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Neurobiology of sleep (Review)

Affiliations.

1 Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Transilvania University of Brașov, 500036 Brașov, Romania.
2 Department of Neurology, County Emergency Clinic Hospital, 500365 Brașov, Romania.
3 Clinicco Hospital, 500059 Brașov, Romania.
PMID: 33603879
PMCID: PMC7851648
DOI: 10.3892/etm.2021.9703

Sleep is a physiological global state composed of two different phases: Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. The control mechanisms of sleep manifest at the level of genetic, biological and cellular organization. Several brain areas, including the basal forebrain, thalamus, and hypothalamus, take part in regulating the activity of this status of life. The signals between different brain regions and those from cortical areas to periphery are conducted through various neuromediators, which are known to either promote wakefulness or sleep. Among others, serotonin, norepinephrine, histamine, hypocretin (orexin), acetylcholine, dopamine, glutamate, and gamma-aminobutyric acid are known to orchestrate the intrinsic mechanisms of sleep neurobiology. Several models that explain the transition and the continuity between wakefulness, NREM sleep and REM sleep have been proposed. All of these models include neurotransmitters as ligands in a complex reciprocal connectivity across the key-centers taking part in the regulation of sleep. Moreover, various environmental cues are integrated by a central pacemaker-located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus-which is able to connect with cortical regions and with peripheral tissues in order to promote the sleep-wake pattern.

Keywords: NREM sleep; REM sleep; neurobiology; neuromediators; sleep.

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Exploring the statistical and computational analysis of sleep stages across different age groups

Original Research
Published: 04 September 2024

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Vikas Dilliwar 1 &
Mridu Sahu ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4347-8085 1

Sleep is a crucial part of a healthy life and good sleep may depend on various factors such as sleep duration, sleep efficiency, sleep architecture, sleep latency, sleep fragmentation, etc. Poor sleep quality may lead to the cause of many diseases and disorders. The present work is based on the study and analysis of the polysomnography (PSG) datasets, collected from 82 subjects including 45 females and 37 males. The present work measures sleep stages including Rapid Eye Movement (REM or R), wakefulness (W), Stage-1, Stage-2, and Stage-3/4 of the subjects with age groups of 20–39, 40–59, 60–79, and 80–100 years. This research investigates the average sleeping time percentage in each age group and focuses on the changes in sleep patterns. Furthermore, this investigation employs statistical measures including median, variance, and standard deviation to comprehensively understand the variability of sleep quality and sleep parameters within each age group. The T -tests and ANOVA tests within specific sleep stages for each age group have been measured to determine the significance of age-related variations in sleep parameters. The results appear valid regardless of age and may provide valuable information about the impact on sleep quality. Also, the algorithm has been implemented in a multi-core computing platform with a parallel processing approach and reduced the 96% computation time. The analysis of the present work provides essential information regarding sleep in different age groups, potentially useful for maintaining sleep quality with age.

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Dilliwar, V., Sahu, M. Exploring the statistical and computational analysis of sleep stages across different age groups. Int. j. inf. tecnol. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41870-024-02152-x

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v.43(1); Jan-Mar 2017

Research on Sleep Quality and the Factors Affecting the Sleep Quality of the Nursing Students

1 Uludag University Faculty of Health Sciences, Bursa, Turkey

F. TANRIKULU

2 Sakarya University Faculty of Health Sciences, Sakarya, Turkey

Purpose: This research has been conducted in order to examine the quality of sleep and the factors affecting the sleep quality.Material/Methods: The sample of this descriptive research is comprised of 223 volunteer students studying at Uludağ University Faculty of Health Sciences Department of Nursing. Research datas have been collected through personal features survey and Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index(PSQI). Results: The average result derived from the sample is 6.52±3.17. To briefly explain the average of the component scores: subjective sleep quality 1.29±0.76, sleep latency 1,55±0.94, sleep duration 0.78±0.99, habitual sleep activity 0.47±0.90, sleep disturbances 0.99±0.09, use of sleeping medication 0.12±0.48, daytime dysfunction 1.29±0.90. It has been observed that there is a meaningful discrepancies between average PSQI results and smoking habits of the students, total daily sleeping hours, efficient waking up times, average daily coffee consumption(p<0.05). According to the analyses there is no meaningful discrepancies between the age,gender, where the students live,snoozing during the morning classes, the existence of chronic diseases and daily average tea consumption.(p>0.05)Conclusions: According to the findings in the light of this research; nursing students have low sleep quality.

