0	.79	.63	18
Balt/Cle	3	2	.31	.47	16
Tenn/Hou	5	2	.47	.66	3
NE/NO	10	6	.85	.59	21
Balt/GB	8	3	.59	.53	13
SF/Ari	6	4	.52	.50	15
NYG/Wash	3	0	.42	.63	33
Minn/Chi	8	3	.57	.59	6
Avg.	6.65 (SD= 2.32)	2.70 (SD= 1.76)	.5747 (SD=.18)	.5706 (SD=.08)	11.06 (SD=8.1)

Correlations

Research question one.

For the NBC sample there was a statistically significant correlation for games with NFL players starting in greater than 90 percent of fantasy leagues and the television rating for that particular week’s game, r =.50, p < .05. There was not a statistically significant correlation for the games with NFL players starting in greater than 50 percent of fantasy leagues with the television rating for NBC games.

For the ESPN sample there was a statistically significant correlation for both games with NFL players starting in greater than 50 percent of fantasy leagues with the television rating for that particular week’s game, r = .60, p < .05, and games with NFL players starting in greater than 90 percent of fantasy leagues and the television rating for that particular week’s game, r = .50, p < .05.

Research Question Two

The 2009 winning percentage is determined by the teams’ combined records at the time of the game. On NBC, the game with the highest teams’ combined winning percentage was the week two game between the New York Giants and the Dallas Cowboys in which both teams had a record of 1-0. The game with the lowest teams’ combined winning percentage was the week sixteen game between the Dallas Cowboys, with a record of 9-5, and the Washington Redskins, with a record of 4-10, combining for a record of 13-15 and a winning percentage of 46 percent.

In analyzing the relationship between winning percentage and the television rating over the entire season, for the first games of the season played by the teams on NBC (Green Bay Packers at Chicago Bears) and on ESPN (Buffalo Bills at New England Patriots and San Diego Chargers at Oakland Raiders), the 2009 winning percentages was substituted for the .000 winning percentage. For the NBC games the average winning percentage was 66 percent (SD=.15). The correlation between winning percentage and the television rating for the NBC sample of games was statistically significant r = .60, p < .05.

However, these results are skewed by the week two game between the Giants and the Cowboys when both teams had a perfect record. The rating of 15.1 and winning percentage of 1.0 are both more than two standard deviations from the mean for television ratings and winning percentage. When removing this game from the analysis, the correlation between teams’ combined winning percentage and the television rating was no longer statistically significant. After eliminating the Giants at Cowboys game, the correlation between NFL players starting in greater than 90 percent of fantasy leagues and the television rating for the NBC games is also no longer statistically significant.

For ESPN, the game with the highest teams’ combined winning percentage was the week twelve game between the New England Patriots, with a record of 7-3, and the New Orleans Saints, with a record of 10-0, for a combined winning percentage of 85 percent. The game with the lowest teams’ combined winning percentage was the week ten game between the 4-4 Baltimore Ravens and the 1-7 Cleveland Browns which had a combined winning percentage of 31 percent. For the ESPN games the average winning percentage was 57.47 percent (SD=.18). The correlation between winning percentage and the television rating for the ESPN sample of games was statistically significant, r = .52, p < .05.

Research Question Three

As previously noted that it can be assumed that teams with high winning percentages have many players that start in high percentages of fantasy leagues, correlations also were conducted to test the relationship between winning percentage and the number of NFL players starting in fantasy leagues for that particular week. Tests were conducted for games with NFL players starting in greater than 50 percent and 90 percent of fantasy leagues respectively. For the games on NBC there was a statistically significant correlation between winning percentage and games with NFL players starting in 90 percent of fantasy leagues, r = .63, p < .01. There was not a statistically significant correlation for games on NBC with NFL players stating in greater than 50 percent of fantasy leagues. For ESPN, there was not a statistically significant correlation for games on ESPN with NFL players starting in greater than 90 percent of fantasy leagues, but there was a statistically significant correlation between winning percentage and games with NFL players starting in 50 percent of fantasy leagues, r = .70, p < .01.

Research Question Four

In testing the 2008 teams’ combined winning percentage, often used, as discussed above, as a factor by the league and networks in selecting prime-time matchups, with the television rating for the 2009 games there is not a statistically significant correlation for the games on NBC. However, if removing the week seventeen game between the Cincinnati Bengals and the New York Jets where their combined winning percentage for 2008 was 41 percent, there is a statistically significant correlation, r = .60, p < .05. It is important to note that the Bengals at Jets game was one that NBC chose to flex into because of the game’s playoff implications – if the Jets won, they would advance to the NFL playoffs. For ESPN, there was not a statistically significant correlation between the 2008 teams’ combined winning percentage and the television rating for the 2009 games.

Research Question Five

Finally, in testing the margin of victory variable with the television rating, for the games on NBC there was a statistically significant negative correlation, r = -.56, p < .05, meaning that the closer the score of the game, the higher the rating. This result was fueled by the highest rated game between the Giants and the Cowboys having a margin of victory of two points, the second highest rated game on NBC between the New England Patriots and the Indianapolis Colts having a one point margin of victory, as well as the third lowest rated game between the Cincinnati Bengals and the New York Jets being a 37 point win for the Jets. For ESPN there was not a statistically significant negative correlation between the margin of victory and the television rating when using all games. Even when removing the game between the New York Giants at the Washington Redskins, a 33 point win by the Giants that was two standard deviations away from the margin of victory mean, 11.06 (SD=8.1), there is still not a statistically significant negative correlation.

In continuing to focus on the question of audience motivations for mass media use as articulated by many scholars, as well as responding to the need for more scholarly inquiry into the influence of fantasy sports as expressed by Baerg (2009), the purpose of this study is to examine whether fantasy football participation can serve as an additional motivating factor for fans to watch NFL games on television. The results presented here do provide some evidence that there is a relationship between NFL players starting in a high percentage of fantasy leagues for that particular week and the television rating for that particular game. In responding to the primary research question, games with more NFL players starting in a high percentage of fans’ fantasy football leagues can lead to an increase in that game’s rating (with variations by NBC or ESPN, and by the threshold of 90 percent or 50 percent).

Some explanation for the difference in results between the NBC and ESPN samples can be provided by examining the specific games. The NBC games only had statistically significant results for NFL players starting in over 90 percent of fantasy leagues when correlated with both rating, and winning percentage. The two games with the highest rating and winning percentage (New York Giants at Dallas Cowboys and New England Patriots at Indianapolis Colts) also had the most NFL players starting in over 90 percent of fantasy leagues. This was not the case when applying the measure of NFL players starting in over 50 percent of fantasy leagues. Of the three games on NBC with the highest number of NFL players starting in over 50 percent of fantasy leagues, Chicago Bears at Green Bay Packers, Arizona Cardinals at New York Giants, and Dallas Cowboys at Philadelphia Eagles, only the Dallas at Philadelphia game was among the top three rated, with the Arizona at New York game being the lowest rated game of the season on NBC. Of these three games, none are in the top five of highest winning percentage.

For the ESPN games there is more continuity between the measures of NFL players starting in both 90 percent and 50 percent of fantasy leagues when correlated with both rating, and winning percentage. The two games with the highest rating and winning percentage (Green Bay Packers at Minnesota Vikings and New England Patriots at New Orleans Saints) had the most NFL players starting in both 90 percent and 50 percent of fantasy leagues.

There are several factors that can contribute to the television rating of a sports event. It is certainly not being proffered here that the fantasy football is the only factor influencing the television rating. The evidence here shows that games between teams with higher winning percentages can lead to an increase in the television rating for both the NBC and ESPN sample. This relationship is not surprising as games between good teams could draw the casual fan and create the instrumental viewing component that is so important for increasing the television rating. It is also not surprising that there is a relationship between team winning percentage and the number of NFL players starting in a high percentage of fantasy leagues as the great players who often score or throw touchdowns that help their NFL teams win are the same players who help fantasy football teams win as well.

The 2008 combined teams’ winning percentage and the rating for the game between those teams in 2009 was important to examine because the prior season’s result is used as a critical factor in evaluating if the team will have any of its games played in prime-time. For NBC, once the week seventeen game between Cincinnati and the New York Jets was eliminated, a game that NBC flexed into because of its playoff implications, there was a statistically significant correlation between the 2008 combined teams’ winning percentage and the rating for the game between those teams in 2009. ESPN was not as successful in predicting which matchups would produce a higher rating based on the prior season’s results as there was not a statistically significant correlation between the 2008 teams’ combined winning percentage and the television rating for its 2009 televised games.

