socialization essay sociology

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Sociological Perspectives on Socialization

Introduction, overviews and methods.

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• New Directions in Socialization Scholarship

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Sociological Perspectives on Socialization by Emily Daina Šaras , Lara Perez-Felkner LAST REVIEWED: 28 August 2018 LAST MODIFIED: 28 August 2018 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756384-0155

Scholars of sociology, anthropology, psychology, and Education alike are interested in socialization. This phenomenon influences individual and collective development as well as the reproduction of status hierarchies and structural inequalities. Socialization is the multifaceted process through which individuals learn and internalize cultural norms, codes, and values. This process enables entry into and sustained membership in one or more social groups. Individuals develop social and cultural competencies through (1) interaction with other individuals and social institutions and (2) response to their macro- and micro-sociocultural contexts. Socialization does not occur in a vacuum: this process operates in social locations that both afford and constrain interaction and opportunity. In turn, social expectations for individuals coming of age are not uniform. Correspondingly, the mechanisms and outcomes of socialization vary across geographical space, sociocultural context, and sociohistorical time. Additionally, socialization processes may vary within a society, depending on the power and status of their subgroup identities. Many members of society additionally navigate the at times competing influences of the dominant culture and marginalized subcultures. Much scholarly attention has focused on the socialization processes of childhood and adolescence. However, adaptation to and internalization of social norms, values, and behaviors continues throughout adulthood. Individuals experience identity, Family , educational, and career changes and transitions alongside members of their generational cohort. As a result, their social roles may shift and change over the life course. Socialization facilitates processes of inclusion and participation of diverse individuals and groups in society. At the same time, socialization contributes to the stabilization of social order, which can include reproduction of existing stratification by race, gender, and social class. Processes of socialization continue to shape generational cohorts and intergenerational dynamics as well as across various social institutions. In summary, socialization prepares individuals for membership in society and is associated with the stability and maintenance of society writ large.

Socialization is the dialectical process through which individuals exchange, adapt to, and internalize the norms, beliefs, behaviors, and values of a shared social group over the life course. Perez-Felkner 2013 details how, from an early age, individuals engage in the processes of socialization through trying on different social roles and adapting to specific social contexts. Focusing on adult socialization, Lutfey and Mortimer 2006 notes that as individuals’ social competencies develop, their socialization contributes to the stability and reproduction of the social order. While King 2007 and other works critique the methods of social scientists to isolate facets of the socialization process and generalize about their contributions, empirical and theoretical approaches vary. Perez-Felkner 2013 details the variety of methodologies used to study socialization among children and adolescents, with examples from classic and recent empirical studies.

King, Michael. 2007. The sociology of childhood as scientific communication. Childhood 14.2: 193–213.

DOI: 10.1177/0907568207078327

This article identifies limitations in the logic of sociological inquiry in understanding generalizable social facts about children and their socialization process.

Lutfey, Karen, and Jeylan T. Mortimer. 2006. Development and socialization through the adult life course. In Handbook of social psychology . Edited by John Delamater, 183–202. New York: Springer US.

DOI: 10.1007/0-387-36921-X_8

Reviewing the history of socialization as a concept and its general processes, this chapter focuses on the socialization within the adult life course, defined as the time after the completion of secondary or postsecondary Education . The authors focus on how the temporality and heterogeneity of individual biographies impact socialization processes, such as new role acquisition and life experiences, after the transition to adulthood.

Perez-Felkner, Lara. 2013. Socialization in childhood and adolescence. In Handbook of social psychology . 2d ed. Edited by John Delamater and Amanda Ward, 119–149. New York: Springer.

Focusing on processes of socialization within early life, Perez-Felkner reviews theoretical approaches to socialization, methods of studying socialization, and how Contexts Of Socialization produce myriad outcomes that reproduce social inequalities.

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Understanding Socialization in Sociology

Overview and Discussion of a Key Sociological Concept

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Socialization is a process that introduces people to social norms and customs. This process helps individuals function well in society, and, in turn, helps society run smoothly. Family members, teachers, religious leaders, and peers all play roles in a person's socialization.

The socialization process typically occurs in two stages: primary socialization takes place from birth through adolescence, and secondary socialization continues throughout one's life. Adult socialization may occur whenever people find themselves in new circumstances, especially those in which they interact with individuals whose norms or customs differ from theirs.

The Purpose of Socialization

During socialization, a person learns to become a member of a group, community, or society. This process not only accustoms people to social groups but also results in such groups sustaining themselves. For example, a new sorority member gets an insider's look at the customs and traditions of a Greek organization. As the years pass, the member can apply the information she's learned about the sorority when newcomers join, allowing the group to carry on its traditions.

On a macro level, socialization ensures that we have a process through which the norms and customs of society are transmitted. Socialization teaches people what is expected of them in a particular group or situation; it is a form of social control .

Socialization has numerous goals for youth and adults. It teaches children to control their biological impulses, such as using a toilet instead of wetting their pants or bed. The socialization process also helps individuals develop a conscience aligned with social norms and prepares them to perform various roles.

The Socialization Process in Three Parts

Socialization involves social structure and interpersonal relations. It contains three key parts: context, content and process, and results. Context, perhaps, defines socialization the most, as it refers to culture, language, and social structures and one’s rank within them. It also includes history and the roles people and institutions played in the past. One's life context will significantly affect the socialization process. For example, a family's economic class may have a huge impact on how parents socialize their children.

Research has found that parents emphasize the values and behaviors most likely to help children succeed given their station in life. Parents who expect their children to work blue-collar jobs are more likely to emphasize conformity and respect for authority, while those who expect their children to pursue artistic, managerial, or entrepreneurial professions are more likely to emphasize creativity and independence.

Gender stereotypes also exert a strong influence on socialization processes. Cultural expectations for gender roles and gendered behavior are imparted to children through color-coded clothes and types of play. Girls usually receive toys that emphasize physical appearance and domesticity such as dolls or dollhouses, while boys receive playthings that involve thinking skills or call to mind traditionally male professions, such as Legos, toy soldiers, or race cars. Additionally, research has shown that girls with brothers are socialized to understand that household labor is expected of them but not of their male siblings. Driving the message home is that girls tend not to receive pay for doing chores, while their brothers do.

Race also plays a factor in socialization. Since White people don't disproportionately experience police violence, they can encourage their children to know their rights and defend them when the authorities try to violate them. In contrast, parents of color must have what's known as "the talk" with their children, instructing them to remain calm, compliant, and safe in the presence of law enforcement.

While context sets the stage for socialization, the content and process constitute the work of this undertaking. How parents assign chores or tell their kids to interact with police are examples of content and process, which are also defined by the duration of socialization, those involved, the methods used, and the type of experience.

School is an important source of socialization for students of all ages. In class, young people receive guidelines related to behavior, authority, schedules, tasks, and deadlines. Teaching this content requires social interaction between educators and students. Typically, rules and expectations are written and spoken, and student conduct is either rewarded or penalized. As this occurs, students learn behavioral norms suitable for school.

In the classroom, students also learn what sociologists describe as "hidden curricula." In her book "Dude, You're a Fag," sociologist C.J. Pasco revealed the hidden curriculum of gender and sexuality in U.S. high schools. Through in-depth research at a large California school, Pascoe revealed how faculty members and events like pep rallies and dances reinforce rigid gender roles and heterosexism. In particular, the school sent the message that aggressive and hypersexual behaviors are generally acceptable in White boys but threatening in Black ones. Though not an "official" part of the schooling experience, this hidden curriculum tells students what society expects of them based on their gender, race, or class background.

Results are the outcome of socialization and refer to the way a person thinks and behaves after undergoing this process. For example, with small children, socialization tends to focus on control of biological and emotional impulses, such as drinking from a cup rather than from a bottle or asking permission before picking something up. As children mature, the results of socialization include knowing how to wait their turn, obey rules, or organize their days around a school or work schedule. We can see the results of socialization in just about everything, from men shaving their faces to women shaving their legs and armpits.

Stages and Forms of Socialization

Sociologists recognize two stages of socialization: primary and secondary. Primary socialization occurs from birth through adolescence. Caregivers, teachers, coaches, religious figures, and peers guide this process.

Secondary socialization occurs throughout our lives as we encounter groups and situations that were not part of our primary socialization experience. This might include a college experience, where many people interact with members of different populations and learn new norms, values, and behaviors. Secondary socialization also takes place in the workplace or while traveling somewhere new. As we learn about unfamiliar places and adapt to them, we experience secondary socialization.

Meanwhile , group socialization occurs throughout all stages of life. For example, peer groups influence how one speaks and dresses. During childhood and adolescence, this tends to break down along gender lines. It is common to see groups of children of either gender wearing the same hair and clothing styles.

Organizational socialization occurs within an institution or organization to familiarize a person with its norms, values, and practices. This process often unfolds in nonprofits and companies. New employees in a workplace have to learn how to collaborate, meet management's goals, and take breaks in a manner suitable for the company. At a nonprofit, individuals may learn how to speak about social causes in a way that reflects the organization's mission.

Many people also experience anticipatory socialization at some point. This form of socialization is largely self-directed and refers to the steps one takes to prepare for a new role, position, or occupation. This may involve seeking guidance from people who've previously served in the role, observing others currently in these roles, or training for the new position during an apprenticeship. In short, anticipatory socialization transitions people into new roles so they know what to expect when they officially step into them.

Finally, forced socialization takes place in institutions such as prisons, mental hospitals, military units, and some boarding schools. In these settings, coercion is used to re-socialize people into individuals who behave in a manner fitting of the norms, values, and customs of the institution. In prisons and psychiatric hospitals, this process may be framed as rehabilitation. In the military, however, forced socialization aims to create an entirely new identity for the individual.

Criticism of Socialization

While socialization is a necessary part of society, it also has drawbacks. Since dominant cultural norms, values, assumptions, and beliefs guide the process, it's not a neutral endeavor. This means that socialization may reproduce the prejudices that lead to forms of social injustice and inequality.

Representations of racial minorities in film, television, and advertising tend to be rooted in harmful stereotypes. These portrayals socialize viewers to perceive racial minorities in certain ways and expect particular behaviors and attitudes from them. Race and racism influence socialization processes in other ways too. Research has shown that racial prejudices affect the treatment and discipline of students. Tainted by racism, the behavior of teachers socializes all students to have low expectations for youth of color. This kind of socialization results in an over-representation of minority students in remedial classes and an under-representation of them in gifted classes. It may also result in these students being punished more harshly for the same kinds of offenses that White students commit, such as talking back to teachers or coming to class unprepared.

While socialization is necessary, it's important to recognize the values, norms, and behaviors this process reproduces. As society's ideas about race, class, and gender evolve, so will the forms of socialization that involve these identity markers.

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4.1 The Importance of Socialization

Learning objective.

• Describe why socialization is important for being fully human.

We have just noted that socialization is how culture is learned, but socialization is also important for another important reason. To illustrate this importance, let’s pretend we find a 6-year-old child who has had almost no human contact since birth. After the child was born, her mother changed her diapers and fed her a minimal diet but otherwise did not interact with her. The child was left alone all day and night for years and never went outside. We now find her at the age of 6. How will her behavior and actions differ from those of the average 6-year-old? Take a moment and write down all the differences you would find.

