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Laying geological groundwork for life on earth.

New evidence points to the role of plate tectonics in early Earth’s release of internal heat and the swapping of geomagnetic poles.

Illustration by Alec Brenner

Juan Siliezar

Harvard Staff Writer

Harvard-led study offers new, sharper proof of early plate tectonics, flipping of geomagnetic poles

New research analyzing pieces of the most ancient rocks on the planet adds some of the sharpest evidence yet that Earth’s crust was pushing and pulling in a manner similar to modern plate tectonics at least 3.25 billion years ago. The study also provides the earliest proof of when the planet’s magnetic north and south poles swapped places. The two results offer clues into how such geological changes may have resulted in an environment more conducive to the development of life on the planet.

The work, described in PNAS and led by Harvard geologists Alec Brenner and Roger Fu , focused on a portion of the Pilbara Craton in Western Australia, one of the oldest and most stable pieces of the Earth’s crust. Using novel techniques and equipment, the researchers show that some of the Earth’s earliest surface was moving at a rate of 6.1 centimeters per year and 0.55 degrees every million years.

That speed more than doubles the rate the ancient crust was shown to be moving in a previous study by the same researchers. Both the speed and direction of this latitudinal drift leaves plate tectonics as the most logical and strongest explanation for it.

“There’s a lot of work that seems to suggest that early in Earth’s history plate tectonics wasn’t actually the dominant way in which the planet’s internal heat gets released, as it is today, through the shifting of plates,” said Brenner, a Ph.D. candidate in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences and a member of  Harvard’s Paleomagnetics Lab . “This evidence lets us much more confidently rule out explanations that don’t involve plate tectonics.”

Geologists Alec Brenner and Roger Fu, focused on a portion of the Pilbara Craton in Western Australia, one of the oldest and most stable pieces of the Earth’s crust.

Photo by Roger Fu

For example, the researchers can now argue against phenomena called “true polar wander” and “stagnant lid tectonics,” which both can cause the Earth’s surface to shift but aren’t part of modern-style plate tectonics. The results lean more toward plate tectonic motion because the newly discovered higher rate of speed is inconsistent with aspects of the other two processes.

In the paper, the scientists also describe what’s believed to be the oldest evidence of when Earth reversed its geomagnetic fields, meaning the magnetic North and South Pole flipped locations. This type of flip-flop is a common occurrence in Earth’s geologic history, with the poles reversing 183 times in the last 83 million years and perhaps several hundred times in the past 160 million years, according to NASA .

The reversal tells a great deal about the planet’s magnetic field 3.2 billion years ago. Key among the implications is that the magnetic field was likely stable and strong enough to keep solar winds from eroding the atmosphere. This insight, combined with the results on plate tectonics, offers clues to the conditions under which the earliest forms of life developed.

“It paints this picture of an early Earth that was already really geodynamically mature,” Brenner said. “It had a lot of the same sorts of dynamic processes that result in an Earth that has essentially more stable environmental and surface conditions, making it more feasible for life to evolve and develop.”

Today, the Earth’s outer shell consists of about 15 shifting blocks of crust, or plates, which hold the planet’s continents and oceans. Over eons the plates drifted into each other and apart, forming new continents and mountains and exposing new rocks to the atmosphere, which led to chemical reactions that stabilized Earth’s surface temperature over billions of years.

Evidence of when plate tectonics started is hard to come by because the oldest pieces of crust are thrust into the interior mantle, never to resurface. Only 5 percent of all rocks on Earth are older than 2.5 billion years old, and no rock is older than about 4 billion years.

Overall, the study adds to growing research that shows that tectonic movement occurred relatively early in Earth’s 4.5-billion-year history and that early forms of life came about in a more moderate environment. In 2018, members of the project revisited the Pilbara Craton, which stretches about 300 miles across. They drilled into the primordial and thick slab of crust there to collect samples that, back in Cambridge, were analyzed for their magnetic history.

Using magnetometers, demagnetizing equipment, and the Quantum Diamond Microscope — which images the magnetic fields of a sample and precisely identifies the nature of the magnetized particles — the researchers created a suite of new techniques for determining the age and way the samples became magnetized. This allows the researchers to determine how, when, and in which direction the crust shifted as well as the magnetic influence coming from Earth’s geomagnetic poles.

The Quantum Diamond Microscope was developed in a collaboration between Harvard researchers in the Departments of Earth and Planetary Sciences (EPS) and of Physics.

For future studies, Fu and Brenner plan to keep their focus on the Pilbara Craton while also looking beyond it to other ancient crusts around the world. They hope to find older evidence of modern-like plate motion and when the Earth’s magnetic poles flipped.

“Finally being able to reliably read these very ancient rocks opens up so many possibilities for observing a time period that often is known more through theory than solid data,” said Fu, professor of EPS in the Faculty of Arts and Sciences. “Ultimately, we have a good shot at reconstructing not just when tectonic plates started moving, but also how their motions — and therefore the deep-seated Earth interior processes that drive them — have changed through time.”

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Boring billion no more: research redefines geological history

New research featuring University of Adelaide academics has provided a better understanding of how Earth's tectonic plates evolved over the past 1.8 billion years.

The findings, published in Geoscience Frontiers , are the first rock-based full tectonic reconstruction of 40 per cent of Earth's history, disproving thoughts that there was a time of little activity.

"This reconstruction goes from today back through three supercontinents – Pangea, Rodinia and Nuna/Columbia and takes our reconstruction of the shape of the planet back in time to when many of the mineral deposits of Australia were formed and also back to when the earliest complex cells evolved," said Professor Alan Collins, Douglas Mawson Professor of Earth Sciences at the University of Adelaide.

"We can’t test hypotheses of how life on Earth evolved, how critical metal deposits formed, or even how our planet has so much oxygen in its atmosphere without understanding how plate tectonics works over the planet's history.

"Plate tectonics is a uniquely Earth feature and allows the elements within the planet to get to the surface where they can be used as essential nutrients and later recycled and concentrated into ore deposits which we can use to make electric vehicles and mobile phones.

"In a very real way, life on Earth looks like it does because of plate tectonics.

"So, to understand how this works, we need to model the Earth and we can only do this by using the evidence preserved in rocks all over the world to build these full plate tectonics models of the planet."

The modelling of movement of tectonic plates from their current formation to 1.8 billion years ago.

Professor Collins said the model provides an updated timeline for Nuna (the first supercontinent), which was formed 1.6 billion years ago when West Nuna, East Nuna and South Nuna assembled.

It then broke up between 1.4 and 1.3 billion years ago, with the separated continents coming back together to form Rodinia around 930 million years ago.

"Despite the recent advances in modelling continental movement and plate boundary evolution, the construction of a continuous tectonic model, constrained by geological and high-quality paleomagnetic data and connecting the Phanerozoic and Mesoproterozoic geologic eons , encompassing all three well-known supercontinents (Nuna, Rodinia, Pangea), has remained elusive," said Professor Collins.

"Our model is a snapshot and a means of presenting and focusing geological questions.

"We have produced a new tectonic framework for analysing the long-term evolution of Earth systems, providing a basis for developing future analysis of tectonic controls on deep Earth resources and developing planetary hypsographic reconstructions that can inform lithosphere/earth surface systems feedback.

"Contrary to the concept of a ' boring billion’, our model reveals a dynamic geological history between 1.8   giga annum (billion years) and 0.8   giga annum, characterised by supercontinent assembly and breakup, and continuous accretion events."

Professor Collins said the findings form the starting point for his Australian Research Council Laureate Fellowship he was awarded earlier this year, with the team set to add mountains and ocean depths to the reconstructions to model how the deepest parts of Earth controlled most of the surface systems.

Media Contacts:

Professor Alan Collins, ARC Laureate and the Douglas Mawson Professor of Earth Sciences, The University of Adelaide. Phone: +61 (0)408 916 965. Email: [email protected]

Rhiannon Koch, Media Officer , The University of Adelaide. Phone: +61 (8)8313 4075. Mobile: +61 (0)481 619 997. Email: [email protected]

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New study helps pinpoint when Earth’s tectonic plates began

Rocks tell story of planet’s transition from alien landscape to continents, oceans and life.

Every year, earthquakes shake the ground and volcanoes erupt around the edges of tectonic plates—the massive pieces of Earth’s crust that slide slowly across the planet, creating and destroying mountains and oceans on the scale of eons. But the question of when this plate subduction actually began has been a hotly contested debate in earth sciences.

A new study from scientists at Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego and the University of Chicago sheds light on this burning question. According to findings published Dec. 9 in the journal Science Advances , this process could have started 3.75 billion years ago, reshaping Earth’s surface and setting the stage for a planet hospitable to life.

For study lead author and Scripps Asst. Prof. Sarah Aarons, the clues to Earth’s earliest habitability lie in the elements that ancient rocks are composed of—specifically, titanium.

Aarons analyzed samples of Earth’s oldest-known rocks from the Acasta Gneiss Complex in the Canadian tundra—an outcrop of gneiss rocks 4.02 billion years old. These rocks are dated from the beginning of Earth’s formation, a time defined by hellish conditions and landscapes that would look alien to our modern eyes.

Plate tectonics and subduction zones are responsible for the way Earth looks, driving the creation of continental plates and the basins that would fill to become oceans. They are also the primary control on the chemical characteristics of the planet’s surface and are likely responsible for Earth’s ability to sustain life. These subduction zones are responsible for the formation of emerged continents and provide an important control on climate by regulating the amounts of the greenhouse carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

But studying the history and onset of ancient subduction zones is notoriously difficult. Rocks are constantly destroyed as the crust is driven inward into the mantle, leaving behind few samples that date back into Earth’s earliest history. Scientists have long debated when plate tectonics and subduction began, with estimates ranging from 0.85 to 4.2 billion years ago—more than two-thirds of the planet’s history.

Aarons’ research focused on isotopes, which are variations of the same element based on the number of neutrons they have. She crushed bits of the gneiss rock into a powder that was then heated, cooled and dissolved in acid in order to chemically separate the titanium isotopes from other elements. Aarons was then able to determine the variations of titanium isotopes present in the sample using a mass spectrometer in the Origins lab led by her collaborator Nicolas Dauphas at the University of Chicago, where such measurements were pioneered.

‘‘These rocks went through the rocker in the 4 billion years since they were formed,” said Dauphas, the Louis Block Professor in the Department of Geophysical Sciences. “Titanium isotopes are invaluable to see through these processes and figure out the geological setting of magma generation at that time.”

Aarons compared these samples to newer, modern rocks formed in subduction zones. In four-billion-year-old rock samples, she saw similarities to modern rocks that are formed in plume settings, like Hawaii and Iceland, where a landmass is drifting over a hot spot. However, in rocks aged at 3.75 billion years, she noticed a shift in trend to rocks that are formed in modern subduction zones, suggesting that around that time in Earth’s history these areas began forming.

“While the trend in the titanium isotope data does not provide evidence that plate tectonics was happening globally, it does indicate the presence of wet magmatism, which supports subduction at this time,” said Aarons.