Margin of victory is the most difficult variable to predict prior to the game being played, but there was evidence from the NBC games that the closer the score of the game, the higher the game’s rating. The margin of victory variable was not statistically significant for the games on ESPN. The margin of victory measure for NFL games might not be as important for some fans who are more concerned with the outcome of their fantasy football game. Fans might not care if the New Orleans Saints are beating the New England Patriots by 21 points as they continue to watch to see if Drew Brees, New Orleans Saints quarterback, throws another touchdown pass.

There were certain games where there was the perfect combination of teams with high winning percentages, many players starting in fantasy leagues, and a small margin of victory. For example, the game between the New England Patriots and the Indianapolis Colts on NBC featured seven players starting in greater than 90 percent of fantasy leagues (Colts: Peyton Manning, 97 percent; Reggie Wayne, 99 percent; Dallas Clark, 98 percent. Patriots: Tom Brady, 98 percent; Randy Moss, 100 percent; Wes Welker, 99 percent; Stephen Gotskowski, 97 percent), the teams had a combined winning percentage of 88 percent, and the game was decided by one point. The New England at Indianapolis game had a rating of 13.7, fifteen percent higher than the 11.6 average rating for the games on NBC.

There were other plausible, common-sense explanations that can be made for each rating beyond the influence of NFL fantasy players starting in fantasy leagues, teams’ winning percentage, margin of victory, and outlier games that were provided here. First, the 2009 NFL schedule was made before Brett Favre announced his return to football to play for the Minnesota Vikings. The first game that Favre played against his former team, the Green Bay Packers, was the highest rated game for ESPN. The highest rated game on NBC, the New York Giants at the Dallas Cowboys, featured the first regular season NFL game at the new Cowboys Stadium. The week seven NBC game between the Arizona Cardinals and the New York Giants that received only a 9.1 rating, although having eleven players starting in greater than 50 percent of fantasy leagues, was televised directly against the New York Yankees playing in game six of the American League Championship Series (ALCS). The game on Fox televising the Yankees winning the ALCS had more viewers than the football game, receiving a 9.3 rating. Finally, the week eight ESPN game between the Atlanta Falcons and the New Orleans Saints that had a rating of 7.7 was broadcast directly against game five of the World Series between the New York Yankees and the Philadelphia Phillies, which received a rating of 10.6.

The popularity of the NFL on television is undeniable. Super Bowl XLIV between the New Orleans Saints and the Indianapolis Colts was the most viewed program in the history of television with 106.5 million viewers (Nielsen Media Research; http://sportsmediawatch.blogspot.com , February 8, 2010). For the 2009 regular season, all of the NFL’s television partners had increases in their ratings: CBS, 10.4 average, increase four percent; ESPN, 9.0 average, increase eighteen percent; Fox, 11.4 average, increase nine percent; NBC, 11.7 average, increase fifteen percent; NFL Network, 3.1 average, increase 35 percent (Nielsen Media Research; http://sportsmediawatch.blogspot.com , January 9, 2010). It is also worth noting that no games on NBC or ESPN were less than two standard deviations away from the ratings’ mean for the games on their respective networks. There were, however, three games higher than two standard deviations away from the ratings’ mean: NBC’s New York Giants at Dallas Cowboys game, and ESPN’s Green Bay Packers at Minnesota Vikings game and New England Patriots at New Orleans Saints game. This shows the NFL television ratings to be consistently good, and when conditions present themselves very good.

Implications

With the results presented here providing some evidence that in certain circumstances fantasy football participation can be a variable that influences viewership of NFL games, there are some implications that need to be considered. First, the NFL should use the attraction of fantasy football and the appeal of certain players as another variable in putting together its television programming schedule of games. The development of the television programming schedule is the first part of putting together the entire game schedule. The development of the programming schedule is a challenge for the NFL because it has multiple broadcast partners who all desire the most attractive games. It should also be noted that the NFL has been very successful in its scheduling practices as in 2009 all of its broadcast partners had an increase in their television ratings. Still, it would be irresponsible of any sports league not to try to improve an important component of its overall business strategy, such as television ratings.

As noted, it is difficult to predict in April which will be the good teams and which will be the compelling matchups during the regular season. In fact, using the teams’ records from the previous season was not a predictor of television ratings for the games on ESPN. There might, however, be more predictability as to which players will be on a high percentage of fantasy football teams. While some of the these players will obviously be on the teams predicted to have winning seasons based on past seasons’ performances (i.e., Peyton Manning and the Colts), other players might be on losing teams but could still make that team’s games more attractive for fans because of their fantasy ownership. For example, Maurice Jones Drew, owned in a high percentage of fantasy leagues, might make the Jacksonville Jaguars a more attractive team to televise than even teams from bigger markets such as the Cleveland Browns or the Denver Broncos that do not have any players that are popular with fantasy football participants. This could especially be important for ESPN in its selection of games because it features a wider variety of teams in its games. In 2009 25 different teams appeared on ESPN games, as compared to NBC which only had 18 different NFL teams play in the games that it televised. So while it is certainly not being argued here that fantasy football is the dominant variable in audience viewership, it is being suggested that fantasy football should be another variable that is used by networks and the league in creating its programming schedule.

As an example of fantasy football not being the dominant variable, the week seven NBC game between the Giants and the Cardinals was the lowest rated game of the season for NBC because it was airing directly against a Yankees’ playoff game. Therefore, another consideration for the NFL in creating its programming schedule should be to try to avoid putting teams from cities where there is the potential conflict with the Major League Baseball playoffs. Again, there is no way to predict this conflict will not occur with absolute certainty. However, in putting the Giants on prime-time television during the baseball playoffs, considering the Yankees have only missed the playoffs once since 1995, there is a greater chance of a conflict and thus lower ratings for the NFL game. There is some predictability of Major League Baseball teams not being competitive and the NFL can avoid this conflict of competition within a city. For example, the Pittsburgh Pirates haven’t had a winning record since 1992 and the Kansas City Royals have only had a winning record once since 1993. Scheduling the Pittsburgh Steelers or the Kansas City Chiefs would eliminate the conflict of competition from a playoff baseball game being televised with teams from the same city. The NFL could even eliminate any chance of a conflict during the baseball playoffs in the same market by scheduling NFL teams from cities in which there isn’t a Major League Baseball team. Cities with currently successful NFL teams with popular fantasy players such as Indianapolis, New Orleans, and Tennessee could be used in prime-time games during the weeks of the baseball playoffs.

The broadcasters of NFL games could also cater their telecasts more to the fantasy football audience. CBS updates players’ statistics of those involved in the game that is being televised after each play on the top of the screen. At the bottom of the screen CBS also has a crawl of scores and players’ statistics from the other games being played around the league. The NFL’s other broadcast partners, however, update the players’ statistics with much less frequency. Another possible broadcast initiative would be to have fantasy analysts as part of the networks’ pregame shows offering tips on which NFL players fantasy participants should and should not start in their fantasy games.

For a league that earns $3.75 billion in broadcast revenue per year (the current broadcast contracts expire after the 2013 season) the more people watching and the more motivations that they have to watch the NFL will lead to further economic growth for the league. So while prior to the increase in fantasy football participation researchers identified fans were most motivated by the unknown outcome of the game and to watch their favorite teams win, the motivation to watch the NFL players that help their fantasy team win could now serve as an additional motivation, or even for some the primary motivation, that can create an instrumental media use to watch NFL games. This study only samples one season and 33 games so further examination of any fantasy football impact on television ratings needs to be conducted before larger conclusions can be drawn. This study can also be easily replicated and trends of the impact of fantasy football participation better learned. However, a fan of the Green Bay Packers may not have an intrinsic interest in watching a game between the Indianapolis Colts and the Miami Dolphins as the outcome of the game has no impact on the Packers’ standings. That fan, however, may have Peyton Manning as the starting quarterback in his or her fantasy lineup (or he is starting in the opponent’s lineup) and cares if he throws a touchdown pass and the amount of passing yardage he compiles.

