case study selection criteria

• Search Menu

Sign in through your institution

• Browse content in Arts and Humanities
• Browse content in Archaeology
• Anglo-Saxon and Medieval Archaeology
• Archaeological Methodology and Techniques
• Archaeology by Region
• Archaeology of Religion
• Archaeology of Trade and Exchange
• Biblical Archaeology
• Contemporary and Public Archaeology
• Environmental Archaeology
• Historical Archaeology
• History and Theory of Archaeology
• Industrial Archaeology
• Landscape Archaeology
• Mortuary Archaeology
• Prehistoric Archaeology
• Underwater Archaeology
• Zooarchaeology
• Browse content in Architecture
• Architectural Structure and Design
• History of Architecture
• Residential and Domestic Buildings
• Theory of Architecture
• Browse content in Art
• Art Subjects and Themes
• History of Art
• Industrial and Commercial Art
• Theory of Art
• Biographical Studies
• Byzantine Studies
• Browse content in Classical Studies
• Classical History
• Classical Philosophy
• Classical Mythology
• Classical Numismatics
• Classical Literature
• Classical Reception
• Classical Art and Architecture
• Classical Oratory and Rhetoric
• Greek and Roman Epigraphy
• Greek and Roman Law
• Greek and Roman Papyrology
• Greek and Roman Archaeology
• Late Antiquity
• Religion in the Ancient World
• Social History
• Digital Humanities
• Browse content in History
• Colonialism and Imperialism
• Diplomatic History
• Environmental History
• Genealogy, Heraldry, Names, and Honours
• Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing
• Historical Geography
• History by Period
• History of Emotions
• History of Agriculture
• History of Education
• History of Gender and Sexuality
• Industrial History
• Intellectual History
• International History
• Labour History
• Legal and Constitutional History
• Local and Family History
• Maritime History
• Military History
• National Liberation and Post-Colonialism
• Oral History
• Political History
• Public History
• Regional and National History
• Revolutions and Rebellions
• Slavery and Abolition of Slavery
• Social and Cultural History
• Theory, Methods, and Historiography
• Urban History
• World History
• Browse content in Language Teaching and Learning
• Language Learning (Specific Skills)
• Language Teaching Theory and Methods
• Browse content in Linguistics
• Applied Linguistics
• Cognitive Linguistics
• Computational Linguistics
• Forensic Linguistics
• Grammar, Syntax and Morphology
• Historical and Diachronic Linguistics
• History of English
• Language Acquisition
• Language Evolution
• Language Reference
• Language Variation
• Language Families
• Lexicography
• Linguistic Anthropology
• Linguistic Theories
• Linguistic Typology
• Phonetics and Phonology
• Psycholinguistics
• Sociolinguistics
• Translation and Interpretation
• Writing Systems
• Browse content in Literature
• Bibliography
• Children's Literature Studies
• Literary Studies (Asian)
• Literary Studies (European)
• Literary Studies (Eco-criticism)
• Literary Studies (American)
• Literary Studies (Romanticism)
• Literary Studies (Modernism)
• Literary Studies - World
• Literary Studies (1500 to 1800)
• Literary Studies (19th Century)
• Literary Studies (20th Century onwards)
• Literary Studies (African American Literature)
• Literary Studies (British and Irish)
• Literary Studies (Early and Medieval)
• Literary Studies (Fiction, Novelists, and Prose Writers)
• Literary Studies (Gender Studies)
• Literary Studies (Graphic Novels)
• Literary Studies (History of the Book)
• Literary Studies (Plays and Playwrights)
• Literary Studies (Poetry and Poets)
• Literary Studies (Postcolonial Literature)
• Literary Studies (Queer Studies)
• Literary Studies (Science Fiction)
• Literary Studies (Travel Literature)
• Literary Studies (War Literature)
• Literary Studies (Women's Writing)
• Literary Theory and Cultural Studies
• Mythology and Folklore
• Shakespeare Studies and Criticism
• Browse content in Media Studies
• Browse content in Music
• Applied Music
• Dance and Music
• Ethics in Music
• Ethnomusicology
• Gender and Sexuality in Music
• Medicine and Music
• Music Cultures
• Music and Religion
• Music and Media
• Music and Culture
• Music Education and Pedagogy
• Music Theory and Analysis
• Musical Scores, Lyrics, and Libretti
• Musical Structures, Styles, and Techniques
• Musicology and Music History
• Performance Practice and Studies
• Race and Ethnicity in Music
• Sound Studies
• Browse content in Performing Arts
• Browse content in Philosophy
• Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art
• Epistemology
• Feminist Philosophy
• History of Western Philosophy
• Metaphysics
• Moral Philosophy
• Non-Western Philosophy
• Philosophy of Science
• Philosophy of Language
• Philosophy of Mind
• Philosophy of Perception
• Philosophy of Action
• Philosophy of Law
• Philosophy of Religion
• Philosophy of Mathematics and Logic
• Practical Ethics
• Social and Political Philosophy
• Browse content in Religion
• Biblical Studies
• Christianity
• East Asian Religions
• History of Religion
• Judaism and Jewish Studies
• Qumran Studies
• Religion and Education
• Religion and Health
• Religion and Politics
• Religion and Science
• Religion and Law
• Religion and Art, Literature, and Music
• Religious Studies
• Browse content in Society and Culture
• Cookery, Food, and Drink
• Cultural Studies
• Customs and Traditions
• Ethical Issues and Debates
• Hobbies, Games, Arts and Crafts
• Natural world, Country Life, and Pets
• Popular Beliefs and Controversial Knowledge
• Sports and Outdoor Recreation
• Technology and Society
• Travel and Holiday
• Visual Culture
• Browse content in Law
• Arbitration
• Browse content in Company and Commercial Law
• Commercial Law
• Company Law
• Browse content in Comparative Law
• Systems of Law
• Competition Law
• Browse content in Constitutional and Administrative Law
• Government Powers
• Judicial Review
• Local Government Law
• Military and Defence Law
• Parliamentary and Legislative Practice
• Construction Law
• Contract Law
• Browse content in Criminal Law
• Criminal Procedure
• Criminal Evidence Law
• Sentencing and Punishment
• Employment and Labour Law
• Environment and Energy Law
• Browse content in Financial Law
• Banking Law
• Insolvency Law
• History of Law
• Human Rights and Immigration
• Intellectual Property Law
• Browse content in International Law
• Private International Law and Conflict of Laws
• Public International Law
• IT and Communications Law
• Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law
• Law and Politics
• Law and Society
• Browse content in Legal System and Practice
• Courts and Procedure
• Legal Skills and Practice
• Legal System - Costs and Funding
• Primary Sources of Law
• Regulation of Legal Profession
• Medical and Healthcare Law
• Browse content in Policing
• Criminal Investigation and Detection
• Police and Security Services
• Police Procedure and Law
• Police Regional Planning
• Browse content in Property Law
• Personal Property Law
• Restitution
• Study and Revision
• Terrorism and National Security Law
• Browse content in Trusts Law
• Wills and Probate or Succession
• Browse content in Medicine and Health
• Browse content in Allied Health Professions
• Arts Therapies
• Clinical Science
• Dietetics and Nutrition
• Occupational Therapy
• Operating Department Practice
• Physiotherapy
• Radiography
• Speech and Language Therapy
• Browse content in Anaesthetics
• General Anaesthesia
• Browse content in Clinical Medicine
• Acute Medicine
• Cardiovascular Medicine
• Clinical Genetics
• Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
• Dermatology
• Endocrinology and Diabetes
• Gastroenterology
• Genito-urinary Medicine
• Geriatric Medicine
• Infectious Diseases
• Medical Toxicology
• Medical Oncology
• Pain Medicine
• Palliative Medicine
• Rehabilitation Medicine
• Respiratory Medicine and Pulmonology
• Rheumatology
• Sleep Medicine
• Sports and Exercise Medicine
• Clinical Neuroscience
• Community Medical Services
• Critical Care
• Emergency Medicine
• Forensic Medicine
• Haematology
• History of Medicine
• Browse content in Medical Dentistry
• Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
• Paediatric Dentistry
• Restorative Dentistry and Orthodontics
• Surgical Dentistry
• Browse content in Medical Skills
• Clinical Skills
• Communication Skills
• Nursing Skills
• Surgical Skills
• Medical Ethics
• Medical Statistics and Methodology
• Browse content in Neurology
• Clinical Neurophysiology
• Neuropathology
• Nursing Studies
• Browse content in Obstetrics and Gynaecology
• Gynaecology
• Occupational Medicine
• Ophthalmology
• Otolaryngology (ENT)
• Browse content in Paediatrics
• Neonatology
• Browse content in Pathology
• Chemical Pathology
• Clinical Cytogenetics and Molecular Genetics
• Histopathology
• Medical Microbiology and Virology
• Patient Education and Information
• Browse content in Pharmacology
• Psychopharmacology
• Browse content in Popular Health
• Caring for Others
• Complementary and Alternative Medicine
• Self-help and Personal Development
• Browse content in Preclinical Medicine
• Cell Biology
• Molecular Biology and Genetics
• Reproduction, Growth and Development
• Primary Care
• Professional Development in Medicine
• Browse content in Psychiatry
• Addiction Medicine
• Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
• Forensic Psychiatry
• Learning Disabilities
• Old Age Psychiatry
• Psychotherapy
• Browse content in Public Health and Epidemiology
• Epidemiology
• Public Health
• Browse content in Radiology
• Clinical Radiology
• Interventional Radiology
• Nuclear Medicine
• Radiation Oncology
• Reproductive Medicine
• Browse content in Surgery
• Cardiothoracic Surgery
• Gastro-intestinal and Colorectal Surgery
• General Surgery
• Neurosurgery
• Paediatric Surgery
• Peri-operative Care
• Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
• Surgical Oncology
• Transplant Surgery
• Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery
• Vascular Surgery
• Browse content in Science and Mathematics
• Browse content in Biological Sciences
• Aquatic Biology
• Biochemistry
• Bioinformatics and Computational Biology
• Developmental Biology
• Ecology and Conservation
• Evolutionary Biology
• Genetics and Genomics
• Microbiology
• Molecular and Cell Biology
• Natural History
• Plant Sciences and Forestry
• Research Methods in Life Sciences
• Structural Biology
• Systems Biology
• Zoology and Animal Sciences
• Browse content in Chemistry
• Analytical Chemistry
• Computational Chemistry
• Crystallography
• Environmental Chemistry
• Industrial Chemistry
• Inorganic Chemistry
• Materials Chemistry
• Medicinal Chemistry
• Mineralogy and Gems
• Organic Chemistry
• Physical Chemistry
• Polymer Chemistry
• Study and Communication Skills in Chemistry
• Theoretical Chemistry
• Browse content in Computer Science
• Artificial Intelligence
• Computer Architecture and Logic Design
• Game Studies
• Human-Computer Interaction
• Mathematical Theory of Computation
• Programming Languages
• Software Engineering
• Systems Analysis and Design
• Virtual Reality
• Browse content in Computing
• Business Applications
• Computer Security
• Computer Games
• Computer Networking and Communications
• Digital Lifestyle
• Graphical and Digital Media Applications
• Operating Systems
• Browse content in Earth Sciences and Geography
• Atmospheric Sciences
• Environmental Geography
• Geology and the Lithosphere
• Maps and Map-making
• Meteorology and Climatology
• Oceanography and Hydrology
• Palaeontology
• Physical Geography and Topography
• Regional Geography
• Soil Science
• Urban Geography
• Browse content in Engineering and Technology
• Agriculture and Farming
• Biological Engineering
• Civil Engineering, Surveying, and Building
• Electronics and Communications Engineering
• Energy Technology
• Engineering (General)
• Environmental Science, Engineering, and Technology
• History of Engineering and Technology
• Mechanical Engineering and Materials
• Technology of Industrial Chemistry
• Transport Technology and Trades
• Browse content in Environmental Science
• Applied Ecology (Environmental Science)
• Conservation of the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Environmental Sustainability
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Environmental Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Environmental Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environmental Science)
• Nuclear Issues (Environmental Science)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Environmental Science)
• History of Science and Technology
• Browse content in Materials Science
• Ceramics and Glasses
• Composite Materials
• Metals, Alloying, and Corrosion
• Nanotechnology
• Browse content in Mathematics
• Applied Mathematics
• Biomathematics and Statistics
• History of Mathematics
• Mathematical Education
• Mathematical Finance
• Mathematical Analysis
• Numerical and Computational Mathematics
• Probability and Statistics
• Pure Mathematics
• Browse content in Neuroscience
• Cognition and Behavioural Neuroscience
• Development of the Nervous System
• Disorders of the Nervous System
• History of Neuroscience
• Invertebrate Neurobiology
• Molecular and Cellular Systems
• Neuroendocrinology and Autonomic Nervous System
• Neuroscientific Techniques
• Sensory and Motor Systems
• Browse content in Physics
• Astronomy and Astrophysics
• Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics
• Biological and Medical Physics
• Classical Mechanics
• Computational Physics
• Condensed Matter Physics
• Electromagnetism, Optics, and Acoustics
• History of Physics
• Mathematical and Statistical Physics
• Measurement Science
• Nuclear Physics
• Particles and Fields
• Plasma Physics
• Quantum Physics
• Relativity and Gravitation
• Semiconductor and Mesoscopic Physics
• Browse content in Psychology
• Affective Sciences
• Clinical Psychology
• Cognitive Psychology
• Cognitive Neuroscience
• Criminal and Forensic Psychology
• Developmental Psychology
• Educational Psychology
• Evolutionary Psychology
• Health Psychology
• History and Systems in Psychology
• Music Psychology
• Neuropsychology
• Organizational Psychology
• Psychological Assessment and Testing
• Psychology of Human-Technology Interaction
• Psychology Professional Development and Training
• Research Methods in Psychology
• Social Psychology
• Browse content in Social Sciences
• Browse content in Anthropology
• Anthropology of Religion
• Human Evolution
• Medical Anthropology
• Physical Anthropology
• Regional Anthropology
• Social and Cultural Anthropology
• Theory and Practice of Anthropology
• Browse content in Business and Management
• Business Strategy
• Business Ethics
• Business History
• Business and Government
• Business and Technology
• Business and the Environment
• Comparative Management
• Corporate Governance
• Corporate Social Responsibility
• Entrepreneurship
• Health Management
• Human Resource Management
• Industrial and Employment Relations
• Industry Studies
• Information and Communication Technologies
• International Business
• Knowledge Management
• Management and Management Techniques
• Operations Management
• Organizational Theory and Behaviour
• Pensions and Pension Management
• Public and Nonprofit Management
• Social Issues in Business and Management
• Strategic Management
• Supply Chain Management
• Browse content in Criminology and Criminal Justice
• Criminal Justice
• Criminology
• Forms of Crime
• International and Comparative Criminology
• Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice
• Development Studies
• Browse content in Economics
• Agricultural, Environmental, and Natural Resource Economics
• Asian Economics
• Behavioural Finance
• Behavioural Economics and Neuroeconomics
• Econometrics and Mathematical Economics
• Economic Systems
• Economic History
• Economic Methodology
• Economic Development and Growth
• Financial Markets
• Financial Institutions and Services
• General Economics and Teaching
• Health, Education, and Welfare
• History of Economic Thought
• International Economics
• Labour and Demographic Economics
• Law and Economics
• Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics
• Microeconomics
• Public Economics
• Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics
• Welfare Economics
• Browse content in Education
• Adult Education and Continuous Learning
• Care and Counselling of Students
• Early Childhood and Elementary Education
• Educational Equipment and Technology
• Educational Strategies and Policy
• Higher and Further Education
• Organization and Management of Education
• Philosophy and Theory of Education
• Schools Studies
• Secondary Education
• Teaching of a Specific Subject
• Teaching of Specific Groups and Special Educational Needs
• Teaching Skills and Techniques
• Browse content in Environment
• Applied Ecology (Social Science)
• Climate Change
• Conservation of the Environment (Social Science)
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Social Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Social Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environment)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Social Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Social Science)
• Sustainability
• Browse content in Human Geography
• Cultural Geography
• Economic Geography
• Political Geography
• Browse content in Interdisciplinary Studies
• Communication Studies
• Museums, Libraries, and Information Sciences
• Browse content in Politics
• African Politics
• Asian Politics
• Chinese Politics
• Comparative Politics
• Conflict Politics
• Elections and Electoral Studies
• Environmental Politics
• Ethnic Politics
• European Union
• Foreign Policy
• Gender and Politics
• Human Rights and Politics
• Indian Politics
• International Relations
• International Organization (Politics)
• Irish Politics
• Latin American Politics
• Middle Eastern Politics
• Political Methodology
• Political Communication
• Political Philosophy
• Political Sociology
• Political Behaviour
• Political Economy
• Political Institutions
• Political Theory
• Politics and Law
• Politics of Development
• Public Administration
• Public Policy
• Qualitative Political Methodology
• Quantitative Political Methodology
• Regional Political Studies
• Russian Politics
• Security Studies
• State and Local Government
• UK Politics
• US Politics
• Browse content in Regional and Area Studies
• African Studies
• Asian Studies
• East Asian Studies
• Japanese Studies
• Latin American Studies
• Middle Eastern Studies
• Native American Studies
• Scottish Studies
• Browse content in Research and Information
• Research Methods
• Browse content in Social Work
• Addictions and Substance Misuse
• Adoption and Fostering
• Care of the Elderly
• Child and Adolescent Social Work
• Couple and Family Social Work
• Direct Practice and Clinical Social Work
• Emergency Services
• Human Behaviour and the Social Environment
• International and Global Issues in Social Work
• Mental and Behavioural Health
• Social Justice and Human Rights
• Social Policy and Advocacy
• Social Work and Crime and Justice
• Social Work Macro Practice
• Social Work Practice Settings
• Social Work Research and Evidence-based Practice
• Welfare and Benefit Systems
• Browse content in Sociology
• Childhood Studies
• Community Development
• Comparative and Historical Sociology
• Disability Studies
• Economic Sociology
• Gender and Sexuality
• Gerontology and Ageing
• Health, Illness, and Medicine
• Marriage and the Family
• Migration Studies
• Occupations, Professions, and Work
• Organizations
• Population and Demography
• Race and Ethnicity
• Social Theory
• Social Movements and Social Change
• Social Research and Statistics
• Social Stratification, Inequality, and Mobility
• Sociology of Religion
• Sociology of Education
• Sport and Leisure
• Urban and Rural Studies
• Browse content in Warfare and Defence
• Defence Strategy, Planning, and Research
• Land Forces and Warfare
• Military Administration
• Military Life and Institutions
• Naval Forces and Warfare
• Other Warfare and Defence Issues
• Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution
• Weapons and Equipment