Introduction

Sleep, which is directly related to health and quality of life, is a basic need for a human being to continue his bio-psycho-social and cultural functions [ 1 ]. Sleep affects the quality of life and health,which is also perceived as an important variable[ 2 , 3 ]. Feeling energetic and fit after sleeping is descriped as the sleep quality [ 4 ]. The fact that, nowadays the complaints about sleep disorder being prevalent, low sleep quality being an indicator of many medical diseases and there is strong relationship between physical ,psychological wellness and sleep; sleep quality is an important concept in the clinic practices and related researches on sleep [ 5 ].

Sleeping disorders is a common health problem among adolescants and young adults [ 6 ]. There is a general belief that university students do not sleep enough [ 7 ]. It has been reported that the the amount and the quality of the sleep of university students has been changed in past few decades and the sleep disorders has been inclined [ 8 ]. In the related researches is found that sleeping disorder among university students in various frequencies and amounts [ 9 , 10 , 11 ]. Low quality of sleep harms not only the academic success but also behavioral and emotional problems [ 12 ], negative emotional status, increase in alcohol and smoking habits[ 13 , 14 ]. In another research, it has been found that, there is a link between sleep quality and pschological wellbeing; more psychological diseases are observed among university students with low sleep quality [ 15 ]. Additionally it is recorded in the medical literature that, sleep quality is affected from the external factors such as gender, academic success, academic background, general health, socio-economic status and the stress level of the person [ 1 , 4 , 7 , 16 ].

Nursing students may have sleep issues due to their program being though, time and effort-requiring [ 3 , 11 ]. Because of this matter, students who cannot sleep enough may have various physical,social, psychological problems. Therefore, it is much more important to indicate the sleep quality of the students and the factors affecting. There is a demand for this kind of research since there is only limited amount of related research

Aim of Study

This research is conducted in order to examine the sleep quality of the Nursing students and the factors affecting it.

Material and Method

The research sample of this descriptive and cross-sectional research is derived from the population of students studying at Uludag University Faculty of Health Sciences Department of Nursing in the Spring Semester of 2016-2017 academic year (N=450). The sample of the research is 223 volunteer students.

In the research data collection process, personal features survey and Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index(PSQI) has been used. Survey,which is prepared by the researchers scanning the related medical literature, comprises of 11 survey questions. These questions are aimed to indicate the introductory information of the students and the varibles affecting the sleep quality(age, gender, semester, aree of residence, existence of chronic diseases, caffeine consumption level, smoking habits).

Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index(PSQI) usef for examination of the sleep quality of the students; is a scale which assesses the sleep quality and the sleeping disorder in the last one month. Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) is devised by the Buysee et al. [ 17 ] is adapted to Turkish by the Agargun et al. [ 18 ] and internal consistency coefficient is calculated as 0.80. In the examination process of PSQI,19 issues are scored. PSQI has 7 internal components such as subjective sleep quality, duration of sleep, habitual sleeping activity, sleep disturbance, sleep delay, use of sleeping drugs and daytime dysfunctions. Each component is scored between 0-3. Total score varies between 0-21, total PSQI score being <5 shows high sleep quality, >5 indicates low sleep quality [ 18 ].

Statistical Analysis

In the data assessment process; frequency, percentage, arithmetic average and Cronbach’s alpha is measured. The total score average of the sample was calculated and the normality test was applied to determine the normal distribution of the sample scores According to this analysis, it is observed that the sample scores does not comply with the normal distribution(Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z=0.143, p<0.05);nonparametric tests such as Mann-Whitney U and Kruskall Wallis were used to examine the difference between the independent variables and sample averages.Scores are provided as average±standard deviation and p<0.05 is considered as statistically meaningful results

Ethical Concerns

For the use of the assessment, written permissions are taken via e-mail. For the purpose of the conduct of the survey, written approval from the research commission of the related institution is taken(Decision no: 2017/7). Before application and the approval was obtained from them, students were informed about the research and data collection tools.