For a whitepaper summary of this article, visit: http://www.jsasonline.org/home/v3n1/whitepaper/Fortunato-wp.pdf

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Davis, N.W., & Duncan, M.C. (2006). Sports knowledge is power. Reinforcing masculine privilege through fantasy sport league participation. Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 30 (3), 244-264.
Farquhar, L.K., & Meeds, R. (2007). Types of fantasy sports users and their motivations. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12 , 1208-1228.
Fortunato, J.A. (2004). The rival concept: An analysis of the 2002 Monday Night Football Season. Journal of Sport Management, 18 (4), 383-397.
Fortunato, J.A. (2008). The NFL programming schedule: A study of agenda-setting. Journal of Sports Media, 3 (1), 27-49.
Gantz, W. (1981). An exploration of viewing motives and behaviors associated with television sports. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 25 (3), 263-275.
Gantz, W. & Wenner, L.A. (1995). Fanship and the television sports viewing experience. Sociology of Sport Journal, 12 , 56-74.
Kaplan, J. (1990). Universal baseball madness: The effect of rotisserie play on psyche and social life. Play & Culture, 3 (1), 11-17.
Katz, E., Blumler, J.G. & Gurevitch, M. (1974). Utilization of mass communication by the individual. In J. Blumler and E. Katz, (Eds.), The Uses of Mass Communication (pp. 19-32). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
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Pucin, D. (2009, September 3). They’re afflicted by fantasy football fever. Los Angeles Times , p. S8.
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John A. Fortunato, Ph. D. , is an associate professor at Fordham University in the School of Business, Area of Communication and Media Management. He is the author of Commissioner: The Legacy of Pete Rozelle .

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129 NFL Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

The National Football League (NFL) is one of the most popular and watched sports leagues in the United States. With millions of fans across the country, it's no surprise that NFL topics are a popular choice for essays and research papers. Whether you're a football enthusiast looking for inspiration or a student in need of a topic for your next assignment, we've got you covered with 129 NFL essay topic ideas and examples.

The impact of concussions on NFL players
The evolution of NFL rule changes
The debate over player protests during the national anthem
The role of technology in improving player safety
The rise of fantasy football and its impact on the NFL
The history of the NFL draft
The importance of diversity and inclusion in the NFL
The controversy surrounding NFL team names and mascots
The influence of social media on the NFL
The legacy of NFL legends like Tom Brady and Jerry Rice
The impact of COVID-19 on the NFL season
The role of cheerleaders in the NFL
The role of referees in the NFL
The relationship between the NFL and gambling
The impact of the NFL on local economies
The role of the NFL Players Association in protecting player rights
The influence of NFL coaches on team success
The impact of the NFL on youth sports participation
The role of nutrition and fitness in NFL player performance
The influence of sports psychology on NFL players
The impact of the NFL on television ratings
The role of sports marketing in the NFL
The influence of the NFL on fashion and culture
The history of the Super Bowl
The impact of player endorsements on the NFL
The ethics of player salaries in the NFL
The role of sports agents in the NFL
The impact of the NFL on gender equality in sports
The influence of the NFL on college football
The impact of player discipline on team success
The role of sports analytics in the NFL
The influence of NFL team owners on league policies
The impact of the NFL on player activism
The role of sports medicine in the NFL
The influence of NFL rivalries on fan loyalty
The impact of player retirements on team dynamics
The role of the NFL Hall of Fame in preserving league history
The influence of player scandals on the NFL's reputation
The impact of player suspensions on team performance
The role of the NFL Combine in evaluating prospects
The influence of the NFL on sports broadcasting
The impact of player trades on team chemistry
The role of instant replay in NFL officiating
The influence of player contracts on team salary cap management
The impact of player injuries on team success
The role of player endorsements in shaping player images
The influence of player rivalries on game intensity
The impact of player retirements on team rebuilding efforts
The role of player celebrations in the NFL
The influence of player suspensions on team morale
The impact of player protests on league policies
The role of player fines in disciplining players
The influence of player activism on social issues
The impact of player suspensions on team standings
The role of player injuries in determining game outcomes
The influence of player arrests on team reputation
The impact of player holdouts on team negotiations
The role of player trades in reshaping team rosters
The influence of player retirements on team leadership
The impact of player contracts on team salary cap flexibility
The role of player endorsements in promoting team brands
The influence of player rivalries on game strategy
The impact of player injuries on team depth
The role of player activism in promoting social change
The influence of player suspensions on team discipline
The impact of player fines on player behavior
The role of player protests in raising awareness
The influence of player arrests on team culture
The impact of player holdouts on team chemistry
The role of player trades in improving team performance
The influence of player retirements on team morale
The impact of player contracts on team finances
The role of player endorsements in building player brands
The influence of player rivalries on team motivation
The role of player activism in promoting social justice
The influence of player suspensions on team unity
The impact of player fines on player accountability
The role of player protests in sparking national debate
The influence of player arrests on team image
The role of player trades in shaping team identity
The influence of player retirements on team legacy
The impact of player contracts on team salary cap management
The role of player endorsements in marketing team merchandise
The influence of player rivalries on fan loyalty
The impact of player injuries on team performance
The role of player trades in improving team dynamics

These 129 NFL essay topic ideas and examples cover a wide range of subjects within the world of professional football. Whether you're interested in the business side of the NFL, player safety, or the impact of player activism, there's sure to be a topic that piques your interest. So grab your notebook and start brainstorming your next NFL essay today!

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55 NFL Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best nfl topic ideas & essay examples, 🥇 most interesting nfl topics to write about, 📌 simple & easy nfl essay titles.

National Football League’s Digital Media Strategy Louis and the Riders to Oakland, as well as the creation of the Carolina Panthers and the Jacksonville Jaguars, increased the sport’s popularity.
Athletic Scholarship and the NFL: Case Study The purpose of this paper is to offer the decision on how Papua should handle coaches and studies. This decision will favor the final goal, but it may not please the coaches and reduce his […]
The National Football League Tailgating Rituals The social activities associated with fun that fans enjoy serve as a motivator for members to show their loyalty to the team by attending or watching all of the team’s matches.
Player Performance Metrics in National Football League One of the key business issues in regards to the selected sport is the evaluation of player performance metrics, which is especially critical in regards to quarterbacks, who are responsible for scoring touchdowns.
Promoting Tumi Bags at the National Football League The audience will want to win Tumi products subconsciously, and in the future, fans will associate the goods of this manufacturer with excitement and victory.
Public Relations and Sponsorships: Emirates Airlines and the NFL in 2020 Super Bowl Super Bowl is often held in the first week of February and it involves the winners of the National and American Football Conferences.
Face of the NFL? As Mayfield exhibits this behavior in a relatively healthy manner in the process of the game, it is appropriate and will unlikely be a concern for personal issues.
Medical Marijuana Legalization by National Football League However, it must be realized that some of these players are usually in excruciating pain to the point that some may have lost consciousness.
Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy in Retired NFL Players In this cross-sectional study, a sample of participants will be randomly obtained among the retired NFL players. Also, the data would demonstrate how the retired NFL players’ cases of concussion and ECT differ from the […]
Microsoft and NFL Collaboration: Opportunities and Challenges By using the devices created by the Microsoft Corporation, the members of the NFL will advertize the products to the football fans.
National Football League’s Social Performance The success of NFL is also attributed to the ‘survivalist’ mentality of the organization. Community members are very significant and influential to the operations of NFL.
NFL UK Company: Challenges and Solutions Another important step is to make sure that the Super Bowl game can be held in the UK as it is one of the most spectacular and significant sport events.
Negotiation Beetween the National Football League and the National Football League Players Association NFLPA has players and the board to represent in this negotiation. The parties must redefine and broaden the problem to make it tractable.
Editorial Cartoon NFL Tragedy by Rob Tornoe In the cartoon, the artist tries to depict the reaction of other people to this tragedy and show how trifle other problems are comparing to the sufferings experienced by the Japanese people.
Bettor Biases and the “Home-Underdog” Bias in the NFL
Should the NFL Expand the Regular Season to 18 Games?
The Differences Between the NFL and High School Football
Can Concern Over Long-Term Player Health Pave the Way to Greater Guarantees in NFL Contracts?
Anti-trust Regulations and the NFL Lockout
Does Jet Lag Create a Profitable Opportunity for NFL Bettors?
Are NFL Coaches Risk and Loss Averse?: Evidence From Their Use of Kickoff Strategies
Examining the Popularity of NFL Franchise Indianapolis Colts, as Well as Other Sports Franchises
Does the NFL Encourage and Condone Drug Use?
Bettor Habits When Point Spreads, and Money Lines Are Offered on the Same Game: The NFL
Managerial Time Constraints and Young Worker Productivity: Natural Experiments With NFL Rookies
The Inspirational Life Journey of Michael Oher and His NFL Career
Have Public Finance Principles Been Shut Out in Financing New Sports Stadiums for the NFL in the United States?
Compensating Differentials and the Social Benefits of the NFL
The Controversies Surrounding the Practice of Taking a Knee in the NFL During the Singing of the National Anthem
The Debate Over Whether Freshmen College Players Should Be Allowed to Cross to the NFL
The Conflict and Controversy Surrounding the NFL Football Team, the Washington Redskins
Brand NFL: Making and Selling America’s Favorite Sport
The Tradesports NFL Prediction Market: An Analysis of Market Efficiency, Transaction Costs, and Bettor Preferences
Will American Needle Burst the NFL’s Balloon?
Are First-Round NFL Draft Picks Better Than Second-Round Picks?
Why Should the NFL Overtime Rule Be Change for All Games?
Uncertainty, Hiring, and Subsequent Performance: The NFL Draft
Estimating Local Welfare Generated by an NFL Team Under Credible Threat of Relocation
Aaron Rodgers’ Carrer: Best Quarterback in the NFL
Efficiency and the Disposition Effect in NFL Prediction Markets
Biography and NFL Career of Jourdan Lewis
Tweaking the NFL’s Quarterback Passer Rating for Better Results
Inefficient Pricing From Holdover Bias in NFL Point Spread Markets
Should the NBA and NFL Draft Have the Same Requirements as the National Golfer’s League and Other Low Impact Sports?
Testing Market Efficiency: Evidence From the NFL Sports Betting Market
Predicting the NFL Performance of Highly-Drafted Quarterbacks
Performance Enhancing Drug Usage: The NFL and MLB
Traumatic Brain Injury and Retired NFL Players
Team Interdependence and Turnover: Evidence From the NFL
Drugs and Anti-addictive Drugs in Football and the NFL Issue
Fines Needed for NFL Players Using Performance Enhancing
The Trials and Tribulations of a Rookie NFL Player
Highlighting the NFL Special Code When Dealing With the Peasants
Measuring and Forecasting Fan Interest in NFL Football Games
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333 Football Research Topics & Essay Titles