“A lot of previous work has been done on these rocks to carefully date them, and provide the geochemical and petrological context,” she added. “We were very lucky to get the opportunity to measure titanium isotope compositions, a burgeoning isotope system, in these samples.”

The technique used in this study could be applied to other ancient rock formations around the world to gain more information about the composition and evolution of Earth’s emerged lands through time, the authors said.

The Acasta Gneiss samples were provided by Jesse Reimink, an assistant professor at Penn State University. Nicolas Greber at The University of Bern (Switzerland) was also involved in the research.

Citation: “ Titanium isotopes constrain a magmatic transition at the Hadean-Archean boundary in the Acasta Gneiss Complex.” Aarons et al, Science Advances, Dec. 9, 2020. DOI:  10.1126/sciadv.abc9959

Funding: National Science Foundation, NASA, Ford Foundation Postdoctoral Fellowship, Swiss National Science Foundation.

Adapted from an article first published by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego and written by Chase Martin.

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Who first proposed the idea of plate tectonics?

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German meteorologist Alfred Wegener is often credited as the first to develop a theory of plate tectonics, in the form of continental drift . Bringing together a large mass of geologic and paleontological data, Wegener postulated that throughout most of geologic time there was only one continent, which he called Pangea , and the breakup of this continent heralded Earth’s current continental configuration as the continent-sized parts began to move away from one another. (Scientists discovered later that Pangea fragmented early in the Jurassic Period .) Wegener presented the idea of continental drift and some of the supporting evidence in a lecture in 1912, followed by his major published work,  The Origin of Continents and Oceans  (1915).

Although this has yet to be proven with certainty, most geologists and geophysicists agree that plate movement is caused by the convection (that is, heat transfer resulting from the movement of a heated fluid) of magma in Earth’s interior. The heat source is thought to be the decay of radioactive elements. How this convection propels the plates is poorly understood. Some geologists argue that upwelling magma at spreading centres pushes the plates, whereas others argue that the weight of a portion of a subducting plate (one that is forced beneath another) may pull the rest of the plate along. 

The Ring of Fire is a long horseshoe-shaped earthquake-prone belt of volcanoes and tectonic plate boundaries that fringes the Pacific Ocean basin. For much of its 40,000-km (24,900-mile) length, the belt follows chains of island arcs such as Tonga and Vanuatu , the Indonesian archipelago , the Philippines , Japan , the Kuril Islands , and the Aleutians , as well as other arc-shaped features, such as the western coast of North America and the Andes Mountains .

Earth’s hard surface (the lithosphere ) can be thought of as a skin that rests and slides upon a semi-molten layer of rock called the asthenosphere . The skin has been broken into many different plates because of differences in the density of the rock and differences in subsurface heating between one region and the next.

plate tectonics , theory dealing with the dynamics of Earth ’s outer shell—the lithosphere —that revolutionized Earth sciences by providing a uniform context for understanding mountain-building processes , volcanoes , and earthquakes as well as the evolution of Earth’s surface and reconstructing its past continents and oceans.

The concept of plate tectonics was formulated in the 1960s. According to the theory, Earth has a rigid outer layer, known as the lithosphere , which is typically about 100 km (60 miles) thick and overlies a plastic (moldable, partially molten) layer called the asthenosphere . The lithosphere is broken up into seven very large continental- and ocean-sized plates, six or seven medium-sized regional plates, and several small ones. These plates move relative to each other, typically at rates of 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 inches) per year, and interact along their boundaries, where they converge , diverge, or slip past one another. Such interactions are thought to be responsible for most of Earth’s seismic and volcanic activity, although earthquakes and volcanoes can occur in plate interiors. Plate motions cause mountains to rise where plates push together, or converge, and continents to fracture and oceans to form where plates pull apart, or diverge. The continents are embedded in the plates and drift passively with them, which over millions of years results in significant changes in Earth’s geography .

The theory of plate tectonics is based on a broad synthesis of geologic and geophysical data. It is now almost universally accepted, and its adoption represents a true scientific revolution, analogous in its consequences to quantum mechanics in physics or the discovery of the genetic code in biology . Incorporating the much older idea of continental drift , as well as the concept of seafloor spreading , the theory of plate tectonics has provided an overarching framework in which to describe the past geography of continents and oceans , the processes controlling creation and destruction of landforms , and the evolution of Earth’s crust, atmosphere , biosphere , hydrosphere , and climates . During the late 20th and early 21st centuries, it became apparent that plate-tectonic processes profoundly influence the composition of Earth’s atmosphere and oceans, serve as a prime cause of long-term climate change , and make significant contributions to the chemical and physical environment in which life evolves.

For details on the specific effects of plate tectonics, see the articles earthquake and volcano . A detailed treatment of the various land and submarine relief features associated with plate motion is provided in the articles tectonic landform and ocean .

Principles of plate tectonics

In essence, plate-tectonic theory is elegantly simple. Earth ’s surface layer, 50 to 100 km (30 to 60 miles) thick, is rigid and is composed of a set of large and small plates. Together, these plates constitute the lithosphere , from the Greek lithos , meaning “ rock .” The lithosphere rests on and slides over an underlying partially molten (and thus weaker but generally denser) layer of plastic partially molten rock known as the asthenosphere , from the Greek asthenos , meaning “weak.” Plate movement is possible because the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary is a zone of detachment. As the lithospheric plates move across Earth’s surface, driven by forces as yet not fully understood, they interact along their boundaries, diverging, converging, or slipping past each other. While the interiors of the plates are presumed to remain essentially undeformed, plate boundaries are the sites of many of the principal processes that shape the terrestrial surface, including earthquakes, volcanism , and orogeny (that is, formation of mountain ranges).

The process of plate tectonics may be driven by convection in Earth’s mantle, the pull of heavy old pieces of crust into the mantle , or some combination of both. For a deeper discussion of plate-driving mechanisms, see Plate-driving mechanisms and the role of the mantle .

ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Plate tectonics.

The theory of plate tectonics revolutionized the earth sciences by explaining how the movement of geologic plates causes mountain building, volcanoes, and earthquakes.

Earth Science, Geology, Oceanography, Geography, Physical Geography

San Andreas Fault

Tectonic plate boundaries, like the San Andreas Fault pictured here, can be the sites of mountain-building events, volcanoes, or valley or rift creation.

Photograph by Georg Gerster

Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that explains how major landforms are created as a result of Earth’s subterranean movements. The theory, which solidified in the 1960s, transformed the earth sciences by explaining many phenomena, including mountain building events, volcanoes , and earthquakes . In plate tectonics , Earth’s outermost layer, or lithosphere —made up of the crust and upper mantle—is broken into large rocky plates. These plates lie on top of a partially molten layer of rock called the asthenosphere . Due to the convection of the asthenosphere and lithosphere , the plates move relative to each other at different rates, from two to 15 centimeters (one to six inches) per year. This interaction of tectonic plates is responsible for many different geological formations such as the Himalaya mountain range in Asia, the East African Rift, and the San Andreas Fault in California, United States. The idea that continents moved over time had been proposed before the 20th century. However, a German scientist named Alfred Wegener changed the scientific debate. Wegener published two articles about a concept called continental drift in 1912. He suggested that 200 million years ago, a supercontinent he called Pangaea began to break into pieces, its parts moving away from one another. The continents we see today are fragments of that supercontinent . To support his theory, Wegener pointed to matching rock formations and similar fossils in Brazil and West Africa. In addition, South America and Africa looked like they could fit together like puzzle pieces.

Despite being dismissed at first, the theory gained steam in the 1950s and 1960s as new data began to support the idea of continental drift . Maps of the ocean floor showed a massive undersea mountain range that almost circled the entire Earth. An American geologist named Harry Hess proposed that these ridges were the result of molten rock rising from the asthenosphere . As it came to the surface, the rock cooled, making new crust and spreading the seafloor away from the ridge in a conveyer-belt motion. Millions of years later, the crust would disappear into ocean trenches at places called subduction zones and cycle back into Earth. Magnetic data from the ocean floor and the relatively young age of oceanic crust supported Hess’s hypothesis of seafloor spreading . There was one nagging question with the plate tectonics theory: Most volcanoes are found above subduction zones, but some form far away from these plate boundaries. How could this be explained? This question was finally answered in 1963 by a Canadian geologist , John Tuzo Wilson. He proposed that volcanic island chains, like the Hawaiian Islands, are created by fixed “hot spots” in the mantle. At those places, magma forces its way upward through the moving plate of the sea floor. As the plate moves over the hot spot, one volcanic island after another is formed. Wilson’s explanation gave further support to plate tectonics . Today, the theory is almost universally accepted.

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Plate Tectonics

Continental Drift and Mountain Building

• © 2022
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• Wolfgang Frisch 0 ,
• Martin Meschede 1 ,
• Ronald C. Blakey 2

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Institute of Geography and Geology, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany

Colorado plateau geosystems, phoenix, usa.

• Contains about 200 colored figures visualizing the complex geodynamic processes
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• Provides a glossary with important terms

Part of the book series: Springer Textbooks in Earth Sciences, Geography and Environment (STEGE)

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About this book

This textbook explains how mountains are formed and why there are old and young mountains. It provides a reconstruction of the Earths paleogeography and shows why the shapes of South America and Africa fit so well together. Furthermore, it explains why the Pacific is surrounded by a ring of volcanos and earthquake-prone areas while the edges of the Atlantic are relatively peaceful.

This thoroughly revised textbook edition addresses all these questions and more through the presentation and explanation of the geodynamic processes upon which the theory of continental drift is based and which have led to the concept of plate tectonics.

It is a source of information for students of geology, geophysics, geography, geosciences in general, general natural sciences, as well as professionals, and interested layman.

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Table of contents (13 chapters)

Front matter, contractional theory, continental drift and plate tectonics.

• Wolfgang Frisch, Martin Meschede, Ronald C. Blakey

Plate Movements and Their Geometric Relationships

Continental graben structures, passive continental margins and abyssal plains, mid-ocean ridges, subduction zones, island arcs and active continental margins, transform faults, early precambrian plate tectonics, plate tectonics and mountain building, old orogens, young orogens—the earth’s loftiest places, back matter, authors and affiliations.

Wolfgang Frisch

Martin Meschede

Ronald C. Blakey

About the authors

Wolfgang Frisch was born in Vienna, Austria, in 1943. He studied in Vienna and worked at the Mining University of Leoben (Austria), the University of Vienna, and the Technical University of Munich (Germany), before he was appointed to Tübingen (Germany) University where he held the Chair in Geology until his retirement in 2009. His research interests include structural geology and geodynamics, the genesis of mineral deposits, and the petrology of magmatic rocks. His working areas include the Alps, southeastern Europe, the Himalayas and Tibet, Arabia and Egypt, as well as Greenland, middle America, and Africa.

Martin Meschede, born in 1957 is Professor of Regional and Structural Geology at the University Greifswald, Germany. He received his Diploma in Geology from the University Hannover, Germany, and his Ph.D. from the University of Tübingen (Germany). His research interests include geodynamics, structural geology, paleogeography reconstructions, particularly in the Caribbean and Eastern Pacific region; marine geology as well as neotectonic and glacial processes in the Baltic Sea area.

Roland Blakey is Professor Emeritus of Geology at Northern Arizona University (US) following over 34 years of teaching courses in Historical Geology, Sedimentology and Stratigraphy, Field Geology, and Tectonics. Most of his scholarly publications concern the sedimentary rocks and geologic history of the American Southwest. He is involved in the reconstruction of paleogeography maps that document past Earth history.

Bibliographic Information

Book Title : Plate Tectonics

Book Subtitle : Continental Drift and Mountain Building

Authors : Wolfgang Frisch, Martin Meschede, Ronald C. Blakey

Series Title : Springer Textbooks in Earth Sciences, Geography and Environment

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88999-9

Publisher : Springer Cham

eBook Packages : Earth and Environmental Science , Earth and Environmental Science (R0)

Copyright Information : The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-030-88998-2 Published: 28 November 2022

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-030-89001-8 Published: 28 November 2023

eBook ISBN : 978-3-030-88999-9 Published: 26 November 2022

Series ISSN : 2510-1307

Series E-ISSN : 2510-1315

Edition Number : 2

Number of Pages : X, 245

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Models for Developing Explanations of Earth’s Dynamic Plate System

Science Scope—March/April 2022 (Volume 45, Issue 4)

By Amy Pallant, Trudi Lord, Sarah Pryputniewicz, and Scott McDonald

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CONTENT AREA Earth/Environmental Science

GRADE LEVEL 6–8

BIG IDEA/UNIT Plate tectonics explain the location of Earth’s landforms,

ESSENTIAL PRE-EXISTING KNOWLEDGE None

TIME REQUIRED Approximately 8–10 class periods (45 minutes)

COST Free Safety No special safety concerns

GEODE Technology Tools

Seismic Explorer is a data visualization tool that shows real-world earthquake data from the United States Geological Survey; volcanic eruption data from the Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program; and plate motion data displayed on satellite, relief, and street maps. Throughout the plate tectonics module’s five activities, students are scaffolded on ways to use Seismic Explorer to (1) investigate earthquake and volcanic eruption distribution patterns across Earth’s surface (see Figure 2a), (2) make connections between the earthquake, volcanic eruption, and landform distributions and plate boundaries, and (3) use cross-sections to investigate earthquake depth patterns (see Figure 2b).

Tectonic Explorer is a dynamic computer model of a plate system on a fictional Earth-like planet (see Figure 3). The computational model that drives Tectonic Explorer is based on a physics engine that calculates forces and torques, as well as accelerations and interactions between plates. While the model was designed to be accessible to students, it was informed by current scientific understandings of plate properties found on Earth, including thermodynamic laws governing plate motion and behavior. Tectonic Explorer enables students to simulate multiple plate system scenarios and observe the different types of plate interactions responsible for patterns of events and landforms observed on Earth’s surface.

T he Ring of Fire is the location of 75% of the world’s volcanoes and 90% of its earthquakes. They outline the Pacific Ocean and reveal the zones where tectonic plates meet, including the Eurasian, North American, Caribbean, Nazca, Antarctic, Indian, Australian, and several other plates ( National Geographic 2020 ). In fact, the Ring of Fire is used as a key piece of evidence for the existence of tectonic plates. Students are often asked to plot earthquake epicenter data on world maps and identify the narrow zones of seismic activity along these plate boundaries ( see Figure 1 ). This activity and parallel ones looking at patterns of volcanic eruptions are designed to support student understanding of plate tectonics, a theory that explains the structure of Earth’s crust and the associated phenomena that results from the interactions of moving plates. While engaging students with data about these events can be meaningful, this traditional approach to teaching the Ring of Fire does not include a focus on students’ reasoning about why these patterns of geologic events occur.

The Ring of Fire is shown in Seismic Explorer by the narrow band of volcanic eruptions (triangles) and seismic activity (circles) around the edges of the Pacific Ocean.

The power of plate tectonics lies in its ability to explain why mountains, deep-sea trenches, mid-ocean ridges, and island arcs are located where they are and why earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are found in narrow bands around the globe. Fundamental to plate tectonics is the notion that Earth’s solid outer crust is broken into plates that move all the time. In other words, Earth’s plates at the surface are the observable part of a much greater dynamic system that involves inner Earth mechanisms. As students connect plate motion, seismic activity, and landforms to the driving mechanisms in Earth’s interior, they build a more complete understanding of the plate system. Students are able to explain both how land features and seismic activities are linked to the whole plate system and why these phenomena occur. Once the dynamic system and its behaviors are understood, historical evidence such as plate geography (e.g., matching coastlines between South America and Africa) and continental drift can be explained. This approach has the potential of avoiding common misconceptions, such as thinking continents are moving and not plates, or that earthquakes cause plates to move rather than being a result of plate movement.

Understanding the mechanisms and behaviors of Earth’s plate system is difficult because the plates are continuously moving on a large three-dimensional sphere over hundreds of millions of years. Many fundamental ideas about plate tectonics are difficult to convey if teachers rely solely on static visualizations using two-dimensional maps that display current plate positions, vectors of plate motion, or seismic data recorded at the surface. The Concord Consortium and Pennsylvania State University have developed a free online plate tectonics curriculum module (PT module, hereafter; see Online Resources ) as part of the National Science Foundation–funded project called Geological Models for Explorations of Dynamic Earth (GEODE).

The PT module offers a unique approach with two innovative tools that allow students to make connections between real-world data and plate tectonics models. Throughout the module’s five activities, students engage in authentic geoscientific explorations of real-world landform and seismic data patterns with the Seismic Explorer ( see Figure 2A and B ). They also interact with the Tectonic Explorer, a model that features an Earth-like plate system ( see Figure 3 ). Through guided inquiry, students connect simulated phenomena and real-world phenomena. By the end of the module, they are able to explain the landforms and seismic activity caused by plate interactions and driving mechanisms found in Earth’s interior.

(A) earthquake pattern shown along the West Coast of South America; (B) cross-section showing the depth pattern of the earthquakes along the transect highlighted in 2A.

Illustration of the Tectonic Explorer planet wizard where students choose the number of plates, draw continents, assign force vectors, and choose relative density of each plate.

Constructing explanations from the plate system perspective

The PT module helps students develop robust plate system explanations based on the following understandings: (1) each of Earth’s tectonic plates is surrounded by adjacent plates and interacts with them along their shared boundaries; (2) types of plate boundaries are the result of one plate’s movement relative to an adjacent plate and result in characteristic patterns of geologic events and landforms; (3) plate movement is the result of mantle convection and gravity; and (4) over Earth’s history, the surface of the planet has changed.

Students use the two key technology tools as sources of evidence to make sense of Earth’s plate interactions (see GEODE Technology Tools in box). Seismic Explorer data illustrate earthquake, volcanic eruption, and landforms patterns. Tectonic Explorer represents a three-dimensional plate system on a fictional, Earth-like planet and allows students to set initial conditions and witness countless scenarios of dynamic changes that can take place on the planet’s surface. The PT module is aligned with the disciplinary core ideas in ESS2.B Plate Tectonics and Large-Scale System Interactions , the two science practices using models and constructing explanations , and the crosscutting concept of systems and system models specified in the Next Generation Science Standards ( NGSS Lead States 2013 ).

Conducting authentic plate tectonics investigations in class

Each of the five activities starts with a real-world phenomenon, foregrounding exciting landforms on Earth and guiding students to develop evidence-based causal explanations from their investigations and a deep understanding of plate tectonics as a system as a result. In the first activity, students examine GPS data to develop the concept that Earth’s surface is moving. In the second activity, students explore earthquake, volcanic eruption, and landform patterns along interacting plate boundaries and connect plate motion to these patterns, then investigate multiple plate boundaries and interactions simultaneously in the third activity. In the fourth activity, students explore the causal mechanisms for plate motion, including mantle flow and gravitational forces, by watching detailed scientific animations. In the fifth activity, students put it all together and consider long-term changes on Earth’s surface, making predictions for Earth’s future.

Engage (Activity 1, 60 minutes)

The PT module opens with an iconic photograph of the Earth taken by NASA astronauts as students ponder: Has Earth always looked like this? and Will Earth continue to look like this in the future? Through a guided investigation, students explore GPS data as they look for evidence of Earth movement. They also use earthquake and volcanic eruption data displayed in Seismic Explorer to identify areas of seismic activity on Earth’s surface and discover that Earth’s surface is broken into constantly moving pieces, known as tectonic plates.

Explore and Explain (Activities 2 and 3, 180 minutes)

In the next two activities, students develop causal explanations about what is happening on Earth’s surface through a series of case studies of real landforms, such as the Andes Mountains and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. In traditional instruction, students often study earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain building before learning about plate tectonic theory. The PT module instead presents geologic processes and landforms through the lens of moving plates with a repeating pattern of using Seismic Explorer to observe patterns of landforms and geologic events in specific locations on Earth, considering ideas about how plate movement and interactions might explain the patterns, then testing their ideas with Tectonic Explorer.

For example, students explore the Andes Mountain Range, the longest mountain range in the world, found along the western side of South America. They investigate a profile of elevations and then earthquake and volcanic eruption patterns in Seismic Explorer and speculate about what they think is happening between the two plates to produce these patterns (see Figure 2A and B). Embedded prompts scaffold students’ interaction with Seismic Explorer as they use evidence drawn from investigations as data to develop explanations ( see example in Figure 4 ).

A plate system reasoning task from the online plate tectonics module. Students interact with the model and respond to embedded questions in the online module.

Students then use Tectonic Explorer to model the convergent boundary near the Andes Mountains. They draw continents on modeled plates, assign force vectors to the plates, and order the density of the plates in relationship to one another (see Figure 3). They run the model and compare the outcome of their simulated planet to the real-world phenomenon, determining how their setup gives rise to the emergent phenomena they observe as the Tectonic Explorer runs ( see Figure 5 ). Their goal is to adjust initial settings until the model resembles the real-world phenomenon. Tectonic Explorer is designed to help students gain intuition about how geologic processes lead to seismic events and landforms when two plates interact. For instance, subduction of an oceanic plate under a plate with continental crust causes volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, an ocean trench and mountains to form. Students begin to recognize similarities in landforms and events as plates converge both in the model and in the real world.

Tectonic Explorer has been set up to explore the interactions of two converging plates. As the model runs, students can observe a subducting plate and the emergent phenomena that result, such as mountain formation, volcanic eruption activity, and earthquakes.

In the third activity, they use the Tectonic Explorer again, this time to show not only the relationship between the movement along the convergent boundary near the Andes Mountains, but also the motion along the divergent boundary found on the other side of the plate in the Atlantic Ocean. While plate boundary types are typically taught independently, students are able to connect a divergent boundary on one side of a plate to the convergent boundary on the other side of the plate as they begin to understand that plates are continuously interacting along their entire border and with multiple plates at the same time.

Students traditionally have difficulty transitioning from considerations of a single boundary to reasoning about plates bounded on all sides and interacting on all sides simultaneously ( McDonald et al. 2019 ). Tectonic Explorer allows students to rotate the Earth-like planet in three dimensions and see all the boundaries on each plate in the context of the whole plate system. As a result, students can easily observe that as a plate is subducted on one side, there must be another area on the plate (and the surface of the Earth) where magma is forming new plate material. Each individual boundary is part of a whole system.

To encourage such plate systems thinking, students are asked to consider both boundaries at the same time with the following question: When two plates are moving away from each other at a mid-ocean ridge, what happens at the plate boundary on the other side of the plate?

Elaborate (Activity 4, 45 minutes)

In the fourth activity, students investigate the relationship between mantle convection, gravity, and the surface expression of this movement reflected by plate motion. It can be difficult to understand Earth’s surface as an interrelated system of plates, where plate motion is driven by dynamics in Earth’s interior. However, this idea is foundational to plate tectonics. Helping students reason about the mechanisms that drive plate motion can be particularly challenging due to the large scale, three-dimensional nature of the system ( McDonald et al. 2019 ). Students watch detailed scientific animations and discover how movement in the mantle is related to plate motion. They are guided to apply reasoning about the forces that drive plate motion to the cross-sections of models, focusing on mantle convection currents and ridge push and slab pull gravitational forces. With an embedded drawing tool, students annotate their own models to illustrate how the mechanisms determine the direction and movement of plates.

Evaluate (Activity 5, 60 minutes)

In the culminating activity, students apply what they have learned about Earth’s dynamic plate system to more complex case studies. Each case study is accompanied by scientific argumentation prompts where students make claims, select evidence from the Seismic Explorer and/or Tectonic Explorer, and explain how the evidence supports their claims ( McNeill and Krajcik 2008 ). Taking the traditional claim, evidence, and reasoning format one step further, students also consider uncertainty and the limitations of the evidence ( Lee et al. 2014 ). While students gain insights into the plate tectonic system using both Seismic Explorer and Tectonic Explorer, there are limitations in evidence generated by these tools. It is thus important for students to evaluate the strength of the evidence they use while developing their explanation.

In one explanation task, students must figure out what happened in Earth’s past that might explain how the Appalachian Mountains are located where there are no current plate boundaries. They make a claim as to why there is no boundary near the mountain range, collect evidence from the Seismic Explorer and Tectonic Explorer, use the evidence to defend their claim, and discuss the limitations of the tools and data. Another task has students make predictions that might answer the module’s driving question: What will Earth look like in 500 million years?

Teacher support resources

Teachers are integral to helping students both make sense of the Earth science concepts in the module and make connections between the models and real-world data. An online Teacher Edition of the module gives teachers the opportunity to use the module from the student perspective and includes an additional layer of background information and tips. The Teacher Edition highlights important features of the Seismic Explorer and Tectonic Explorer and outlines the goals of each activity that uses these tools. The Teacher Edition also offers exemplar answers to the open-ended questions embedded in the module, as well as explanations of correct and distractor answers on multiple-choice questions. Additional tips on each prompt help teachers analyze student responses, identify concepts that students are struggling with, and provide strategies to help move students to the next level of understanding. Extension activities are described for advanced students. Finally, discussion prompts are recommended at strategic points for teachers to bring students together for small-group and whole-class discussions or to introduce related hands-on activities.

It is particularly challenging to help students keep track of all their ideas and evidence as they build explanations around plate tectonics phenomena. Throughout the PT module, students record their ideas in summary tables, which consist of a row for each activity and columns for information about students’ developing explanations. Students record observations in the first column, ideas about how or why things are happening in the second column, and explanations in the third column. The Teacher Edition includes tips on how to elicit student ideas and how to support students as they record their thoughts in the summary tables. These tables are useful for identifying challenges and for guiding instruction.

In addition to questions embedded in each activity, the PT module includes separate online pre- and postassessments, each consisting of 16 multiple-choice items, which are automatically scored, and nine open-ended items. Exemplar student answers are provided for the open-response items.

Classroom management

To launch the PT module, students log in to a secure online portal. Students can work individually, in pairs, or in small groups, if the teacher prefers. The online module offers flexibility for students to work at different speeds to complete the activities. When working in groups, students can discuss what they are observing in the models and answer the embedded questions together. As students work through the activities, their responses to the questions are saved. Teachers can see students’ progress and responses through a real-time class dashboard. Multiple-choice answers are automatically scored. Teachers can provide additional feedback to their students through the dashboard using information from the Teacher Edition’s exemplar answers and tips, as needed.

As the module is freely available online and accessible from any modern web browser on desktops, laptops, and tablets, it can be used in traditional classroom settings as well as for remote learning or homework. If students are learning at a distance, teachers can keep track of their class and help support their students’ growing understanding of plate tectonics as a complex system.

During the 2019–2020 school year, the first year the PT module was available to the general public, it was used by more than 14,000 students taught by 265 teachers. While the module was designed for use in middle schools, teachers from fifth grade through college have successfully used the materials with their students. The pedagogical approach that is the foundation of the PT module capitalizes on the idea that student-generated investigations about large Earth systems can be carried out effectively with the use of interactive simulations. When Seismic Explorer and Tectonic Explorer are used in combination with a scaffolded module and teacher supports, students’ reasoning about plate tectonics is elevated, enabling them to formulate explanations that resemble how geoscientists might think. With these tools, students can identify the patterns observed on Earth, give the reason about why those patterns exist, and develop explanations about how the dynamics of plate interactions create most of the geographically distributed events and landforms found on Earth. •

Acknowledgments

This material is based on work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. DRL-1621176. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

Online Resources

Plate tectonics module, Tectonic Explorer, Seismic Explorer, pre- and post-assessments, real-time class dashboard, Teacher Edition, and additional teacher resources are freely available— https://learn.concord.org/geo-platetectonics

Supplemental Materials

Connecting to the Next Generation Science Standards—https://bit.ly/3H99PoH

Amy Pallant ( [email protected] ) is a senior research scientist, Trudi Lord is a senior project manager, and Sarah Pryputniewicz is a research assistant, all at Concord Consortium in Concord, Massachusetts. Scott McDonald is a professor of education in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at Pennsylvania State University in University Park.

Lee, H.-S., O.L. Liu, A. Pallant, K.C. Roohr, S. Pryutniewicz, and Z. Buck. 2014. Assessment of uncertainty-infused scientific argumentation. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 51 (5): 581–605.

McDonald, S., K. Bateman, H. Gall, A. Tanis-Ozcelik, A. Webb, and T. Furman. 2019. Mapping the increasing sophistication of students’ understandings of plate tectonics: A learning progressions approach. Journal of Geoscience Education 67 (1): 83–96.

McNeill, K.L., and J. Krajcik. 2008. Inquiry and scientific explanations: Helping students use evidence and reasoning. In Science as inquiry in the secondary setting, eds. J. Luft, R. Bell, and J. Gess-Newsome, 121–123. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.

National Geographic. 2020. The ring of fire. Washington, DC: National Geographic Partners.

NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states, by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org/next-generation-science-standards

Disciplinary Core Ideas Earth & Space Science Inquiry Instructional Materials Technology Three-Dimensional Learning Middle School

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• Published: 12 April 2024

The importance of continents, oceans and plate tectonics for the evolution of complex life: implications for finding extraterrestrial civilizations

• Robert J. Stern   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8083-4632 1 &
• Taras V. Gerya   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1062-2722 2  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  8552 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Astrobiology
• Geodynamics

Within the uncertainties of involved astronomical and biological parameters, the Drake Equation typically predicts that there should be many exoplanets in our galaxy hosting active, communicative civilizations (ACCs). These optimistic calculations are however not supported by evidence, which is often referred to as the Fermi Paradox. Here, we elaborate on this long-standing enigma by showing the importance of planetary tectonic style for biological evolution. We summarize growing evidence that a prolonged transition from Mesoproterozoic active single lid tectonics (1.6 to 1.0 Ga) to modern plate tectonics occurred in the Neoproterozoic Era (1.0 to 0.541 Ga), which dramatically accelerated emergence and evolution of complex species. We further suggest that both continents and oceans are required for ACCs because early evolution of simple life must happen in water but late evolution of advanced life capable of creating technology must happen on land. We resolve the Fermi Paradox (1) by adding two additional terms to the Drake Equation: f oc (the fraction of habitable exoplanets with significant continents and oceans) and f pt (the fraction of habitable exoplanets with significant continents and oceans that have had plate tectonics operating for at least 0.5 Ga); and (2) by demonstrating that the product of f oc and f pt is very small (< 0.00003–0.002). We propose that the lack of evidence for ACCs reflects the scarcity of long-lived plate tectonics and/or continents and oceans on exoplanets with primitive life.

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Sustained and comparative habitability beyond Earth

Speciation happens in company – not in isolation

Introduction.

A most important scientific question is whether there is life elsewhere in the universe and how to find this. We are particularly interested to find exoplanets with civilizations that can communicate with us via radio waves or other ways. Our search for habitable exoplanets is now focused on our galaxy, where we hope to find active, communicative civilizations (ACCs) among its many billion star systems. Within the uncertainties of involved astronomical and biological parameters, the Drake Equation typically predicts that there should be many (< ~100 to millions) 1 exoplanets in our galaxy hosting ACCs. These optimistic calculations are however not supported by any significant evidence, which is often referred to as the Fermi Paradox 1 . This implies that some important variables are missing from the Drake Equation or their magnitudes are incorrectly estimated. The inconsistency has been repeatedly analyzed and various solutions have been offered to reduce the number of ACCs, in particular due to the rareness of complex life 2 (multi-cellular life with complex cells and functions, such as algae, land plants, fungi, animals on Earth) 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 compared to primitive single-cell life in our galaxy. Among others, plate tectonics has been repeatedly proposed as one of the rare conditions for complex life 2 .

Our approach to address this long-standing enigma is to re-examine the history of life on Earth. It is widely accepted that this began by 3800 Ma and that complex multicellular heterotrophs (animals) did not evolve until after 1000 Ma. Ward and Brownlee 2 note “Over and over again the same question arises, why did it take so long for animals to emerge on planet Earth? Was it due to external environmental factors, such as the lack of oxygen for so long in the history of this planet, or to biological factors, such as the absence of key morphological or physiological innovations?” These insights build on our new understanding that the explosion of complex life (algae, land plants, animals) 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 in Late Neoproterozoic time (1000–541 Ma) leading to the development of our own ACC was a consequence of a prolonged and profound transformation of Earth’s global tectonic regime from single lid to plate tectonics (“ Methods ”). This time period is characterized by extreme variability in atmospheric oxygen levels 7 and records the transition from a largely bacterial toward (to a large extent) an eukaryotic phototrophic world 5 , 6 .

In this paper, we build on the previous studies suggesting the importance of plate tectonics for the development of complex life 2 . Firstly, we discuss the importance of the late (Neoproterozoic) onset of the modern plate tectonics regime. We begin by exploring what kinds of tectonics an active silicate body can have and then explain that such bodies likely have complex tectonic histories as they age and cool. Then we address three key aspects concerning reconstructing the evolution of the only planet with life and an ACC that we know of—Earth. Secondly, we demonstrate and explain how and why the late (Neoproterozoic) onset of the modern plate tectonics regime accelerated complex life evolution, which is the reason for us to introduce the respective f pt term to the Drake equation. Thirdly, we explore for the first time why the very rare long-lasting presence of large expanses of both continents and oceans on planets with plate tectonics is an essential and restrictive condition for the evolution of ACCs, which is the reason for us to introduce the respective f oc term to the Drake equation. Finally, we quantify f pt and f oc terms in the modified Drake Equation and show how this addresses the Fermi Paradox.

The onset of plate tectonics in the Neoproterozoic

On the need to consider complex tectonic histories for earth and other active silicate bodies.

Better understanding of complex physical–chemical processes associated with and possibly stimulating the major changes in life evolution 4 , 7 requires detailed reconstruction, understanding and quantification of complex tectonic histories for Earth and other silicate planetary bodies. From this prospective, we discriminate two major styles of global tectonics for these bodies (“ Methods ”): (1) plate tectonics (PT) and (2) single lid (SL). We also propose that these bodies may experience transitions between different SL styles (e.g., Mars-style vs. Venus-style) or that PT episodes might alternate with SL episodes 8 , 9 , 10 . In this paper, we only go back to the beginning of Mesoproterozoic time at 1.6 Ga thereby embracing the entire period of accelerating life evolution 3 , 5 , 11 . We combine available geological indicators and their data biases (“ Methods ”) allowing identification of PT and SL episodes.

What is the evidence that a transition from SL to the modern episode of PT occurred in Neoproterozoic time?

The time for the onset of plate tectonics on Earth remains controversial 12 . Whereas many researchers advocate that modern plate tectonic regime operated since the Archean 13 , several recent studies argue that the present regime started in the Neoproterozoic 10 , 14 , 15 , 16 , although earlier plate tectonic episodes also may have occurred 17 . The arguments also depend on what definition of plate tectonic regime (strict, or broad, “ Methods ”) is assumed by respective studies. Geoscientists agree that PT processes of seafloor spreading, subduction, and continental collision make distinctive minerals, rocks, and rock assemblages, called “Plate Tectonic Indicators” 14 . It should be noted, that the controversy for the onset of plate tectonics 12 is in part related to uncertainties in interpretation of available natural data. In particular, the absence of certain PT indicators, like blueschists, may be attributed to factors such as higher mantle potential temperature and crustal composition differences 18 . Also, paleomagnetic data before 1.2 Gyr may not necessarily provide robust constraints on the continental configuration 19 . Therefore, a combined approach relying on several (rather than any single) PT indicators should be preferred 14 . Stern 14 identified three groups of PT indicators: 1) Seafloor Spreading and Subduction Initiation Indicators; 2) Subduction Indicators; and 3) Collision Indicators (Fig.  1 ). These three groups of PT indicators occur overwhelmingly in Neoproterozoic and Phanerozoic time. This empirical evidence is also consistent with physical considerations built on 1) our understanding that long-lasting plate tectonics is mostly driven by the continued sinking of oceanic lithosphere in subduction zones and 2) that oceanic lithosphere was not dense and strong enough to subduct in a long-lasting continued manner as a coherent layer until mantle potential temperature cooled to less than 100–150 °C above present values 20 , which roughly correspond to Neoproterozoic mantle temperatures 21 .

Evolution of Earth’s tectonic regime over the past 1.6 Ga. ( a ) Single lid tectonic indicators, from Stern 10 . ( b ) Plate tectonic indicators cumulative plot, modified from Stern 14 ; ( c ) Simplified climate history, from Stern and Miller 28 . “Boring Billion” from Holland 37 ; ( d ) Simplified biological evolution. See text for further discussion.

The abundance of PT indicators should scale with the growth of the PT mosaic, which should take 100’s of millions of years to accomplish. Therefore, we expect the abundance of PT indicators to increase with time during the transition from SL to PT; this agrees with the Neoproterozoic record. Building on our understanding that the sinking of oceanic lithosphere in subduction zones drives plate motions, we expect that evidence of subduction initiation (Group 1 PT indicators) would appear earlier than evidence of ongoing subduction (Group 2 PT indicators); this is observed, with ophiolites appearing ~ 870 Ma and Group 2 PT indicators appearing ~ 750 Ma. Subduction would have to operate for tens of millions of years to close an ocean and cause two continents to collide. That is also observed, with Group 3 PT indicators appearing ~ 600 Ma. So the sequence of appearance of PT indicators in the Neoproterozoic – Group 1 before Group 2 before Group 3—is as expected. Another test of the hypothesis that the modern episode of PT began in Neoproterozoic time is that the preceding Mesoproterozoic Era was characterized by a SL regime. This prediction is explored in the next section.

What is the evidence that a SL episode occurred in Mesoproterozoic time?

Given the conclusion that an active silicate body has either PT or SL (“ Methods ”), a requirement of the hypothesis that PT started in Neoproterozoic time is that the immediately preceding epoch – the Mesoproterozoic – was a SL episode. Stern 10 identified three SL indicators: (1) elevated thermal regime; (2) abundance of unusual dry magmas such as A-type granites and anorthosites; and (3) paucity of new passive continental margins. Negative evidence is the lack of PT indicators. Figure  1 shows that the Mesoproterozoic was not only when few PT indicators were produced and preserved, it was characterized by abundant SL indicators. In contrast, PT indicators are documented from older Paleoproterozoic terranes 17 , suggesting adequate preservation of geologic evidence for at least the last 2 Gyr of Earth history.

A similar conclusion is reached based on types of mineral deposits, which should also be sensitive to tectonic regime. For example, orogenic gold and porphyry copper deposits, which are common in Neoproterozoic and younger times, are missing from the Mesoproterozoic 22 . In contrast, different ore types such as iron oxide copper gold (IOCG) deposits and Fe–Ti–V-P deposits associated with anorthosites are common in Mesoproterozoic terranes 23 , 24 .

Finally, the paleomagnetic data do not show large dispersions between continental blocks in the Mesoproterozoic, in contrast to what is documented for Neoproterozoic and younger times and for the Paleoproterozoic. In particular, the supercontinent Nuna/Columbia formed in the Paleoproterozoic and persisted through Mesoproterozoic time. For example, Evans and Mitchell 25 noted minimal paleogeographic changes during the Mesoproterozoic. Pisarevsky et al. 26 concluded that the supercontinent Nuna/Columbia was assembled by the beginning of Mesoproterozoic time, with some relative motion between continental blocks beginning in the mid-Mesoproterozoic.

How long would it take for the Mesoproterozoic single lid to transform into a plate tectonic global mosaic?

PT requires a global mosaic and this would take some hundreds million years to emerge from SL (Fig.  2 ). Time is required after the first subduction zone and associated transforms and divergent plate boundary form to propagate laterally and grow the mosaic. The rate of this “infection” is limited by how fast new subduction zones can form and lengthen. Trench lengthening rates accompanying Cretaceous and younger subduction initiation episodes based on observations and thermomechanical models 27 —vary from ~ 100 to ~ 600 km/Myr (100–600 mm/y). With these rates, 92 to 550 Myr would be needed to expand from a single subduction initiation point to a global plate network with ~ 55,000 km of convergent plate margins.

The last 1.6 Gyr of Earth’s tectonic history. See text for further discussion.

We can also consider the major C isotope excursions and glaciation episodes that happened in Neoproterozoic time (Fig.  1 ) as due to strong disruption of surface Earth systems caused by large-scale new plate boundary formation episodes. Such disturbances reflect environmental changes associated with the prolonged climate crisis called Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth. Many explanations have been offered for what caused these changes, but nearly all of these could ultimately have reflected the transition from SL to PT 28 . For example, the formation of new subduction zones and continent movements would have disrupted climate via explosive volcanism 29 and/or true polar wander 30 . The oldest Neoproterozoic C isotope excursion is the 811 Ma Bitter Springs event 31 and the youngest is the ~ 570 Ma Shuram event 32 , indicating a SL-PT transition that took 241 Myr. Using the first Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth glacial episode (Sturtian) which began ~ 720 Ma and the last (Gaskiers) which occurred ~ 580 Ma as marking the climate disruption due to the tectonic transition gives a slightly shorter (140 Myr) transition. C isotope excursions and evidence for glaciations in the sedimentary rock record further suggest that the tectonic transition was episodic, not smoothly continuous. It should be however noted that geochemical data also suggest the Paleoproterozoic glaciations, rise in oxygen (Great Oxidation Event, GOE) and the carbon isotope excursion at 2.5–2.05 Ga 33 , which predate the recently proposed relatively short-lived 2.05–1.8 Ga episode of plate tectonics 17 . It therefore remains partly uncertain what are the exact causal relationships between the different geochemical and climate events and the onset of plate tectonics 17 , 33 ; the end of the plate tectonic episode seems to have been a result of forming the supercontinent Nuna, which terminated many subduction zones 34 . Biological consequences of this ancient PT episode also need investigation and better understanding.

The impact of plate tectonics on biological evolution acceleration

What is the evidence that biological evolution accelerated in neoproterozoic time.

Life began sometime prior to ~ 3.8 Ga 35 , 36 . Evolution was slow for the first 3 billion years, dominated by microbes (Bacteria and Archaea), single-cell organisms that lack the membrane-bound organelles of eukaryotes, especially the nucleus, mitochondria, and chloroplasts. All complex, multicellular life is eukaryotic so single-cell eukaryotes had to evolve before multicellular algae, land plants and animals. Eukaryote fossils go back to late Paleoproterozoic time and perhaps earlier (Fig.  1 ). Because of the importance of oxygen to animal metabolism, multicellular animals and oxygenation of the atmosphere and ocean co-evolved. Rising oxygen concentrations due to the GOE 2.4 billion years ago facilitated eukaryotic emergence.

There are no “big events” to define when Mesoproterozoic time began and ended and what are its natural subdivisions (periods). The Mesoproterozoic Era is the heart of the “Boring Billion” (between ~ 1800 and 800 Ma; Figs. 1 , 2 ). This term was coined by Holland 37 because atmospheric oxygen levels did not change much during this time but now describes a protracted episode of geobiological stasis, including a remarkably stable carbon isotope record. Other indications of extended environmental stability are captured in S, Mo, Cr, Sr isotopes, and by low trace element concentrations and P in marine black shales. This protracted stable period—~ 20% of Earth history – was also a prolonged episode of low nutrient supply 38 .

The Neoproterozoic contrasts with the Mesoproterozoic by being a time of climate instability and rapidly evolving life. Neoproterozoic strata host evidence of global “Snowball Earth” glaciations, large perturbations to the carbon cycle, oceanic oxygenation, the diversification of microscopic eukaryotes, and the rise of metazoans 39 (Figs. 1 , 2 ). The Neoproterozoic Era is subdivided into 3 periods: the Tonian (1 Ga-720 Ma), Cryogenian (720–635 Ma) and Ediacaran (635–541 Ma). There is no question that the pace of biological evolution accelerated in Neoproterozoic time 3 , 4 , 5 , leading to the appearance of large multicellular organisms (or, metazoans). The much longer Tonian period was more stable, more like the Mesoproterozoic era than the much shorter and more dramatic Cryogenian and Ediacaran periods 40 . Acceleration of biological evolution characterized Cryogenian and Ediacaran time. Molecular clocks agree that animal multicellularity arose by 800 Ma (Tonian), a bilaterian body plan by 650 Ma (Cryogenian), and divergences between related phyla by 560–540 Ma (late Ediacaran) 41 . All animal phyla arose in Neoproterozoic time 42 .

How could the Neoproterozoic tectonic transition accelerate biological evolution?

Five processes were likely involved 43 (Fig.  3 ): 1) Increased nutrient supply; 2) Increased oxygenation of atmosphere and ocean; 3) Climate amelioration; 4) Increased rate of habitat formation and destruction; and 5) Moderate, sustained pressure from incessant environmental change.

Summary diagram 43 showing how plate tectonics stimulates life and evolution whereas a single lid tectonic style retards life and evolution. See text for further discussion.

Nutrient supply is essential for life, especially key compounds—organic carbon, ammonium, ferrous iron and phosphate—containing C, N, Fe, and P bioactive elements respectively 44 . Phosphorus is essential because it is a globally limiting nutrient and plays a unique role in marine biogeochemistry, ecology and, hence, evolution. Researchers agree that the Mesoproterozoic biosphere was significantly less productive than today 45 , 46 . Because P is derived from weathering of continental crust and delivered to the ocean by rivers 47 , this suggests that decreased nutrient supply due to reduced erosion and weathering was responsible. Tectonic processes exposing fresh rocks on the surface are crucial for enhancing delivery of P and other inorganic nutrients, because shielding of fresh rock surfaces by soil reduces nutrient fluxes due to chemical weathering 48 . Rapid uplift and orogeny (Pan-African event 49 , Transgondwanan Supermountains 50 , Circum-Gondwanan Orogens 51 ) at convergent plate boundaries associated with the tectonic transition would have greatly enhanced erosion, weathering and P delivery to the oceans. In this context, microbial enhancement of carbon and sulfate acid weathering 52 acted as an important driver of nutrient delivery to the oceans from rivers. After the rise of oxygen, more weathering from more exposed land and more active bio-modulated chemical weathering 52 resulted in enhanced erosion and enhanced burial of the organic carbon, besides delivery of P and other nutrients. As the result, P depletion of paleosols rose during the Neoproterozoic Oxidation Event (NOE) similarly to the Paleoproterozoic GOE 52 .

Support for the interpretation of unprecedented uplift, erosion, and weathering in Ediacaran time comes from the seawater Sr curve. In marine carbonates (seawater proxies), 87 Sr/ 86 Sr increased rapidly through Neoproterozoic time from near mantle-like values of ~ 0.7055 in the Tonian to the highest values in Earth history of ~ 0.7095 in early Paleozoic time 53 . Increased seawater 87 Sr/ 86 Sr reflects increased flux of radiogenic Sr from the continents, principally Pan-African uplifts, including the Transgondwanan Supermountains. Such strong uplifts require continental collision and did not occur during the Mesoproterozoic single lid episode, as shown by low marine carbonate 87 Sr/ 86 Sr record, including the ~ 1.0 Ga Grenville Orogeny 54 . The addition of P, Fe and other nutrients from erosion and weathering of Ediacaran collisional mountains broke the Mesoproterozoic nutrient drought, stimulating life and evolution. Greatly increased nutrient supply from the continents to the oceans during Neoproterozoic time is consistent with a protracted Neoproterozoic transition from Mesoproterozoic SL to Phanerozoic PT.

Free oxygen in ocean and atmosphere increased with time because of the proliferation of photosynthetic cyanobacteria (Fig.  1 ) combined with the efficient burial of organic carbon. Large, complex animals (metazoans) could not evolve during the Mesoproterozoic because they require more oxygen for respiration than was available. Minimum oxygen thresholds depend on animal size, mobility, nervous system, etc., but there is general agreement that the Mesoproterozoic atmosphere and shallow ocean contained much less than the 0.1 – 0.25 present oxygen level needed to support Cambrian metazoa 55 . A Neoproterozoic Oxygenation Event (NOE) proposed based on a range of isotopic proxies led to a much more oxygenated environment by Late Ediacaran time. There are several explanations for the NOE. One is that an increased supply of nutrients into the oceans stimulated phytoplankton growth, which converted CO 2 into organic matter. This was further stimulated by the evolution of new plants such as algae in late Cryogenian time (659–645 Ma) 56 , which transformed the base of the food chain and produced more free oxygen. Another explanation is that enhanced chemical weathering of continents was responsible 57 . Central to all these explanations is that more dead cyanobacteria and algae – organic carbon – must be buried. Increased organic carbon burial reflected enhanced sediment supply and formation of new rift basins and passive continental margins accompanying the tectonic transition.

Climate is especially important for metazoans. Primitive life can exist between temperatures near the freezing of water and ~ 120 °C, but metazoans thrive between 5° and 35 °C. Plate tectonics and single lid tectonics control climate differently. PT and the supercontinent cycle controls Earth’s climate in 4 main ways. First, gases released from magmas can either warm or cool the surface, depending on their composition, which is controlled by plate tectonic setting. CO 2 emissions associated with especially mid-ocean ridge and mantle plume igneous activity encourages atmospheric warming whereas explosive volcanism associated with convergent margins injects SO 2 into the stratosphere to cause short-term cooling 58 . Second, proportions of Earth’s surface covered by water exert a strong control on climate, more temperate when the proportion is high and harsher when it is low. Long-term sea level rise and fall (tectono-eustasy) mostly reflects the mean age of seafloor, which changes systematically over Wilson and Supercontinent cycles. Consequently, PT Earth experienced systematic changes in climate, with warmer (greenhouse) climates about 100 m.y. after continental breakup as new oceans widen 59 . It is unknown what would control seafloor depth on SL Earth and thus how sea level would behave, but it is likely to change much less than for PT. Third, weathering of silicate rocks consumes atmospheric CO 2 so mountain building—which exposes more silicate rocks—leads to atmospheric cooling 60 . Enhanced erosion and weathering associated with PT uplifts accompanying rifting and orogenesis releases more nutrients like P and Fe that stimulate photosynthetic life which, if sufficient dead organic C is buried, sequester CO 2 to cool climate. Uplifts and erosion on a SL Earth should be lower so nutrient flux should be reduced and climate affected less. Fourth, subduction removes large volumes of marine carbonate rocks and organic carbon, removing CO 2 from the near-surface and sequestering it in the mantle, leading to climate cooling 61 . Such PT controls, modified by Milankovich cycles operating over much shorter timescales 62 , are largely responsible for Earth’s climate during the time that PT has operated.

It remains debatable what are the carbon cycle and climate controls for SL planets in general 63 , 64 , 65 and for Mesoproterozoic Earth in particular. The two active SL planets in our Solar System – Venus and Mars—have atmospheres that are > 95% CO 2 thereby suggesting a reduced efficiency of CO 2 recycling on these planets compared to Earth. On the other hand, global-scale models show that the carbon cycle could be efficiently maintained on SL planets 63 , 64 , where carbon recycling out of and into the mantle could occur through continuous volcanism, weathering, burial, sinking and delamination of carbonated crust. It has therefore been suggested that plate tectonics may not be required for establishing a long-term carbon cycle and maintaining a stable, habitable climate 63 . This is supported by both observations 66 and geodynamic models 67 showing that crustal formation and recycling also occurred throughout non-plate tectonic processes during the early Earth’s evolution, implying significant mass fluxes from the mantle to the surface and back during SL tectonic regime. In particular, the protracted Mesoproterozoic SL episode on Earth experienced a relatively stable warm climate, with no evidence for glaciation despite the Sun being ~ 5%–20% less luminous than today 68 . Elevated concentrations of greenhouse gases CO 2 and methane (CH 4 ) in the atmosphere likely kept Mesoproterozoic climate warm 69 , which needs to be reconciled with global-scale carbon cycle models 63 , 64 used for planetary exploration.

Habitat formation and destruction is an integral part of PT via the Wilson and Supercontinent cycles governing landscape and climate evolution. Ever since Darwin visited the Galapagos in 1835, scientists have appreciated the essential role that isolated habitats play in allopatric speciation. PT makes and destroys habitats much faster and more efficiently than can active single lid tectonic regimes. The pace of evolution as a function of continental fragmentation has also been confirmed 70 , 71 .

Moderate sustained pressure on organisms from continuous environmental change happens with PT, much less so for SL. Nutrient fluxes, topography, climate, and habitats change continuously with time for PT. Strong tectonic-erosion coupling produces complex and variable landscape, climate and precipitation patterns that are especially pronounced along active plate margins. This complexity stimulates biodiversity 72 . Continental rifting and plate divergence produce large continental shelves with robust sediment and nutrient delivery from adjacent continents. The nutrients are efficiently redistributed in shelves by currents and tides, creating favorable environments for marine life 72 . All these processes were stimulated by the transition to modern PT, causing life to rapidly diversify (Fig.  3 ). SL tectonics is incapable of exerting moderate, sustained environmental pressure, except through the action of mantle plumes – especially when they first reach the surface and form large igneous provinces (LIPs). The most dramatic climatic effect is global warming due to increased greenhouse gases. Subsequent cooling can be caused by CO 2 drawdown through weathering of LIP-related basalts. Other strong stresses on the biosphere include oceanic anoxia, ocean acidification, and toxic metal input 73 . It should however be mentioned that some of the feedbacks characteristic for plate tectonics may also be present during SL episodes, due to various regional-scale tectono-magmatic activities 74 driving topographic changes and landscape and climate evolution.

Why is the acceleration of evolution by plate tectonics critical for the development of ACCs?