In no particular order, here is the list you probably wrote. First, the child would not be able to speak; at most, she could utter a few grunts and other sounds. Second, the child would be afraid of us and probably cower in a corner. Third, the child would not know how to play games and interact with us. If we gave her some food and utensils, she would eat with her hands and not know how to use the utensils. Fourth, the child would be unable to express a full range of emotions. For example, she might be able to cry but would not know how to laugh. Fifth, the child would be unfamiliar with, and probably afraid of, our culture’s material objects, including cell phones and televisions. In these and many other respects, this child would differ dramatically from the average 6-year-old youngster in the United States. She would look human, but she would not act human. In fact, in many ways she would act more like a frightened animal than like a young human being, and she would be less able than a typical dog to follow orders and obey commands.

As this example indicates, socialization makes it possible for us to fully function as human beings. Without socialization, we could not have our society and culture. And without social interaction, we could not have socialization. Our example of a socially isolated child was hypothetical, but real-life examples of such children, often called feral children, have unfortunately occurred and provide poignant proof of the importance of social interaction for socialization and of socialization for our ability to function as humans.

One of the most famous feral children was Victor of Aveyron, who was found wandering in the woods in southern France in 1797. He then escaped custody but emerged from the woods in 1800. Victor was thought to be about age 12 and to have been abandoned some years earlier by his parents; he was unable to speak and acted much more like a wild animal than a human child. Victor first lived in an institution and then in a private home. He never learned to speak, and his cognitive and social development eventually was no better than a toddler’s when he finally died at about age 40 (Lane, 1976).

In rare cases, children have grown up in extreme isolation and end up lacking several qualities that make them fully human. This is a photo of Victor of Aveyron, who emerged from the woods in southern France in 1800 after apparently being abandoned by his parents some years earlier. He could not speak, and his cognitive and social skills never advanced beyond those of a small child before he died at the age of 40.

Wikimedia Commons – public domain.

Another such child, found more than about a half-century ago, was called Anna, who “had been deprived of normal contact and had received a minimum of human care for almost the whole of her first six years of life” (Davis, 1940, p. 554). After being shuttled from one residence to another for her first 5 months, Anna ended up living with her mother in her grandfather’s house and was kept in a small, airless room on the second floor because the grandfather was so dismayed by her birth out of wedlock that he hated seeing her. Because her mother worked all day and would go out at night, Anna was alone almost all the time and lived in filth, often barely alive. Her only food in all those years was milk.

When Anna was found at the age of 6, she could not talk or walk or “do anything that showed intelligence” (Davis, 1940, p. 554). She was also extremely undernourished and emaciated. Two years later, she had learned to walk, understand simple commands, feed herself, and remember faces, but she could not talk and in these respects resembled a 1-year-old infant more than the 7-year-old child she really was. By the time she died of jaundice at about age 9, she had acquired the speech of a 2-year-old.

Shortly after Anna was discovered, another girl, called Isabelle, was found in similar circumstances at age 6. She was also born out of wedlock and lived alone with her mother in a dark room isolated from the rest of the mother’s family. Because her mother was mute, Isabelle did not learn to speak, although she did communicate with her mother via some simple gestures. When she was finally found, she acted like a wild animal around strangers, and in other respects she behaved more like a child of 6 months than one of more than 6 years. When first shown a ball, she stared at it, held it in her hand, and then rubbed an adult’s face with it. Intense training afterward helped Isabelle recover, and 2 years later she had reached a normal speaking level for a child her age (Davis, 1940).

These cases of feral children show that extreme isolation—or, to put it another way, lack of socialization—deprives children of the obvious and not-so-obvious qualities that make them human and in other respects retards their social, cognitive, and emotional development. A series of famous experiments by psychologists Harry and Margaret Harlow (1962) reinforced the latter point by showing it to be true of monkeys as well. The Harlows studied rhesus monkeys that had been removed from their mothers at birth; some were raised in complete isolation, while others were given fake mothers made of cloth and wire with which to cuddle. Neither group developed normally, although the monkeys cuddling with the fake mothers fared somewhat better than those that were totally isolated. In general, the monkeys were not able to interact later with other monkeys, and female infants abused their young when they became mothers. The longer their isolation, the more the monkeys’ development suffered. By showing the dire effects of social isolation, the Harlows’ experiment reinforced the significance of social interaction for normal development. Combined with the tragic examples of feral children, their experiments remind us of the critical importance of socialization and social interaction for human society.

Key Takeaways

• Socialization is the process through which individuals learn their culture and become fully human.
• Unfortunate examples of extreme human isolation illustrate the importance of socialization for children’s social and cognitive development.

For Your Review

• Do you agree that effective socialization is necessary for an individual to be fully human? Could this assumption imply that children with severe developmental disabilities, who cannot undergo effective socialization, are not fully human?
• Do you know anyone with negative views in regard to race and ethnicity, sexual orientation, or religious preference? If so, how do you think this person acquired these views?

Davis, K. (1940). Extreme social isolation of a child. American Journal of Sociology, 45, 554–565.

Harlow, H. F., & Harlow, M. K. (1962). Social deprivation in monkeys. Scientific American, 207, 137–146.

Lane, H. L. (1976). The wild boy of Aveyron . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Sociology Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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The Importance of Socialization

Learning objective.

• Describe why socialization is important for being fully human.
• Explain how extreme isolation and twin studies demonstrate the role of nature versus nurture in human development.
• Identify the different questions functionalists, conflict theorists, and interactionists might ask about the role of socialization in human development.

Why Socialization Matters

Socialization is critical both to individuals and to the societies in which they live. It illustrates how completely intertwined human beings and their social worlds are. First, it is through teaching culture to new members that a society perpetuates itself. If new generations of a society don’t learn its way of life, it ceases to exist. Whatever is distinctive about a culture must be transmitted to those who join it in order for a society to survive. For U.S. culture to continue, for example, children in the United States must learn about cultural values related to democracy: they have to learn the norms of voting, as well as how to use material objects such as voting machines. Of course, some would argue that it’s just as important in U.S. culture for the younger generation to learn the etiquette of eating in a restaurant or the rituals of tailgate parties at football games. In fact, there are many ideas and objects that people in the United States teach children about in hopes of keeping the society’s way of life going through another generation.

Socialization is just as essential to us as individuals. Social interaction provides the means via which we gradually become able to see ourselves through the eyes of others, and how we learn who we are and how we fit into the world around us. In addition, to function successfully in society, we have to learn the basics of both material and nonmaterial culture, everything from how to dress ourselves to what’s suitable attire for a specific occasion; from when we sleep to what we sleep on; and from what’s considered appropriate to eat for dinner to how to use the stove to prepare it. Most importantly, we have to learn language—whether it’s the dominant language or one common in a subculture, whether it’s verbal or through signs—in order to communicate and to think. As we saw with Danielle, without socialization we literally have no self.

Nature versus Nurture

Some experts assert that who we are is a result of nurture —the relationships and caring that surround us. Others argue that who we are is based entirely in genetics. According to this belief, our temperaments, interests, and talents are set before birth. From this perspective, then, who we are depends on nature .

One way researchers attempt to measure the impact of nature is by studying twins. Some studies have followed identical twins who were raised separately. The pairs shared the same genetics but in some cases were socialized in different ways. Instances of this type of situation are rare, but studying the degree to which identical twins raised apart are the same and different can give researchers insight into the way our temperaments, preferences, and abilities are shaped by our genetic makeup versus our social environment.

For example, in 1968, twin girls born to a mentally ill mother were put up for adoption, separated from each other, and raised in different households. The adoptive parents, and certainly the babies, did not realize the girls were one of five pairs of twins who were made subjects of a scientific study (Flam 2007).

In 2003, the two women, then age thirty-five, were reunited. Elyse Schein and Paula Bernstein sat together in awe, feeling like they were looking into a mirror. Not only did they look alike but they also behaved alike, using the same hand gestures and facial expressions (Spratling 2007). Studies like these point to the genetic roots of our temperament and behavior.

Though genetics and hormones play an important role in human behavior, sociology’s larger concern is the effect society has on human behavior, the “nurture” side of the nature versus nurture debate. What race were the twins? From what social class were their parents? What about gender? Religion? All these factors affected the lives of the twins as much as their genetic makeup and are critical to consider as we look at life through the sociological lens.

Extreme Isolation

We have just noted that socialization is how culture is learned, but socialization is also important for another important reason. To illustrate this importance, let’s pretend we find a 6-year-old child who has had almost no human contact since birth. After the child was born, her mother changed her diapers and fed her a minimal diet but otherwise did not interact with her. The child was left alone all day and night for years and never went outside. We now find her at the age of 6. How will her behavior and actions differ from those of the average 6-year-old? Take a moment and write down all the differences you would find.

In no particular order, here is the list you probably wrote. First, the child would not be able to speak; at most, she could utter a few grunts and other sounds. Second, the child would be afraid of us and probably cower in a corner. Third, the child would not know how to play games and interact with us. If we gave her some food and utensils, she would eat with her hands and not know how to use the utensils. Fourth, the child would be unable to express a full range of emotions. For example, she might be able to cry but would not know how to laugh. Fifth, the child would be unfamiliar with, and probably afraid of, our culture’s material objects, including cell phones and televisions. In these and many other respects, this child would differ dramatically from the average 6-year-old youngster in the United States. She would look human, but she would not act human. In fact, in many ways she would act more like a frightened animal than like a young human being, and she would be less able than a typical dog to follow orders and obey commands.

As this example indicates, socialization makes it possible for us to fully function as human beings. Without socialization, we could not have our society and culture. And without social interaction, we could not have socialization. Our example of a socially isolated child was hypothetical, but real-life examples of such children, often called feral children, have unfortunately occurred and provide poignant proof of the importance of social interaction for socialization and of socialization for our ability to function as humans.

One of the most famous feral children was Victor of Aveyron, who was found wandering in the woods in southern France in 1797. He then escaped custody but emerged from the woods in 1800. Victor was thought to be about age 12 and to have been abandoned some years earlier by his parents; he was unable to speak and acted much more like a wild animal than a human child. Victor first lived in an institution and then in a private home. He never learned to speak, and his cognitive and social development eventually was no better than a toddler’s when he finally died at about age 40 (Lane, 1976).

In rare cases, children have grown up in extreme isolation and end up lacking several qualities that make them fully human. This is a photo of Victor of Aveyron, who emerged from the woods in southern France in 1800 after apparently being abandoned by his parents some years earlier. He could not speak, and his cognitive and social skills never advanced beyond those of a small child before he died at the age of 40.

Wikimedia Commons – public domain.

Another such child, found more than about a half-century ago, was called Anna, who “had been deprived of normal contact and had received a minimum of human care for almost the whole of her first six years of life” (Davis, 1940, p. 554). After being shuttled from one residence to another for her first 5 months, Anna ended up living with her mother in her grandfather’s house and was kept in a small, airless room on the second floor because the grandfather was so dismayed by her birth out of wedlock that he hated seeing her. Because her mother worked all day and would go out at night, Anna was alone almost all the time and lived in filth, often barely alive. Her only food in all those years was milk.