• < Previous chapter
• Next chapter >

6 Case Study and Selection

• Published: March 2024
• Cite Icon Cite
• Permissions Icon Permissions

This chapter presents and critically examines best practices for case study research and case selection. In reviewing prominent case study criteria that prioritize objective, analytical needs of research design (“appropriateness”), the chapter argues that overlooked considerations of feasibility (including positionality, resources, and skills) and interest play equally important roles when selecting and studying cases. The chapter concludes by arguing for an iterative process of research design, one that equally weighs pragmatic considerations and academic concerns of best fit. This strategy hopes to make qualitative research more accessible and transparent and to diversify the types of cases we study and questions we ask.

Personal account

• Sign in with email/username & password
• Get email alerts
• Save searches
• Purchase content
• Activate your purchase/trial code
• Add your ORCID iD

Institutional access

Sign in with a library card.

• Sign in with username/password
• Recommend to your librarian
• Institutional account management
• Get help with access

Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:

IP based access

Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account.

Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Shibboleth/Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institution’s website and Oxford Academic.

• Click Sign in through your institution.
• Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in.
• When on the institution site, please use the credentials provided by your institution. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.
• Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.

If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institution’s website, please contact your librarian or administrator.

Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian.

Society Members

Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways:

Sign in through society site

Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. If you see ‘Sign in through society site’ in the sign in pane within a journal:

• Click Sign in through society site.
• When on the society site, please use the credentials provided by that society. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.

If you do not have a society account or have forgotten your username or password, please contact your society.

Sign in using a personal account

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. See below.

A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions.

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members.

Viewing your signed in accounts

Click the account icon in the top right to:

• View your signed in personal account and access account management features.
• View the institutional accounts that are providing access.

Signed in but can't access content

Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian.

For librarians and administrators, your personal account also provides access to institutional account management. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more.

Our books are available by subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions.

• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Rights and permissions
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

• Help & FAQ

Case-Selection Techniques in Case Study Research: A Menu of Qualitative and Quantitative Options

• Political Science

Research output : Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

Fingerprint

• Selection Strategy Keyphrases 100%
• Case Study Research Keyphrases 100%
• Selection Procedure Social Sciences 100%
• Case Selection Engineering 100%
• Case Study Psychology 100%
• Familiarity Psychology 50%
• Large Universe Keyphrases 25%
• Viable Approach Keyphrases 25%

T1 - Case-Selection Techniques in Case Study Research: A Menu of Qualitative and Quantitative Options

AU - Seawright, Jason

N2 - How can scholars select cases from a large universe for in-depth case study analysis? Random sampling is not typically a viable approach when the total number of cases to be selected is small. Hence attention to purposive modes of sampling is needed. Yet, while the existing qualitative literature on case selection offers a wide range of suggestions for case selection, most techniques discussed require in-depth familiarity of each case. Seven case selection procedures are considered, each of which facilitates a different strategy for within-case analysis. The case selection procedures considered focus on typical, diverse, extreme, deviant, influential, most similar, and most different cases. For each case selection procedure, quantitative approaches are discussed that meet the goals of the approach, while still requiring information that can reasonably be gathered for a large number of cases.

AB - How can scholars select cases from a large universe for in-depth case study analysis? Random sampling is not typically a viable approach when the total number of cases to be selected is small. Hence attention to purposive modes of sampling is needed. Yet, while the existing qualitative literature on case selection offers a wide range of suggestions for case selection, most techniques discussed require in-depth familiarity of each case. Seven case selection procedures are considered, each of which facilitates a different strategy for within-case analysis. The case selection procedures considered focus on typical, diverse, extreme, deviant, influential, most similar, and most different cases. For each case selection procedure, quantitative approaches are discussed that meet the goals of the approach, while still requiring information that can reasonably be gathered for a large number of cases.

M3 - Article

JO - Political Research Quarterly

JF - Political Research Quarterly

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, November 20). What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved September 4, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/case-study/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, primary vs. secondary sources | difference & examples, what is a theoretical framework | guide to organizing, what is action research | definition & examples, get unlimited documents corrected.

✔ Free APA citation check included ✔ Unlimited document corrections ✔ Specialized in correcting academic texts

Communicating the Value of Research: Contractor's Final Report (2009)

Chapter: chapter 3: case study selection criteria and recommended transportation research projects.

Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

NCHRP 20-78: Final Report Page 29 CHAPTER 3: CASE STUDY SELECTION CRITERIA AND RECOMMENDED TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH PROJECTS Introduction Task 3 in the study work plan required the study team to describe the characteristics of transportation research projects that would be useful for in-depth evaluation and to identify a suitable number of projects for Task 4 case study evaluation. We conducted seven in-depth case studies, and each individual case study consisted of a “whole” study, in which facts were gathered from various sources about the entire lifecycle of the transportation research project—from research proposal to funding (where possible) through implementation—and conclusions were drawn on those facts and are presented here. In analyzing the case studies, our tasks were to:  Map the communication flow and content from initiation through implementation,  Determine the communication practices that were used,  Elicit the participants’ understanding of their roles as communicators and advocates of the project,  Determine patterns of responses (from audiences) to the communication strategy, and  Assess effectiveness of communications for securing research (and implementation) support. Our overall research strategy was to conduct case studies of a wide range of successful transportation research project investment decision-making. Our primary objectives were to highlight lessons learned about effective communication practices from each case study and across all case studies. Each case study covered the following information:  Context: Background information about the research project/program; political, institutional or other situational factors of interest; history of conditions influencing the situation; and current concerns for issues, as well as descriptions of the key actors and the key audiences for communications.  Facts about the Case: Detail on “the value of the research”; narrative that describes the goals and objectives of communication approaches or messaging strategies; map of the communication flow (message senders/receivers, key messages and actors involved); patterns of response from audiences; whether or not participants understood their roles as advocates for the project/program and as communicators of the value of the research.  Challenges Encountered: Perspectives of the various actors relating to the challenges that emerged and how (if) these were overcome; actions taken; and any changes made to strategy.  Outcomes: Analysis of post-communication situation—assessment of the effectiveness of communications for securing research (and implementation) support; the outcomes they expected versus the outcomes that resulted; what lessons for communicating the value of research can be learned from the case; which (if any) attributes of effective communications identified played a significant role. This information will provide the best insight into how to replicate the success in other circumstances.

NCHRP 20-78: Final Report Page 30 Hypothesis Testing A primary benefit of the case study approach is that it is useful for both generating and testing hypotheses. From our analysis of the communications efforts leading to the passage of the research components of SAFETEA-LU (Working Paper #1), we identified several strategies and themes that appeared to be associated with effective communications. The case study evaluations will enable us to test the generalizability of these findings to successful cases of investment in transportation research projects, to identify additional effective strategies and tactics, and to expand on the techniques used. The common threads, or attributes, of effective communication practices that were identified in Chapter 2 were the following:  Communicating the national value or grand vision of the research  Building broad coalitions  Defining a “strategic space” for flexibility of action  Building long-term, multidimensional relationships  Working from within  Using multiple messaging strategies: o Providing research-based information o Identifying “sticky” messages, e.g., demonstrating benefits in terms of resolving problems, saving lives, increasing efficiency, etc.  Establishing a basis for exchange or reciprocity  Tailoring the “ask” to the current mood and concerns of the audience and/or constituent interests  Using illustrative success stories  Presenting information in straight-forward, easy-to-understand language  Hiring, training, and/or selecting professional communicators or lobbyists. The testing of the generalizability of these attributes can be enhanced by strategic selection of cases. Strategy for the Selection of Cases There are various known strategies for the selection of cases that are best organized into two approaches: random selection and information-oriented selection. In random selection, cases are randomly selected from a large sample mainly for establishing credibility (i.e., avoiding subjective bias). In information-oriented selection, cases are selected to demonstrate a characteristic or attribute of interest. In our work, we will use the information-oriented selection approach, because random selection of a small number of cases from a very large universe of potential transportation research projects might result in cases that are not applicable to the project objectives. Given the small number of case studies conducted in this project and the information-oriented selection approach, we applied the following specific criteria: 1. A mixture of both “hard science” and “soft science” research. 2. A variety of types of performing organizations (e.g., universities, state DOTs, private sector) responsible for the research (from research proposal to funding to implementation). These organizations also act as the communicators or “senders of communications.”