According to the research, average age of the stundets is 20.03±1,73, 68,6% of them are women. 50.2% of the students are in I. year, 19.7% are in II. year, 18.4% in III. year,%11.7 of them are in IV. year. 17% of the students have smoking habits, 56.5% of the sleep 6-7 hours per day. 26% of the students consumes 4-7 cups of tea per day, 19.3% of them uses 2-3 cups of coffee, 46.6% of them wake up energetic after sleep, 19.9% of them have no chronic disease, 41.3% of them snooze during morning lectures.

The total PSQI average of the students is calculated as 6.52±3.17 and the ratio of the students with sleep quality average higher than 5 is 56.1%.(Table 56.1%.(Table1, 1 , Table Table2) 2 ) The students internal component score averages are given below: subjective sleep quality 1.29±0.76, sleep latency 1,55±0,94, sleep duration 0.78±0.99, habitual sleep activity 0.47±0.9, sleep disturbances 0.99±0.09, sleeping drug use 0.12±0.48 and daytime dysfunctions 1.29±0.9(Table 1 )

PSQI total and internal component score averages of the sample

PSQI Components	X ±SS
Subjective Sleep Quality	1.29 ±0.76
Sleep Latency	1.55 ± 0.94
Sleep Duration	0.78 ± 0.99
Habitual Sleeping Activity	0.47 ± 0.90
Sleep Disturbances	0.99 ± 0.09
Sleeping Drug Usage	0.12 ± 0.48
Daytime Dysfunctions	1.29 ± 0.90
Total PSQI	6.52 ±3.17

PSQIscore averages of the sample

	n	%
5 and below	98	43.9
above 5	125	56.1

Although total PSQI score average being above 5, only 56.1% of the students' PSQI averages were above 5.According to this result nearly half of the students’ sleep quality can be considered as low sleep quality (Table (Table2 2 ).

In Table Table3 3 personal features of the nursing stdents, the relationship between these features and PSQI scores. According to the table,a statistically meaningful relationship between PSQI score averages amd smoking habit, total daily sleeping hours, waking up energetic and daily average coffee consumption(p<0.05); no meaningful relationship is found between PSQI scores and age, gender, semester level, area of residence, preexistence of chronic diseases, snoozing during morning lectures, daily average tea consumption(p>0.05)

>Table 3. Personal feature distribution of the sample students and the relationship between personal features and PSQI scores (n:223)

Personal Features	n	%	Test Results
Gender			U*=1.36
Male	70	31.4	p=0.174
Female	153	68.6
Age (Gender)	20.03±1.73		r **=0.094
Age (Gender)	20.03±1.73		p=0.160
Semester Year
1.Year	112	50.2
2.Year	44	19.7	KW***=6.050
3.Year	41	18.4	p=0.109
4.Year	26	11.7
Area of Residence
With Family	65	29.1	KW***=3.58
İn Dormitory	120	53.8	p=0.310
Alone at Home	10	4.5
Sharing flat	28	12.6
Preexistence of Chronic Diseases
Yes	18	8.1	U*=1.21
No	205	91.9	p=0.226
Smoking Habits
Smoking	38	17	U*=2.54
Non-smoking	185	83	p=0.011
Snoozing during the Lecture Hours
Yes	92	41.3	KW***=1.59
No	35	15.7	p=0.45
Sometimes	96	43
Waking Up Energetic
Yes	29	13	KW***=26.43
No	90	40.4	p=0.00
Sometimes	104	46.6
Total Sleeping Hours
4-5 hours	29	13	KW***=40.06
6-7 hours	126	56.5	p=0.000
8-9 hours	57	25.6
9 hours and above	11	4.9
Tea Consumption			KW***=2.92
0-3 cups	151	67.7	p=0.231
4-7 cups	58	26
8 cups and above	14	6.3
Coffee consumption			KW***=10.75
0-1 Cup	172	77.1	p=0.005
2-3 Cup	43	19.3
4 Cups and above	83	3.6