When Anna was found at the age of 6, she could not talk or walk or “do anything that showed intelligence” (Davis, 1940, p. 554). She was also extremely undernourished and emaciated. Two years later, she had learned to walk, understand simple commands, feed herself, and remember faces, but she could not talk and in these respects resembled a 1-year-old infant more than the 7-year-old child she really was. By the time she died of jaundice at about age 9, she had acquired the speech of a 2-year-old.

Shortly after Anna was discovered, another girl, called Isabelle, was found in similar circumstances at age 6. She was also born out of wedlock and lived alone with her mother in a dark room isolated from the rest of the mother’s family. Because her mother was mute, Isabelle did not learn to speak, although she did communicate with her mother via some simple gestures. When she was finally found, she acted like a wild animal around strangers, and in other respects she behaved more like a child of 6 months than one of more than 6 years. When first shown a ball, she stared at it, held it in her hand, and then rubbed an adult’s face with it. Intense training afterward helped Isabelle recover, and 2 years later she had reached a normal speaking level for a child her age (Davis, 1940).

These cases of feral children show that extreme isolation—or, to put it another way, lack of socialization—deprives children of the obvious and not-so-obvious qualities that make them human and in other respects retards their social, cognitive, and emotional development. A series of famous experiments by psychologists Harry and Margaret Harlow (1962) reinforced the latter point by showing it to be true of monkeys as well. The Harlows studied rhesus monkeys that had been removed from their mothers at birth; some were raised in complete isolation, while others were given fake mothers made of cloth and wire with which to cuddle. Neither group developed normally, although the monkeys cuddling with the fake mothers fared somewhat better than those that were totally isolated. In general, the monkeys were not able to interact later with other monkeys, and female infants abused their young when they became mothers. The longer their isolation, the more the monkeys’ development suffered. By showing the dire effects of social isolation, the Harlows’ experiment reinforced the significance of social interaction for normal development. Combined with the tragic examples of feral children, their experiments remind us of the critical importance of socialization and social interaction for human society.

Sociologists all recognize the importance of socialization for healthy individual and societal development. But how do scholars working in the three major theoretical paradigms approach this topic? Structural functionalists would say that socialization is essential to society, both because it trains members to operate successfully within it and because it perpetuates culture by transmitting it to new generations. Without socialization, a society’s culture would perish as members died off. A conflict theorist might argue that socialization reproduces inequality from generation to generation by conveying different expectations and norms to those with different social characteristics. For example, individuals are socialized differently by gender, social class, and race. An interactionist studying socialization is concerned with face-to-face exchanges and symbolic communication. For example, dressing baby boys in blue and baby girls in pink is one small way we convey messages about differences in gender roles.

Key Takeaways

• Socialization is the process through which individuals learn their culture and become fully human.
• Unfortunate examples of extreme human isolation illustrate the importance of socialization for children’s social and cognitive development.

Davis, K. (1940). Extreme social isolation of a child. American Journal of Sociology, 45, 554–565.

Harlow, H. F., & Harlow, M. K. (1962). Social deprivation in monkeys. Scientific American, 207, 137–146.

Lane, H. L. (1976). The wild boy of Aveyron . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

The process of an individual or group learning the expected norms and customs of a group or society through social interaction.

Introduction to Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Understanding Socialization in Sociology

Charlotte Nickerson

Research Assistant at Harvard University

Undergraduate at Harvard University

Charlotte Nickerson is a student at Harvard University obsessed with the intersection of mental health, productivity, and design.

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Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Socialization is the process whereby the young of society learn the values, ideas and practices and roles of that society.

The socialization process is a semi-conscious one, in that the primary agency of socialization, the family, would not necessarily see itself in this role, while some secondary socialization agencies such as education are deliberately set up for this purpose.

The socialization process is never total, as the young take on some lessons, but reject, adapt, or expand on others. In this way, societies retain some of the continuity but also progress.

One example of primary socialization is gender roles. Gender socialization is the process by which children learn about gender roles and come to understand what it means to be a boy or a girl.

Children are taught about gender roles from a very early age, and these messages come from a variety of sources, including family, friends, teachers, the media, and religion.

For example, girls may be given baby dolls to care for while boys may be socialized to play with action or building-oriented toys. This ingrained gender socialization can continue into adulthood.

For example, as an adult learns and meets people who identify with alternate gender identities, they may become more accepting of the idea that genders are not necessarily only male or female (Cromdal, 2006).

What is Socialization?

• Socialization is the process through which individuals become members of society. It includes the processes of acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes, beliefs, values and behaviors necessary to function within society. Socialization begins at birth and continues throughout life.
• Children often copy the behavior they observe in others, but they are also active participants in the socialization process and are responsible for making choices about their own behavior.
• There are a multitude of types of socialization, ranging from primary and secondary to developmental, anticipatory, desocialization, resocialization, organizational, and forced.
• Sociologists have defined five stages of socialization: investigation, socialization, maintenance, resocialization, and remembrance.

The Purpose of Socialization

Socialization prepares individuals to participate in a group by illustrating the expectations of that group. Through socialization, people are taught the language, values, and behaviors that are accepted within a group and learn to control their natural impulses.

For example, a child may have the natural impulse to keep a toy, but learns through socialization that sharing is expected and beneficial behavior (Cromdal, 2006).

Socialization is essential to the development and functioning of societies because it is through socialization that we learn the norms and customs that hold society together. Furthermore, Socialization allows people to interact with others and form relationships necessary to acquire social capital and resources (Cromdall, 2006).

These sum up to three primary goals: teaching impulse control and developing a conscience, preparing people to perform certain social roles, and cultivating shared sources of meaning and value (Arnett, 1995).

While socialization is often thought of as something that happens to children, it is a lifelong process. Adults need socialization when they enter new groups or organizations.

For example, a woman who has been a stay-at-home mother for several years may feel uncomfortable and out of place when she enters the workforce. She will go through a period of socialization in which she learns the expectations and norms of her new workplace.

A similar process of socialization may happen when someone moves, for example, to a new country with a dramatially different culture. This ongoing, life-long process is generally considered to be secondary socialization (Cromdall, 2006).

Types of Socialization

Primary socialization occurs between the child and those people in his/her life with whom he/she has primary relationships. These people are usually parents, siblings, grandparents, friends, teachers, coaches, etc. Secondary socialization occurs when we interact with people outside our family.

Primary Socialization

Primary socialization occurs between the child and those people in his/her life with whom he/she has a close, personal, and intimate face-to-face relationship.

For most people, the first primary relationships they form are with their parents, siblings, grandparents, and other family members. The family provides children with a sense of moral values, teaching the difference between right and wrong behavior, and how to relate appropriately to others (family, friends, strangers, etc.).

However, it is important not to see children as passive recipients of information, but instead as active participants in the creation of their own identity. Children are constantly making choices about what kind of person to become.

Parents play an important role in helping children to choose the right path. But parents cannot force their children to behave in certain ways. Instead, parents should help children to understand why they should behave in particular ways.

As children get older, they start forming primary attachments with friends and then with other adults through things like marriage, work, etc.

Secondary Socialization

Secondary socialization occurs between the individual and those people in their life with whom they have secondary relationships. A secondary relationship is one in which the individual does not have a close, personal, intimate or face-to-face relationship with the people that are responsible for the socialization process.

It is through secondary socialization that people learn how to behave in different situations and come to see themselves as members of specific groups, such as their religious community, their workplace, or their country.

Secondary relationships involve teachers, coaches, priests, television personalities, rock stars etc. These relationships help individuals understand what is expected of them, how to behave appropriately, and how to interact with others.

In some cases, such as school and teachers, we are in daily, face-to-face contact with the people who are socializing us without ever developing a primary attachment to them.

One example of secondary socialization is when a student enters college and must learn to navigate the new social and academic environment. This could include a new schedule, new ways of behaving in class, and ways of negotiating with and adjusting to classmates (Cromdal, 2006).

These forms of communication are not always direct, but they can influence us nonetheless. For example, when we watch a movie, we see someone else doing something and we imitate that behavior. When we listen to a song, we hear someone else singing and we mimic that behavior.

Secondary socialization is necessary because it represents the way that we start to learn about the nature of the social world beyond our primary contacts.

Secondary socialization is important because it teaches you how to interact with people who aren’t emotionally close to you, which is the majority of the people we will come into contact with in our adult lives.

Developmental Socialization

Developmental socialization is a learning process wherein the focus in on developing social skills or on learning behavior within a social institution. For example, a shy person may go through developmental socialization in order to learn how to be more outgoing.

This type of socialization can happen at any point in life, but is often thought of as happening during childhood and adolescence.

It is during these years that children learn important social skills like how to communicate with others, how to resolve conflict, and how to make friends (Cromdal, 2006).

Anticipitory Socialization

Anticipatory socialization is the process by which people learn about future roles and expectations in order to prepare for them.

It often happens before a person enters into a new social situation, such as starting a new job. For example, imagine that someone is about to start working in an office for the first time.

She may do some research on what to expect in order to anticipate the dress code, workplace culture and other aspects of her new environment.

Or, a child who is about to enter kindergarten may go to a “meet the teacher” day in order to learn about what will be expected of them in the classroom (Cromdal, 2006).

Differential Socialization

Differential socialization is the process by which people of different groups are socialized differently. This can be due to their class, race, or gender. For example, girls are often socialized to be more passive and nurturing, while boys are socialized to be more active and aggressive.

This can lead to different expectations and experiences for girls and boys as they grow up. This socialization occurs through a variety of agents, such as parents, teachers, the media, and peers.

It is important to note that differential socialization does not necessarily mean that one group is superior to another. Rather, it simply reflects the different expectations and behaviors that are associated with each group (Cromdal, 2006).

Desocialization Socialization

Desocialization is the process by which someone experiences role loss and an accompanying loss of associated power or prestige. It can happen when a person leaves a job, goes through a divorce, or retires.

For example, imagine that someone has just retired from a high-powered executive position. She may find herself feeling lost and without purpose, as she no longer has the same sense of importance or authority that she did in her previous role. This can be a difficult transition, as the person must learn to adjust to a new way of life (Cromdal, 2006).

Resocialization Socialization

Resocialization is the process by which someone learns new norms, values, and behaviors. Most typically, this involves partially or completely redefining the traits of the role that a person had previously occupied.

Resocialization often happens when a person enters into a new social situation, such as starting a new job. For example, imagine that a former business executive becomes a bakery owner. She will need to learn new norms, values , and behaviors in order to be successful in her new role. This could include learning how to bake, decorate cakes, and deal with customers (Cromdal, 2006).

Organizational Socialization

Organizational socialization is the process by which people learn about, adjust to, and change the knowledge, skills, attitudes, expectations, and behaviors needed for a new or changing organizational role.

Business sociologists Bueuer et al. (2007) call this “the process by which newcomers make the transition from being organizational outsiders to being insiders” (Cromdal, 2006).