NCHRP 20-78: Final Report Page 31 3. Diversity in the locations of the performing organizations. 4. Different types of audiences for communications about the value of the research.7 We identified nine transportation research projects that passed panel review that we felt will inform the research objectives. We researched the first seven of these as case studies. The final two were held in reserve in case one or two of the first seven turned out to be uninteresting or infeasible after preliminary screening. The selected research projects were identified from a number of sources: TRB’s Research in Progress (RIP) database, TRB’s Research Pays Off series, research projects identified by interviewees for the first two tasks, and research projects put forth by members of the panel or the study team. In selecting the nine transportation research projects or programs from this universe, we defined “research” as a product that could be used more than once by other persons for other applications, to distinguish it from a planning study, for instance. We also systematically excluded research that we felt might have resulted because of a response to a Request for Proposal. We wanted to focus on research that needed to be “sold” to a sponsoring or funding agency or to another audience for implementation. In addition to these two factors, the nine projects were selected to meet the four specific criteria identified above. Selected Cases A. Hard Science 1. Adaptive Control Software (ACS) Lite: A significant portion of traffic delays in metropolitan areas is caused by poor traffic signal timing. ACS Lite, a reduced-scale version of the Federal Highway Administration’s (FHWA) Adaptive Control Software (ACS), offers small and medium-size communities a low-cost traffic control system that operates in real time, adjusting signal timing to accommodate changing traffic patterns and ease traffic congestion. ACS Lite can be used with new signals or to retrofit existing traffic signals. (NANCY) Performing Organization: Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center (FHWA), Siemens, Purdue University, and the University of Arizona Location: National Key Audiences for Communicating the Value of the Research:  Implementers in industry (to get them to be the deliverers)  Various state DOT and local operations professionals (by industry) Rationale: This was a market-ready innovation and was integrated by vendors (manufacturers) so that it was part of the signal timing packages. Delivery was through industry. This case study provided insight into how support for the research to develop the technology was obtained, and how the industry was “sold” on the value of the research product so that it is now the “promoter” of the innovation to small- and medium-size communities. It answered the question: how is industry communicating the value of this research product to these communities? 7 The audiences noted in the case study capsules represent our assumptions at this point. We may find that these will change after we find out more during the execution of the case study research.

NCHRP 20-78: Final Report Page 32 2. Development of a Tough Alloy Structural Steel: Using a high performance steel developed by Northwestern University on behalf of FHWA and US Navy, researchers modified its composition to increase its cold weather toughness and weldability to make it more suitable for highway bridge applications. This new alloy represents a major development in hot- rolled high performance steels that do not require quenching and tempering or other thermo- mechanical processing. The cost per ton is directly competitive with conventional weathering steel (ASTM A588). Northwestern collaborated with the Illinois Department of Transportation to have structural beams fabricated from this special steel, which were then used as main support members on a replacement railroad overpass. Constructability was good, no painting was required, and the bridge continues to perform well under periodic monitoring. Performing Organization: Northwestern University Location: Midwest Key Audiences for Communicating the Value of the Research:  Illinois DOT Executives and engineers Rationale: The case had to be made to IDOT to actually use this steel in a bridge. The case study examined how the university researchers found out that the department had a problem and what they did to convince the department that they had developed a solution to that problem. So Northwestern had to “sell” them on the value of the prior research. They did, and it has worked well. This steel was developed under UTC funding. IDOT’s installation provided needed matching. 3. Seismic Safety Retrofit Program (California Bridges): Caltrans, as a result of the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, initiated a major research program to improve the seismic safety of bridges in the state. The program focused on developing retrofit strategies to improve the performance of existing bridges, as well as improve the current design guidelines for new structures. This program continues today, albeit at a slightly reduced scale. The program involved a significant research component to identify the causes of earthquake damage and then to deploy possible solutions to those factors to the actual bridges. The research program was initiated in the early 1990s and focused on understanding the hazard (i.e., earthquake), as well as the structural response to the hazard. A ground motion research program (one research component) was a combined effort of Caltrans, a utility company and the state Energy Commission. This effort required the Legislature to enact a budget change to allow Caltrans to participate. The bridge structure solution set was designed to take that information and design specific fixes to the problems. Performing Organization: Caltrans and consortium of utility companies . Location: West Coast Key Audiences for Communicating the Value of the Research:  State Legislature  Public  DOT engineers.  Public utility companies Rationale: The cost of the research projects was large; an average of $5 million per year since 1989—the ground motion testing program was an additional $14 million. An aspect of

NCHRP 20-78: Final Report Page 33 this case study was to ascertain how the sponsors were able to sell “research” instead of just doing something more immediate. To implement the research, the state needed to defer other capital improvements. This situation required tough decisions among the executives within Caltrans. It turns out that the benefits from the research effort have been enormous; the understanding of the directionality of forces in an earthquake saved between $70 million and $100 million in construction costs on the new San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge. The 1994 Northridge Earthquake demonstrated that newly retrofitted structures could survive the design event. In addition to communicating the benefits of such a high cost research project, the significant commitment to seismic retrofit also required that the capital construction program be significantly curtailed (approximately one-half of the expected road building program in the early and mid-1990s was postponed). This represented two significant efforts—voter approval for bonds to do the construction program and working with local governments that received fewer new road projects in a state with congestion problems. 4. Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Bridge Deck: Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) tested the utility of using a fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composite cellular deck system to rehabilitate cast-iron thru-truss structures. Testing of the technology was done using a full- scale, two-bay section of the bridge that was constructed and tested in the Structures Laboratory at Virginia Tech. Test results showed that no cracks initiated in the joints under the service load, and no significant change in stiffness or strength of the joint occurred after 3 million cycles of fatigue loading. The proposed adhesive bonding technique was installed on the historic Hawthorne Street Bridge in Covington, Virginia, in 2006. Corrosion and other infrastructure damage had rendered the bridge unsafe for vehicle and pedestrian traffic, and it was closed to traffic. The bridge reopened after installation of the new FRP bridge deck that tripled its load limit because of the significantly reduced deck weight. Performing Organization: Virginia DOT and Virginia Tech Location: East Coast Key Audiences for Communicating the Value of the Research:  FHWA’s Innovative Bridge Research Construction (IBRC) Program (now the Innovative Bridge Research and Deployment [IBRD] program under SAFETEA-LU)  DOT engineers  Public (note: because a significant historic bridge was restored, the research and the opening received significant play in the news media, which demonstrated how new technologies can help save historic structures) Rationale: This research demonstrated the application of innovative technologies in the repair, replacement, rehabilitation, or new construction of bridges or other highway structures. VDOT needed to sell the value of its bridge research program to FHWA to receive the funding under the IBRC program, and then after implementation, it needed to market the value of such research to engineers within the department for implementation of the results.

NCHRP 20-78: Final Report Page 34 5. Eliminating Cross-Median Fatalities: Statewide Installation of Median Cable Barrier in Missouri: According to Missouri data, a motorist crossing the median is highly likely to collide with another vehicle, and the chances are high that the opposing vehicle will be a large truck. To address this issue the Missouri Department of Transportation (DOT) researched several options and decided to install a median cable barrier system on I-70 and on other Missouri Interstates. When the cable is struck, the posts yield and the cable deflects up to 12 feet, effectively catching and decelerating the vehicle and keeping it in the median. The installation of 179 miles of median cable barrier on the freeway has nearly eliminated cross- median roadway deaths. In 2006, only two cross-median fatalities occurred on Interstate 70, a staggering 92 percent decrease. Performing Organization: Missouri DOT Location: Midwest Key Audiences for Communicating the Value of the Research:  MoDOT executives  State DOT Engineers (MoDOT and other states)  Public  Media Rationale: This was a cost-effective safety improvement. This case study provided insight into how support for the research to analyze crash location data, search for solutions, prepare and disseminate the information within the agency/division, and get the go-ahead to start implementation was achieved. It was interesting to find out how the researchers were able to sell the idea within the Department to get funding for the study, what the role of research at the national level or in other states was, and how they communicated the value of the research to the public and media. In addition, FHWA promoted cable median barriers to other states—how are these being “sold” to other states and what is the reaction of the states to the sales program?

NCHRP 20-78: Final Report Page 35 B. Soft Science 6. Road User Fee Pilot Program: With the steady erosion of revenue from the state’s gas tax, the Oregon State Legislature created the Road User Fee Task Force (RUFTF) to examine various alternatives for replacing Oregon’s gas tax as the primary source of revenues for repairing, maintaining, and building Oregon’s roads. RUFTF, administered by Oregon DOT, identified mileage-based charging as a potential solution. Oregon DOT launched a mileage fee pilot project in the Portland area to test several key aspects of charging a per mile fee at the pump in lieu of paying the state gas tax. Based on the results of the pilot program, Oregon DOT will draft model legislation for the Oregon State Legislature to consider. Performing Organization: Oregon DOT and Oregon State University Location: Northwest Key Audiences for Communicating the Value of the Research:  State Legislators  Public  Media Rationale: This was a high-risk transportation research project that needed to be approved for research funding by the legislature. This case study provided insight into how a state DOT can communicate effectively with its legislature and then sell a research idea to the general public. How was the state legislature “sold” on the value of the idea and the pilot program? Implementation of research results needed to be “sold” to the legislature and the general public. This project had high policy and public acceptance risk, although there was some technology risk as well. 7. National Cooperative Freight Research Program: A National Cooperative Freight Research Program (NCFRP) was authorized in SAFETEA-LU. The NCFRP is managed by the National Academies, acting through the Transportation Research Board (TRB). The NCFRP Oversight Committee, the governing board for the program, met on December 14–15, 2006 and selected 10 projects for the Fiscal Year 2006 and 2007 programs. Performing Organization: Broad coalition of public-private interests Location: National Key Audiences for Communicating the Value of the Research:  Congress  National stakeholder groups  Various state DOTs  Private sector Rationale: Selling programs is harder than selling projects. The National Cooperative Freight Research Program was a successful result of a concerted communications effort involving public and private entities to communicate the “value” of a dedicated and formal freight research program.

NCHRP 20-78: Final Report Page 36 C. Possible Projects 8. Development of a Cold Region Rural Transportation Research Test Bed in Lewistown, Montana http://www.coe.montana.edu/wti/wti/display.php?id=267: The objective of this project was to improve transportation maintenance, operations and safety with cold-regions research through the collaboration of academia, industry and government. Northern tier states as well as many countries must address similar issues regarding the impacts of harsh winter conditions on operation and maintenance activities, and how these activities affect the environment, roadway infrastructure, and travelers’ safety. Oftentimes it becomes necessary to research innovative designs, maintenance practices and technology applications to address these challenges. However, conducting this type of research can create a public nuisance or safety hazard. Furthermore, and perhaps most importantly, transportation research can oftentimes be one-dimensional. Researchers worldwide recognize and appreciate the multidimensional aspects of this type of research, yet do not have the opportunity to simultaneously study them in a controlled environment. The Western Transportation Institute developed, along with a consortium of five western U.S. state DOTs, a research test bed to study rural transportation issues related to design, maintenance and operations in a colder climate using the runways, taxiways, and other underutilized assets at the Lewistown airport. Establishing a single research facility that has the capability to conduct a broad array of transportation research will save much needed resources over many years. Performing Organization: Western Transportation Institute, Montana State University, Bozeman Location: Mountain Region Key Audiences for Communicating the Value of the Research:  State DOTs in Montana, Idaho, Washington, Oregon and California (especially the Maintenance Offices)  U.S. Congress Rationale: This was programmatic—a long-term effort to conduct both basic and applied research. The communication approaches and messaging strategies to “sell” the value of the state-of-the-art research facility on a difficult topic were interesting; the project benefits were communicated differently to the maintenance offices (where technical benefits were important) and the Congressional office (where local job creation at an underutilized airport was important).

NCHRP 20-78: Final Report Page 37 9. Seattle Area Freeway and HOV Lane Performance Monitoring: The Washington State Department of Transportation sponsors an analysis of the operation of the freeway and high- occupancy vehicle facilities in the Seattle region conducted by the University of Washington Transportation Research Center. The project uses the same data used to produce the real-time travel time and speed Website maps and has also benefited from funding by the Transportation Northwest (TransNow) Regional University Transportation Center. The case study will focus on the research communication techniques and the connections between data and the messages used in conjunction with legislative and public audiences. Performing Organization: University of Washington Transportation Research Center, Seattle Location: Northwest Key Audiences for Communicating the Value of the Research:  State Legislators  Public Rationale: This long-running research project has been a leader in the development and use of archived travel time, speed, and volume data. The research products included a variety of reports and technical memoranda that are used to evaluate transportation improvements by researchers, DOT staff, and legislative staff. The project has also pioneered the development of a number of communication methods, particularly graphic elements, which have provided WSDOT and many other agencies across the country with ways to use data in discussions about the effect of various transportation elements with the state legislature and the public.