*Mann Whitney U Analysis

**Correlation Analysis

***Kruskal Wallis Analysis

According to the results of this research which we conducted in order examine the affecting nursing students’ sleep quality and the factors affecting; 56.1% of the students have PSQI average of 5 and lower. In the light of this research, we can infer that more than half of the students have low sleep quality.In a similar research in the United States of America, it is observed than 71% of the students have at least one sleeping disorder [ 19 ]. According to a similar research conducted by Karatay and colleagues [ 4 ] 56% of the nursing students have low sleep. According to Aysan and colleagues’ research [ 3 ] students with sleep quality scores higher than 5 comprises 59% of the sample. Similar research in the medical literature points out that university students have low quality of sleep [ 10 , 16 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ]. Our research results justifies the results of researches given above. It is understood from the results of our research that low sleep quality is an important issue for the nursing students. Extraordinarly apart from our research, according to some similar researches conducted in Turkey less than half of the university students studying in Turkey have sleeping disorders [ 14 , 16 ]. We interpret that, this difference may be caused by the choice of a different sample of students.

According to the results of the study, there was a significant difference between students' sleep quality and smoking habits, total sleep hours, resting status in the morning and average daily coffee consumption (Table (Table3). 3 ). It is reported that sleeping is important in terms of the health of young adults [ 3 ] and it is said that young people need sleep for an average of 9-10 hours per [ 4 , 24 ]. In this study, students who wake up well-rested and sleeping 6-7 hours per day have higher sleep quality.These findings also supports the medical literature.According to Karatay et al. [ 4 ], Sari et al. [ 14 ] and Vail-Smith and colleagues’ [ 8 ] studies,smoking students have lower sleep quality compared to non-smokers.It is known that cigarette contains nicotine which has stimulant effect and it is known that smoking before sleep especially makes it difficult to fall asleep and affects sleep quality negatively. On the other side according to Shcao et al. [ 25 caffeine containing drinks harms sleep quality. Our study also show parallelism with these findings.

According to the results of this research, it is found that there was no relation between the sleep quality and the age, sex, class level, area of residence, sleepiness in morning classes, presence of chronic diseases and average daily tea consumption (Table (Table3). 3 ). Age and gender have been found to be among the factors that may affect sleep quality of individuals, though some studies have shown that some factors such as age, gender, class level and place of residence do not affect sleep quality [ 3 , 16 ]. In this study, it is interpreted that the age factor to be ineffective in sleep quality may be caused by the are in a similar age group.According to researches examining the correlation between gender and sleep quality, females have lower sleep quality than males [ 3 , 5 , 7 ]. Additionally, first year students’ sleep quality may be harmed by these factors; such as their first year curriculum being though, being deprived of family attention, adaptation efforts for a new social environment.Furthermore, considering that the environmental factor on sleep quality is also very effective, it can be assumed that the students living in dormitory stay more crowded rooms and the sleep quality is lower than the other students.Consequently, our research does not justify the medical literature.

Lund and colleagues[ 26 ] pointed out that physical and psychological problems have negative effects of sleep quality.In our study, it is observed that preexistence of chronic diseases does not effect sleep quality. In Saygili and colleagues’ research [ 16 ] students with chronic diseases have lower sleep quality. Sari and colleagues [ 14 ] showed that students confirming to have chronic illnesses have lower sleep quality but this result does not reflect a statistically meaningful relationship between sleep quality and existence of a chronic disease.It is known that chronic diseases related to the respiratory system, especially asthma, are frequently caused by sleep problems and affect sleep quality negatively [ 16 ]. The results are not consistent with the literature due to the fact that students who included in the study have declared illnesses which have ambiguous relationship with the sleep quality; since the variety of the chronic diseases are not questioned in this research.

According to the findings in the light of this research; nursing students have low sleep quality. Additionally, students who do not smoke, sleeps 6-7 hours per day and consuming beverages with caffeine less have a better quality of sleep.To raise awaeness among university students and about the concept of sleep quality and the factors affecting the sleep quality and to increase the quality of sleep quality; panel discussions,seminars and conferences focusing on the relationship between alcohol/caffeine consumption, smoking and the quality of sleep are suggested.