Organizational socialization can be characterized along six dimensions (Van Maanen & Schein, 1977):

collective or individual

formal or informal

sequential or random

fixed or variable sequencing: whether or not the socialization process has a stated timetable

serial or disjunctive: the degree to which existing workers help socialize and mentor newcomers

investiture or divestiture: the degree to which a newcomer’s identity is affirmed versus stripped away

Forced Socialization

Forced socialization is a type of socialization that happens when an individual is placed in an environment where they have no choice but to conform to the norms and values of the group.

This can happen through coercion, manipulation, or even physical force. For example, imagine that someone is kidnapped and taken to a foreign country.

They may be forced to learn the language, customs, and values of their captors in order to survive This type of socialization can be very traumatic and lead to long-term psychological damage (O’Lynn, 2009).

Domestically, forced socialization often takes place in institutions such as prisons, mental hospitals, and military units.

What is an Agent of Socialization?

An agent of socialization is a person or group of people who teaches people the values, beliefs, and behaviors that are expected in their society.

The family is usually the child”s first and most important agent of socialization.

Children learn language, manners, and how to behave in their culture from their parents and other adults in the home.

As they grow older, children are exposed to other agents of socialization, such as the media, schools, religious institutions, and peer groups.

Each of these agents plays a role in shaping the child”s self-identity and worldview (Ochs, 1999).

To take an example of a concept that agents of socialization can teach, consider gender.

Gender is the socially constructed notion of what it means to be a man or a woman.

Children learn about gender roles and expectations from their parents, the media, their peers, and other adults in their lives.

Over time, they internalize these messages and use them to construct their own sense of self (Ochs, 1999).

Stages of Socialization

Investigation.

The first stage of socialization is known as the investigation stage. This is when a person is exploring different groups and trying to figure out which one they want to belong to.

During this stage, people are more likely to conform to the norms and values of the group because they want to be accepted.

For example, imagine that a teenager is trying to decide whether to join a gang. They may try out different types of behavior to see if it gets them the approval of the group. If it does, they are likely to continue doing it, even if it goes against their personal values (Levine & Moreland, 1994).

Socialization

The second stage of socialization is, repetitively, called the socialization stage. This is when a person has decided which group they want to belong to and they start to conform to the norms and values of that group.

For example, imagine that a teenager has joined a gang. They will now start to dress like the other members of the gang, replicate their speech patterns, and behave in the ways that are expected of them — such as through committing acts of vandalism or refusing to develop relationships with opposing gang members (Levine & Moreland, 1994).

Maintenance

During the maintenance stage of socialization, the individual and the group negotiate what contribution is expected of members. This is called role negotiation.

While many people stay in this stage until their membership in a gorup ends, some individuals are not satisfied with their role in the group or fail to meet the group”s expectations. This is called divergence (Levine & Moreland, 1994).

For example, imagine that a member of a gang wants to leave because they are tired of the violence. The gang may try to convince them to stay, but ultimately it is up to the individual to decide whether to stay or leave.

If they do leave, they may find it difficult to readjust to life outside of the gang because they have lost their previous community and close social ties.

Resocialization

If a group member reaches the divergence point during the maintenance stage of socialization, the former group member may take on the role of a marginal member and must be resocialized. This is when a person leaves a group and then joins another group.

For example, imagine that a person has left a gang and is now trying to join the military. They will have to go through a period of resocialization where they learn the norms and values of the military.

There are two possible outcomes of resocialization: differences can be resolved and the individual becomes a full member again, or the group expels the individual or the individual decides to leave. The first of these is called convergence, and the second, exit (Levine & Moreland, 1994).

Remembrance

Finally, during the rememberance stage of socialization, former members talk about their memories of the group and come to make sence of their departure. This is a process of reminiscing and self-reflection.

For example, imagine that a person has left a gang and is now trying to join the military. They may talk about their experiences in the gang with their friends and family, and reflect on what they have learned from the experience. If the group of ex-group members reaches a consensus on their reasons for departure, conclusions about the overall experience of the group become part of its tradition (Levine & Moreland, 1994).

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between formal and informal socialization.

Formal socialization is the process by which people learn the values, beliefs, and behaviors that are expected of them in their culture.

This type of socialization usually takes place in institutions, such as schools, religious institutions, and the military. For example, children learn how to read and write in school, and they learn about their country”s history and government, as well as how they should interpret and react to that history (Ochs, 1999).

In contrast, informal socialization is the process by which people learn the values, beliefs, and behaviors that are not formally taught but that are transmitted through everyday interactions with others. For example, children learn how to speak and behave through their interactions with their parents and other adults in their lives.

Similarly, they learn about the roles and expectations of their social class through their exposure to the media, their peers, and other aspects of popular culture (Ochs, 1999).

What is the Difference Between Socialization and Enculturation?

Enculturation is the process by which people learn the norms and values of their culture. It is a type of socialization that occurs as people grow up and come into contact with their culture”s customs and beliefs.

Socialization, on the other hand, is a much broader concept that refers to all the ways in which people learn to become members of their society. This includes learning not just the norms and values of one”s culture, but also the skills and knowledge needed to function in society (Tan, 2014).

While enculturation is a relatively passive process that happens without much conscious effort, socialization is the active process of acquiring culture in general. For example, parents may actively enculturate their children into the norms and values of their culture through stories, traditions, and religion as part of socialization.

What is the Difference Between Socialization and Education?

Socialization is the process of learning the norms and values of one”s culture. Education, on the other hand, is the process of learning academic knowledge and skills.

While socialization is necessary for the stability and survival of any society, education is necessary for the advancement of society (Cromdal, 2006).

People can be socialized by the process of education. As they acquire knowledge and attitudes, they may also learn the norms, beliefs, values, and standards of society.

For example, in a math class, students might learn the correct way to solve a problem, but they might also learn that it is important to be precise and justify one”s reasoning when making arguments. The first of these is education, and the second is socialization.

When does socialization begin?

The family is traditionally considered to be the first agent of socialization . This is because it is the first group that a child interacts with and learns from.

The family teaches children basic norms and values, such as how to speak, behave, and think. It is also the first group to provide emotional support and care.

Further Information

• Examples of Socialization
• Social Institutions
• Agents of Socialization

Arnett, J. J. (1995). Adolescents” uses of media for self-socialization. Journal of youth and adolescence, 24 (5), 519-533.

Baumrind, D. (1980). New directions in socialization research.  American psychologist ,  35 (7).

Bugental, D. B., & Goodnow, J. J. (1998). Socialization processes .

Cromdal, J. (2006). Socialization .

Grusec, J. E., & Lytton, H. (1988). Socialization and the family. In  Social development  (pp. 161-212). Springer, New York, NY.

Levine, J. M., & Moreland, R. L. (1994). Group socialization: Theory and research. European review of social psychology, 5 (1), 305-336.

Maccoby, E. E. (2007). Historical overview of socialization research and theory.  Handbook of socialization: Theory and research ,  1 , 13-41.

Mortimer, J. T., & Simmons, R. G. (1978). Adult socialization.  Annual review of sociology , 421-454.

Ochs, E. (1999). Socialization. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, 9 (1/2), 230-233.

O”Lynn, C. (2009). Who is in need of socialization?. Journal of Nursing Education, 48(4), 179.

Tan, L. Y. C. (2014). Enculturation .

Van Maanen, J. E., & Schein, E. H. (1977). Toward a theory of organizational socialization .

Module 4: Socialization

The importance of socialization, learning outcomes.

• Explain the importance of socialization both for individuals and society
• Distinguish nature from nurture in socialization

Socialization  is the process through which people are taught to be proficient members of a society. It describes the ways that people come to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept society’s beliefs, and to be aware of societal values.  Socialization  is not the same as  socializing  (interacting with others, like family and friends); to be precise, it is a sociological process that occurs through socializing.

While Noel’s story from the beginning of the module is about a relatively advanced stage of life, socialization is crucial for early childhood. Even the most basic of human activities are learned. Learning to crawl and then walk are major milestones, but as any parent, guardian, or family member of a toddler knows, other minor accomplishments can be life-altering for the child: climbing stairs, safely getting out of bed, sitting in a regular chair, and drinking from a regular cup. Likewise, family behaviors and values must be learned, sometimes through observation and sometimes through active instruction. Thus, sociologists have also long been fascinated by circumstances in which a child receives sufficient human support to survive, but virtually no social interaction—because they highlight how much we depend on social interaction to provide the information and skills we need to be part of society or even to develop a “self.”

Socialization is critical both to individuals and to the societies in which they live.  As individuals, social interaction provides us the means by which we gradually become able to see ourselves through the eyes of others, and how we learn who we are and how we fit into the larger world. In addition, to function successfully in society, we have to learn the basics of both material and nonmaterial culture, everything from how to dress ourselves to what’s suitable attire for a specific occasion; from when we sleep to what we sleep on; and from what’s considered appropriate to eat for dinner and even how to use the stove to prepare it. Most importantly, we have to learn language—whether it’s the dominant language or one common in a subculture, whether it’s verbal or through signs—in order to communicate and to think. Without socialization we have no commonly recognizable sense of self.

For society to function, the socialization of individuals is necessary. Although how this occurs and what is transmitted in terms of cultural norms and values differs, every society relies upon socialization to ensure its survival. A core value in the United States is democracy, so children in the U.S. might hear about voting or go to vote with their families before they even begin school. Once in school, they will learn about American history, civics, and citizenship. Students also learn the ways that the U.S. has not upheld democratic ideals and has disenfranchised various groups of people. Thus, in addition to voting and learning how to use material objects such as voting machines, children also learn about various social movements and leaders who resisted the existing social norms in order to facilitate change. Learning about how society has failed to live up to its ideals (and continues to struggle in certain areas) helps citizens not only to understand values and norms on a personal level, but also to see the importance of values and norms in society, as well as how these can change over time. Remember that socialization is a lifelong process, so in our example, people will continue to examine whether or not the U.S. is living up to its democratic ideals over many years.

Watch this video to learn more about what it means to be socialized, and what things contribute to socialization. The video provides an effective overview of several concepts related to socialization that will be covered in this module.

Figure 1. Socialization teaches us our society’s expectations for dining out. The manners and customs of different cultures (When can you use your hands to eat? How should you compliment the cook? Who is the “head” of the table?) are learned through socialization. (Photo courtesy of Niyam Bhushan/flickr)

Nature versus Nurture

Some experts argue that who we are is based entirely on genetics or our biological makeup. According to this belief, our temper a ments, interests, and talents are set before birth. From this perspective, who we are depends on nature . Others, including most sociologists, assert that who we are is a result of nurture —the relationships and environments that surround us.

Figure 2. Identical twins may look alike, but their differences can give us clues to the effects of socialization. (Photo courtesy of D. Flam/flickr)

One way researchers attempt to measure the impact of nature is by studying twins. Some studies have followed identical twins who were raised separately. The pairs shared the same genetic inheritance, but in some cases were socialized in different ways. Instances of this situation are rare, but studying the degree to which identical twins raised apart are the same or different can give researchers insight into the way our temperaments, preferences, and abilities are shaped by our genetic makeup versus our social environment.

For example, in 1968 twin girls born to a mentally ill mother were put up for adoption, separated from each other, and raised in different households. The adoptive parents, and certainly the adoptees themselves, did not know the girls were one of five pairs of twins who were made subjects of a scientific study (Flam 2007).

In 2003, the two women, then age thirty-five, were reunited. Elyse Schein and Paula Bernstein sat together in awe, feeling like they were looking into a mirror. Not only did they look alike but they also behaved alike, using the same hand gestures and facial expressions (Spratling 2007). Studies like these point to the genetic roots of our temperament and behavior.

Learn about the famous twins, Oskar and Jack, who were separated as infants and led strikingly different lives . You can visit the article  “Separated at Birth” to read about five other sets of twins who grew up apart and discovered each other later in life.

Though genetics and hormones play an important role in human behavior, sociology’s larger concern is the effect society has on human behavior–the “nurture” side of the nature-versus-nurture debate. What race were the twins? From what social class were their parents? What about gender? Religion? All these factors affected the lives of the twins as much as their genetic makeup, and are critical to consider as we look at life through the sociological lens.

The Life of Chris Langan, the Smartest Man You’ve Never Heard Of

Bouncer. Firefighter. Factory worker. Cowboy. Chris Langan spent the majority of his adult life just getting by with jobs like these. He had no college degree, few resources, and a past filled with much disappointment. Chris Langan also had an IQ of over 195, nearly 100 points higher than the average person (Brabham 2001). So why didn’t Chris become a neurosurgeon, professor, or aeronautical engineer? According to Macolm Gladwell (2008) in his book Outliers: The Story of Success , Chris didn’t possess the set of social skills necessary to succeed on such a high level—skills that aren’t innate but learned.

Gladwell looked to a recent study conducted by sociologist Annette Lareau in which she closely shadowed 12 families from various economic backgrounds and examined their parenting techniques. Parents from lower income families followed a strategy of “accomplishment of natural growth,” which is to say they let their children develop on their own with a large amount of independence; parents from higher-income families, however, “actively fostered and accessed a child’s talents, opinions, and skills” (Gladwell 2008). These parents were more likely to engage in analytical conversation, encourage active questioning of the establishment, and foster development of negotiation skills. The parents were also able to introduce their children to a wide range of activities, from sports to music to accelerated academic programs. When one middle-class child was denied entry to a gifted and talented program, the mother petitioned the school and arranged additional testing until her daughter was admitted. Lower-income parents, however, were more likely to unquestioningly obey authorities such as school boards. Their children were not being socialized to comfortably confront the system and speak up (Gladwell 2008).

What does this have to do with Chris Langan, deemed by some the smartest man in the world (Brabham 2001)? Chris was born in severe poverty, moving across the country with an abusive and alcoholic stepfather. His genius went largely unnoticed. After accepting a full scholarship to Reed College, he lost his funding after his mother failed to fill out necessary paperwork. Unable to successfully make his case to the administration, Chris, who had received straight A’s the previous semester, was given F’s on his transcript and forced to drop out. After he enrolled in Montana State, an administrator’s refusal to rearrange his class schedule left him unable to find the means necessary to travel the 16 miles to attend classes. What Chris had in brilliance, he lacked in practical intelligence, or what psychologist Robert Sternberg defines as “knowing what to say to whom, knowing when to say it, and knowing how to say it for maximum effect” (Sternberg et al. 2000). Such knowledge was never part of his socialization.

Chris gave up on school and began working an array of blue-collar jobs, pursuing his intellectual interests on the side. Though he’s recently garnered attention for his “Cognitive Theoretic Model of the Universe,” he remains weary of and resistant to the educational system.

As Gladwell concluded, “He’d had to make his way alone, and no one—not rock stars, not professional athletes, not software billionaires, and not even geniuses—ever makes it alone” (2008).

Chris is a white male who was born in the United States, though he also faced considerable economic and domestic challenges. How would the story change if our example was a female immigrant, with dark skin? Social class and what Pierre Bourdieu calls “cultural capital” are important in directing one’s life chances, but perhaps equally important are race/ethnicity, gender, economic class, and whether one is perceived as an immigrant or a native-born citizen.

Sociologists all recognize the importance of socialization for healthy individual and societal development. But how do scholars working in the three major theoretical paradigms approach this topic?

Structural functionalists would say that socialization is essential to society, both because it trains members to operate successfully within it and because it perpetuates culture by transmitting it to new generations. Without socialization, a society’s culture would destabilize and ultimately perish as members died off.

A conflict theorist might argue that socialization reproduces inequality from generation to generation by conveying different expectations and norms to those with different social characteristics. For example, individuals are socialized differently by gender, social class, and race. As in Chris Langan’s case, this creates different (unequal) opportunities.

An interactionist studying socialization is concerned with face-to-face exchanges and symbolic communication. For example, dressing baby boys in blue and baby girls in pink is one small way we convey messages about differences in gender roles.

Think It Over

• Why are twin studies an important way to learn about the relative effects of genetics and socialization on children? What questions about human development do you believe twin studies are best for answering? For what types of questions would twin studies not be as helpful?
• Why do you think that people like Chris Langan continue to have difficulty even after they are helped through societal systems?  How does this story help you understand the role of nature and the role of nurture? 
• Modification, adaptation, and original content. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Why Socialization Matters. Authored by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : https://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]:zeTojT9p@3/Why-Socialization-Matters . License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]
• Introduction to Socialization. Provided by : OpenStax. Located at : https://openstax.org/books/introduction-sociology-3e/pages/5-introduction . Project : Sociology 3e. License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/introduction-sociology-3e/pages/5-introduction
• Socialization: Crash Course Sociology #14. Provided by : CrashCourse. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K-RvJQxqVQc . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License

Socialization in Sociological Perspectives

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The chapter outlines the basic concepts and theories of socialization in sociology, and relates them to different arenas and agents of socialization, ranging from family and peers to modern media. The chapter examines socialization in light of social structures, social class and cultural patterns, emphasizing the strength of the culture of the taken-for-granted, as well as the child as an active subject constructing meaning in a variety of contexts. Socialization is related to development and learning as well as to children’s well-being.

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Socialization in Sociology (Definition, Types, 10 Examples)

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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In sociology, socialization is the process through which individuals learn and internalize the norms, values, beliefs, and behaviors of their society.

The process of socialization begins in childhood, when we internalize the beliefs, values, and mindsets of our parents, siblings, and culture. But it can also continues throughout our lives as we’re exposed to wide varieties of social groups and experiences.

Socialization is considered to be a prosocial process because it helps people learn how to behave appropriately within their community and understand their role within social groups.

There are several different theories about the function, form, and effects of socialization in sociology.

For example, while the functionalist perspective highly values socialziation as a means for delivering social harmony, conflict theorists see it as a way of reinforcing power structures and inequalities.

Article Summary

• Socialization is the process of internalizing the norms, values, beliefs, and behaviors of society
• Socialization begins in childhood (during ‘primary socialization’), but happens throughout life
• Agents of socialization are the people and institutions that socialize us, including parents, schools, and friends
• Functional sociologists embrace socialization as a mechanism for sustaining social harmony
• Critical theorists see socialization as a way of maintaining power inequalities and oppression
• Symbolic interactionists believe socialization is central to our agentic identity formation and occurs in everyday interactions

Definition of Socialization in Sociology

Socialization, from a sociological perspective, refers to all the ways in which people learn to become members of a society and culture (Turner, 2006).

A key scholarly definition is provided below:

“Socialization is the process through which people are taught to be proficient members of a society. It describes the ways that people come to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept society’s beliefs, and to be aware of societal values.” (Griffiths et al., 2017).

Here, we can see that socialization refers to the process by which we internalize social norms and develop a sense of ourselves as a social actor and member of a group with common values and attitudes (Lapinski & Rimal, 2005).

Types of Socialization

Sociologists have, for a long time, studied socialization. Throughout the literature, we find a range of different typologies and categorizations of socialization. Below are some of the most common recurring types:

• Anticipatory Socialization : Anticipatory socialization is a term introduced by sociologist Robert K. Merton (1949). It explains how people often change their behaviors and attitudes prior to joining a group with the anticipation that this will ease their transition into the group or increase their chances of being invited into it. Merton’s study demonstrated how US Army privates who copied the attitudes and behaviors of officers had more chances to be promoted than those who did not.
• Resocialization : Resocialization refers to shedding previously socialized attitudes and behaviors and taking on new ones that will serve you better in a new environment. For example, a college student who transitions into a corporate job may realize the workplace has different norms and values to the college dorm, so they start changing how they dress, act, and react to situations, to better fit their new environment.
• Developmental Socialization: This refers to the ways in which socialization occurs throughout a lifespan, demonstrating how we continue to be socialized into new social roles, attitudes, and behaviors as we enter new stages of life. For example, the transition to parenthood may lead to an entirely new social role, and we’ll be socialized into that role by speaking with doctors, midwives, early childhood educators, etc.
• Reverse Socialization: This is the process where younger generations socialize older generations. While traditionally we think of parents socializing their children (Witt, 1997), it’s also often the reverse, such as when we may observe children teaching their parents the norms of using new technologies, emojis, and so forth.
• Gender Socialization : Given that gender is one of the central concepts in sociological thought, a substantial body of literature demonstrates how we are socialized into gender roles from a very young age (Naples, 2020). Depending on the sociological paradigm , gender socialization may be seen as beneficial for social order (functionalism), or a form of oppression of women (conflict theory).
• Political Socialization : Political socialization is the process where people come to internalize a political viewpoint through their social interactions. This can happen in state-sanctioned ways (such as daily recitations of the pledge of allegiance), through media (such as watching propaganda on television all day long), being influenced by family and friend groups, or even through individual and systematic research to identify your own worldview.

Stages of Socialization

Ecological and developmental models of socialization demonstrate that we go through various ‘stages’ of socialization in our lives. Most models present three stages:

• Primary Socialization : This type occurs in childhood. It is during this time that we learn the basic behaviors and expectations of society. ‘Primary agents of socialization’ typically include our parents or caregivers, siblings, and other close family members (Whitbeck, 1999). This foundational type of socialization is essential in helping us to develop our base sense of self, an initial religious affiliation, and so on.
• Secondary Socialization : Secondary socialization represents socialization through interaction with broader members of our communities and society, such as our school, sports and recreation groups, mass media, the state, and new friends. It tends to be less strong than primary socialization, especially when we are young, but becomes more important the older we get.
• Tertiary Socialization: Also known as adult socialization, this occurs later in life, when we become exposed to new situations that change what we may have thought were our relatively stable belief and values systems. It may occur, for example, when you migrate to a new culture, meet and learn from your spouse, or experience what I earlier referred to as ‘resocialization’.

Key Term: Agents of Socialization

You may have noticed above that I used the term ‘ agents of socialization ’. An agent of socialization is an entity (such as a person or institution) which socializes people. For example, the school is an agent of socialization because it goes about instilling values, norms, and belief systems in us through active instruction. Similarly, friend groups are agents of socialization because the informal group norms within a friend group often become internalized as personal values and beliefs.