TRB’s NationalCooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Web-Only Document 131: Communicating the Value of Transportation Research is the contractor’s final report on the research associated with NCHRP Report 610: Communicating the Value of Transportation Research .

READ FREE ONLINE

Welcome to OpenBook!

You're looking at OpenBook, NAP.edu's online reading room since 1999. Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website.

Do you want to take a quick tour of the OpenBook's features?

Show this book's table of contents , where you can jump to any chapter by name.

...or use these buttons to go back to the previous chapter or skip to the next one.

Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in the book.

To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter .

Share a link to this book page on your preferred social network or via email.

View our suggested citation for this chapter.

Ready to take your reading offline? Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available.

Get Email Updates

Do you enjoy reading reports from the Academies online for free ? Sign up for email notifications and we'll let you know about new publications in your areas of interest when they're released.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Sage Choice
• PMC11334375

Methodologic and Data-Analysis Triangulation in Case Studies: A Scoping Review

Margarithe charlotte schlunegger.

1 Department of Health Professions, Applied Research & Development in Nursing, Bern University of Applied Sciences, Bern, Switzerland

2 Faculty of Health, School of Nursing Science, Witten/Herdecke University, Witten, Germany

Maya Zumstein-Shaha

Rebecca palm.

3 Department of Health Care Research, Carl von Ossietzky University Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany

Associated Data

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-wjn-10.1177_01939459241263011 for Methodologic and Data-Analysis Triangulation in Case Studies: A Scoping Review by Margarithe Charlotte Schlunegger, Maya Zumstein-Shaha and Rebecca Palm in Western Journal of Nursing Research

We sought to explore the processes of methodologic and data-analysis triangulation in case studies using the example of research on nurse practitioners in primary health care.

Design and methods:

We conducted a scoping review within Arksey and O’Malley’s methodological framework, considering studies that defined a case study design and used 2 or more data sources, published in English or German before August 2023.

Data sources:

The databases searched were MEDLINE and CINAHL, supplemented with hand searching of relevant nursing journals. We also examined the reference list of all the included studies.

In total, 63 reports were assessed for eligibility. Ultimately, we included 8 articles. Five studies described within-method triangulation, whereas 3 provided information on between/across-method triangulation. No study reported within-method triangulation of 2 or more quantitative data-collection procedures. The data-collection procedures were interviews, observation, documentation/documents, service records, and questionnaires/assessments. The data-analysis triangulation involved various qualitative and quantitative methods of analysis. Details about comparing or contrasting results from different qualitative and mixed-methods data were lacking.

Conclusions:

Various processes for methodologic and data-analysis triangulation are described in this scoping review but lack detail, thus hampering standardization in case study research, potentially affecting research traceability. Triangulation is complicated by terminological confusion. To advance case study research in nursing, authors should reflect critically on the processes of triangulation and employ existing tools, like a protocol or mixed-methods matrix, for transparent reporting. The only existing reporting guideline should be complemented with directions on methodologic and data-analysis triangulation.

Case study research is defined as “an empirical method that investigates a contemporary phenomenon (the ‘case’) in depth and within its real-world context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context may not be clearly evident. A case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, with data needing to converge in a triangulating fashion.” 1 (p15) This design is described as a stand-alone research approach equivalent to grounded theory and can entail single and multiple cases. 1 , 2 However, case study research should not be confused with single clinical case reports. “Case reports are familiar ways of sharing events of intervening with single patients with previously unreported features.” 3 (p107) As a methodology, case study research encompasses substantially more complexity than a typical clinical case report. 1 , 3

A particular characteristic of case study research is the use of various data sources, such as quantitative data originating from questionnaires as well as qualitative data emerging from interviews, observations, or documents. Therefore, a case study always draws on multiple sources of evidence, and the data must converge in a triangulating manner. 1 When using multiple data sources, a case or cases can be examined more convincingly and accurately, compensating for the weaknesses of the respective data sources. 1 Another characteristic is the interaction of various perspectives. This involves comparing or contrasting perspectives of people with different points of view, eg, patients, staff, or leaders. 4 Through triangulation, case studies contribute to the completeness of the research on complex topics, such as role implementation in clinical practice. 1 , 5 Triangulation involves a combination of researchers from various disciplines, of theories, of methods, and/or of data sources. By creating connections between these sources (ie, investigator, theories, methods, data sources, and/or data analysis), a new understanding of the phenomenon under study can be obtained. 6 , 7

This scoping review focuses on methodologic and data-analysis triangulation because concrete procedures are missing, eg, in reporting guidelines. Methodologic triangulation has been called methods, mixed methods, or multimethods. 6 It can encompass within-method triangulation and between/across-method triangulation. 7 “Researchers using within-method triangulation use at least 2 data-collection procedures from the same design approach.” 6 (p254) Within-method triangulation is either qualitative or quantitative but not both. Therefore, within-method triangulation can also be considered data source triangulation. 8 In contrast, “researchers using between/across-method triangulation employ both qualitative and quantitative data-collection methods in the same study.” 6 (p254) Hence, methodologic approaches are combined as well as various data sources. For this scoping review, the term “methodologic triangulation” is maintained to denote between/across-method triangulation. “Data-analysis triangulation is the combination of 2 or more methods of analyzing data.” 6 (p254)

Although much has been published on case studies, there is little consensus on the quality of the various data sources, the most appropriate methods, or the procedures for conducting methodologic and data-analysis triangulation. 5 According to the EQUATOR (Enhancing the QUAlity and Transparency Of health Research) clearinghouse for reporting guidelines, one standard exists for organizational case studies. 9 Organizational case studies provide insights into organizational change in health care services. 9 Rodgers et al 9 pointed out that, although high-quality studies are being funded and published, they are sometimes poorly articulated and methodologically inadequate. In the reporting checklist by Rodgers et al, 9 a description of the data collection is included, but reporting directions on methodologic and data-analysis triangulation are missing. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the process of methodologic and data-analysis triangulation in case studies. Accordingly, we conducted a scoping review to elicit descriptions of and directions for triangulation methods and analysis, drawing on case studies of nurse practitioners (NPs) in primary health care as an example. Case studies are recommended to evaluate the implementation of new roles in (primary) health care, such as that of NPs. 1 , 5 Case studies on new role implementation can generate a unique and in-depth understanding of specific roles (individual), teams (smaller groups), family practices or similar institutions (organization), and social and political processes in health care systems. 1 , 10 The integration of NPs into health care systems is at different stages of progress around the world. 11 Therefore, studies are needed to evaluate this process.

The methodological framework by Arksey and O’Malley 12 guided this scoping review. We examined the current scientific literature on the use of methodologic and data-analysis triangulation in case studies on NPs in primary health care. The review process included the following stages: (1) establishing the research question; (2) identifying relevant studies; (3) selecting the studies for inclusion; (4) charting the data; (5) collating, summarizing, and reporting the results; and (6) consulting experts in the field. 12 Stage 6 was not performed due to a lack of financial resources. The reporting of the review followed the PRISMA-ScR (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Review) guideline by Tricco et al 13 (guidelines for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses [ Supplementary Table A ]). Scoping reviews are not eligible for registration in PROSPERO.

Stage 1: Establishing the Research Question

The aim of this scoping review was to examine the process of triangulating methods and analysis in case studies on NPs in primary health care to improve the reporting. We sought to answer the following question: How have methodologic and data-analysis triangulation been conducted in case studies on NPs in primary health care? To answer the research question, we examined the following elements of the selected studies: the research question, the study design, the case definition, the selected data sources, and the methodologic and data-analysis triangulation.

Stage 2: Identifying Relevant Studies

A systematic database search was performed in the MEDLINE (via PubMed) and CINAHL (via EBSCO) databases between July and September 2020 to identify relevant articles. The following terms were used as keyword search strategies: (“Advanced Practice Nursing” OR “nurse practitioners”) AND (“primary health care” OR “Primary Care Nursing”) AND (“case study” OR “case studies”). Searches were limited to English- and German-language articles. Hand searches were conducted in the journals Nursing Inquiry , BMJ Open , and BioMed Central ( BMC ). We also screened the reference lists of the studies included. The database search was updated in August 2023. The complete search strategy for all the databases is presented in Supplementary Table B .

Stage 3: Selecting the Studies

Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

We used the inclusion and exclusion criteria reported in Table 1 . We included studies of NPs who had at least a master’s degree in nursing according to the definition of the International Council of Nurses. 14 This scoping review considered studies that were conducted in primary health care practices in rural, urban, and suburban regions. We excluded reviews and study protocols in which no data collection had occurred. Articles were included without limitations on the time period or country of origin.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria.

Screening process

After the search, we collated and uploaded all the identified records into EndNote v.X8 (Clarivate Analytics, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) and removed any duplicates. Two independent reviewers (MCS and SA) screened the titles and abstracts for assessment in line with the inclusion criteria. They retrieved and assessed the full texts of the selected studies while applying the inclusion criteria. Any disagreements about the eligibility of studies were resolved by discussion or, if no consensus could be reached, by involving experienced researchers (MZ-S and RP).

Stages 4 and 5: Charting the Data and Collating, Summarizing, and Reporting the Results

The first reviewer (MCS) extracted data from the selected publications. For this purpose, an extraction tool developed by the authors was used. This tool comprised the following criteria: author(s), year of publication, country, research question, design, case definition, data sources, and methodologic and data-analysis triangulation. First, we extracted and summarized information about the case study design. Second, we narratively summarized the way in which the data and methodological triangulation were described. Finally, we summarized the information on within-case or cross-case analysis. This process was performed using Microsoft Excel. One reviewer (MCS) extracted data, whereas another reviewer (SA) cross-checked the data extraction, making suggestions for additions or edits. Any disagreements between the reviewers were resolved through discussion.

A total of 149 records were identified in 2 databases. We removed 20 duplicates and screened 129 reports by title and abstract. A total of 46 reports were assessed for eligibility. Through hand searches, we identified 117 additional records. Of these, we excluded 98 reports after title and abstract screening. A total of 17 reports were assessed for eligibility. From the 2 databases and the hand search, 63 reports were assessed for eligibility. Ultimately, we included 8 articles for data extraction. No further articles were included after the reference list screening of the included studies. A PRISMA flow diagram of the study selection and inclusion process is presented in Figure 1 . As shown in Tables 2 and ​ and3, 3 , the articles included in this scoping review were published between 2010 and 2022 in Canada (n = 3), the United States (n = 2), Australia (n = 2), and Scotland (n = 1).

PRISMA flow diagram.

Characteristics of Articles Included.

Overview of Within-Method, Between/Across-Method, and Data-Analysis Triangulation.

Research Question, Case Definition, and Case Study Design

The following sections describe the research question, case definition, and case study design. Case studies are most appropriate when asking “how” or “why” questions. 1 According to Yin, 1 how and why questions are explanatory and lead to the use of case studies, histories, and experiments as the preferred research methods. In 1 study from Canada, eg, the following research question was presented: “How and why did stakeholders participate in the system change process that led to the introduction of the first nurse practitioner-led Clinic in Ontario?” (p7) 19 Once the research question has been formulated, the case should be defined and, subsequently, the case study design chosen. 1 In typical case studies with mixed methods, the 2 types of data are gathered concurrently in a convergent design and the results merged to examine a case and/or compare multiple cases. 10

Research question

“How” or “why” questions were found in 4 studies. 16 , 17 , 19 , 22 Two studies additionally asked “what” questions. Three studies described an exploratory approach, and 1 study presented an explanatory approach. Of these 4 studies, 3 studies chose a qualitative approach 17 , 19 , 22 and 1 opted for mixed methods with a convergent design. 16

In the remaining studies, either the research questions were not clearly stated or no “how” or “why” questions were formulated. For example, “what” questions were found in 1 study. 21 No information was provided on exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory approaches. Schadewaldt et al 21 chose mixed methods with a convergent design.

Case definition and case study design

A total of 5 studies defined the case as an organizational unit. 17 , 18 - 20 , 22 Of the 8 articles, 4 reported multiple-case studies. 16 , 17 , 22 , 23 Another 2 publications involved single-case studies. 19 , 20 Moreover, 2 publications did not state the case study design explicitly.

Within-Method Triangulation

This section describes within-method triangulation, which involves employing at least 2 data-collection procedures within the same design approach. 6 , 7 This can also be called data source triangulation. 8 Next, we present the single data-collection procedures in detail. In 5 studies, information on within-method triangulation was found. 15 , 17 - 19 , 22 Studies describing a quantitative approach and the triangulation of 2 or more quantitative data-collection procedures could not be included in this scoping review.

Qualitative approach

Five studies used qualitative data-collection procedures. Two studies combined face-to-face interviews and documents. 15 , 19 One study mixed in-depth interviews with observations, 18 and 1 study combined face-to-face interviews and documentation. 22 One study contained face-to-face interviews, observations, and documentation. 17 The combination of different qualitative data-collection procedures was used to present the case context in an authentic and complex way, to elicit the perspectives of the participants, and to obtain a holistic description and explanation of the cases under study.