Football is a game that millions of people around the world enjoy watching and playing. With 3.57 billion views of the 2018 FIFA World Cup, this sport appears to be the most popular. Besides, each match is more than just a game — football is all about passion, skill, and teamwork.

In this article, our expert team has collected great football topics to write about and research that you can use for your school or college assignments.

🔝 Top 12 Football Topics to Write About

✍️ football writing prompts, 📝 football titles for essays, 🗣️ football speech topics, 💡 football topics for presentation, 🔎 football research topics, ⚽ football essay outline, 🔗 references.

The history of football.
Football as the world’s most popular ball game.
The development of modern football.
The greatest football moments.
Why do tactics play a vital role in football?
Football as a traumatic kind of sport.
What is football’s most prestigious competition?
The legends of American football.
The impact of football on society.
Advantages of playing football.
Men’s and women’s football.
The issue of racism in football.

The picture suggests topics for a paper about football.

Are you looking for some prompts on the football topic? Then you are at the right place! Below, you can find ideas for writing your essay.

Why Football Is the Best Sport: Essay Prompt

Football is a global sport that connects practically everyone on the planet. It has the power to bring an entire city or nation to a standstill. In the essay that explains why football is the best game, you can share your own experience or the emotions of your friend who is passionate about this game. Also, you can list the reasons why people love this sport. For example:

Football connects millions of people.
There are no age restrictions to enjoy the match.
The world’s best talents are football players, such as Lionel Messi.
Watching or participating in football evokes genuine emotions.

Prompt for Panyee Football Club Essay

Have you ever heard about a football club that is floating on water? Panyee FC is one of them! Since there is not enough space on the island, football fans and players built a football pitch in the middle of the sea. Find the answers to the following questions about Panyee Football Club and use this information in your essay:

What is the history behind Panyee Football Club?
Why is a Panyee FC pitch built on water?
What are the core values of Panyee Football Club?
Can we say that Panyee FC is a symbol of passion for football?

Why Football Is Dangerous: Essay Prompt

The fact that football has the greatest injury rate of any other kind of sport should not come as a surprise. Football players often incur injuries like ankle sprains, knee injuries, concussions, and acromioclavicular sprains. In your essay on the dangers of football, you can raise the following questions:

Why is it so easy for football players to get injured?
What types of injuries are most common during a football game?
What precautions must be taken to prevent trauma?
How does injury impact the future career of a football player?

Prompt for Essay on Concussions in Football

While every sport has some risk of getting hurt, football, as a high-impact sport , is infamous for causing severe injuries. Concussions are a common injury among football players. They happen when the head is hit hard enough to cause a minor brain injury. To research the topic of concussions in football, write your essay based on the following aspects:

The effect of concussion on the brain.
Statistics on concussion in American football.
Medical concussion protocol.
The recovery process after a concussion.
Screening procedures examining football players for brain damage.

If you’re looking for the most engaging football essay titles, check out the ideas we’ve collected below!

Topics for a Descriptive Essay on a Football Game

The thrill of a last-minute goal in football.
The intensity of the players’ warm-up and last-minute preparations.
Sports psychologist: working with athletes.
The different styles of play in football around the world.
The rapid movement of players and the choreography of their tactics.
The role of a coach in football.
Capturing the joys and frustrations of the players and fans.
The interaction between players and referees: decisions, protests, and resolutions.
A description of a football stadium and its architecture.
The art of dribbling in football.
How do players and fans celebrate a goal?
Describing pre-match rituals and superstitions in football.
How do fans create a supportive atmosphere for their team during the game?
The joy and excitement of attending a live football match.
Describing how coaches handle their emotions on the sidelines.
The description of food served during the football game.
The magnetic pull of the scoreboard: watching the numbers change.
The vibrant fan gear and merchandise in a football stadium.
The drama of penalty kicks: tension, hope, and heartbreak.
The description of a goalkeeper’s save.
The sounds of the football match.

Football Argumentative Essay Topics

Is football too dangerous for young children to play?
Does football develop leadership skills and teamwork?
Title IX in the female sports development.
College football players should be paid for their performance on the field.
Should football stadiums have stricter security measures?
Is the use of performance-enhancing drugs in football acceptable?
Reasons why the NFL should expand to include more teams.
Why paying college athletes is beneficial.
Is the NFL doing enough to prevent concussions and other injuries in players?
Should football games be played on artificial turf or natural grass?
Is it ethical for colleges to recruit high school football players?
Should players be allowed to protest during games?
Does youth sports play a part in the character formation ?
Reasons why cheerleading should be considered a sport in football.
Should the Super Bowl be considered a national holiday?
The economic influence of football: the benefits and costs.
Is football too focused on commercialization and profit?
Should football players be allowed to use marijuana for medical purposes?
The NFL should have a shorter season to reduce the risk of injuries to players.
Using performance-enhancing drugs in the world of sport.
Should college football teams be allowed to schedule games against non-college teams, such as high school teams?
Should the NFL have a salary cap to ensure fairness among teams?
Football players should wear full body armor to reduce injuries.
Is football too expensive for schools and communities to support?
Should the NFL allow players to use alternative therapies for pain management?
Should football players be required to take regular drug tests ?
Should the NFL have stricter penalties for players who break the rules, such as suspensions or fines?
Children participation in sports.
Football players should take classes on financial management to prepare for life after football.
Should the NFL have a quota for hiring minority coaches and executives?
High school football players should pass a physical exam before being allowed to play.
Should the NFL have stricter rules on player conduct off the field?
College football players should be allowed to transfer to other schools without penalty.
Should the NFL have a policy on players using social media ?
Football players should attend media training to prepare for interviews and press conferences.
Sport psychology: biases and influence of external rewards.
Should the NFL have a policy on players participating in political activism?
Football players should undergo regular psychological evaluations.
Should the NFL have a policy on players using alcohol and drugs off the field?
Should football players be required to wear protective eyewear to reduce eye injuries?
College football teams should provide mental health resources for their players.
Should high school football teams limit the number of weekly practices to reduce the risk of injuries?
Paying college athletes: reinforcing privilege or promoting growth?
Should college football players be allowed to unionize?
Should football be banned in schools to protect students from injuries?
Is playing football in college detrimental to academics?
Should college football players be allowed to hire agents?

Ideas for a Narrative Essay about Football

The first time I stepped onto the football field: an unforgettable experience.
Overcoming adversity: how I bounced back from a football injury.
A story of teamwork: how football taught me the value of collaboration.
The most memorable football match I have ever witnessed.
Coping with stress in athletes.
The importance of football in building lifelong friendships.
From underdog to champion: my journey with the football team.
A day in the life of a football player: behind the scenes.
The role of football in shaping my identity.
A tale of rivalry: the intense football match against our arch-nemesis.
The impact of football on my physical fitness and well-being.
How a football coach changed my life.
The thrill of scoring the winning goal: a football victory to remember.
The evolution of football: from my grandfather’s time to the modern era.
A football match that taught me the importance of humility.
The emotional rollercoaster of supporting a football team.
Lessons learned from defeat: how football taught me resilience.
A football game that tested my leadership skills.
Football and community: how the sport brings people together.
A football camp experience: training, team building, and friendship.
From fan to player: fulfilling my football dream.