Accelerated evolution of complex life by the onset of PT is critical mainly due to the general slowness of biological evolution. Timescales of biological evolution estimated on the basis of the analysis of phylogenies and/or fossils take hundreds of millions of years, comparable to timescales of major PT processes of Wilson and Supercontinent cycles 75 , 76 . In a constant rate birth–death model 77 , species originate with speciation rate, and become extinct with extinction rate, typically expressed as rates per lineage (L) per million years (L −1 Myr −1 ). Estimated speciation and extinction rates typically range 76 from 0 to 1 L −1 Myr v1 and rarely exceed 1 L −1 Myr −1 , except during crisis intervals 75  . This implies that during the ca. 500–1000 Myr of modern PT, only up to few hundred new complex species can have been sequentially generated (which can be truncated by species extinction) potentially (but not necessarily, due to many other possible important parameters such as reproductive style, trophic structure, social type, habitat stability, availability of resources, stability of climate, nature of predation, etc.) leading to the appearance of ACC-forming species on Earth. If one assumes this chain of new species evolution is one of the important prerequisites for the appearance of ACC-forming species on other planets, then time needed for such biological evolution will strongly depend on average effective speciation and extinction rates. We can therefore speculate that slowing speciation rates and/or increasing extinction rates (truncating evolutionary chains) by a non-stimulating global tectono-magmatic environment, such as a SL episode 78 , 79 , would not leave enough time for complex life to develop.

The prerequisites of life related to oceans and continents

Why is the presence of significant oceans and continents important for the evolution of intelligent life and civilizations.

We do not know where and how life on Earth began; furthermore with the present state of our knowledge the life origin problem cannot be solved 80 . But life existed by 3.8 Ga 35 , 36 and evolved for more than 3 Gyr in the oceans. However, the presence of exposed land may also be crucial for life origin and evolution 81 , 82 . In particular, thermodynamic considerations indicate that the absence of exposed land would cause the total hydrolysis of all polymers and metabolites 83 , 84 . In addition, it has also been suggested that life originated and initially evolved in hydrated paleosols (regolith) on land rather than in the ocean 81 . On the other hand, there are at least three reasons that life evolution up to the point of metazoans must occur in water. First, seawater contains dissolved nutrients that life requires and organisms are bathed in this, making nutrients easy to absorb through initially primitive and then increasingly sophisticated evolving cell walls. Second, seawater protects organisms from deadly ultraviolet radiation; it wasn’t until about 2.4 Ga that photosynthetic cyanobacteria oxygenated Earth’s atmosphere to form a protective stratospheric ozone layer that the flux of UV radiation reaching Earth’s surface diminished significantly 85 . Third, all complex, multicellular life is eukaryotic. Single-cell eukaryotes had to evolve before multicellular plants and animals could evolve from them, and this had to happen in water because of the structural support that seawater offers. This structural support was needed for especially early metazoans, which first evolved as soft-bodied creatures in Ediacaran time. These organisms could not thrive on land until hard, strong exo- and endo-skeletons that allowed creatures to contend with gravity evolved in early Paleozoic time.

Although primitive life must evolve in the sea, advanced communicative civilizations must evolve on dry land 78 . First, changing landscape provide more varied habitats than do seascapes, and this is needed for accelerating the evolution and diversity of complex species. Consequentially, regions with high tectonic complexity, predominantly located at the confluence of major lithospheric plates such as the circum-Mediterranean, Mesoamerica, Madagascar and South East Asia, provided especially favorable sites for allopatric speciation and the emergence of new land species across straits 72 . This correlation is much less pronounced for marine species, mainly because this realm is more permeable to the movement of organisms 72 , 86 . Furthermore, dry land stimulated adaptations necessary for survival in harsh terrestrial environments 87 : water retention, specialized gas exchange structures, reproduction by predominantly internal fertilization, locomotion in the absence of structural support, adapted eyes and newly developed senses. These conditions stimulated development of diverse animal appendages adapted for locomotion, feeding, manipulation and other functions 88 , 89 , and helped to adapt eyes and other senses and the central nervous system to the new environment and functions. The resulting sophisticated bioassets allowed increasingly intelligent creatures to populate and examine the extremely variable terrestrial environments, which is one (but not the only) prerequisite to increasingly develop and transfer various experiences (i.e., knowledge and information) about these environments within biological populations. This may potentially (but not necessarily) result in the beginning of abstract thinking leading to the development of religion, science and the noosphere of Vernadsky 90 . Technology arises from the exigencies of daily living such as tool-making, agriculture, clothing, and weapons, but the pace of innovation accelerates once science evolves. Using and understanding of fire and electricity 91 , 92 is essential for development of ACCs and this is unlikely in the seawater environment. On the other hand, from the planetary formation and evolution prospective, the long-term coexistence of continents and ocean on planets with plate tectonics (which are favorable for development of ACCs) is a restrictive requirement and this has to be taken into account in the Drake equation.

Implications for the Drake equation

The drake equation.

The Drake equation estimates how many ACCs there are in our galaxy. It is formulated as 93 :

where R* = number of new stars formed per year, f p  = the fraction of stars with planetary systems, n e  = the average number of planets that could support life (habitable planets) per planetary system, f l  = the fraction of habitable planets that develop primitive life, f i  = the fraction of planets with life that evolve intelligent life and civilizations, f c  = the fraction of civilizations that become ACCs, L = the length of time that ACCs broadcast radio into space.

There is considerable disagreement on the values of these parameters, but the ‘educated guesses’ used by Drake and his colleagues in 1961 were:

R* = 1/year (1 star forms per year in the galaxy)

f p  = 0.2–0.5 (one fifth to one half of all stars formed will have planets)

f l  = 1 (100% of planets will develop life)

f i  = 1 (100% of which will develop intelligent life and civilizations)

f c  = 0.1–0.2 (10–20% of civilizations become ACCs)

L = 1000–100,000,000 years

Drake 93 acknowledged the great uncertainties (ACCs = 200 – 50,000,000) and inferred that there were probably between 1000 and 100,000,000 ACCs in our galaxy. Other scientists used different estimates for these variables, resulting in a range of estimated ACCs from < 100 to several million 94 . The Fermi Paradox points out that all these estimates seem to be much too high. We focus on f i , the fraction of planets with life that evolve intelligent life and civilizations and propose to break this into two variables, f oc and f pt , such that f oc · f pt  = f i , where f oc is the fraction of habitable exoplanets with significant continents and oceans and f pt is the fraction of habitable exoplanets with significant continents and oceans that have had plate tectonics operating for at least 0.5 Ga.

Why is the presence of continents and oceans unusual?

Relatively small topographic variations of terrestrial planets (< 10–20 km) suggest that the presence of both continents and oceans is restrictive in term of the required thickness (volume) and long-term stability of the surface water layer. Topographic variations are mainly driven by isostasy and are therefore expected to be nearly independent of planetary size (and surface gravity) variations. In particular, on Earth, the difference between the average elevation of continents (~ 0.835 km above sea level) and the average depth of oceans (3.7 km) is due mainly to the difference in their average vertical density profiles caused by systematic differences in their lithospheric and crustal thickness, composition and thermal structure. This imposes strict requirements in term of the optimal volume of surface water needed to satisfy stability of plate tectonics in the presence of both oceans and dry land masses. The mass fraction of surface water on Earth is 0.0224% (1 Earth ocean) and can only vary within less than one order of magnitude (from 0.007% to 0.027%, 0.3–1.2 Earth oceans) not to violate this requirement. The minimum surface water fraction (0.007%, or 0.3 Earth oceans) is given by the requirement of predominantly submarine conditions at mid-ocean ridges (average water depth 2.5 km), which is needed to produce hydrated oceanic crust that can stabilize asymmetric (one sided) subduction and plate tectonics 95 , 96 . On the other hand, the maximum surface water fraction (0.027%, or 1.2 Earth oceans) will flood nearly all continents without violating the condition of the presence of significant (> 5–10% of the planetary surface) land masses (such as mountain ranges, volcanic islands, rift flanks, etc.). Based on their continental freeboard model, Korenaga et al. 97 suggested that a water world could exist on Earth with two to three oceans of water for the present and the Archean hypsometry, respectively. This could notably widen the upper bound of the permitted water mass variability to 0.045–0.067% (2–3 Earth oceans). We however prefer our more conservative upper bound 0.027% (1.2 Earth oceans) in order to ensure that significant land masses remain.

Some topographic variations are also expected with changes in planetary mass, gravity and composition 98 , 99 . Isostatically compensated topography should not depend on the planetary surface gravity but on lateral density changes induced by thermal and compositional variations in the crust and the mantle. The later will likely be of similar magnitude as on Earth and other terrestrial planets due to the similar nature of thermal and magmatic processes involved in crust and lithosphere formation. Some compositional variations can be expected as functions of variability in stellar and planetary compositions 98 , 99 , which will however remain on the same order (some hundreds kg/m 3 ) as observed on Earth. Indeed, some flattening of topography with increasing planetary mass and gravity can be expected due to the incomplete isostatic compensation and lithospheric flexure effects (especially relevant for smaller planets). This may in particular further reduce permitted water mass variability on super-Earths. The expected moderate topographic variability will however likely be within the wide range of uncertainties that we will obtain by combining water mass ranges from Mars-size and Earth-size planets and the largest observed super-Earths. The water mass fraction limits should scale simultaneously in inverse proportion with the planetary radius: a Mars size planet (0.5 Earth's radius, same density) requires surface water mass fractions of 0.015–0.055% (0.1–0.3 Earth oceans), whereas the largest known super-Earth (2.35 Earth radius, same density) requires 0.003–0.012% (2–7 Earth oceans).

It has also been suggested that Earth’s mantle contains significant water and the respective mantle water mass fraction is on the order of 0.008–0.08% (0.36–3.6 Earth oceans 100 ). However, the long-term stability of the surface water volume also requires stability of the water mass hosted by the mantle. This is likely caused by the mantle saturation and subsequent long-term global-scale equilibrium in the partitioning of volatiles between the interior and surface affected by the atmospheric composition, temperature and pressure 97 , 101 , 102 , 103 . The retention of water in the planetary interior could pose more restrictive conditions on the ocean formation and depth 97 , 103 . It should also be stressed that an addition of some stable water mass hosted in the crust and the mantle 97 , 101 , 102 , 103 to the mass of the surface ocean will not widen the range of permitted variability of the total water mass delivered to a planet, which would allow the long-term coexistence of continents, oceans and plate tectonics.

Mass-balance calculations indicate that a cometary contribution to Earth’s water was probably limited to \(\le\) 1% 104 . On the other hand, meteorite data and planetary formation models suggest that some variable amount of water can be delivered to relatively dry terrestrial planets by water-rich planetesimals formed in the outer Solar System beyond the “planetary snowline” and scattered inwards during the growth, migration, and dynamic evolution of the giant planets 105 , 106 . In such planetary formation scenarios, the amount of the delivered water can be highly variable 105 . Assuming 0–90% volatile lost during impacts 105 , 107 , and 5–10% water content in the water-rich planetesimals total delivered water mass fraction can range from 0.008–3.8% 105 , which is a much broader range than the required optimal water mass variability. The potential planetary water mass fraction variability can be further broadened by considering the possible existence of ocean worlds 108 (such as Europa and Callisto, mass water fraction 6–55% 109 ). The expected large variability of planetary water mass fractions (0–55%) makes the requirement of the long-tem existence of the optimal surface water volume to be a kind of “Goldilocks condition”. By comparing the permitted variability ranges for planets of different size (0.009–0.04%) and the expected variability due to different planetary accretion scenarios (up to 3.8–55%) we can evaluate f oc as the probability for a planet to have the optimal surface water volume to be on the order of 0.00016 – 0.011. This probability range can be tested by using the recent work of Kimura and Ikoma 110 , which predicted diversity in water content of terrestrial exoplanets orbiting M dwarfs. Based on the available data from their simulations 110 , the results for planets with 0.5–2.35 Earth radii suggest variability of water mass fraction to range from 0–56%. The fraction of the planets with the optimal water volume is very small and ranges from f oc  = 0.0006–0.0022, which is thus well within the range of our estimate.

Why plate tectonics operating for at least 0.5 Gyr is unusual

Plate tectonics is unique to Earth and no other terrestrial planet or satellite in the Solar system has plate tectonics, although episodic regional-scale subduction processes have been identified on Venus 111 , 112 . The presence and sufficient depth of the surface ocean seems to be necessary to ensure the long-term stability of continued subduction 95 , 96 , and is already included in our f oc estimate. An important additional restriction comes from the stellar composition. Unterborn et al. 98 found that only 1/3 of the range of stellar compositions observed in our galaxy is likely to host planets able of sustaining density-driven tectonics (such as plate tectonics), which sets an upper limit of f pt to 0.33. This relatively strong reduction, does not however take into account possible devolatilization effect for estimating rocky exoplanet compositions 99 . Spargaren et al. 99 have recently quantified these effects and obtained notably modified planetary compositions compared to earlier works 98 . They, however pointed out that their obtained planetary compositions rich in Na and Si will have more buoyant crusts than Earth, which may render subduction and hence plate tectonics less efficient 98 , 99 . Therefore, in the absence of any other estimates of the likelihood of sustaining density-driven tectonics on exoplanets, the value proposed by Unterborn et al. 98 will have to serve for our estimation of f pt .

Further reduction of f pt may come from the consideration that relatively small terrestrial planets such as Mars or Mercury should have strongly lowered convection vigor due to their low gravity and smaller mantle thickness, which make them unlikely candidates for the long-term stability of a plate tectonic regime. Planetary accretion models 113 show that the fraction of such small terrestrial planets can be large (ca. 50%), which implies respective reduction of f pt to 0.17. It is also not clear if plate tectonics is more likely or less likely 114 , 115 , 116 , 117 on large terrestrial planets (super-Earths). Therefore, f pt may have to be further reduced to exclude super-Earths, which are common in our galaxy 113 . Another restriction may come from the fact that continued (rather than intermittent) subduction requires a limited range of mantle potential temperatures 20 , which can only be realized in part of the planetary cooling history 118 . In the case when planetary evolution starts from cooler mantle temperature than Earth, plate tectonics may never start and single lid tectonics may operate for the entire planetary history 118 . This should thus further reduce the f pt value to exclude planets with insufficiently hot mantles during their evolution. Unfortunately, this reduction cannot be easily quantified and simply implies that f pt  < 0.17.

Possible solution to the Fermi Paradox

Based on the modified Drake Equation, we suggest that the Fermi Paradox may be resolved if the product of f oc and f pt is very small. Our preliminary estimates show that f oc can be on the order of 0.0002 – 0.01 whereas f PT is < 0.17, which makes their product f oc · f pt  = f i to be extremely small (< 0.00003 – < 0.002). This estimate drastically reduces the potential number of ACCs (to < 0.006 – < 100,000) in our galaxy calculated with the modified Drake equation. Further significant reduction may come from the re-evaluation of the characteristic length of time for ACCs communication activities (L). Values of L can be limited to 400–7,800,000 years by societal collapse 119 and biological species survival 120 , which again reduces the potential number of ACCs in our galaxy to even lower numbers (< 0.0004 – < 20,000). The value less than 1 of the lower bound implies that the probability to find at least one ACC (including ourselves) in our galaxy can be as low as < 0.04% (this lower limit is however strongly dependent on the large remaining uncertainties of parameters in our modified Drake equation). As the result, it may be that primitive life is quite common in the galaxy. However, due to the extreme rareness of long-term (several hundred of million years) coexistence of continents, oceans and plate tectonics on planets with life, ACCs may be very rare.

On the other hand, the chances of finding planets with life, continents oceans and plate tectonics (i.e., COPT planets) in our galaxy, which are potentially suitable for ACCs, by remote sensing are relatively high. They can be evaluated on the basis of the Drake equation modified for the purpose of remote sensing as

where: L COPT  = 500,000,000 yr is the characteristic time of the long-term coexistence of ocean continents and plate tectonics in Earth history needed for the accelerated development of advanced life. The resulting expected number of COPT planets in our galaxy ranges between 500 and ca. 1,000,000, which create reasonable chances of finding them by future exoplanetary exploration.

Single lid vs. plate tectonics

Based on the presence/absence of an active global plate mosaic 121 , silicate planetary bodies of the Solar System show two major types of tectonics: plate tectonics (PT, the global plate mosaic is present, modern Earth) and single lid (SL, the global mosaic is absent, Mars, Moon, Io, Venus, perhaps Archean-Hadean Earth). SL behavior can be further subdivided into three main sub-types characteristic for different planetary bodies depending on their size and interior temperature. From most convectively active to dead silicate bodies, these include: (1) volcanic heat pipe (small bodies with hot interior, Io), (2) squishy lid (large bodies with hot interior, Venus, Archean-Hadean Earth 122 ); (3) stagnant lid (small bodies with little convection, Mercury, Mars). We use a strict definition of PT, which requires the presence of a global plate mosaic driven by long-lasting subduction 123 . This allows discrimination of modern Earth’s tectonic regime from other types of mobile planetary surface behavior (like Venus) 111 , 112 , 124 , in which (i) localized plate boundaries do not exist or do not form a global plate mosaic and (ii) horizontal surface motions are not predominantly driven by oceanic plate subduction (we classify this surface behavior as single lid tectonics 125 ). Three out of four actively convecting silicate bodies in our Solar System have SL tectonics, so this is likely to dominate the tectonic styles of active silicate bodies in our galaxy. Because PT does not occur on any other planet, it may be that the PT regime is also unusual in Earth’s tectonic history.

Is the geologic record too biased to reconstruct Earth’s tectonic history?

The geologic record is biased to younger rocks 126 but how far back in time is the record good enough to allow Earth’s tectonic history to be reconstructed? Some argue that it is too incomplete for Earth’s tectonic history to be reconstructed far into the Precambrian. There is strong evidence that deep erosion in Late Neoproterozoic time to cut the Great Unconformity, removing 3–5 km of rock, was caused by extensive glaciation 127 . Such deep erosion could have removed older group 1 PT indicators (ophiolites) but this does not seem to have happened because early Neoproterozoic (Tonian) ophiolites are well preserved 128 . Also, several well-preserved ophiolites that formed 1.9–2.1 Ga are known (Fig.  1 ), indicating that preservation is good enough and suggesting that an episode of proto-PT occurred in Paleoproterozoic time 17 . One occurrence of 3.8 Ga ophiolites 129 may suggest viability of oceanic spreading and episodic regional subduction in squishy-lid Archean Earth in agreement with recent numerical models 74 . Even if some evidence from supracrustal rocks like ophiolites has been removed, deep erosion would not remove groups 2 and 3 of PT indicators, which are metamorphic rocks and exist deep in the crust. On the basis of these arguments, we think that Earth’s tectonic history can be reconstructed back to at least 2.5 Ga, the beginning of Proterozoic time.

Data availability

We analyzed results of Monte Carlo simulations of Kimura and Ikoma 110 , which are publically available via GitHub at https://github.com/TadahiroKimura/Kimura-Ikoma2022 .

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by SNF Research Grant 200021_192296 and by ILP Task Force “Bio-geodynamics of the Lithosphere”. Thanks to Andrew Knoll for help with biology and Clint Crowley for Fig. 2 artwork. This is UTD Geosciences Dept. contribution #1712. We also thank Stephen Mojzsis, Manuele Faccenda and three anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments, which helped improve the paper.

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R.J.S. designed the study and wrote the initial manuscript; T.V.G. assessed the speed of life evolution, elaborated and quantified ocean-continents and plate tectonics presence requirements and restructured the manuscript. The authors discussed the results, problems and methods, and contributed to the assessment and interpretation of the scientific literature and writing the paper.

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Stern, R.J., Gerya, T.V. The importance of continents, oceans and plate tectonics for the evolution of complex life: implications for finding extraterrestrial civilizations. Sci Rep 14 , 8552 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-54700-x

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plate tectonics

Earth’s changing surface.

This unit, Earth’s Changing Surface, focuses on our restless planet. Topics include plate tectonic theory, technological evidence/advances that have furthered knowledge of this theory, natural hazards associated with plate tectonics, and resources and landforms that result from tectonic forces...

Lithosphere Comparative Analysis Paper

Students analyze (compare, contrast, infer, apply prior knowledge) and research both New England and another pre-selected world region on which to write an analysis paper. 

Geology Comic Book

Students will select two images that represent examples of weathering, erosion, or plate tectonics anywhere in the world, and use evidence from these features to model and provide a written explanation of their formation through a comic book. 

Your Earthquake and Volcano Risk

In this task, students will play the role of a risk assessor for the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Their job is to figure out if their local region is at risk of a devastating earthquake or volcano and to write a risk assessment document for their locality. In order to understand...

Year 9 - Plate Tectonics

The Year 9 package explores the following statement from the Australian Curriculum; ‘ The theory of plate tectonics explains global patterns of geological activity and continental movement .’ Materials also focus on evaluation of conclusions. The full package can be downloaded by clicking here .

An introduction to this package with all contents listed can be downloaded here. Activities can be accessed individually by clicking on the section covers below.

Did you know that WASP is now creating STEM project resources? The resources for Year 9 focus on engineering for earthquakes, preparing for volcanic hazards and disposal of hazardous earth materials. To access the resources click here .

Looking for a short animation that explains key content? Look no further...

Earthquakes

Have you seen our plate tectonics poster? You can download it by clicking on the image below.

Looking for a challenge? Try our quizzes .

If you wish to be updated when further support materials for this package are released and professional development sessions are scheduled please subscribe to updates.

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Volcanoes and Earthquakes - Plate Tectonics.

Subject: Geography

Age range: 16+

Resource type: Lesson (complete)

Last updated

7 September 2024

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Pack contains a 23 slide PPT and two task sheets that the students can answer using information from the PPT.

There is enough material here for 2-3 lessons.

PPT contains:

• diagram showing the structure of the earth - crust, mantle, outer core, inner core
• world map showing main tectonic plates
• embedded video showing how the world will change in the next 200 million years due to tectonic plate movement
• the case of the Mesosaurus - proof of plate tectonics?
• map showing main areas of volcanic and earthquake activity and the Ring of Fire
• link to online website showing recent earthquake activity
• three types of plate boundaries explanation and diagrams - divergent/constructive, convergent/destructive, and transform/conservative.

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