All 5 studies used qualitative interviews as the primary data-collection procedure. 15 , 17 - 19 , 22 Face-to-face, in-depth, and semi-structured interviews were conducted. The topics covered in the interviews included processes in the introduction of new care services and experiences of barriers and facilitators to collaborative work in general practices. Two studies did not specify the type of interviews conducted and did not report sample questions. 15 , 18

Observations

In 2 studies, qualitative observations were carried out. 17 , 18 During the observations, the physical design of the clinical patients’ rooms and office spaces was examined. 17 Hungerford et al 18 did not explain what information was collected during the observations. In both studies, the type of observation was not specified. Observations were generally recorded as field notes.

Public documents

In 3 studies, various qualitative public documents were studied. 15 , 19 , 22 These documents included role description, education curriculum, governance frameworks, websites, and newspapers with information about the implementation of the role and general practice. Only 1 study failed to specify the type of document and the collected data. 15

Electronic health records

In 1 study, qualitative documentation was investigated. 17 This included a review of dashboards (eg, provider productivity reports or provider quality dashboards in the electronic health record) and quality performance reports (eg, practice-wide or co-management team-wide performance reports).

Between/Across-Method Triangulation

This section describes the between/across methods, which involve employing both qualitative and quantitative data-collection procedures in the same study. 6 , 7 This procedure can also be denoted “methodologic triangulation.” 8 Subsequently, we present the individual data-collection procedures. In 3 studies, information on between/across triangulation was found. 16 , 20 , 21

Mixed methods

Three studies used qualitative and quantitative data-collection procedures. One study combined face-to-face interviews, documentation, and self-assessments. 16 One study employed semi-structured interviews, direct observation, documents, and service records, 20 and another study combined face-to-face interviews, non-participant observation, documents, and questionnaires. 23

All 3 studies used qualitative interviews as the primary data-collection procedure. 16 , 20 , 23 Face-to-face and semi-structured interviews were conducted. In the interviews, data were collected on the introduction of new care services and experiences of barriers to and facilitators of collaborative work in general practices.

Observation

In 2 studies, direct and non-participant qualitative observations were conducted. 20 , 23 During the observations, the interaction between health professionals or the organization and the clinical context was observed. Observations were generally recorded as field notes.

In 2 studies, various qualitative public documents were examined. 20 , 23 These documents included role description, newspapers, websites, and practice documents (eg, flyers). In the documents, information on the role implementation and role description of NPs was collected.

Individual journals

In 1 study, qualitative individual journals were studied. 16 These included reflective journals from NPs, who performed the role in primary health care.

Service records

Only 1 study involved quantitative service records. 20 These service records were obtained from the primary care practices and the respective health authorities. They were collected before and after the implementation of an NP role to identify changes in patients’ access to health care, the volume of patients served, and patients’ use of acute care services.

Questionnaires/Assessment

In 2 studies, quantitative questionnaires were used to gather information about the teams’ satisfaction with collaboration. 16 , 21 In 1 study, 3 validated scales were used. The scales measured experience, satisfaction, and belief in the benefits of collaboration. 21 Psychometric performance indicators of these scales were provided. However, the time points of data collection were not specified; similarly, whether the questionnaires were completed online or by hand was not mentioned. A competency self-assessment tool was used in another study. 16 The assessment comprised 70 items and included topics such as health promotion, protection, disease prevention and treatment, the NP-patient relationship, the teaching-coaching function, the professional role, managing and negotiating health care delivery systems, monitoring and ensuring the quality of health care practice, and cultural competence. Psychometric performance indicators were provided. The assessment was completed online with 2 measurement time points (pre self-assessment and post self-assessment).

Data-Analysis Triangulation

This section describes data-analysis triangulation, which involves the combination of 2 or more methods of analyzing data. 6 Subsequently, we present within-case analysis and cross-case analysis.

Mixed-methods analysis

Three studies combined qualitative and quantitative methods of analysis. 16 , 20 , 21 Two studies involved deductive and inductive qualitative analysis, and qualitative data were analyzed thematically. 20 , 21 One used deductive qualitative analysis. 16 The method of analysis was not specified in the studies. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics in 3 studies. 16 , 20 , 23 The descriptive statistics comprised the calculation of the mean, median, and frequencies.

Qualitative methods of analysis

Two studies combined deductive and inductive qualitative analysis, 19 , 22 and 2 studies only used deductive qualitative analysis. 15 , 18 Qualitative data were analyzed thematically in 1 study, 22 and data were treated with content analysis in the other. 19 The method of analysis was not specified in the 2 studies.

Within-case analysis

In 7 studies, a within-case analysis was performed. 15 - 20 , 22 Six studies used qualitative data for the within-case analysis, and 1 study employed qualitative and quantitative data. Data were analyzed separately, consecutively, or in parallel. The themes generated from qualitative data were compared and then summarized. The individual cases were presented mostly as a narrative description. Quantitative data were integrated into the qualitative description with tables and graphs. Qualitative and quantitative data were also presented as a narrative description.

Cross-case analyses

Of the multiple-case studies, 5 carried out cross-case analyses. 15 - 17 , 20 , 22 Three studies described the cross-case analysis using qualitative data. Two studies reported a combination of qualitative and quantitative data for the cross-case analysis. In each multiple-case study, the individual cases were contrasted to identify the differences and similarities between the cases. One study did not specify whether a within-case or a cross-case analysis was conducted. 23

Confirmation or contradiction of data

This section describes confirmation or contradiction through qualitative and quantitative data. 1 , 4 Qualitative and quantitative data were reported separately, with little connection between them. As a result, the conclusions on neither the comparisons nor the contradictions could be clearly determined.

Confirmation or contradiction among qualitative data

In 3 studies, the consistency of the results of different types of qualitative data was highlighted. 16 , 19 , 21 In particular, documentation and interviews or interviews and observations were contrasted:

• Confirmation between interviews and documentation: The data from these sources corroborated the existence of a common vision for an NP-led clinic. 19
• Confirmation among interviews and observation: NPs experienced pressure to find and maintain their position within the existing system. Nurse practitioners and general practitioners performed complete episodes of care, each without collaborative interaction. 21
• Contradiction among interviews and documentation: For example, interviewees mentioned that differentiating the scope of practice between NPs and physicians is difficult as there are too many areas of overlap. However, a clear description of the scope of practice for the 2 roles was provided. 21

Confirmation through a combination of qualitative and quantitative data

Both types of data showed that NPs and general practitioners wanted to have more time in common to discuss patient cases and engage in personal exchanges. 21 In addition, the qualitative and quantitative data confirmed the individual progression of NPs from less competent to more competent. 16 One study pointed out that qualitative and quantitative data obtained similar results for the cases. 20 For example, integrating NPs improved patient access by increasing appointment availability.

Contradiction through a combination of qualitative and quantitative data

Although questionnaire results indicated that NPs and general practitioners experienced high levels of collaboration and satisfaction with the collaborative relationship, the qualitative results drew a more ambivalent picture of NPs’ and general practitioners’ experiences with collaboration. 21

Research Question and Design

The studies included in this scoping review evidenced various research questions. The recommended formats (ie, how or why questions) were not applied consistently. Therefore, no case study design should be applied because the research question is the major guide for determining the research design. 2 Furthermore, case definitions and designs were applied variably. The lack of standardization is reflected in differences in the reporting of these case studies. Generally, case study research is viewed as allowing much more freedom and flexibility. 5 , 24 However, this flexibility and the lack of uniform specifications lead to confusion.

Methodologic Triangulation

Methodologic triangulation, as described in the literature, can be somewhat confusing as it can refer to either data-collection methods or research designs. 6 , 8 For example, methodologic triangulation can allude to qualitative and quantitative methods, indicating a paradigmatic connection. Methodologic triangulation can also point to qualitative and quantitative data-collection methods, analysis, and interpretation without specific philosophical stances. 6 , 8 Regarding “data-collection methods with no philosophical stances,” we would recommend using the wording “data source triangulation” instead. Thus, the demarcation between the method and the data-collection procedures will be clearer.

Within-Method and Between/Across-Method Triangulation

Yin 1 advocated the use of multiple sources of evidence so that a case or cases can be investigated more comprehensively and accurately. Most studies included multiple data-collection procedures. Five studies employed a variety of qualitative data-collection procedures, and 3 studies used qualitative and quantitative data-collection procedures (mixed methods). In contrast, no study contained 2 or more quantitative data-collection procedures. In particular, quantitative data-collection procedures—such as validated, reliable questionnaires, scales, or assessments—were not used exhaustively. The prerequisites for using multiple data-collection procedures are availability, the knowledge and skill of the researcher, and sufficient financial funds. 1 To meet these prerequisites, research teams consisting of members with different levels of training and experience are necessary. Multidisciplinary research teams need to be aware of the strengths and weaknesses of different data sources and collection procedures. 1

Qualitative methods of analysis and results

When using multiple data sources and analysis methods, it is necessary to present the results in a coherent manner. Although the importance of multiple data sources and analysis has been emphasized, 1 , 5 the description of triangulation has tended to be brief. Thus, traceability of the research process is not always ensured. The sparse description of the data-analysis triangulation procedure may be due to the limited number of words in publications or the complexity involved in merging the different data sources.

Only a few concrete recommendations regarding the operationalization of the data-analysis triangulation with the qualitative data process were found. 25 A total of 3 approaches have been proposed 25 : (1) the intuitive approach, in which researchers intuitively connect information from different data sources; (2) the procedural approach, in which each comparative or contrasting step in triangulation is documented to ensure transparency and replicability; and (3) the intersubjective approach, which necessitates a group of researchers agreeing on the steps in the triangulation process. For each case study, one of these 3 approaches needs to be selected, carefully carried out, and documented. Thus, in-depth examination of the data can take place. Farmer et al 25 concluded that most researchers take the intuitive approach; therefore, triangulation is not clearly articulated. This trend is also evident in our scoping review.

Mixed-methods analysis and results

Few studies in this scoping review used a combination of qualitative and quantitative analysis. However, creating a comprehensive stand-alone picture of a case from both qualitative and quantitative methods is challenging. Findings derived from different data types may not automatically coalesce into a coherent whole. 4 O’Cathain et al 26 described 3 techniques for combining the results of qualitative and quantitative methods: (1) developing a triangulation protocol; (2) following a thread by selecting a theme from 1 component and following it across the other components; and (3) developing a mixed-methods matrix.

The most detailed description of the conducting of triangulation is the triangulation protocol. The triangulation protocol takes place at the interpretation stage of the research process. 26 This protocol was developed for multiple qualitative data but can also be applied to a combination of qualitative and quantitative data. 25 , 26 It is possible to determine agreement, partial agreement, “silence,” or dissonance between the results of qualitative and quantitative data. The protocol is intended to bring together the various themes from the qualitative and quantitative results and identify overarching meta-themes. 25 , 26

The “following a thread” technique is used in the analysis stage of the research process. To begin, each data source is analyzed to identify the most important themes that need further investigation. Subsequently, the research team selects 1 theme from 1 data source and follows it up in the other data source, thereby creating a thread. The individual steps of this technique are not specified. 26 , 27

A mixed-methods matrix is used at the end of the analysis. 26 All the data collected on a defined case are examined together in 1 large matrix, paying attention to cases rather than variables or themes. In a mixed-methods matrix (eg, a table), the rows represent the cases for which both qualitative and quantitative data exist. The columns show the findings for each case. This technique allows the research team to look for congruency, surprises, and paradoxes among the findings as well as patterns across multiple cases. In our review, we identified only one of these 3 approaches in the study by Roots and MacDonald. 20 These authors mentioned that a causal network analysis was performed using a matrix. However, no further details were given, and reference was made to a later publication. We could not find this publication.

Case Studies in Nursing Research and Recommendations

Because it focused on the implementation of NPs in primary health care, the setting of this scoping review was narrow. However, triangulation is essential for research in this area. This type of research was found to provide a good basis for understanding methodologic and data-analysis triangulation. Despite the lack of traceability in the description of the data and methodological triangulation, we believe that case studies are an appropriate design for exploring new nursing roles in existing health care systems. This is evidenced by the fact that case study research is widely used in many social science disciplines as well as in professional practice. 1 To strengthen this research method and increase the traceability in the research process, we recommend using the reporting guideline and reporting checklist by Rodgers et al. 9 This reporting checklist needs to be complemented with methodologic and data-analysis triangulation. A procedural approach needs to be followed in which each comparative step of the triangulation is documented. 25 A triangulation protocol or a mixed-methods matrix can be used for this purpose. 26 If there is a word limit in a publication, the triangulation protocol or mixed-methods matrix needs to be identified. A schematic representation of methodologic and data-analysis triangulation in case studies can be found in Figure 2 .

Schematic representation of methodologic and data-analysis triangulation in case studies (own work).

Limitations

This study suffered from several limitations that must be acknowledged. Given the nature of scoping reviews, we did not analyze the evidence reported in the studies. However, 2 reviewers independently reviewed all the full-text reports with respect to the inclusion criteria. The focus on the primary care setting with NPs (master’s degree) was very narrow, and only a few studies qualified. Thus, possible important methodological aspects that would have contributed to answering the questions were omitted. Studies describing the triangulation of 2 or more quantitative data-collection procedures could not be included in this scoping review due to the inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Conclusions

Given the various processes described for methodologic and data-analysis triangulation, we can conclude that triangulation in case studies is poorly standardized. Consequently, the traceability of the research process is not always given. Triangulation is complicated by the confusion of terminology. To advance case study research in nursing, we encourage authors to reflect critically on methodologic and data-analysis triangulation and use existing tools, such as the triangulation protocol or mixed-methods matrix and the reporting guideline checklist by Rodgers et al, 9 to ensure more transparent reporting.