Football Essay Topics: Compare and Contrast

Regular football vs. American football: a comparative analysis.
Lionel Messi vs. Cristiano Ronaldo: contrasting two football legends.
Comparing football and soccer .
College football vs. professional football: similarities and differences.
The World Cup vs. the Super Bowl: contrasting two major football events.
The roles and impact of offensive and defensive players.
The Premier League vs. La Liga: comparing two dominant football leagues.
Contrasting playing styles and cultural significance of football in Europe and South America.
Club football vs. international football: examining the differences in competition and loyalty.
Football stadiums vs. arenas: comparing the experiences of live football events.
The similarities and differences between Olympic football and FIFA World Cup.
Football in the past vs. modern-day football.
Comparing the roles and responsibilities of quarterbacks and goalkeepers.
Football fan culture in Europe vs. the US: contrasting fan traditions and behaviors.
Amateur football vs. professional football.
Football uniforms vs. gear: analyzing the equipment used in the sport.
Comparing and contrasting famous football team rivalries.
Football team dynamics vs. individual brilliance: contrasting the impact of teamwork and individual performances.
Football referees vs. video assistant referees (VAR).
Club vs. country: comparing the passion and loyalty for club and national teams.
Football and injuries: comparing the risk and types of injuries in the sport.
Football leagues during the pandemic vs. regular seasons.
Football commentary vs. live match experience: comparing the different ways of engaging with the sport.
The impact of football on local vs. global economies.
Football documentaries vs. fictional football movies.
The role of football in promoting diversity vs. perpetuating stereotypes.
Football fandom vs. player idolization: contrasting how fans engage with the sport.
Comparing the traditional grass pitches vs. artificial turf.
The impact of social media on football vs. traditional media.
Comparing the challenges of football in different weather conditions .
Football in mainstream culture vs. football subcultures.
The health benefits of football vs. injuries and health risks.
Betting in football vs. gambling.
The cultural significance of football in different regions.
Football literature vs. football films: contrasting different forms of storytelling about the sport.
Football stadiums: traditional vs. modern architecture .
College football vs. professional football: differences in gameplay and culture.
Offensive vs. defensive strategies: which is more important?
Comparing traditional and modern football training methods.
The history of football in America and Europe.
Injuries in football vs. soccer: which sport is more dangerous?

American Football Topics

The evolution of American football: from its origins to the present day.
The impact of race on American football.
Concussions and brain injuries in American football.
The psychology of football: understanding the mental game of players and coaches.
The role of women in American football: from cheerleaders to coaches and executives.
The strategies and tactics used in American football.
The role of coaches in American football: leadership and game planning.
The significance of the offensive line in American football.
The impact of college football on the NFL.
The influence of the media on American football.
The role of the head coach in American football.
The importance of physical fitness in American football.
The impact of technology on American football: from instant replay to virtual reality training.
The economic impact and financial aspects of American football.
The history of Super Bowl halftime shows.
American football and national identity.
The impact of weather on American football games.
The influence of player protests on American football.
The role of American football in the entertainment industry (movies, TV shows, etc.).
The development of American football youth programs: benefits and challenges.
The importance of the running back in the offense in American football.
The role of the defensive line in stopping the run and rushing the passer in American football.
The influence of American football on sports marketing and sponsorship.
The impact of fan behavior on American football.
Exploring the legacy of American football’s great players and their impact on the sport.
The influence of a new coach on team culture and performance in American football.
The consequences of player suspensions in American football.
Player trades in American football: exploring how teams acquire new talent.
American football and sportsmanship: fair play and ethical considerations.
The impact of player injuries on American football: exploring the recovery process.
The role of American football in building teamwork and camaraderie.
The impact of American football on society’s perception of masculinity .
The history and cultural significance of American football rivalries.
The role of American football in promoting community engagement and volunteerism.
The influence of American football on US pop culture.
American football and social justice: protests, activism, and athlete empowerment.
The role of American football in public health and fitness initiatives.
The ethics of sports gambling in American football.
American football and sports diplomacy: international relations and competitions.
The future of American football: challenges and opportunities.

Are you looking for exciting football topics to talk about? Check out our suggestions for persuasive and informative speeches about this sport!

Football Persuasive Speech Topics

The benefits of playing football for overall physical fitness.
The importance of youth football programs in fostering teamwork.
Kids and sports: lack of professional sports guides.
The positive impact of football on character development and leadership skills.
The role of football in promoting gender equality and inclusion.
The economic benefits of hosting major football events like the World Cup or Super Bowl.
The need for increased safety measures and concussion protocols in football.
The necessity of providing proper healthcare and support for retired football players.
The role of football in breaking down cultural and racial barriers.
Balancing college sports and academic mission.
The benefits of investing in football infrastructure and facilities for communities.
The positive influence of football in reducing youth involvement in crime and drugs.
The potential of football as a tool for empowering disadvantaged communities.
The role of football in promoting a healthy and active lifestyle among fans and spectators.
The benefits of including football as part of the physical education curriculum in schools.
The positive effects of football in promoting national pride.
Corporate social responsibility in sports organizations .
The use of football as a platform for raising awareness and funds for charitable causes.
The importance of football in boosting tourism and international visibility of cities.
The potential of football in fostering international diplomacy and cultural exchange.
The importance of providing equal opportunities for females in football at all levels.
The impact of football on local economies through job creation and tourism revenue.
The significance of iconic moments in football history.

Football Informative Speech Topics

The different positions in football and their roles.
The psychology of football fans and their passion for the game.
Agencies in the international football industry .
Famous football stadiums around the world and their significance.
The rules and regulations of football: understanding the game’s structure.
The role of referees and their importance in enforcing the rules of football.
Positive self-talk and its impact on athletes.
The evolution of football equipment: from leather balls to high-tech gear.
The most successful football clubs in history and their achievements.
Exploring the tactics and strategies used in modern football.
The science behind successful football coaching.
Sports coaching career and its history.
Football rivalries: the history and intensity behind classic match-ups.
The art of scoring goals: techniques and skills of top goal scorers.
Football and media: the influence of broadcasting and coverage on the sport.
The psychological aspects of football: mental preparation and performance.
The cultural impact of football around the world.
The development and growth of women’s football.
Physical therapy services for sports injuries.
The importance of nutrition and fitness in football.
The significance of football academies in nurturing young talent.
The role of technology in modern football: VAR, goal-line technology, and more.
Football hooliganism : understanding the causes and efforts to combat it.
Famous football managers and their managerial styles: strategies for success.

If you need compelling topics about football for your presentation, here are some ideas you can consider:

The FIFA World Cup: the most significant event in international football.
Techniques and skills in football: dribbling, shooting, passing, and more.
Leadership development in football management .
The rules and regulations in football.
Football tactics: exploring different formations and strategic approaches.
Famous football players of all times: their achievements and impact on the sport.
Football and sports injuries: common types, prevention, and treatment.
Steroid use effects on professional young athletes.
Football stadiums around the world: architecture and unique features.
The business side of football: sponsorship, transfer fees, and revenue streams.
Football and social media: the influence of digital platforms on the sport.
Football documentaries and films: capturing the drama and passion of the sport.
The effects of football on fashion and popular culture.
Virtual reality technology in soccer referee training .
The financial impact of football on cities and regions.
Football and sports journalism: media coverage and analysis of the sport.
Football stats and analytics: how data is revolutionizing the sport.
The causes and consequences of fan violence in football.
The cultural rituals and traditions associated with football matches.
Football and the environment: sustainable practices and stadiums.
The impact of football on tourism.
Health care site: fitness, sports, and nutrition.
Football and celebrity culture: players as icons and brand ambassadors.
Football in video games: the popularity of virtual football experiences.
The importance of infrastructure in hosting major football events.
Football tactics in different eras: from Catenaccio to Tiki-Taka.
Football and broadcasting: the growth of televised matches and media rights.
Football training drills for improving agility and speed.
Physical activity and sports team participation.
Strategies for effective team communication on the football field.
The importance of proper warm-up exercises in preventing injuries in football.
Tips for strengthening and conditioning specific muscle groups for football players.
Defensive formations and tactics for shutting down opponents in football.
Analyzing football game films to improve performance and strategy.
Recovering from football injuries: rehabilitation exercises and protocols.
Sports-related problems and conflicts .
Sports psychology techniques for boosting confidence and mental resilience in football.
Nutrition and hydration guidelines for optimal performance in football.
The connection between globalization and football.
The role of stretching routines in preventing muscle imbalances in football players.
Practical strategies for successful penalty shootouts in football.
Steroid usage in professional sports.
Football scouting and player evaluation techniques for talent identification.
The use of technology in football training and performance analysis.
Football equipment maintenance and safety guidelines for players.
Preparing and executing penalty kicks in pressure situations in football.
Advanced passing techniques in football: long passes, through balls, and more.