Examples of Socialization

• Family (Primary Agent): Parents teach their children to speak, to use the bathroom, or to eat with a fork and knife – these are all early examples of socialization.
• Educational Institutions (Secondary Agent): In school, children learn not just academic skills, but also societal norms and values. They learn about cooperation, punctuality, discipline, and respect for authority, for instance.
• Peers (Secondary Agent): A teenager adapting their clothing style or slang to fit in with their friends is an example of socialization through peer groups.
• Culture (Secondary Agent): Participating in cultural traditions or ceremonies, like a Thanksgiving dinner or a wedding, teaches individuals about societal values and norms.
• Religious Institution (Secondary Agent): Attending religious services or studying religious texts can socialize individuals into a particular religious worldview and its associated values and behaviors.
• Workplace (Tertiary Agent): A new employee learns the norms, expectations, and culture of their workplace – this could include everything from formal procedures to more informal practices like after-work socializing.
• Media (Secondary Agent): Watching a TV show or movie, or engaging with social media, can also socialize individuals. These media can communicate societal norms and values, or influence perceptions of reality (Kelly & Donohew, 1999).
• The State (Secondary Agent): Laws and their enforcement socialize people by setting societal norms and expectations for behavior. For instance, traffic laws teach drivers the rules of the road.
• Sporting Groups (Secondary Agent): Participating in a sports team can teach individuals about teamwork, discipline, and fair play.

See more examples of socialization here

Socialization vs Internalization

Socialization and internalization are closely related concepts in sociology but they are not identical. Socialization is the process through which individuals learn and acquire the norms, values, behaviors, and social skills of their society. This process begins from early childhood and continues throughout an individual’s life, with key influencers including family, school, peers, and media. On the other hand, internalization refers to the process by which these learned values, norms, and behaviors become deeply ingrained in an individual’s belief system and guide their actions, often unconsciously. Internalization is about the personal absorption and acceptance of these learned aspects to the point where they become a part of the individual’s own self.

Sociological Theories of Socialization

1. the functionalist perspective on socialization.

Functionalism is a theoretical perspective within sociology which holds that social institutions – such as the family unit, school, state, etc. – each have separate but interconnected roles in maintaining social order and socializing citizens.

A functionalist perspective tends to be quite positive toward the role and concept of socialization. It views socialization as a crucial process that helps maintain social order, stability, and cohesion in a society .

Socialization serves to transmit culture from one generation to the next, teaches us the rules, norms, and values of the social group, and overall helps us to function smoothly as a cohesive social or culturla group.

From a functionalist perspective, every member of society is ideally socialized to identify their role as a cog in society, learn to embody that role, and accept their role within the orderly society.

Functionalists also pay attention to how different social institutions contribute to socialization. They view the family, educational institutions, religious organizations, and even the media as crucial for teaching individuals how to behave and what to expect in various contexts, thereby ensuring the smooth functioning of society.

However, critics of functionalism might argue that this perspective overlooks the ways in which socialization can reinforce social inequality by teaching individuals to accept existing power structures and disparities. This is where conflict theory comes in.

Case Study: Schooling as a Social Institution Functionalists might point to the way that schools socialize students not only in academic knowledge, but also in respect for authority, punctuality, cooperation with others, and other societal values.

2. The Conflict Theory Perspective on Socialization

Conflict theorists , which include Marxist and neo-Marxist sociologists, see socialization as a means by which the powerful reinforce the existing power structures and contribute to social inequality (Glasberg & Shannon, 2011).

In a sense, functionalism and conflict theory both see socialization as a means for reinforcing the social norms – but conflict theorists focus on the social injustices in this process.

From a conflict theory perspective, socialization is seen as a mechanism through which social hierarchies – including social class, race, gender, etc. – are reinforced and normalized (through, for example, race socialization ).

By internalizing these norms and values, individuals learn to accept the existing social order, including its inequities (Macionis, 2013).

For example, conflict theorists might argue that schools not only teach academic skills, but also subtly socialize students into accepting capitalist values such as competition and the normality of wealth inequality. Similarly, they might examine how family structures, religious institutions, and media representations socialize individuals into accepting gender roles or racial stereotypes.

In this way, conflict theorists see socialization as a means of maintaining the status quo and perpetuating social inequalities, rather than merely a process for maintaining societal order and stability as functionalists do.

Case Study: Mass Media Socialization There is a large body of sociological literature that examines how mass media has the capacity to socialize young people. For example, the depiction of gender roles in Disney models has been the topic of extensive research that aims to demonstrate how gender roles are socially constructed within children’s texts, reinforcing patriarchal ideas about how to embody an ‘idealized’ female or male identity in contemporary society (see, for example: Fiske, 2016; Maity, 2014).

3. The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective on Socialization

Symbolic interactionism explores how socialization occurs in day-to-day interactions, where meanings are negotiated and constructed in language and symbols.

The above two perspectives look at socialization from a top-down level ( macro-sociology ), critiquing the role of institutions in structuring society. Symbolic interactionism focuses on individuals and how they develop meaningful identities in their own lives. This is a micro-sociological perspective .

Symbolic interactionists think that critical theorists and functionalists view humans as passive people lacking agency . They think this is wrong.

Instead, a social interactionist view will perceive socialization as an active process in which individuals aren’t just passively absorbing societal norms, but actively interpreting and negotiating their social reality.

For symbolic interactionists, socialization is closely tied to the development of personal identity. Through interactions with others, individuals learn to see themselves from the perspective of others, a process known as “the looking-glass self.”

For example, a key concept in social interactionism is that of ‘role-taking’, a process where we learn to take on different roles (like student, parent, worker) in order to achieve personal self-advancement, demonstrating how we embrace social identities not because we’re duped into doing it by media, but because it is personally advantageous.

Case Study: The Looking-Glass Self The Looking Glass Self is a concept developed by social interactionist Charles Horton Cooley. He proposes that a person’s sense of self-concept grows out of their social interactions with others. It suggests that individuals form their self-concept based on their understanding of how others perceive them. We envision how we appear to others, interpret their reactions, and subsequently develop a self-concept. In this manner, our sense of who we are is based on socialization, highlighting the critical influence of societal interaction.

Socialization is one of the central concepts you need to learn when studying sociology. It’s central to sociological studies because socialization is the process of forming societies, social identities, and social hierarchies , which are the key concepts that sociologists explore. Depending on the theoretical framework from which you examine the concept, you’ll be able to see socialization from a different lens and critique its form and function in a variety of differing ways.

Durkheim, É. (2002). Introduction à la sociologie de la famille: Fonctions sociales et institutions . J.-M. Tremblay. (Original work published 1888)

Fiske, J. (2010). Television culture. London: Routledge.

Glasberg, D. S. & Shannon, D. (2011). Political Sociology: Oppression, resistance, and the state . Pine Forge Press.

Griffiths, H., Strayer, E., & Cody-Rydzewski, S. (2017). Introduction to Sociology 2e. Open Books.

Kelly, K., & Donohew, L. (1999). Media and Primary Socialization Theory. Substance Use & Misuse , 34 (7), 1033–1045. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826089909039395

Lapinski, M. K., & Rimal, R. N. (2005). An Explication of Social Norms. Communication Theory , 15 (2), 127–147. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2005.tb00329.x

Macionis, J. J. (2013). Sociology . 15th ed. Pearson.

Maity, N. (2014). Damsels in distress: A textual analysis of gender roles in Disney princess films. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 19 (10), 28-31.

Naples, N. A. (2020). Companion to Women’s and Gender Studies . London: John Wiley & Sons.

Turner, B. S. (2006). The Cambridge Dictionary of Sociology . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Whitbeck, L. B. (1999). Primary Socialization Theory: It All Begins with the Family. Substance Use & Misuse , 34 (7), 1025–1032. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826089909039394

Witt, S. D. (1997). Parental influence on children’s socialization to gender roles. Adolescence , 32 (126), 253.

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Sociological Perspectives on Socialization

2018, Oxford Bibliographies

Scholars of sociology, anthropology, psychology, and Education alike are interested in socialization. This phenomenon influences individual and collective development as well as the reproduction of status hierarchies and structural inequalities. Socialization is the multifaceted process through which individuals learn and internalize cultural norms, codes, and values. This process enables entry into and sustained membership in one or more social groups. Individuals develop social and cultural competencies through (1) interaction with other individuals and social institutions and (2) response to their macro- and micro-sociocultural contexts. Socialization does not occur in a vacuum: this process operates in social locations that both afford and constrain interaction and opportunity. In turn, social expectations for individuals coming of age are not uniform. Correspondingly, the mechanisms and outcomes of socialization vary across geographical space, sociocultural context, and sociohistorical time. Additionally, socialization processes may vary within a society, depending on the power and status of their subgroup identities. Many members of society additionally navigate the at times competing influences of the dominant culture and marginalized subcultures. Much scholarly attention has focused on the socialization processes of childhood and adolescence. However, adaptation to and internalization of social norms, values, and behaviors continues throughout adulthood. Individuals experience identity, Family, educational, and career changes and transitions alongside members of their generational cohort. As a result, their social roles may shift and change over the life course. Socialization facilitates processes of inclusion and participation of diverse individuals and groups in society. At the same time, socialization contributes to the stabilization of social order, which can include reproduction of existing stratification by race, gender, and social class. Processes of socialization continue to shape generational cohorts and intergenerational dynamics as well as across various social institutions. In summary, socialization prepares individuals for membership in society and is associated with the stability and maintenance of society writ large.

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Sociology 101

Socialization ¶

In this lesson, you will learn how the self is connected to social phenomena, such as gender, race, and the media, and how interactions construct them all. You will be acquiring some new analytic tools, including the concepts of socialization and impression management. This lesson presents concepts of self from Freud, Mead, and Cooley; impression management and presentation of the self from Goffman; socialization; statuses and roles; and the social construction of emotions. You will be introduced to a new way of looking at the self—indeed, a new way of looking at your self—that emphasizes the role of the social in creating the individual. And you will be reminded of the reverse: as your society makes you who you are, you have a role (in fact, many roles) to play in shaping your society. The Case Study for this week allows you a chance to analzye how behaviors travel through social networks.

Learning Objectives ¶

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

Identify processes of socialization and theories of the self.

Compare socialization agents.

Analyze media content.

Deadlines ¶

Be sure to hand these in before the deadline

InQuizitive Chapter 4 (Thursday at 9:30am)

Bechdel Test Application (Sunday at 10:00pm)

‘ Socialization ’, Chapter 4 in Real World

Class Lecture recording . [Slides](https://www.dropbox.com/s/qsv057p6dcdf85a/05%20Socialization.pptx?dl=1ociological Perspectives)

Social Development

Socialization

Social Interaction & Performance

Questions ¶

If you have any questions at all about what you are supposed to do this week, please remember I am here to help. Reach out any time so we can support your success.

Post it in the Slack #questions channel!

Signup for virtual office hours !

Email me or your TA.

Lesson Keywords ¶

Looking-glass self

Mead’s theory of the self

Generalized other

Thomas theorem

Definition of the situation

Impression management

Frontstage/backstage

Social construction

cooling the mark out

agents of socialization

hidden curriculum

total institutions

resocialization

ascribed status

embodied status

achieved status

master status

role conflict

role strain

emotional work/labor

saturated self

civil inattention

The least you need to know ¶

Theoretical perspectives of the self

5.3 Agents of Socialization

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you should be able to:

• Evaluate the roles of families and peer groups in socialization
• Describe how people are socialized through institutions like schools, workplaces, and the government

Socialization helps people learn to function successfully in their social worlds. How does the process of socialization occur? How do we learn to use the objects of our society’s material culture? How do we come to adopt the beliefs, values, and norms that represent its nonmaterial culture? This learning takes place through interaction with various agents of socialization, like peer groups and families, plus both formal and informal social institutions.

Social Group Agents

Social groups often provide the first experiences of socialization. Families, and later peer groups, communicate expectations and reinforce norms. People first learn to use the tangible objects of material culture in these settings, as well as being introduced to the beliefs and values of society.

Family is the first agent of socialization. Mothers and fathers, siblings and grandparents, plus members of an extended family, all teach a child what he or she needs to know. For example, they show the child how to use objects (such as clothes, computers, eating utensils, books, bikes); how to relate to others (some as “family,” others as “friends,” still others as “strangers” or “teachers” or “neighbors”); and how the world works (what is “real” and what is “imagined”). As you are aware, either from your own experience as a child or from your role in helping to raise one, socialization includes teaching and learning about an unending array of objects and ideas.

Keep in mind, however, that families do not socialize children in a vacuum. Many social factors affect the way a family raises its children. For example, we can use sociological imagination to recognize that individual behaviors are affected by the historical period in which they take place. Sixty years ago, it would not have been considered especially strict for a father to hit his son with a wooden spoon or a belt if he misbehaved, but today that same action might be considered child abuse.

Sociologists recognize that race, social class, religion, and other societal factors play an important role in socialization. For example, poor families usually emphasize obedience and conformity when raising their children, while wealthy families emphasize judgment and creativity (National Opinion Research Center 2008). This may occur because working-class parents have less education and more repetitive-task jobs for which it is helpful to be able to follow rules and conform. Wealthy parents tend to have better educations and often work in managerial positions or careers that require creative problem solving, so they teach their children behaviors that are beneficial in these positions. This means children are effectively socialized and raised to take the types of jobs their parents already have, thus reproducing the class system (Kohn 1977). Likewise, children are socialized to abide by gender norms, perceptions of race, and class-related behaviors.

In Sweden, for instance, stay-at-home fathers are an accepted part of the social landscape. A government policy provides subsidized time off work—480 days for families with newborns—with the option of the paid leave being shared between mothers and fathers. As one stay-at-home dad says, being home to take care of his baby son “is a real fatherly thing to do. I think that’s very masculine” (Associated Press 2011). Close to 90 percent of Swedish fathers use their paternity leave (about 340,000 dads); on average they take seven weeks per birth (The Economist, 2014). How do U.S. policies—and our society’s expected gender roles—compare? How will Swedish children raised this way be socialized to parental gender norms? How might that be different from parental gender norms in the United States?

Peer Groups

A peer group is made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share interests. Peer group socialization begins in the earliest years, such as when kids on a playground teach younger children the norms about taking turns, the rules of a game, or how to shoot a basket. As children grow into teenagers, this process continues. Peer groups are important to adolescents in a new way, as they begin to develop an identity separate from their parents and exert independence. Additionally, peer groups provide their own opportunities for socialization since kids usually engage in different types of activities with their peers than they do with their families. Peer groups provide adolescents’ first major socialization experience outside the realm of their families. Interestingly, studies have shown that although friendships rank high in adolescents’ priorities, this is balanced by parental influence.

Institutional Agents

The social institutions of our culture also inform our socialization. Formal institutions—like schools, workplaces, and the government—teach people how to behave in and navigate these systems. Other institutions, like the media, contribute to socialization by inundating us with messages about norms and expectations.

Most U.S. children spend about seven hours a day, 180 days a year, in school, which makes it hard to deny the importance school has on their socialization (U.S. Department of Education 2004). Students are not in school only to study math, reading, science, and other subjects—the manifest function of this system. Schools also serve a latent function in society by socializing children into behaviors like practicing teamwork, following a schedule, and using textbooks.

School and classroom rituals, led by teachers serving as role models and leaders, regularly reinforce what society expects from children. Sociologists describe this aspect of schools as the hidden curriculum , the informal teaching done by schools.

For example, in the United States, schools have built a sense of competition into the way grades are awarded and the way teachers evaluate students (Bowles and Gintis 1976). When children participate in a relay race or a math contest, they learn there are winners and losers in society. When children are required to work together on a project, they practice teamwork with other people in cooperative situations. The hidden curriculum prepares children for the adult world. Children learn how to deal with bureaucracy, rules, expectations, waiting their turn, and sitting still for hours during the day. Schools in different cultures socialize children differently in order to prepare them to function well in those cultures. The latent functions of teamwork and dealing with bureaucracy are features of U.S. culture.

Schools also socialize children by teaching them about citizenship and national pride. In the United States, children are taught to say the Pledge of Allegiance. Most districts require classes about U.S. history and geography. As academic understanding of history evolves, textbooks in the United States have been scrutinized and revised to update attitudes toward other cultures as well as perspectives on historical events; thus, children are socialized to a different national or world history than earlier textbooks may have done. For example, information about the mistreatment of African Americans and Native American Indians more accurately reflects those events than in textbooks of the past.

Big Picture

Controversial textbooks.

On August 13, 2001, twenty South Korean men gathered in Seoul. Each chopped off one of his own fingers because of textbooks. These men took drastic measures to protest eight middle school textbooks approved by Tokyo for use in Japanese middle schools. According to the Korean government (and other East Asian nations), the textbooks glossed over negative events in Japan’s history at the expense of other Asian countries.

In the early 1900s, Japan was one of Asia’s more aggressive nations. For instance, it held Korea as a colony between 1910 and 1945. Today, Koreans argue that the Japanese are whitewashing that colonial history through these textbooks. One major criticism is that they do not mention that, during World War II, the Japanese forced Korean women into sexual slavery. The textbooks describe the women as having been “drafted” to work, a euphemism that downplays the brutality of what actually occurred. Some Japanese textbooks dismiss an important Korean independence demonstration in 1919 as a “riot.” In reality, Japanese soldiers attacked peaceful demonstrators, leaving roughly 6,000 dead and 15,000 wounded (Crampton 2002).

The protest affirms that textbooks are a significant tool of socialization in state-run education systems.

The Workplace

Just as children spend much of their day at school, many U.S. adults at some point invest a significant amount of time at a place of employment. Although socialized into their culture since birth, workers require new socialization into a workplace, in terms of both material culture (such as how to operate the copy machine) and nonmaterial culture (such as whether it’s okay to speak directly to the boss or how to share the refrigerator). In the chapter introduction, Noel did not fully embrace the culture of their new company. Importantly, the obligation of such socialization is not simply on the worker: Organizational behavior and other business experts place responsibility on companies; organizations must have strong onboarding and socialization programs in order to build satisfaction, productivity, and workplace retention (Cebollero 2019).

Different jobs require different types of socialization. In the past, many people worked a single job until retirement. Today, the trend is to switch jobs at least once a decade. Between the ages of eighteen and forty-six, the average Baby Boomer of the younger set held 11.3 different jobs (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014). This means that people must become socialized to, and socialized by, a variety of work environments.

While some religions are informal institutions, here we focus on practices followed by formal institutions. Religion is an important avenue of socialization for many people. The United States is full of synagogues, temples, churches, mosques, and similar religious communities where people gather to worship and learn. Like other institutions, these places teach participants how to interact with the religion’s material culture (like a mezuzah, a prayer rug, or a communion wafer). For some people, important ceremonies related to family structure—like marriage and birth—are connected to religious celebrations. Many religious institutions also uphold gender norms and contribute to their enforcement through socialization. From ceremonial rites of passage that reinforce the family unit to power dynamics that reinforce gender roles, organized religion fosters a shared set of socialized values that are passed on through society.

Although we do not think about it, many of the rites of passage people go through today are based on age norms established by the government. To be defined as an “adult” usually means being eighteen years old, the age at which a person becomes legally responsible for him- or herself. And sixty-five years old is the start of “old age” since most people become eligible for senior benefits at that point.

Each time we embark on one of these new categories—senior, adult, taxpayer—we must be socialized into our new role. Seniors must learn the ropes of Medicare, Social Security benefits, and senior shopping discounts. When U.S. males turn eighteen, they must register with the Selective Service System within thirty days to be entered into a database for possible military service. These government dictates mark the points at which we require socialization into a new category.

Mass media distribute impersonal information to a wide audience, via television, newspapers, radio, and the Internet. With the average person spending over four hours a day in front of the television (and children averaging even more screen time), media greatly influences social norms (Roberts, Foehr, and Rideout 2005). People learn about objects of material culture (like new technology and transportation options), as well as nonmaterial culture—what is true (beliefs), what is important (values), and what is expected (norms).

Sociology in the Real World

Girls and movies.

Movies aimed at young people have featured a host of girls and women leads. Snow White , Cinderella , and Sleeping Beauty gave way to The Little Mermaid , Beauty and the Beast, and Mulan . In many of those cases, if the character is not a princess to begin with, she typically ends the movie by marrying a prince or, in the case of Mulan, a military general. Although not all “princesses” in Disney movies play a passive role in their lives, they typically find themselves needing to be rescued by a man, and the happy ending they all search for includes marriage.

Alongside this prevalence of princesses, many parents are expressing concern about the culture of princesses that Disney has created. Peggy Orenstein addresses this problem in her popular book, Cinderella Ate My Daughter . Orenstein wonders why every little girl is expected to be a “princess” and why pink has become an all-consuming obsession for many young girls. Another mother wondered what she did wrong when her three-year-old daughter refused to do “nonprincessy” things, including running and jumping. The effects of this princess culture can have negative consequences for girls throughout life. An early emphasis on beauty can lead to reduced interest in math and science among girls, as well as avoiding educational scenarios that are "typically feminine" (Coyne 2016).

Others acknowledge these issues, but find princess movies and "princess culture" less alarming. Some remind concerned parents that children have an array of media and activities around them, and the children may be happy wearing their princess outfit while digging for worms or going to hockey practice, which run counter to feminine stereotypes (Wagner 2019). Others indicate that rather than disallowing princess movies and merchandise, engaging with the children as they enjoy them might be more effective. And many people acknowledge that girls and women are often currently portrayed differently than they were in years past.

Disney seems to have gotten the message about the concerns. Its 2009 Tiana and the Frog was specifically billed as "a princess movie for people who don't like princess movies," and features a talented chef and business owner—who didn't need a man to rescue her—as its main character. Brave 's Merida and the title character in Moana seem to go out of their way to separate themselves from traditional princesses, and undertake great acts of bravery to help others. Frozen focuses on sisterly love rather than romantic love. And though she was never meant to be a princess, Star Wars ' Rey was the go-to girls Halloween costume for years after she was introduced in the movies.

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The Role of Family in the Process of Socialization Essay

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Socialization is a fundamental process through which a family acquires cultural and personal identity. Each person undergoes natural, planned, negative, or positive socialization in his or her life, regardless of gender or age. A family is one of the agencies that introduce a child to aspects like culture, physical, and psychological identities or behaviours and environment, which are some of the major elements of socialization.

Commonly, there are three types of families, single parent, nuclear, and extended; each of the family may differently expose a child to the aspects of socialization. The main role of a family is to nurture, mould, and guide children in the society; therefore, a child who does not belong to any family may undergo a negative socialization process.

Since the adoption of the word society, different sociologists like Max Weber have come up with a number of social theories namely feminist theory, conflict theory, consensus theory, theory of ‘self’, concept of the human mind, looking glass-self theory, and symbolic theory among others. Therefore, according to sociologists, the dynamic environment and familial identity in correlation with the elements of socialization determine the social behaviour of an individual in both childhood and adulthood.

A family is a fundamental institution that assists an individual or child to develop into an acceptable member of the society. Although each parent in a family has a role in the upbringing of a child, in many cases, the mother initiates the socialization process in a child.

Besides giving the sense of belonging or identity, a family imparts culture, traditions, norms, social roles, and values into the child (Merton, 1957, p.10). The processes of listening, language learning, and respect to authority start at the family level. Furthermore, it is the role of the family to provide a decent living environment for the children.

All children are a product of their environment; thus, to impart positive social values in a child, parents should choose an environment free from any negative influence. Drug abuse, criminal activities, and immoral behaviours are some of the negative aspects an environment might impart in a growing child. Most children learn from their friends, peers, parents, neighbours, and schoolmates.

Therefore, parents should familiarize with the friends of their children to ensure that the children do not deviate from the conventional social behaviours through external forces. In the light of this revelation, it suffices to conclude that, a family is a social institution that ensures that a child conforms to the acceptable standards of the society. The societal attributes that a family instils in a child include personality, skills/knowledge, social stability/order, cultural transmission, life aspirations, and social discipline among others.

The elements of socialization that a family imparts into a child are three. The first aspect is the inheritance of physical features and the psychological well being of a child. Parents pass their physical features to their children while psychological satisfaction of a child occurs when he or she grows up (Herman & Reynolds, 1994, p.17).

If a child experiences traumatic events like violence, or rape, he or she undergoes psychological instability even in adulthood. Secondly, environment is a crucial element of socialization especially to young stars.

The home, school, or institution in which a child lives in, determine the moral conducts of the child. A child who undergoes physically torture at home may become a drug addict, abuse alcohol, and/or venture into criminal activities like robbery or even commit suicide (Homans, 1962, p.34). The final concept is the element of culture whereby, a family initiates a child into specific cultural attributes. Depending on the sexual identity, parents bestow different gender roles to their children.

Mothers guide girls/daughters on their roles as wives and future mothers while fathers teach boys/sons on their roles as future fathers. In addition, each family or community has different cultural practices like initiation, dress code, and other formalities, which a family passes to its children to ensure they fit in the immediate society. Thus, physical and psychological inheritance, environment, and culture are the key elements a family fosters into a child.

Although most families have similar ways of socialization, some aspects instilled in a child differ from one family to another. A child from a nuclear or single parent family may have limited interaction with other relatives or members of the society.

Each family ensures that its children learn and practice the prevalent culture; however, a child from a single parent family may only learn culture from one parent. Moreover, each parent/family has diverse ways of imparting social skills to children. While some parents are harsh and strict, others rely on dialogue to instil moral values in their children.

Some parents enrol their children into boarding schools, others restrict their children from interacting with relatives or other members of the extended families, others employee house helps to monitor their children, and others quit their jobs to raise their children. Therefore, the methodology adapted by families may differ, but eventually the norms, values, and morals instilled have a similar relationship in one way or another.

The different theories of sociology attempt to correlate social science with other disciplines. For instance, the functionalism theory relates sociology to other scientific phenomena like research and biological organisms among others to explore the society/sociology as a subject.

Fundamentally, each of the adapted sociological theories exclusively focuses on one subject or phenomenon. Therefore, if an individual reads the social theories concurrently, he or she will understand the concept of sociology. Thus, the socialization theory plays a role in effecting the adaptation of exemplary personality or social attributes like obedience and compelling individuals to conform to their societal practices.

Sociologists have adapted different sociological theories to try to explain the subject of sociology. Also referred to as the consensus theory, functionalist theory describes the integration of human beings in the society through the sharing of the common cultural practices (Layton, 1997, P.20). The functionalist theory defines socialization as a functional requisite that leads to a stable society through the establishment of permanent social norms.

According to Durkheim, many systems, both physical and scientific, interact to determine the social behaviour of an individual (Michener, 1999, p.50). The systems are usually independent of the social laws surrounding the individual. The balance or equilibrium between humans and the society maintains a stable society. Religion, culture, and tradition are some of the elements, which shape up the society.

The society establishes specific social control tactics, which conform to the desired values and practices. For instance, if an individual adapts unbecoming behaviour like sneering through condemnation from the people around him or her, s/he will learn to discard the behaviour. Therefore, in relation to family as a channel of socialization, the functionalist theory describes a family as a societal institution established to ensure that there is continuity of a stable society.

Adopted from the ideologies of Karl Max, conflict theory describes socialization as competition, in which human beings not only interact, but also disagree and fight to maintain power (Clause, 1968, p.5). Therefore, the tenacity to compete for wealth and power defines the society as an unequal environment where a person or group decides to dominate over the others. Hence, capitalism, oppression, class systems, and materialism are some of the permanent characteristics of the society.

According to Max, the political, social, and economic stability of the society is in line with the conflict theory (Westen, 2002, p.40). Through family as a socializing institution, an individual must fall in some of the aforementioned groups. A child from a ruling class family will fight to maintain the status quo in the society. The conflict theory gives a sense of belonging to the society especially during socialization.

The family, as a social environment, may change due to external and internal forces like conflicts, divorce, emigration, death, and other natural calamities like floods. Due to the above issues, a child may abruptly change his or her living environment, which may also change the course of his/her socialization process. Similarly, a child may lose a parent in early age leaving him or her in the care of stepparents, foster parents, and grandparents.

The unfortunate ones end up as street children. The new environment may neglect or expose the child to new social practices or impart negative social practices in them. Political instability is among the elements that may scatter a family, and consequently affect the transmission of social norms in children. Furthermore, some of the traumatic events may also divert or impart negative social values like hatred in children.

Gardener Murphy has developed the theory of ‘self’ as a fundamental aspect in socialization. According to Murphy, an individual or self is a reflection of the environment especially the people one interacts with in life (Mead, 1967, p.80). The theory of ‘looking-glass self’ describes an individual’s characters as the mirror of the society. Appearance, judgment, and self-feeling of an individual develop through social interaction with the society (Mead, 1967, p.75).

Similarly, George Herbert Meads’ theory of ‘self’ describes the relationship of parentage or family to social development of the child (Mead, 1967, p.60). Before a child adapts to the external environment, he or she will initially practice the behaviour of the parents (Westen, 2002, p.50). Through the family, a child learns that to develop her awareness he or she will have to interact with others in the society, thus, socialization. In connection with the family, the theory of self describes a family as a fundamental unit in socialization.

Although the family is the commonly known social environment, other social institutions like the state, school, and church play a vital role in building an individual’s personality. The diversity of a social environment determines the conduct of an individual in adulthood. A child who visits religious gatherings like churches, temples, and mosques will attentively listen and shape his or her moral conduct according to the sermons.

On the other hand, a parent who does not worship in any church will pass the similar attributes to their children or generations. Secondly, the state drafts and enacts laws that each citizen has to uphold. Different states/countries or societies have different laws, which the members have to live by, and a breach in any of the laws leads to a punishment.

Apart from family/home, the school imparts social attributes in children. Knowledge, skills, and aspirations are some of the virtues a child/individual picks from school. Sometimes, children may adapt the behavioural conducts of their teachers or instructors. Finally, while at school or home, children acquire playmates who sometimes determine their behaviour. A child or an individual will adapt the behavioural conduct of his/her peers; therefore, negative or positives social values may originate from playmates.

Depending on the surrounding environment, a child conforms to its social norms; similarly, a child will pick up a new behaviour if he or she changes the environment. Thus, it is the role of the society to ensure the social conduct of its environment is not only acceptable, but also safe for the future of an individual. A dynamic environment may confuse a child, which leads to psychological trauma. Therefore, parents should ensure their children stay in a stable environment.

In the contemporary world, the social norms or values are not only dynamic, but also acquired through other channels other than the family, school, or church. Globally, the technological development of computers and the Internet services has led to the adaptation of diverse ways of socialization.

Globalization promotes multiculturalism, interracial marriages, and other diverse social interactions (Goffman, 1961, p.10). Contemporarily, children learn both negative and positive social aspects through social sites like facebook, tweeter, and LinkedIn among others. Sadly, the current upward trend in globalization rarely instils positive values in the young stars.

Besides practicing unacceptable social behaviours like pornography, young people also disregard physical social interactions. Whether at school, home or in the public, children concentrate on their mobile phones, surfing the Internet or interacting with friends or strangers through the social sites. In addition, the young stars have the unfortunate chance to choose what is right or awry without the seasoned guidance of the adults.

In the same light, entertainment channels like television, cinemas, and music playing systems promote different social values into teenagers or individuals. The aforementioned systems are among the common environments that a child in the current society faces as he or she grows into adulthood. Unfortunately, with the fast changes in globalization, there is poor assimilation of children into the society.

Modern parents concentrate on careers and, as a result, they neglect their roles in parentage; therefore, they leave their children to learn vital social values from peers or immediate environment. Consequently, children end up adopting criminal behaviours while some may not even fit into the society. Therefore, the family, as the primary social institution, should integrate into the dynamic environment in the present worldwide; otherwise, the next generations may lack vital social norms.

In conclusion, a family is the principal unit in socialization. The family imparts cultural practices, determines the living environment, and the physical and psychological identity of the children. Socialization, as a subject, has led to the adoption of different sociological theories that have enabled the effective study of the subject.

Marxist, conflict, and consensus theories are among the common theories studied in sociology. Social institutions like family, schools, churches, and mosques also instil positive social practices in individuals. Finally, the dynamic environment and globalization have led to the adaptation of new social practices; unfortunately, some of these new socialization trends promote antisocial behaviours among the youths.

Clausen, J. A. (1968). Socialization and Society . Boston: Little Brown and Company.

Goffman, E. (1961). Encounters: Two Studies in the Sociology of Interaction . London: Macmillan Publishing Co.

Herman, N. J., & Reynolds, L.T. (1994). Symbolic Interaction: An Introduction to Social Psychology . New York: Altamira Press.

Homans, G. C. (1962). Sentiments and Activities . New York: The Free Press Of Glencoe.

Layton, R. (1997). An Introduction to Theory in Anthropology . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Mead, G. H. (1967 ). Mind, Self, & Society: From the Standpoint of a Social Behaviourist . Chicago: University of Chicago press.

Merton, R. (1957). Social Theory and Social Structure revised and enlarged . London: The Free Press of Glencoe.

Michener, H. A., & John D. (1999). Social Psychology . Harcourt: Brace College Publishers.

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IvyPanda . "The Role of Family in the Process of Socialization." October 11, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-importance-of-the-family-in-the-socialization-process/.