Supplemental Material

Acknowledgments.

The authors thank Simona Aeschlimann for her support during the screening process.

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding: The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Supplemental Material: Supplemental material for this article is available online.

Case Study - Selection Criteria

A case selection based on representativeness may not generate revealing insights. Researchers, therefore, prefer information-oriented sampling, as opposed to...

Criteria for selecting a case study.

If you found this useful, do remember to like psychology learners on facebook and subscribe by email., for 'supernotes' click here., for free ebook previews click here., for other ignou mapc material click here., for ignou related information and material click here., are you a mental health leader.

If you are a psychologist, psychiatrist, counselor, therapist, educator or a mental health institution administrator we can help you improve your client satisfaction and generate higher revenues.

The Real Happiness Center

With a focus on positive psychology and passion for spreading happiness in the world, The Real Happiness Center is helping people find out what happiness means to them, and how they can achieve it.

Case Selection Criteria, Methods, and Data Treatment

• Open Access
• First Online: 12 December 2021

Cite this chapter

You have full access to this open access chapter

• Jason García Portilla   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3374-8659 2  

Part of the book series: Contributions to Economics ((CE))

5069 Accesses

1 Citations

This chapter examines the criteria for selecting the cases analysed in this study. It explains the application of critical discourse analysis (CDA) as its principal empirical method. It discusses CDA methods and data treatment as well as the empirical analysis of CDA results. Finally, it compares and summarises the case selection criteria.

Four countries were compared: Switzerland, Uruguay, Cuba, and Colombia. These cases are also linked to the correlated variables in the quantitative model and to the sufficient conditions in the QCA. Cases were selected based on the “extreme case method”.

Each of the selected countries serves as a proxy of a larger group of countries (Latin American Strong Catholic, Secular, Communism, Protestant or mixed Old World.).

Critical discourse analysis (CDA) and religion constitute the qualitative method (micro-component). Sixty semi-structured interviews were conducted and analysed using memos and open coding.

You have full access to this open access chapter,  Download chapter PDF

• Critical discourse analysis (CDA) and religion
• Qualitative method
• Roman Catholicism
• Protestantism
• Case studies
• Switzerland

Nested cases (at the opposite ends of a negative-to-positive scale) were selected from the quantitative database (Appendices 1–4 and Supplementary Materials) for more in-depth empirical (i.e. within-case) analysis. Four countries were compared: Switzerland, Uruguay, Cuba, and Colombia. These cases are also linked to the correlated variables in the quantitative model and to the sufficient conditions in the QCA.

Cases were selected based on the “extreme case method”. This consists of a selection of cases exemplifying extreme or unusual values of one of the variables of analysis. This approach is appropriate for exploratory research (Gerring & Seawright, 2008 ). The QCA cases (Sect. 16.3.3 ) already mentioned some of the variables that characterise these countries as extreme. Section 17.5 further illustrates and compares some of the variables considered. The cases also analyse within-country variations by region (whenever possible) (i.e. more Catholic versus more Protestant areas in Switzerland, Uruguay, Colombia). Such analysis may also be a source of inferential leverage. This approach combines within-case and cross-case causal inferences to elucidate the causal mechanisms giving rise to empirical regularities (Goertz, 2017 ). To offer the broadest possible comparability, multiple case studies were conducted rather than a single in-depth case study.

1 Extreme Positive Case (Worldwide): Switzerland

Switzerland has the highest competitiveness score in the world (World Economic Forum, 2016 ), one of the lowest homicide rates (0.6 (UNODC, 2013 )), and one of the lowest corruption indices in the world (85 (Transparency International, 2016 )). The country also enjoys widely acclaimed political, economic, and social stability. Its population and cantonal (i.e. federated) system exhibit a mixed distribution of Roman Catholics and Protestants, making it an ideal case to analyse and compare the historical influences of these denominations. Furthermore, the author developed this research in Switzerland, which facilitated accessing and gathering primary and secondary information.

2 Extreme Positive Case (Latin America): Uruguay

Uruguay has the highest social progress score in Latin America (Porter et al., 2015 ). Besides Chile, it is also one of the most transparent countries in Latin America (Transparency International, 2016 ) and one of the continent’s most secular countries (Pew Research Center, 2014 ). These facts make Uruguay a worthwhile case for examining whether the factors that made Uruguay less religious have also made the country less corrupt and more equal. Consequently, this case provides vital information for understanding the interrelations between the variables under study.

3 Cuba: A sui generis Case (Communist Proxy)

Cuba is the only Communist country in the Americas. Communism and secularism are still in force in a country of contrasts: Cuba has one of the lowest homicide rates in the Americas (4.2 (UNODC, 2013 )) but also one of the continent’s lowest social progress indexes (Porter et al., 2015 ).

The Cuban government actively suppressed religion for decades. However, since the fall of the Soviet Union, the government has increased religious liberty by opening up political space for religious belief and practice. This opening has resulted in a dramatic flourishing of religious life in recent years (Goldenziel, 2009 ). Further, Cuba might also serve as a proxy of former socialist countries that have tried to eradicate the influence of religion on the state through adopting Marxist ideology. Cuba currently faces corruption levels comparable to former Soviet countries (Transparency International, 2016 ).

4 Extreme Negative Case: Colombia

Colombia is a proxy country in Latin America. It is characterised by pervasive Roman Catholicism (i.e. with a valid Concordat, and one of the highest proportion of adults raised as Roman Catholics worldwide (Pew Research Center, 2014 )). Other dominant features include high levels of corruption (Transparency International, 2016 ), and one of the world’s lowest equality (World Bank, 2016 ) and safety rankings (World Economic Forum, 2017 ). Moreover, the author’s first-hand experience of working in government, civil society, and international agencies in his native country provided direct insight (along with his extensive network).

5 Summary of Case Selection Criteria

Each of the selected countries serves as a proxy of a larger group of countries (Latin American Strong Catholic, Secular, Communism, Protestant or mixed Old World.). Comparing Switzerland and Latin American countries illuminates how religion and prosperity indicators evolve differently within diverse political systems and against the background of different historical roots.

Nested (extreme) cases were chosen for more in-depth empirical, quantitative and QCA analysis (see Supplementary Materials). Table 17.1 summarises the four cases.

6 Methods and Data Treatment

The qualitative approach adopted here concentrated on which patterns in particular (Silverman, 2005 , p. 9) might trigger the observed effects, and hence complemented the analysis of empirical correlations and QCA. The aim was to gain a greater understanding of the research problem (Zikmund, 2003 , p. 111), hence complementing the statistical and QCA analyses of the previous chapters, even if this approach implies that matters are “subjective in nature” (Zikmund, 2003 , p. 132).

6.1 Qualitative Method: Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and Religion

Discourse analysis is central to this study, mainly because discourse, knowledge, and power are closely related (Burr, 2003 , p. 67; Carabine, 2001 , pp. 267–268). One especially fruitful type of discourse analysis was established by the French philosopher Michel Foucault. He suggested examining the interconnections between discourse, knowledge, and power based on his key concept of “genealogy”. This, as we will see, is related to institutions and prosperity.

Foucault ( 1972 ) developed an elaborate conceptual framework for discourse analysis and proposed a rigorous methodological system to underpin such analysis. However, he did not provide a “how to guide” to genealogy. Hence, methodologies and applications vary (Carabine, 2001 ).

Importantly, CDA cannot be applied mechanically (Hjelm, 2014 ). Nor does any universal CDA methodology exist (Fairclough, 2010 , p. 6). On the contrary, every analytical approach to discourse requires specific design (Hjelm, 2014 , p. 860). Oswick ( 2012 ) shares similar views and sees CDA as the only discursive method for considering ideology and power. CDA bridges cultural and linguistic studies in a critical approach. Thus, it enables researchers to adequately examine the role of religion in creating, transforming, reproducing, and sustaining inequalities (Hjelm, 2014 , pp. 855–58).

Equally importantly, CDA is ethically committed to exposing the processes through which discourses disseminate social structures that perpetuate hegemony (i.e. maintain and assert the interests of dominant groups or classes) (Fairclough and Wodak 1997 ; Wodak as cited in Heracleous, 2006 , p. 4) and suppress alternative constructions (Hjelm, 2014 , p. 860).

CDA is one of the most used methodologies for analysing language and texts in a wide range of fields, including management and organisation studies (The Editors, 2010 , p. 1192). However, studies employing CDA are scarce in the sociology of religion, and the valuable research potential of CDA has been underused as a result (Hjelm, 2014 ; Moberg, 2013 ). Therefore, Hjelm ( 2014 ) has strongly encouraged sociologists of religion to apply CDA, due to the obvious lack of critical approaches to religion that take inequality and hegemony seriously (p. 857).

6.2 Critical Discourse Analysis Protocol

Fairclough ( 1992 ), Fairclough ( 2010 ), and Gee ( 2011 ) have developed stringent guidelines for applying Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). According to Fairclough ( 2010 ) selecting a CDA methodology involves developing a theoretical framework relevant to a specific research project than choosing from an existing repertoire of methods (Fairclough, 2010 , p. 225).

What makes CDA unique is its division of analysis into three, cross-fertilising aspects: (1) Textual analysis, (2) Analysis of discourse practice, and (3) Analysis of social practice (including the relationship to existing hegemonies) (Hjelm, 2014 , p. 861; Fairclough, 1992 , p. 73). These categories are of central interest for this study as they help produce a comprehensive understanding of the impact of religion on the three levels of analysis:

The first level of analysis (textual) involves closely studying a range of texts such as political constitutions or Christian documents including The Holy Bible. Especially the Scriptures are central to analysing Christianity, as the text has remained largely unaffected by time for centuries (i.e. King James or Martin Luther versions). In contrast, Christian traditions have changed over time and vary among denominations.

The second level (analysis of discourse practice) considers the paradigms and public discourse of Protestants, Roman Catholic Church-State leaders, and government and civil society stakeholders.

The third level (analysis of social practice) explores the coherence between formal and de facto discourses, including the “commonsensical” language of social practices. Typically, producing documents for their own sake neither relates to nor explains social practice. Nevertheless, it is possible to analyse their coherence and influence in institutions. Comparing lived reality beyond formal discourses allows identifying patterns of social acceptance related to corruption and prosperity.

6.3 Data Treatment

Sixty semi-structured interviews were conducted and analysed using memos and open coding. Protestant and Roman Catholic Church-State leaders, government, academics, and civil society stakeholders were interviewed in a snowball system between 2015 and 2017. Interviews were conducted in English, German, and French, in the German and French-speaking regions of Switzerland. Interviews in Latin America were conducted in Spanish and English (i.e. English speakers in the Colombian Caribbean). All interviews were translated into English before coding. For reasons of scope, not all the data or stakeholders interviewed appear in the main body of this book. Table 17.2 shows the total number of interviews conducted in each country.

Interviewees were mostly religious leaders or educated and informed stakeholders. Many stakeholders interviewed were also university professors or academic researchers. Protestants, Catholics, or non-religious interviewees were also asked about their different ideologies.

6.3.1 Protecting Interviewee Identity

Before interviewing, stakeholders agreed to release their data on condition of anonymity. Consequently, the discussion offered in this book and the corresponding public datasets only contain stakeholders’ general institutional affiliations for comparison/triangulation purposes (e.g. government officer, university expert-lawyer, Catholic priest, Protestant preacher). Other sensitive data possibly enabling identification were omitted.

6.3.2 Coding

Two qualitative researchers independently coded the data to align code application and code definitions (a total of three independent researchers). Moreover, the author took position in a separate memorandum (Appendix 5).

6.3.3 Triangulation

Triangulation is essential for crosschecking information through multiple procedures and sources. It produces either corroboration or convergence in the case of agreement or divergence in the case of disagreement.

The notion of identifiable Roman Catholic or Protestant traditions requires gathering theoretical and historical data as well as qualitative data from interviewees. Although interviewees shared their perceptions of religious traditions, these perceptions do not provide robust evidence of historical linkages or ramifications. Present-day interviewees can only share their impressions of what their country has inherited from its religious background.

Therefore, findings were triangulated using a triple strategy: (1) Diverse stakeholder perspectives were included in each code (e.g. interviews with a government officer, a Catholic priest, a Protestant pastor); (2) public documents or discourses; and (3) other materials (e.g. historical, theoretical, textbooks).

The next four chapters provide background information on the religion–prosperity–institution nexuses for each of the four cases. Each case study includes charts that compare the different stakeholder principles identified in terms of (1) Prosperity, (2) Corruption, or (3) Church-State relations. Each chart is followed by a three-level CDA analysis.

Case details vary depending on historical importance, the information relevant for comparison, and scope. More information is deliberately provided for Switzerland, since this is the only European country compared and contrasted with the three selected Latin American countries. Such detailed background information and three empirical analyses concern prosperity, corruption, and church-state relations. Consequently, the case of Switzerland also draws more detailed conclusions from its three empirical analyses. By comparison, each Latin American case contains briefer background information and merely one empirical analysis (Uruguay: prosperity; Cuba: corruption; Colombia: prosperity). The respective conclusions are synthesised in Chap. 22 .