Do you need to write a research paper about football but don’t know where to start? Consider our list of football research questions and topics:

How have football tactics evolved over the past decade?
The impact of technology on decision-making in football.
Business industry: trend analysis for soccer .
The psychology of team cohesion and its effects on football performance.
What is the role of nutrition and diet in optimizing football players’ performance?
What is the relationship between football and concussions?
How do FIFA World Cup events affect host countries’ economies?
What is the carbon footprint of major football events?
The effects of climate conditions on football matches.
Shortage of officials at the high school sports level.
The influence of social media on football players’ image and brand.
The role of VAR in the fairness of football matches.
The impact of home-field advantage in professional football.
How does the football stadium atmosphere affect player performance?
The rise of women’s football and its impact on gender equality.
The economic implications of football player transfers and fees.
The correlation between a team’s wage bill and on-pitch success.
Factors influencing fan loyalty in football.
Research handbook of employment relations in sport.
The role of leadership and coaching in a team’s success.
The impact of sponsorship deals on football clubs’ financial stability.
The relationship between player positioning and successful goal scoring.
The effects of VAR on the emotions and behavior of fans during football matches.
How does football influence youth development and participation in sport?
How can big data analytics improve football performance and decision-making?
The effects of football on cultural identity and national pride.
How do sports affect disabled people psychologically?
The impact of football on the local community and economy.
The influence of crowd noise on football referee decisions.
The role of sports psychology in enhancing football performance.
The impact of financial fair play regulations on football clubs.
How does football betting affect match outcomes and integrity?
The cultural significance of football chants and songs in fan culture.
Steroid abuse in the world of sports .
The influence of doping scandals on the reputation of football players and clubs.
The role of football in promoting social inclusion and breaking down barriers.
How do international football competitions affect tourism?
The effects of player transfers on team dynamics and performance.
The correlation between player height and success in football.
The influence of different playing surfaces on football player performance and injury rates.
How do referees maintain fairness and order in football matches?
Achievement motivation theory in sports psychology .
The impact of football on academic performance and school attendance.
The role of football hooliganism in shaping public perceptions of the sport.
The influence of football sponsorship on brand image and consumer behavior.
The effects of football on social integration and community cohesion.
How do rule changes affect football game dynamics?
The influence of football on individual and societal gender norms.
Sports analysis: steroids and HGH in sports .
Investigating the impact of celebrity endorsement on football merchandise sales.
The role of technology in improving football player performance and injury prevention.
The correlation between alcohol consumption and football-related violence.
The impact of fan protests and boycotts on football clubs and leagues.
The effects of retirement on the mental well-being of former professional football players.
The influence of football on urban development and infrastructure investment.
How does football affect students’ academic motivation and educational attainment?
The impact of football on destination marketing in tourism.

Structuring your essay on football is a piece of cake, and we’re going to prove it! Follow our mini guide with valuable tips and examples!

This image shows a football essay outline.

Football Essay Introduction

The first paragraph of an essay is crucial to creating a strong paper. A successful introduction often starts by addressing broad ideas related to the essay’s topic. Follow the steps below to write a compelling introduction:

1. Start with a hook.

Make a good first impression by using a captivating hook . In football essays, it can include a surprising fact, statistics, a question, or a relevant quote. Here’s an example:

What is the one thing that can unite a country and foster its pride? Yes, it is football!

2. Provide background information.

Give essential details on the essay’s main subject. This part can include the history of your topic, an explanation of key terms, and anything that can help your reader understand the context of your issue.

Football is a group of team sports that involve kicking a ball to score goals.

3. End with a thesis statement.

Put a concise thesis statement at the end to outline your motivation for the paper and present central arguments. Let’s talk about this element in detail.

Thesis Statement about Football

The thesis statement is a sentence expressing the primary idea of a piece of writing and guiding the thoughts within the work.

There are several steps that you should take to develop a thesis statement:

Research information on your issue.
Limit your topic to a specific area.
Brainstorm to come up with interesting ideas.

Look at the example of a football thesis statement:

Football offers the chance to feel pride for the favorite team and positively impacts physical, social, and emotional development.

Essay about Football: Body Paragraphs

The main body of an essay is the most crucial part where you deliver your arguments. Here are some tips on writing a good body paragraph:

Start with a topic sentence to capture the key points.
Provide additional information to support your opinion.
Use a transition sentence to get to the next paragraph smoothly.

Here’s an example of what your topic sentence and supporting evidence might look like:

Topic sentence : Football requires effective communication and listening skills since the game will not work without them. Supporting evidence : Communication helps athletes perform and focus better on the pitch and improves the decision-making process.

Conclusion for Football Essay

A conclusion brings your discussion to a close. The following outline may assist you in completing your essay:

Restate your thesis.
Explain why your topic is significant.
Summarize the core points.
Call for action or provide an overview of future research opportunities

Check out an example of a paraphrased thesis and the summary of the main points:

Rephrased thesis : Football is a fascinating sport with many societal benefits. Summary : To sum up, football can be considered a hobby, a sport, or an obsession. But still, its most important role is to unite people or even entire countries.

We hope you will find our football topics to write about and research beneficial! Want to receive some more ideas? Try our free online title generator ! Just click the button, and the result will not keep you waiting!

Health and Wellness | The Football Players Health Study at Harvard University
Sports | Harvard Business School
Head Injuries & American Football | McCombs School of Business
Research | Global Sport Institute
University Archives: History of Football | Marquette University
NCAA and the Movement to Reform College Football | Library of Congress
Medical Issues in Women’s Football | National Library of Medicine
Football Injuries | University of Rochester Medical Center
Head to Head: The National Football League & Brain Injury | NYU Langone Health

351 Anxiety Research Topics & Essay Titles (Argumentative, Informative, and More)

223 deforestation topics for essays, research papers, & speeches.

Athletic Training

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Thesis Generator May be of help--but use with caution.

Image source: Powernowllc. CC0 1.0. Wikimedia Commons.

Formulate Questions

Once you have selected an initial topic, the next step is to develop research questions. You'll do this by using probing questions, such as what, why, when, how, would/could, should.

Phrasing your topic in the form of questions helps direct the research process.

WHY questions ask for an explanation of something--why something happened, why it did not happen, or why one thing is better than another. For instance, why do some people with traumatic brain injury develop post concussion syndrome, while others do not?

WHEN questions focus on timing or history. When did the NFL acknowledge that playing football is linked to traumatic brain injury? When did awareness of traumatic brain injury begin?

WHERE questions focus the topic on a location, either geographical or other. Where, or in which particular sports, are traumatic brain injuries most prevalent?

HOW questions focus aspects of the topic, on a process, or on the origin. How do traumatic brain injuries affect someone in the long-term? How do traumatic brain injuries affect someone in the short-term?

WOULD / COULD questions focus on possibilities. Could football helmet design decrease the incidence of traumatic brain injuries?

SHOULD questions focus on the appropriateness of a particular action, policy, procedure, or decision. Should the government regulate how the NFL responds to concussions?

Source: Mike Palmquest. Bedford Researcher . Colorado State University.

A good research question will lead to your thesis statement.

For example, the question...

...might lead to the following thesis:

"Long-term effects of traumatic brain injury may include thinking and cognitive deficits, visual-motor disturbances, depression, suicide, progressive dementia and Parkinsonism."

Strong thesis statements

Answer a question
Are engaging
Can be challenged or opposed, thus also defended

or "why should I care?" test

Are supported by your paper
Are neither too broad nor too vague

Source: Thesis Statements. George Mason University.

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New research questions beliefs about sports concussions.

Will parent’s decisions allowing children to play youth football be affected?

The recent belief that the serious brain damage found in professional football players is the result of hard blows to the head is being challenged by new research.

Researchers from Boston University examined the brains of eight teens and young adults. Four of the individuals had recent sports related closed head injuries, which were received 1 day to 4 months prior to death. The other four had no history of recent head trauma. Evidence of chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) was discovered in the four teenagers that who experienced recent head injury. The study was published February 2018 in Brain, a Journal of Neurology.

“These results indicate that closed-head impact injuries, independent of concussive signs, can induce traumatic brain injury as well as early pathologies and functional sequelae associated with chronic traumatic encephalopathy,” the researchers reported. “This may be the best evidence yet that it is the routine head impacts that occur on virtually every play and not concussions per se, that cause CTE.”

Questions come into play regarding the NFL’s methods of dealing with concussions. It may also influence the decisions parents make about allowing their children to play youth football based on the advice of physicians.

“Important research advancements have been made over the last several years around traumatic brain injury (TBI) and chronic encephalopathy (CTE), which have aided awareness and understanding around this important issue,” said Allen Sills, MD, NFL chief medical officer, past director of the Vanderbilt Sports Concussion Center. “As highlighted in the most recent study, repetitive hits to the head have been consistently implicated as a cause of CTE by this research group. How and why exactly this manifests, who is at risk, and why – these are questions that we as researchers and clinicians are working to answer.”

Steven Hicks, MD, assistant professor of pediatrics, Penn State Health and Milton S. Hershey Medical Center opined regarding the safety of youth football moving forward.

“As a general pediatrician, I believe we can do several things to make sports like football safe for our children: One – be open to rule changes that may make the game safer by minimizing concussive events. Two – ensure that medical personnel are on the sideline at the beginning of games, to accurately assess potential concussions and ensure that concussion guidelines are followed. Three – teach children to tackle safely and reduce full-contact scenarios in daily practice. Four – support research that improves our understanding, prevention and treatment of concussions.

“Making decisions about youth football participation will require us to balance risks and benefits,” Dr. Hicks continued. “By minimizing concussion risks on the field we can hopefully find ways to allow children to continue to benefit from participation in this team sport.”

Vititoe Law Group is a personal injury law firm committed to the safety of youth sports. If your child was injured , reach out to Vititoe Law Group for a free consultation. Call 818-851-1886 today or contact us online.

Share This Story:

More than 30 years of experience fighting for the victims of negligence, contact us for a free confidential consultation.

Call us at 818-991-8900 or fill out the form below to set up a time to talk with our legal team about your case. If you are unable to come to our office in Westlake Village because of your injuries, we can come to you.

Greatest Football Research Paper Topics to Please Your Supervisor

Nevertheless, football admirers often need help in generating a topic for their papers, which may lie in the versatility of the subject and the scope of the information on it. So, this is the main and only reason why we took up compiling numerous incredible topics you can use for your football research paper. You can also consider our selection of perfect food research topics , environmental research topics , and film research paper topics . The choice is extensive and wide-ranging, so you’d better brace yourself!

Awesome topics for a football research paper

Research papers on football require deep knowledge of the topic. Consider the following ideas for your papers and do not hesitate to buy a research paper help if you need some professional assistance!

What makes football so highly paid?
Football injuries: the impact of traumas on a player’s career.
The commercialization of football today.
The origins and popularity of American football.
How the game of football injects the feeling of fraternity and group building.
The mechanics and dynamics of the game that is football.
The impact of corruption in football on the loyalty of fans to the game.
The factors that make football a great game for television.
The difference between rugby and American football.
The difference between international football and American football.

Football persuasive speech topics

Go through these persuasive speech topics and choose the one you like the best. If you are looking for more ideas for your speeches except sports, consider these technology research topics .

Football players can be smart – don’t fall prey to stereotypes.
Students should receive money for playing football.
Not all great football players can become good coaches.
Even good coaches can lose their self-control.
Should football players be regarded as role models for children?
Professional football should be available to the lower class.
Should football fans be somehow censored?
Concussion rules in the NFL: do they spoil the game?
Should players’ jerseys display ads?
The World Cup produces devastating effects on the countries that host it.

Football essay topics

This selection of essay topics will help to make your paper stand out. If you need some more ideas or samples, we recommend you to pay for a research paper to professionals and get individual assistance.

From a coach’s perspective: how to bring about the best performances from football players.
Trace your experience with the game of football.
How can a professional football player prevent the most common sports injuries?
Traumas in young players can lead to severe long-term outcomes.
Injuries can negatively impact stress management of players.
Psychological issues such as depression and anxiety can increase the risk of getting injured during exercise.
Cyberfootball: can experienced gamers be considered professional players?
What should be done about offensive team names in football?
College football vs. professional football.

Football informative speech topics

We recommend you consider one of these informative speech topics on football to create an impressive text of your speech. Try our research papers for sale offers to get effective assistance and more ideas.

The differences between Canadian and American football.
Gaelic football rules: a mix of rugby, soccer, and basketball.
Brief history of football.
Football vs. soccer.
The evolution of football championships through the past four decades.
What country has the most enjoyable football?
The making of a pro player: the steps to become a high-paid football superstar.
UCL backstage: this is how the world’s most colossal football championship is organized.
Most influential players in the history of football.
Some curious facts from the football world.

Football thesis statement examples

A thesis statement is a significant component of a successful paper. Try one of the examples below and adjust it to fit your text. Ask writers from our research proposal writing service to help with a thesis statement if needed.

No matter how obsessed you are with football, choosing a topic for your football research paper can be a real challenge. The all-inclusive selection of topics we provided is aimed at guiding you through the tricky maze of academia and allocating some time for your favorite sporting activity! Here is the list of sport research paper topics to save more of your time.

How we can help with football essay writing

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10 Research Question Examples to Guide Your Research Project

10 Research Question Examples to Guide your Research Project

Published on October 30, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on October 19, 2023.

The research question is one of the most important parts of your research paper , thesis or dissertation . It’s important to spend some time assessing and refining your question before you get started.

The exact form of your question will depend on a few things, such as the length of your project, the type of research you’re conducting, the topic , and the research problem . However, all research questions should be focused, specific, and relevant to a timely social or scholarly issue.

Once you’ve read our guide on how to write a research question , you can use these examples to craft your own.

Research question	Explanation
	The first question is not enough. The second question is more , using .
	Starting with “why” often means that your question is not enough: there are too many possible answers. By targeting just one aspect of the problem, the second question offers a clear path for research.
	The first question is too broad and subjective: there’s no clear criteria for what counts as “better.” The second question is much more . It uses clearly defined terms and narrows its focus to a specific population.
	It is generally not for academic research to answer broad normative questions. The second question is more specific, aiming to gain an understanding of possible solutions in order to make informed recommendations.
	The first question is too simple: it can be answered with a simple yes or no. The second question is , requiring in-depth investigation and the development of an original argument.
	The first question is too broad and not very . The second question identifies an underexplored aspect of the topic that requires investigation of various to answer.
	The first question is not enough: it tries to address two different (the quality of sexual health services and LGBT support services). Even though the two issues are related, it’s not clear how the research will bring them together. The second integrates the two problems into one focused, specific question.
	The first question is too simple, asking for a straightforward fact that can be easily found online. The second is a more question that requires and detailed discussion to answer.
? dealt with the theme of racism through casting, staging, and allusion to contemporary events?	The first question is not — it would be very difficult to contribute anything new. The second question takes a specific angle to make an original argument, and has more relevance to current social concerns and debates.
	The first question asks for a ready-made solution, and is not . The second question is a clearer comparative question, but note that it may not be practically . For a smaller research project or thesis, it could be narrowed down further to focus on the effectiveness of drunk driving laws in just one or two countries.

Note that the design of your research question can depend on what method you are pursuing. Here are a few options for qualitative, quantitative, and statistical research questions.

Type of research	Example question
Qualitative research question
Quantitative research question
Statistical research question

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

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Home » Research Questions – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Questions – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Questions

Definition:

Research questions are the specific questions that guide a research study or inquiry. These questions help to define the scope of the research and provide a clear focus for the study. Research questions are usually developed at the beginning of a research project and are designed to address a particular research problem or objective.

Types of Research Questions

Types of Research Questions are as follows:

Descriptive Research Questions

These aim to describe a particular phenomenon, group, or situation. For example:

What are the characteristics of the target population?
What is the prevalence of a particular disease in a specific region?

Exploratory Research Questions

These aim to explore a new area of research or generate new ideas or hypotheses. For example:

What are the potential causes of a particular phenomenon?
What are the possible outcomes of a specific intervention?

Explanatory Research Questions

These aim to understand the relationship between two or more variables or to explain why a particular phenomenon occurs. For example:

What is the effect of a specific drug on the symptoms of a particular disease?
What are the factors that contribute to employee turnover in a particular industry?

Predictive Research Questions

These aim to predict a future outcome or trend based on existing data or trends. For example :

What will be the future demand for a particular product or service?
What will be the future prevalence of a particular disease?

Evaluative Research Questions

These aim to evaluate the effectiveness of a particular intervention or program. For example:

What is the impact of a specific educational program on student learning outcomes?
What is the effectiveness of a particular policy or program in achieving its intended goals?

How to Choose Research Questions

Choosing research questions is an essential part of the research process and involves careful consideration of the research problem, objectives, and design. Here are some steps to consider when choosing research questions:

Identify the research problem: Start by identifying the problem or issue that you want to study. This could be a gap in the literature, a social or economic issue, or a practical problem that needs to be addressed.
Conduct a literature review: Conducting a literature review can help you identify existing research in your area of interest and can help you formulate research questions that address gaps or limitations in the existing literature.
Define the research objectives : Clearly define the objectives of your research. What do you want to achieve with your study? What specific questions do you want to answer?
Consider the research design : Consider the research design that you plan to use. This will help you determine the appropriate types of research questions to ask. For example, if you plan to use a qualitative approach, you may want to focus on exploratory or descriptive research questions.
Ensure that the research questions are clear and answerable: Your research questions should be clear and specific, and should be answerable with the data that you plan to collect. Avoid asking questions that are too broad or vague.
Get feedback : Get feedback from your supervisor, colleagues, or peers to ensure that your research questions are relevant, feasible, and meaningful.

How to Write Research Questions

Guide for Writing Research Questions:

Start with a clear statement of the research problem: Begin by stating the problem or issue that your research aims to address. This will help you to formulate focused research questions.
Use clear language : Write your research questions in clear and concise language that is easy to understand. Avoid using jargon or technical terms that may be unfamiliar to your readers.
Be specific: Your research questions should be specific and focused. Avoid broad questions that are difficult to answer. For example, instead of asking “What is the impact of climate change on the environment?” ask “What are the effects of rising sea levels on coastal ecosystems?”
Use appropriate question types: Choose the appropriate question types based on the research design and objectives. For example, if you are conducting a qualitative study, you may want to use open-ended questions that allow participants to provide detailed responses.
Consider the feasibility of your questions : Ensure that your research questions are feasible and can be answered with the resources available. Consider the data sources and methods of data collection when writing your questions.
Seek feedback: Get feedback from your supervisor, colleagues, or peers to ensure that your research questions are relevant, appropriate, and meaningful.

Examples of Research Questions

Some Examples of Research Questions with Research Titles:

Research Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health

Research Question : What is the relationship between social media use and mental health, and how does this impact individuals’ well-being?

Research Title: Factors Influencing Academic Success in High School

Research Question: What are the primary factors that influence academic success in high school, and how do they contribute to student achievement?

Research Title: The Effects of Exercise on Physical and Mental Health

Research Question: What is the relationship between exercise and physical and mental health, and how can exercise be used as a tool to improve overall well-being?

Research Title: Understanding the Factors that Influence Consumer Purchasing Decisions

Research Question : What are the key factors that influence consumer purchasing decisions, and how do these factors vary across different demographics and products?

Research Title: The Impact of Technology on Communication

Research Question : How has technology impacted communication patterns, and what are the effects of these changes on interpersonal relationships and society as a whole?

Research Title: Investigating the Relationship between Parenting Styles and Child Development

Research Question: What is the relationship between different parenting styles and child development outcomes, and how do these outcomes vary across different ages and developmental stages?

Research Title: The Effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy in Treating Anxiety Disorders

Research Question: How effective is cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating anxiety disorders, and what factors contribute to its success or failure in different patients?

Research Title: The Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity

Research Question : How is climate change affecting global biodiversity, and what can be done to mitigate the negative effects on natural ecosystems?

Research Title: Exploring the Relationship between Cultural Diversity and Workplace Productivity

Research Question : How does cultural diversity impact workplace productivity, and what strategies can be employed to maximize the benefits of a diverse workforce?

Research Title: The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare

Research Question: How can artificial intelligence be leveraged to improve healthcare outcomes, and what are the potential risks and ethical concerns associated with its use?

Applications of Research Questions

Here are some of the key applications of research questions:

Defining the scope of the study : Research questions help researchers to narrow down the scope of their study and identify the specific issues they want to investigate.
Developing hypotheses: Research questions often lead to the development of hypotheses, which are testable predictions about the relationship between variables. Hypotheses provide a clear and focused direction for the study.
Designing the study : Research questions guide the design of the study, including the selection of participants, the collection of data, and the analysis of results.
Collecting data : Research questions inform the selection of appropriate methods for collecting data, such as surveys, interviews, or experiments.
Analyzing data : Research questions guide the analysis of data, including the selection of appropriate statistical tests and the interpretation of results.
Communicating results : Research questions help researchers to communicate the results of their study in a clear and concise manner. The research questions provide a framework for discussing the findings and drawing conclusions.

Characteristics of Research Questions

Characteristics of Research Questions are as follows:

Clear and Specific : A good research question should be clear and specific. It should clearly state what the research is trying to investigate and what kind of data is required.
Relevant : The research question should be relevant to the study and should address a current issue or problem in the field of research.
Testable : The research question should be testable through empirical evidence. It should be possible to collect data to answer the research question.
Concise : The research question should be concise and focused. It should not be too broad or too narrow.
Feasible : The research question should be feasible to answer within the constraints of the research design, time frame, and available resources.
Original : The research question should be original and should contribute to the existing knowledge in the field of research.
Significant : The research question should have significance and importance to the field of research. It should have the potential to provide new insights and knowledge to the field.
Ethical : The research question should be ethical and should not cause harm to any individuals or groups involved in the study.

Purpose of Research Questions

Research questions are the foundation of any research study as they guide the research process and provide a clear direction to the researcher. The purpose of research questions is to identify the scope and boundaries of the study, and to establish the goals and objectives of the research.

The main purpose of research questions is to help the researcher to focus on the specific area or problem that needs to be investigated. They enable the researcher to develop a research design, select the appropriate methods and tools for data collection and analysis, and to organize the results in a meaningful way.

Research questions also help to establish the relevance and significance of the study. They define the research problem, and determine the research methodology that will be used to address the problem. Research questions also help to determine the type of data that will be collected, and how it will be analyzed and interpreted.

Finally, research questions provide a framework for evaluating the results of the research. They help to establish the validity and reliability of the data, and provide a basis for drawing conclusions and making recommendations based on the findings of the study.

Advantages of Research Questions

There are several advantages of research questions in the research process, including:

Focus : Research questions help to focus the research by providing a clear direction for the study. They define the specific area of investigation and provide a framework for the research design.
Clarity : Research questions help to clarify the purpose and objectives of the study, which can make it easier for the researcher to communicate the research aims to others.
Relevance : Research questions help to ensure that the study is relevant and meaningful. By asking relevant and important questions, the researcher can ensure that the study will contribute to the existing body of knowledge and address important issues.
Consistency : Research questions help to ensure consistency in the research process by providing a framework for the development of the research design, data collection, and analysis.
Measurability : Research questions help to ensure that the study is measurable by defining the specific variables and outcomes that will be measured.
Replication : Research questions help to ensure that the study can be replicated by providing a clear and detailed description of the research aims, methods, and outcomes. This makes it easier for other researchers to replicate the study and verify the results.

Limitations of Research Questions

Limitations of Research Questions are as follows:

Subjectivity : Research questions are often subjective and can be influenced by personal biases and perspectives of the researcher. This can lead to a limited understanding of the research problem and may affect the validity and reliability of the study.
Inadequate scope : Research questions that are too narrow in scope may limit the breadth of the study, while questions that are too broad may make it difficult to focus on specific research objectives.
Unanswerable questions : Some research questions may not be answerable due to the lack of available data or limitations in research methods. In such cases, the research question may need to be rephrased or modified to make it more answerable.
Lack of clarity : Research questions that are poorly worded or ambiguous can lead to confusion and misinterpretation. This can result in incomplete or inaccurate data, which may compromise the validity of the study.
Difficulty in measuring variables : Some research questions may involve variables that are difficult to measure or quantify, making it challenging to draw meaningful conclusions from the data.
Lack of generalizability: Research questions that are too specific or limited in scope may not be generalizable to other contexts or populations. This can limit the applicability of the study’s findings and restrict its broader implications.

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Erin B. Wasserman

Christina D. Mack

Javier Cárdenas

Robb Rehberg

Gary Solomon

Associated Data

Introduction

The HN&S Committee’s Concussion Protocol

The Game Day Concussion Surveillance Team

Game Day Concussion Protocols and Procedures

Return-to-Participation

Concussion Reduction Efforts in the NFL

Rule Changes

Equipment Changes

Beyond Professional Football: Improving Football Safety at All Levels

Supplemental Material

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September 2009

September 2012

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