Acknowledgments

All authors had equal contribution

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Impact of Sleep Disorders and Disturbed Sleep on Brain Health: A
Sleep is a biobehavioral state characterized by changes in brain electrical activity that manifest as altered consciousness, reduced sensory responsiveness, and decreased muscle tone. 6-8 Key metrics used to quantify sleep architecture and duration are described in Table 1.The 2 main sleep states are non-rapid eye movement sleep and rapid eye movement (REM).
Sleep quality, duration, and consistency are associated with better
Sleep deficit has been associated with lack of concentration and attention during class. 19 While a few studies report null effects, 20,21 most studies looking at the effects of sleep quality and ...
Important advances in sleep research in 2021
Advances in sleep research in 2021 have brought about clinical developments for the next decade. Additionally, sleep telemedicine services have expanded rapidly, driven by the COVID-19 pandemic, to best serve patients with sleep disorders.1 Here, we will explore some of the most impactful clinical studies from this field in 2021.
Improving sleep quality leads to better mental health: A meta-analysis
Evidence on the relationship between sleep and mental health. The association between sleep and mental health is well documented [9,13,, , , , , [23]∗].For example, people with insomnia are 10 and 17 times more likely than those without insomnia to experience clinically significant levels of depression and anxiety, respectively [].Furthermore, a meta-analysis of 21 longitudinal studies ...
The impact of stress on sleep: Pathogenic sleep reactivity as a
Sleep reactivity is the trait-like degree to which stress exposure disrupts sleep, resulting in difficulty falling and staying asleep. ... Future research on sleep reactivity is needed to clarify its neurobiology, characterize its long-term prospective associations with insomnia and shift-work disorder phenotypes, and establish its prognostic ...
Neurobiology of sleep (Review)
Sleep is a physiological global state composed of two different phases: Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. The control mechanisms of sleep manifest at the level of genetic, biological and cellular organization. Several brain areas, including the basal forebrain, thalamus, and hypothalamus, take part in regulating ...
The relationship between subjective sleep quality and cognitive
Our paper can contribute to a deeper understanding of subjective sleep quality and its measures, and we discuss various factors that may affect whether associations can be observed between ...
PDF Advancing the Science of Sleep & Circadian Biology Research
The growth of sleep and circadian research in traditional areas such as genetics and neuroscience, the emerging research on sleep health disparities, and the need to explore sleep health across the lifespan of women all underscore how much more there is to learn. The recognition and subsequent integration of sleep and circadian biology across ...
Sleeping hours: what is the ideal number and how does age impact this?
In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation in the US released their updated sleep duration recommendations to make scientifically sound and practical recommendations for daily sleep duration across the lifespan.47 The same year, the American Academy of Sleep Medicine and the Sleep Research Society released a consensus recommendation for the amount ...
Frontiers in Sleep
Long-term effects of adolescent stress, sleep deprivation, or circadian disruption on mood and anxiety. Chelsea Vadnie. Sierra Stringfield. Marianne Seney. Marcos G Frank. 3,127 views. 3 articles. A forum for innovation in basic, translational, epidemiologic and clinical sleep science, and its implications for physical and mental health.
Exploring the statistical and computational analysis of sleep stages
The analysis of sleep stages across different age groups is a critical aspect of sleep research. This literature survey explores various studies that contribute to our understanding of sleep patterns using Polysomnography (PSG) data [].The proposed work utilizes statistical tools and parallel processing paradigms for sleep data analysis.
Effect of sleep and mood on academic performance—at interface of
Sleep and mood/emotion affect cognition and academic achievement. Their effects can be additionally influenced by other factors like diet, metabolic disorders (e.g., obesity), circadian rhythm ...
The Global Problem of Insufficient Sleep and Its Serious Public Health
The paper concludes by emphasizing sleep quality assessments as an important early risk indicator, thereby reducing the incidence of a wide spectrum of morbidities. Keywords: insufficient sleep, ... The American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) and the Sleep Research Society (SRS) have recommended that adults aged 18 to 60 years should sleep ...
Read the 10 most-viewed sleep research papers published in JCSM in 2018
Articles published in the past year in the Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine captured the attention of the scientific and medical communities, as well as the media and the general public. The following papers published in 2018 received the most pageviews on the website of JCSM, which is published by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine:
Research on Sleep Quality and the Factors Affecting the Sleep Quality
Research datas have been collected through personal features survey and Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). Results: The average result derived from the sample is 6.52±3.17. To briefly explain the average of the component scores: subjective sleep quality 1.29±0.76, sleep latency 1,55±0.94, sleep duration 0.78±0.99, habitual sleep activity ...