Each case begins by characterising the background information and the main features of the prosperity–corruption–religion nexus. This is followed by empirical analysis.

Beltrán, W. M. (2008). Aproximación histórico-interpretativa al proceso de diversificación religiosa en Colombia. In S. y. Grupo Interdisciplinario de Estudios de Religión, Mirada pluridisciplinar al hecho religioso en Colombia: Avances de investigación. Universidad de San Buenaventura.

Google Scholar  

Beltrán, W. M., & Quiroga, J. D. (2017). Pentecostalismo y política electoral en Colombia (1991-2014). Colombia Internacional, 91 , 187–212.

Article   Google Scholar  

Blanco, M. Ó. (2008). La Nación católica durante la Regeneración (1886-1900): perspectivas historiográficas. Anuario Historia Regional y de las Fronteras, 13 (1), 157–180.

Burr, V. (2003). Social constructionism (2nd ed.). Routledge.

Carabine, J. (2001). Unmarried motherhood 1830-1990: A genealogical analysis. In S. T. M. Wetherell (Ed.), Discourse as data – A guide for analysis . Sage.

Crahan, M. E. (1979). Salvation through Christ or Marx: Religion in revolutionary Cuba. Special Issue:The Church and Politics in Latin America. Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 21 (1), 156–184.

Crahan, M. E. (2017). Cuba: Religion and civil society. Social research, 84 (2), 383–405.

Fairclough, N. (1992). Discourse and social change . Polity Press.

Fairclough, N. (2010). Critical discourse analysis: The critical study of language (2nd ed.). Pearson Education.

Fairclough, N., & Wodak, R. (1997). Critical discourse analysis. In T. A. van Dijk (Ed.), Discourse as social interaction: Discourse studies: A multidisciplinary introduction (Vol. 2, pp. 258–284). Sage.

Figueroa, H. (2016). La persistance des idées traditionalistes en Colombie. Religion et politique (1886-1952) . L’Harmattan.

Foucault, M. (1972). The archaeology of knowledge . Routledge.

Gee, J. (2011). How to do discourse analysis . Routledge.

Gerring, J., & Seawright, J. (2008). Case selection techniques in case study research: A menu of qualitative and quantitative. Political Research Quarterly, 61 (2), 294.

Gill, A. (1998). Rendering unto Caesar: The Catholic Church and the state in Latin America . Chicago University Press.

Gill, A. (2013). Religious pluralism, political incentives, and the origins of religious liberty. Global challenges. In A. Hertzke (Ed.), The future of religious freedom (pp. 107–127). Oxford University Press.

Goertz, G. (2017). Multimethod research, causal mechanisms, and case studies: An integrated approach . Princeton University Press.

Book   Google Scholar  

Goldenziel, J. (2009). Sanctioning faith: Religion, state, and U.S.-Cuban relations. Journal of Law & Politics, 25 (179), 179–210.

Heracleous, L. (2006). Discourse, interpretation, organization . Cambridge University Press.

Hjelm, T. (2014). Religion, discourse and power: A contribution towards a critical sociology of religion. Critical Sociology, 40 (6), 855–872.

Koonings, K., & Kruijt, D. (2004). Armed actors: Organised violence and state failure in Latin America . Zed Press.

Levine, D. (1981). Religion and politics in Latin America: The Catholic Church in Venezuela & Colombia. Princeton Legacy Library.

Moberg, M. (2013). First-, second-, and third-level discourse analytic approaches in the study of religion: Moving from meta-theoretical reflection to implementation in practice. Religion, 43 (1), 1–22.

Munevar, J. (2008). Transformación doctrinal y actitudinal de la participación política de las iglesias cristianas evangélicas en Colombia. In Grupo Interdisciplinario de Estudios de Religión, Sociedad y Política, GIERSP, Mirada pluridisciplinar al hecho religioso en Colombia: Avances de investigación (pp. 375–399) . Bogotá, Colombia.

Obinger, H. (2009). Religion and the consolidation of the Swiss Welfare State, 1848-1945. In P. Manow & K. van Kersbergen (Eds.), Religion, class coalitions and welfare states (pp. 176–209). Cambridge University Press.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Open Doors. (2015). World Watch List (WWL). The 50 countries where persecution of Christians is most extreme. Retrieved from https://www.opendoorsusa.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/WWL2019_FullBooklet.pdf

Oswick, C. (2012). Discourse analysis and discursive research. In G. S. (Ed.), The practice of qualitative organizational research: Core methods and current challenges. Sage.

Pew Research Center. (2014). Religion in Latin America. Widespread Change in a Historically Catholic Region. Retrieved from https://www.pewforum.org/2014/11/13/religion-in-latin-america/

Porter, M., Stern, S., & Green, M. (2015). Social Progress Index 2015. Retrieved from https://www.socialprogress.org/?tab=2&code=NOR

Silverman, D. (2005). Doing qualitative research (2nd ed.). Sage.

The Editors. (2010). Critical discourse analysis (CDA) in context: Alternative perspectives on the analysis of discourse. Journal of Management Studies, 47 (6), 1192–1193. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2010.00942.x .

Transparency International. (2016). Corruption perceptions index 2016. Retrieved from https://www.transparency.org/news/feature/corruption_perceptions_index_2016

UNODC. (2013). Global study on homicide 2013: Trends, contexts, data . Retrieved from https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/statistics/GSH2013/2014_GLOBAL_HOMICIDE_BOOK_web.pdf

World Bank. (2016). GNI per capita . Retrieved from http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.CD?display=map

World Economic Forum. (2016). The global competitiveness report 2014–2015 (Full Data Edition) . The World Economic Forum.

World Economic Forum. (2017). The travel & tourism competitiveness report . World Economic Forum.

Zikmund, W. (2003). Business Research Methods (7th ed.). Thomson South-Western.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Swiss-Latin American Center (CLS-HSG), University of St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland

Jason García Portilla

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

1 Electronic Supplementary Material

Supplementary material 17.1.

(DOCX 107 kb)

Rights and permissions

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 The Author(s)

About this chapter

García Portilla, J. (2022). Case Selection Criteria, Methods, and Data Treatment. In: “Ye Shall Know Them by Their Fruits”. Contributions to Economics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78498-0_17

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78498-0_17

Published : 12 December 2021

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-030-78497-3

Online ISBN : 978-3-030-78498-0

eBook Packages : Economics and Finance Economics and Finance (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

A new integer model for selecting students at higher education institutions: preparatory classes of engineers as case study.

1. Introduction

2. problem statement, 3. objective and methodology, 3.1. main objective of our work, 3.2. methodology, 3.2.1. organizational structure of higher education institutions.

• Higher education institution: This entity is generally responsible for the management of academic programs and specialty streams. It often develops selection criteria specific to their programs and reviews applications.
• Departments: Academic departments within institutions may be responsible for defining more specific selection criteria related to their specific areas. They may also be involved in the assessment of candidates.
• Selection Committees: Some institutions set up selection committees composed of teaching staff members and experts in the field. These committees evaluate applications and recommend candidates for admission to specialty streams.
• Admission Services: In many institutions, a centralized admissions service processes student applications and coordinates the selection process.
• Academic Advisors: Academic advisors can play an advisory role to students, helping them choose the appropriate specialty streams based on their academic and career goals.
• The Governance Bodies of the institution: In some cases, the governance bodies of the institution, such as boards of directors or management committees, may define general policies concerning selection criteria and specialty streams.

3.2.2. Rules of Selection

• Consistency of applications must be respected. Each student must apply to the appropriate streams in a given higher education institution.
• Selection twice is not permitted. Each student shall be assigned at most to a seat in a chosen academic stream in a given higher education institution. In fact, a student chooses a fixed number of streams belonging to a higher education institution and they are assigned at most to one seat from them.
• Collisions shall not be permitted. In a given higher education institution and in a particular academic stream, a seat is assigned at most to one student who has already chosen this stream.
• The maximum number of seats in a particular stream belonging to a higher education institution must be respected. In fact, each stream has its own number of seats that defines the capacity of the stream; then, the number of admitted students in each stream must not exceed the number of available seats.
• The quotas of students having a particular series of bachelor’s degree in each stream must be respected. In fact, in a given higher education institution, each available stream opens access to students with several series of bachelor’s degrees with different quotas.
• Priority is given to the first choices if possible. In fact, each student has the right to choose more than one stream in a given higher education institution and is assigned at most to one from these choices.

3.2.3. Methodology Adopted

4. the mathematical model of student selection problem, 4.1. general features of the model.

• The student who has the right to apply for a seat in an academic stream to pursue their studies. The set of all these students is denoted by S , e.g., S = s t u d e n t # 1 , s t u d e n t # 2 , … , s t u d e n t # S .
• The seat to which an admitted student is assigned to pursue their studies. The set of all available seats is denoted A , e.g., A = s e a t # 1 , s e a t # 2 , … , s e a t # A .
• The academic stream in which a student will pursue their studies. The set of all available streams in the higher education institution is denoted by B , e.g., B = s t r e a m # 1 , s t r e a m # 2 , … , s t r e a m # B .
• The type of Baccalaureate tokens from which each student graduates; the set of all these baccalaureate types is denoted by T , e.g., T = t y p e # 1 , t y p e # 2 , … , t y p e # T .
• The quota of students having a particular type of baccalaureate in a specific stream. The set of all possible quotas in the different streams is denoted by Q , e.g., Q = q u o t a # 1 , q u o t a # 2 , … , q u o t a # Q .
• The number of seats available in an academic stream that represent the capacity of stream. The set of all these numbers is denoted by N , e.g., N = n b r c / c ∈ C .

4.2. Special Features of the Model

• A b = { a ∈ A : a = seat available in the stream b ∈ B }.
• S b = { s ∈ S : s = student applying for the stream b ∈ B to pursue their studies}.
• S t = { s ∈ S : s = student having the series t ∈ T of the baccalaureate}.
• S b , t = S b ∩ S t .
• B s = { b ∈ B : b = a stream chosen by the student s ∈ S } .
• B t = { b ∈ B : b = a stream open for students having the baccalaureate series t ∈ T } .
• T b s a t = { t ∈ T : t = a baccalaureate series required to apply for the stream b ∈ B } whose quota of seats devoted to students with this type of baccalaureate is exhausted.
• T b s a t ¯ = { t ∈ T : t = a baccalaureate series required to applying for the stream b ∈ B } whose quota of seats devoted to students with this type of baccalaureate is not exhausted.
• T b = T b s a t ∪ T b s a t ¯ = { t ∈ T : t = a baccalaureate series required to apply for the stream b ∈ B }.
• N b = { n b / b ∈ B : n b is the number of available seats in the academic stream b }
• Q b , t = { q ∈ Q : q = the quota of seats devoted to bachelors having the series t ∈ T of baccalaureate in the academic stream b ∈ B }.
• P A = { ( s , b ) ∈ S × B : ( s , b ) = a priori assignment in which the student s ∈ S is assigned to the academic stream b ∈ B }.

4.3. Objective Function

• B : the set of all available streams belonging to the higher education institution;
• S b : the set of student applying for the stream b ;
• A b : the set of available seats in the stream b .

4.4. Constraints of the Model

4.4.1. uniqueness constraints.

• This set of constraints ensures that, in a higher education institution, each student shall be assigned at most to one seat in a stream of their choices. This constraint is given by the following equation: ∀ s ∈ S , ∀ b ∈ B s : ∑ a ∈ A b x s , a ≤ 1 . (2) where –   S : the set of all students; –   B s : the set of streams chosen by the student s .
• This set of constraints ensures that, in each stream b , a seat is assigned to one and only one student who has applied for the stream b . This rule is formulated by the following equation: ∀ b ∈ B , ∀ a ∈ A b : ∑ s ∈ S b x s , a ≤ 1 . (3)

4.4.2. Capacity Constraints

• In a specified stream, the number of admitted students is limited. So, the number of assigned students to a stream shall not exceed the number of available seats in this stream. ∀ b ∈ B : ∑ s ∈ S b ∑ a ∈ A b x s , a ≤ n b . (4) where –   n b : the number of available seats in the stream b .
• For each stream b ∈ B , the number of students having a particular series of baccalaureate and assigned to seats in the stream b shall not exceed the quota of seats devoted to students having this series of baccalaureate in the stream b , described as follows: ∀ b ∈ B , ∀ t ∈ T b : ∑ s ∈ S b , t ∑ a ∈ A b x s , a ≤ q b , t . (5) where –   T b : the set of all baccalaureate series required to applying for the stream b ; –   S b , t : the set of students applying for the stream b ∈ B and having the series t of baccalaureate; –   q b , t : the quota of seats devoted to bachelors having the baccalaureate series t in the stream b .
• In several cases, some students hold some types of baccalaureates in some streams that cannot exceed their quotas of seats, which can generate some unoccupied seats in such streams. In order to maximize the use of the academic resources, we redistribute these unoccupied seats among the other students holding other types of baccalaureate whose quotas of seats are exhausted. This property can be added by replacing the constraints ( 5 ) with the following constraints ( 6 ): ∀ b ∈ B , ∀ t ∈ T b : ∑ s ∈ S b , t ∑ a ∈ A b x s , a ≤ q b , t + p b , t . (6) where p b , t is calculated using the following method: –   For b ∈ B and t ∈ T b s a t ¯ , we calculate the number of unoccupied seats in the stream b devoted to students holding the baccalaureate type t : r b , t = q b , t − S b , t –   Then, we calculate the total number of unoccupied seats in the stream b : r b = ∑ t ∈ T b s a t ¯ r b , t –   Therefore, we redistribute this number of unoccupied seats among students holding the type of baccalaureate t ∈ T b s a t using the following equation: h b , t = r b T b s a t where x refers to the integer part of x . –   The integer division generates a reminder denoted r e m b , which is also redistributed among students holding the baccalaureate type t ∈ T b s a t using the following equation: p b , t = h b , t + 1 t i ∈ { t i ∈ T b s a t : i = 1 , … , r e m b } h b , t t i ∈ { t i ∈ T b s a t : i = r e m b + 1 , … , | T b s a t | }

4.4.3. Consecutiveness Constraints

• Consecutiveness of student choices: For every student, priority to first choices must be considered. In fact, each student wishes satisfy their first choice before the second, etc. This rule can be formulated by the following equation: ∀ s ∈ S , ∀ b i ∈ B s ( i = 1 , … , B s − 1 ) : ∑ a ∈ A b i + 1 x s , a ≤ ∑ a ∈ A b i x s , a (7)
• Consecutiveness of competent students: This set of constraints ensures that priority is given to competent students. In this sense, students who have the higher weight coefficient will be assigned to a seat from their chosen streams. The following constraint formulates this rule: ∀ s , r ∈ S , ∀ b ∈ B s ∩ B r ( w s , b < w r , b ) : ∑ a ∈ A b x s , a ≤ ∑ a ∈ A b x r , a + ∑ b ′ ∈ B s ∩ B r ∖ b ∑ a ∈ A b ′ x r , a (8) where –   w s , b : the weight coefficient of the student s . In this equation, the term ∑ b ′ ∈ B s ∩ B r ∖ b ∑ a ∈ A b ′ x r , a takes two possible values: It takes the 1 value if the student r is assigned to one of the streams b and b ′ —in this case, the student s can be assigned to a seat in the stream b ; otherwise, it takes the 0 value if the student r is not assigned to any stream—in this case, and given that w s , b < w r , b , the student r should not assigned to any stream.

4.4.4. Pre-Assignment Constraints

• This set of constraints ensures that certain students will be assigned to a seat in a stream of their choices and could be used either for the pre-allocation of students or for better handling and reducing complexity and computational difficulties. These constraints are formulated by the following equation: ∀ ( s , b ) ∈ P A : ∑ a ∈ A b x s , a = 1 . (9) where –   P A : the set of a priori assignments to the list of students s ∈ S b .

4.5. Determination of Weight Coefficients

5. real case study, 5.1. presentation of the moroccan preparatory classes.

• Appropriate a work methodology based on organization, investigation, personal initiative, and perseverance.
• Develop autonomy and skills for thinking and reasoning as well as communication.
• Adapt to different problem situations.
• Gradually familiarize themselves with situations requiring sustained effort that may arise during their subsequent training and during execution of their professions.

5.2. Ways of Access to Preparatory Classes

• For holders of a Moroccan baccalaureate, access to preparatory classes is regulated by a ministerial letter. It specifies the procedures and steps to be followed for the application as well as all the selection and registration procedures.
• For students of Moroccan nationality and holding a foreign baccalaureate, application files are assessed at the central service level by a special committee. About twenty places, all courses combined, are reserved each year for this category of candidates.
• For students of foreign nationality with a foreign baccalaureate, the Moroccan Agency for International Cooperation (AMCI) centralizes application files. It also manages the quota reserved for this category of candidates. Around one hundred places are reserved for these candidates across the study streams.

5.3. Statement of the Student Selection Problem at Preparatory Classes

5.4. organizational structure of the preparatory classes.

• The number of repeated years in the baccalaureate phase;
• Age, specialty, and the total mark of the student;
• A mark awarded by the class council;
• A qualifying average of subjects, calculated in terms of the educational streams chosen.

5.5. Data Description

• Streams available in this center;
• Type of Baccalaureate series required to access each stream;
• Quota of seats devoted to holders of each Baccalaureate series;
• Number of seats available in each stream in this center.
• N 1 = 0 , i f   t h e   c o r r e s p o n d i n g   s t u d e n t   h a s   r e p e a t e d t h e   s e c o n d   y e a r   o f   B a c c a l a u r e a t e   c y c l e . 5 , i f   t h e   c o r r e s p o n d i n g   s t u d e n t   h a s   r e p e a t e d t h e   f i r s t   y e a r   o f   B a c c a l a u r e a t e   c y c l e . 10 , o t h e r w i s e .
• N 2 = M 1 + 2 ∗ M 2 3 where –   M 1 : The passing rate achieved in the first year of the Baccalaureate cycle; –   M 2 : The passing rate achieved in the second year of the Baccalaureate cycle.
• N 3 : The qualifying average of subjects for each stream. For example, for the stream MPSI, the parameter N 3 is calculated using the equation N 3 = 4 M + 3 P h y + 0 , 5 L V 2 + 1 F r + 0 , 5 A r 9 where M , P h y , L v 2 , F r , and A r are the marks attained in the final exam of the second year, namely, in the subjects considered for accessing the MPSI stream: –   M : the math mark; –   P h y : the physics mark; –   A r : the Arabic mark; –   F r : the french mark; –   L V 2 : the English mark.
• N 4 : a grade attributable by the class council (rated on 25).
• N 5 = B s − o r d b B s : a grade that takes into account the range of the stream chosen, where B s is the number of possible choices.
• N 6 = t m a x − t s t m a x − t m i n : a grade that takes into account the exact date of students candidature, where –   t m a x : deadline for submission of candidature on the web site; –   t m i n : starting date for submission of candidature on the web site; –   t s : exact submission date of candidature of student s on the web site.

6. Results and Discussion

6.1. computational environment, 6.2. results presentation, 6.3. comparative study, 7. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

• Gupta, S.; Kushwaha, P.S.; Badhera, U.; Chatterjee, P.; Gonzalez, E.D.S. Identification of benefits, challenges, and pathways in E-commerce industries: An integrated two-phase decision-making model. Sustain. Oper. Comput. 2023 , 4 , 200–218. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Soufyane, M.; Chakir, L.; Jaouad, B. New approach to solve Uncapacitated Facility Location Problem using Continuous Hopfield Network and modified K-means clustering. In Proceedings of the 2023 9th International Conference on Optimization and Applications (ICOA), AbuDhabi, United Arab Emirates, 5–6 October 2023; pp. 1–9. [ Google Scholar ]
• Daskalaki, S.; Birbas, T.; Housos, E. An integer programming formulation for a case study in university timetabling. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 2004 , 153 , 117–135. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Michel, R.; Pollard, S. An overview of higher education admissions processes. In Higher Education Admissions Practices: An International Perspective, Educational and Psychological Testing in a Global Context ; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2020; pp. 5–17. [ Google Scholar ]
• Felinto de Farias Aires, R.; Ferreira, L.; Galdino de Araujo, A.; Borenstein, D. Student selection in a Brazilian university: Using a multi-criteria method. J. Oper. Res. Soc. 2018 , 69 , 528–540. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bagi, Y.S.; Suyono, S.; Tomatala, M.F. Decision support system for high achieving students selection using AHP and TOPSIS. In Proceedings of the 2020 2nd International Conference on Cybernetics and Intelligent System (ICORIS), IEEE Xplore, Manado, Indonesia, 27–28 October 2020; pp. 1–5. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mengash, H.A. Using data mining techniques to predict student performance to support decision making in university admission systems. IEEE Access 2020 , 8 , 55462–55470. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ahmed, I.; Yadav, P.K. A systematic analysis of machine learning and deep learning based approaches for identifying and diagnosing plant diseases. Sustain. Oper. Comput. 2023 , 4 , 96–104. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Fernandes, E.; Holanda, M.; Victorino, M.; Borges, V.; Carvalho, R.; Van Erven, G. Educational data mining: Predictive analysis of academic performance of public school students in the capital of Brazil. J. Bus. Res. 2019 , 94 , 335–343. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Huber, S.G.; Hiltmann, M. The Recruitment and Selection of School Leaders—First Findings of an International Comparison. In School Leadership-International Perspectives ; Huber, S., Ed.; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2010; pp. 303–330. [ Google Scholar ]
• Budur, T.; Rashid, C.A.; Poturak, M. Students perceptions on university selection, decision making process: A case study in Kurdistan Region of Iraq. Int. J. Soc. Sci. Educ. Stud. 2018 , 5 , 133–144. [ Google Scholar ]
• Chiarandini, M.; Fagerberg, R.; Gualandi, S. Handling preferences in student-project allocation. Ann. Oper. Res. 2019 , 275 , 39–78. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ulloa-Cazarez, R.L.; López-Martín, C.; Abran, A.; Yáñez-Márquez, C. Prediction of online students performance by means of genetic programming. Appl. Artif. Intell. 2018 , 32 , 858–881. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Majdoub, S.; Loqman, C. A new integer model for the management of booking stays at summer resorts. Comput. Ind. Eng. 2021 , 156 , 107214. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Tanaka, S.; Voß, S. An exact approach to the restricted block relocation problem based on a new integer programming formulation. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 2022 , 296 , 485–503. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Burdett, R.L.; Kozan, E.; Sinnott, M.; Cook, D.; Tian, Y.C. A mixed integer linear programing approach to perform hospital capacity assessments. Expert Syst. Appl. 2017 , 77 , 170–188. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zabihian-Bisheh, A.; Vandchali, H.R.; Kayvanfar, V.; Werner, F. A sustainable multi-objective model for the hazardous waste location-routing problem: A real case study. Sustain. Oper. Comput. 2024 , 5 , 1–14. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ettaouil, M.; Haddouch, K.; Loqman, C. Quadratic programming and genetic algorithms for solving the binary constraint satisfaction problems. J. Comput. 2012 , 4 , 43–52. [ Google Scholar ]
• Singhania, M.; Saini, N. Systems approach to environment, social and governance (ESG): Case of Reliance industries. Sustain. Oper. Comput. 2022 , 3 , 103–117. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Faudzi, S.; Abdul-Rahman, S.; Abd Rahman, R. An assignment problem and its application in education domain: A review and potential path. Adv. Oper. Res. 2018 , 2018 , 8958393. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lee, Z.J.; Su, S.F.; Lee, C.Y. Efficiently solving general weapon-target assignment problem by genetic algorithms with greedy eugenics. IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. Part B 2003 , 33 , 113–121. [ Google Scholar ]
• Xu, Z.; Xie, J.; Liu, X.; Nie, Y.M. Hyperpath-based algorithms for the transit equilibrium assignment problem. Transp. Res. Part E Logist. Transp. Rev. 2020 , 143 , 102102. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Vangerven, B.; Briskorn, D.; Goossens, D.R.; Spieksma, F.C. Parliament seating assignment problems. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 2022 , 296 , 914–926. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Güngör, M. A fractional 0–1 program for task assignment with respect to preferences. Comput. Ind. Eng. 2019 , 131 , 263–268. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Dormer, A.; Vazacopoulos, A.; Verma, N.; Tipi, H. Modeling & solving stochastic programming problems in supply chain management using XPRESS-SP. In Supply Chain Optimization ; Springer: Boston, MA, USA, 2005; pp. 307–354. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lin, Y.; Schrage, L. The global solver in the LINDO API. Optim. Methods Softw. 2009 , 24 , 657–668. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lodi, A.; Tramontani, A. Performance variability in mixed-integer programming. In Theory Driven by Influential Applications ; INFORMS TutORials in Operations Research; INFORMS: Catonsville, MD, USA, 2013; pp. 1–12. [ Google Scholar ]
• Vopěnka, P.; Kašpar, J.; Marušák, R. GIS tool for optimization of forest harvest-scheduling. Comput. Electron. Agric. 2015 , 113 , 254–259. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chen, D.S.; Batson, R.G.; Dang, Y. Applied Integer Programming: Modeling and Solution ; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2011. [ Google Scholar ]
• Antunes, C.H.; Alves, M.J.; Clímaco, J. Multiobjective Linear and Integer Programming ; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2016. [ Google Scholar ]
• Nickel, S.; Steinhardt, C.; Schlenker, H.; Burkart, W. Decision Optimization with IBM ILOG CPLEX Optimization Studio: A Hands-On Introduction to Modeling with the Optimization Programming Language (OPL) ; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2022; pp. 9–21. [ Google Scholar ]

Click here to enlarge figure

Share and Cite

Majdoub, S.; Loqman, C.; Boumhidi, J. A New Integer Model for Selecting Students at Higher Education Institutions: Preparatory Classes of Engineers as Case Study. Information 2024 , 15 , 529. https://doi.org/10.3390/info15090529

Majdoub S, Loqman C, Boumhidi J. A New Integer Model for Selecting Students at Higher Education Institutions: Preparatory Classes of Engineers as Case Study. Information . 2024; 15(9):529. https://doi.org/10.3390/info15090529

Majdoub, Soufyane, Chakir Loqman, and Jaouad Boumhidi. 2024. "A New Integer Model for Selecting Students at Higher Education Institutions: Preparatory Classes of Engineers as Case Study" Information 15, no. 9: 529. https://doi.org/10.3390/info15090529

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals