argumentative essay on abusive relationships

Great Argumentative Essay Topics On Domestic Violence with Prompts

One of the most difficult parts of writing an argumentative essay is coming up with a topic and a thesis statement . Here’s a comprehensive list of Argumentative Essay Topics On Domestic Violence with Prompts.

Argumentative Essay Topics On Domestic Violence with Prompts

• The consequences of domestic violence. Essay Prompt: Some people consider domestic violence a common thing in a household. What can it lead to? Give examples and suggest solutions.
• Should domestic violence be taken seriously? Essay Prompt: Is domestic violence a common thing or a serious problem, which needs an immediate solution? Should women endure it?
• Officer-Involved Domestic Violence, Essay Prompt: The number of officer-related domestic violence has been on the rise, which causes concern about the safety of the family members of police officers. The main reason domestic violence has been on the rise is the stressful work environment that police officers go through.
• Theoretical Explanations for Domestic Violence Social Research Paper Essay Prompt: Domestic violence is one of the major societal problems experienced around the world. According to Guerin and Ortolan (2017), domestic violence encompasses aspects such as bullying, intimidation, and in extreme cases, murder perpetrated by an individual within a domestic setting.

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• How Does Domestic Violence Influence Children’s Education? Essay Prompt: Domestic violence and education: examining the impact of domestic violence on young children, children, and young people and the potential role of schools. Frontiers in psychology. This article explores the adverse effects of domestic violence on children and the role of schools.
• Types of domestic violence. Essay Prompt: Point out the ways women can be violated. What are the most dangerous ones? What are their consequences?
• Domestic violence: a personal matter or an open problem? Essay Prompt: In this essay, discuss whether domestic violence should be kept in secret or brought out to publicity. Give your reasons.
• Domestic violence: who is to blame? Essay Prompt: If a husband beats up his wife, is he a brute or does she really deserve it? Give your reasons.
• Why women bear it. Essay Prompt: Try to find an answer to the question: why do women endure violence? Is it the absence of self-respect or the power of love? Give your reasons.
• Domestic violence as the echo of the past. Essay Prompt: In the past, violence against women was acceptable and nowadays some men keep to such a stereotype. Is it reasonable to keep this “noble” tradition or should it become a thing of the past?

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Domestic violence argument topics

• How to protect yourself from domestic violence? Essay Prompt: In this essay, you should make a research and point out ways to protect yourself from domestic tyranny. You may consult legislative documents.
• I’m a victim: what to do? Essay Prompt: If one becomes a victim of domestic tyranny, what measures should be taken? How to punish the offender? Give examples.
• Social services protecting victims of domestic violence. Essay Prompt: What are the social services protecting victims of violence? What are their functions? Do they really help?
• How to recognize a despot. Essay Prompt: If husband has lifted his hand against wife once, he is sure to do it again and again. How can a tyrant be recognized and avoided? Offer your variants.
• Punishment for offender. Essay Prompt: Consult special literature and comment how justice can punish a person blamed in domestic violence.
• To forgive or not to forgive? Essay Prompt: Analyze the cases of domestic violence and decide whether tyranny can be forgiven. Decide whether it is reasonable, to give the offender one more chance. Explain why.
• Domestic Violence, Child Abuse and Rape Violence Effects on Individual or Community Essay Prompt: Discuss your knowledge of the effects these three crimes have on individuals and society as a whole.
• Negative Effects of Domestic Violence on Children Essay Prompt: This essay affirms that domestic violence poses a number of negative effects on children, including social development, brain development, and social behavior. (Domestic violence argument topics)
• Why Domestic Violence Victims Don’t Leave Essay Prompt: There were surprising things in the video; for instance, the domestic violence follows predefined steps when the victim is new in the relationship.
• Domestic Violence And Sociological Perspective Or Sociological Imagination Essay Prompt: Schools as Training Grounds for Domestic Violence and Sexual Harassment (Domestic violence argument topics)
• Find out more on  Argumentative Essay Topics About Social Media [Updated]

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Domestic Violence Argumentative Essays Samples For Students

13 samples of this type

Do you feel the need to check out some previously written Argumentative Essays on Domestic Violence before you get down to writing an own piece? In this open-access catalog of Domestic Violence Argumentative Essay examples, you are provided with a thrilling opportunity to discover meaningful topics, content structuring techniques, text flow, formatting styles, and other academically acclaimed writing practices. Using them while composing your own Domestic Violence Argumentative Essay will surely allow you to complete the piece faster.

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Sample Argumentative Essay On Domestic Violence

Introduction, negative effects of domestic violence argumentative essay examples, example of domestic abuse argumentative essay.

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Argumentative Essay On Why Domestic Violence Towards Children Is A Problem In California

Argumentative essay on perceived legitimacy of the sentence.

One of the most frequent forms of violence in the present day society is domestic violence. Analyze and assess reasons why it ought to be tougher?

Argumentative Essay On Theories of People Becoming Criminals

Argumentative essay on solutions towards the issue of domestic violence towards children, arguments for aboriginal child protection argumentative essay, arguments for aboriginal child protection, sample argumentative essay on women in prison, example of the cruelty of crime in our society argumentative essay.

I believe that this question is important for understanding the essence of crimes. Their background and main driving forces allow us to find a proper way to prevent them, as well as decrease the number of recidivism incidences. I believe that the majority of crime is violent in nature, but I interpret violence in this case in somewhat other manner, than it is commonly understood. To explain this statement, I will describe what violence is in my point of view, why it can become the source of crimes and how this knowledge can be used to change the current situation.

Argumentative Essay On Underage Marriage

Thesis statement: Whichever way we look at it, underage marriages are not right, and they should be abolished in every country once and for all. - Body Paragraph

Underage marriage is a violation of the rights of the young girl who gets married.

- The minor does not get involved in the marriage negotiations which contravenes the spirit of marriage. - Apart from being denied education, the girl suffers domestic violence. - Body Paragraph

Underage marriage means early motherhood and a large family as a consequence.

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Domestic Violence - Essay Examples And Topic Ideas For Free

Domestic violence refers to abusive behaviors in a domestic setting, such as in marriage or cohabitation. Essays on domestic violence could discuss its prevalence, the psychological and societal factors contributing to it, the impact on victims and communities, and the legal and social services aimed at preventing and addressing domestic violence. We’ve gathered an extensive assortment of free essay samples on the topic of Domestic Violence you can find in Papersowl database. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Domestic Violence: the Effect it has on Children

Growing up, children need a safe environment. A home where they can feel secure, and have a sense of stability. Where parents love and protect their children. A home free of violence, and when things go wrong in the outside world, home is a place of comfort and support. But for over 1.5 million children in the United States, this is not the case. Every year, hundreds of millions of children in the United States experience one parent violently assaulting […]

Domestic Violence and the Physicological Affects

Domestic violence is presented throughout all the United States, whether the people of society recognize it, or it is under the radar and not seen. Domestic violence can be distinct in many ways because there are several diverse types of domestic abuse. Domestic violence are behaviors used by one person in a relationship to control the other. Partners may be married or not married, heterosexual, gay or lesbian, living together, separated or dating (Siemieniuk, 2010). Abuse is physical, sexual, emotional, […]

Gender Equality and Crime

The court and the Judiciary, in general, are guided by the basic principles of justice to all. Judges usually give rulings based on the rule of law with the intention of protecting the public, deterring crime, rehabilitating law offenders, punishing offenders and offering reparation to the victim. The principles of justice mean fairness, protecting the rights of all regardless of gender, race or religion. However, gender equality has been a significant issue for many years, and there has been a […]

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Domestic Violence Family Therapy Interventions

The traditional therapeutic approach to working with those who commit domestic violence has been the Duluth educational model. However, this model faces a significant amount of criticism in its gender-divided model that does not allow for relevant psychological factors to be considered. In this paper, I will review the points of the Duluth model that have been criticized and provide two alternative approaches that have shown to consider important therapeutic factors and benefits to both families and couples seeking treatment […]

What are the Possible Causes and Signs of Domestic Violence

Domestic violence is a destructive issue that is very common and affects many Americans today. Abuse can occur in heterosexual couples and in same-sex partnerships, and occurs within all age ranges, ethnic backgrounds, and economic levels. It is disastrous for the batterer and the battered, and can be fatal. One in four women are abused by their partners, and nearly more than 10 million people are abused every year. Domestic violence is consistent violent or aggressive behavior towards another person […]

The Effects of Childhood Sexual Abuse

Abstract This paper discusses the effects that childhood sexual abuse has on children. It states the basics and statistics of sexual abuse in children in our society. The immediate symptoms and signs of childhood sexual abuse are discussed as well as long term emotional effects, long lasting physical effects and psychological disorders due to sexual abuse. The treatment of childhood sexual abuse is also discussed to show how positive resources can help victims of sexual abuse. Introduction In the United […]

Domestic Violence and Women’s Mental Health

Domestic violence occurs worldwide irrespective of culture, geographical and historical period. There are many factors that cause or lead to domestic violence and they are: Unmet role expectations. Unmet role expectations on the part of the wife or husband could lead to domestic violence in the family. If women fail to fulfil basic domestic responsibilities such as cooking, cleaning, managing household budgets and taking care of child, it often leads to domestic violence. Child care was a source of argument […]

Children and Domestic Violence

Domestic Violence has effected and still continues to effect the lives of many individuals. Statics on domestic violence states Every 9 seconds in the US a woman is assaulted or beaten Domestic violence is not only found amongst adults but even children and teenagers are victims of domestic violence or are the abuser in an abusive violent relationship .To briefly define and understand Domestic violence, it is an abusive relationship between individuals who abuse one another, aggressively, physically and even […]

Child Abuse and Neglect

English Composition Final Proposal Essay: Child Abuse and Neglect There have been countless studies focused around how the mind of a child is warped when transitioning into their adulthood after experiencing neglect and abuse. It's evidently very difficult for a victim of this certain issue to forget their traumatic experiences, ultimately impacting their physiological and physical health. Child abuse and neglect refer to any harmful behavior by caregivers, parents, legal guardians, and other adults that is outside the norms of […]

Domestic Violence in the United States

Abstract Domestic violence, a combination of crimes that have been perpetrated for centuries is a big concern today to the American society. The government acknowledges that the scope of domestic violence is wide as there are different forms of crimes that are termed as domestic. Example of these home abuse includes sexual, verbal, physical, and emotional abuses. According to National statistics on Domestic violence women and children form the majority of the domestic violence. Domestic violence has an adverse impact […]

The Rise of Domestic Violence in our Society and Culture

The definition of the term domestic violence is, violence or abuse of one person against another taking place in a domestic setting, for example: marriage, cohabitation, etc. Therefore the topic of domestic violence is a serious one, because it takes place in homes, in some of the most personal and intimate of settings. The truth is that violence comes closer to many families than we would like to admit. Domestic violence is America's dark little secret - Former Senator Bill […]

National Center on Child Abuse

According to the Staus, over 14 out of every 100 American children, ranging from 3 to 17, are subjected to abusive violence each year. This means that approximately six and a half million are abused each year in the United States out of the 46 million children that are categorized into the age group 3 to 17. These statistics are different from the statistic represented by the U.S. National Center on Child Abuse. According to the U.S. National Center on […]

Domestic Violence in Ethiopia

Many men claim that men and women are equal or they will say I don't abuse women and its common to hear them saying we are treated equally but the truth is very different. Many women around the world are victims of domestic violence. Domestic violence is an abusive behavior usually at home that is mostly involving a spouse and a partner. Domestic violence is a serious issue all over the world especially in a country where gender inequality still […]

Various Type of Domestic Violence

This review will be divided into four-subsection to focus in explain the general factors in Domestic violence against in various type of gender and include animals. Many researchers have different opinion and summarize different factors that causes to abusive violence. Each gender have own different ability and perspectives. I analyses theses literatures in order to fulfill my understanding about Domestic Violence in various gender type and how it relate to the other living things such as animals. Mostly the article […]

The Affect Domestic Violence has on Children

Introduction The proposed research will define domestic violence focusing on children. It will outline affects domestic violence has on children and examine whether or not their physical, mental, and/or social development is delayed with prolonged domestic violence. It will also study whether or not a child's health and education is affected. The research will aim to identify different trends associated with helping those children in the midst of domestic violence within find safe alternatives to cope with the violence. Articles […]

Domestic Violence with Children

Even though domestic violence for adults is harmful enough to lead to suicide children play a tremendou role in this by affecting their development growth and high risk of depression, Exposure to domestic violence impact children in different types of ways because children exposed to domestic violence usually never recover from it and can follow up to affect their future family and this affects children's education, social, emotional, and behavioral growth though it's different with every kid. According to the […]

Family Violence and Child Abuse

Family Violence and Child Abuse Seldomly do people realize how often child are abused by parents, not always through violence, but in other various factors that can traumatize a child. The textbook Heavy Hands written by Denise Kindschi Gosselin has an entire chapter on child abuse and the different types of abuse that are involved against these children. Historical accounts tell us that children have always been abused and neglected by one or both parents; it is not uncommon or […]

The Effects of Domestic Violence: Family & Society

Unspoken, destructive, and hidden from the outside world. Domestic violence. In grade school it is rarely talked about. October is Domestic Violence awareness month, yet no one said a word. In order to prevent this, we must first understand it. What is domestic violence? It is a pattern of controlling and manipulating behavior that is meant to subdue and take all the power in a relationship. Intimate partner violence is a more specific type of domestic violence, it is any […]

How does Domestic Violence Affect Children’s Development in School

Introduction My fieldwork was done at Bolton Refuge House where women can go to seek refuge from an abuser and escape a situation of domestic violence. The mission of Bolton Refuge House is to offer tools that will empower victims and create a safe environment for survivors of domestic violence and sexual assault. Bolton Refuge House has an emergency shelter that is available for victims of domestic violence or sexual assault who do not feel safe in their own homes. […]

Types of Domestic Violence

Why Research Domestic Violence? To raise awareness about this silent killer To gather statistics that show that this can happen to anyone To Put a story and name to the numbers What is Domestic violence? Domestic violence (also called intimate partner violence (IPV), domestic abuse or relationship abuse) is a pattern of behaviors used by one partner to maintain power and control over another partner in an intimate relationship. Forms of Domestic violence: Physical abuse Sexual Abuse Emotional Abuse Financial […]

Spousal Abuse and Domestic Violence

Domestic violence or violence between intimate partners, results in the deaths of approximately four women every day and accounts for thirty-one percent of female homicides in the United States. (Mills). For a long time, domestic violence was looked at as a private and personal matter that didn't necessarily call for police and prosecution concern. In some cases, the victim would have to pay the prosecutors a fee in order to have their abuser prosecuted (Mills). Now, when it comes to […]

Exploitation and Spiteful Crimes against Women in the United States

For many years the exploitation and spiteful crimes against women in the United States was not seen as a major concern in the nation. Women were and are still being abused by their intimate partner, sexually assaulted, and stalked. Generally, domestic violence is just seen as physical abuse. However, domestic violence is a legal concept that refers to physical, sexual, emotional, or financial abuse. It is rare but domestic violence is not just men being abusive to women but women […]

Witness to Domestic Violence

Domestic violence is commonly known as an unspoken situation among individuals around the world. The behaviors are physically, emotionally, and mentally unstable for many individuals. It can sometimes be linked to many theories; one theory being "The Social Learning Theory. If done coercively, the behavior can be viewed as one partner dominant of the other. This Literature Review is a reflection on views around the world as they pertain domestic violence related to women. Trends From 1993-2000 The article by […]

Mass Shootings and Domestic Violence

I. INTRODUCTION For my research paper, I decided to study the link between domestic violence and the five deadliest mass shootings that have occurred in the United States. Mass shootings seem to be at an all-time high over the past few years, and people are starting to see a pattern develop among the perpetrators: most have a history of domestic violence or violence toward women in general. The cases I studied, in descending order are: the Texas Church shooting on […]

Domestic Violence and Traditional Feminist Philosophy and Beliefs

Throughout the country a majority of domestic violence programs are based off the traditional feminist philosophy and beliefs. The feminist approach is defined as an approach that aims to understand gender inequality(source). The approach examines women’s and men’s social roles, experiences, interests, chores, and politics with a goal to empower the oppressed (source). Although this belief is meant to be a positive movement for all women and fight against domestic violence it is not completely ethical to just use that […]

Relationship between Police and Involvement and Domestic Violence

Literature Review Literature has suggested that domestic violence reporting and victims of domestic violence, are issues that have very little research. On top of this, the research that has been conducted is not as accurate because the definition of domestic violence has been generalized. This means that research of domestic violence could include anything from fighting with friends, to abuse within intimate partner relationships, abuse against women, and family violence. Within the relationships alone, definitions can also differ. For example, […]

The Tough Guy Image in Black Families

Poverty can lead to the black male adherence to the tough guy image in black families. The tough guy image is the leading cause of death amongst black families. The fear of black on blacks is another cause by the tough guy image. According to the book the overwhelming number of offenses committed by African American are directed towards other African Americans. Interpersonal amongst blacks is the leading cause of death for blacks. Black males are known to make up […]

A Proposal for Companion Animal Supports in a Domestic Violence Shelter in Massachusetts

Veterinary social work is an emerging field which incorporates social work practices, values, and ideals into animal care settings. Currently, most veterinary social work is concerned with animal bereavement services, including end of life counseling, pet loss support groups, and one-on-one counseling after the death of a pet. There are, however, more uses of social work in animal care settings, as well as animal care in social work settings. One such example of animal care in a social work setting […]

Faith Harper Domestic Violence Case Study

Violence Question 3~The Return/Supervised Visits1. Investigate the child protection process in your local state and county. The Texas county law demands that anyone who believes that a child is neglected or abused should report to the law enforcement organization, Child Protective Services organization of the Texas Section of Family and Protecting Services. The law gives mandate and power to CPS to investigate any report given to protect all children (Puplampu & Codjoe 2001). According to the Texas law, it defines […]

Domestic Violence in Zora Neale Hurston’s their Eyes were Watching God

In Zora Neale Hurston’s Their Eyes Were Watching God, Janie faces obstacles throughout her life and ultimately learns to grow from them. Hurston portrays love, dominance, independence, discrimination, and abuse in her novel. Hurston uses domestic abuse story. During the 20’s women were not treated fairly nor with respect. Janie’s first marriage to Logan Killicks was arranged by Janie’s grandmother who valued financial security and respectability. In Janies marriage, Logan treated her with love and respect for about a year […]

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How To Write an Essay About Domestic Violence

Understanding domestic violence.

Before starting an essay about domestic violence, it's important to understand what constitutes domestic violence and its impact on individuals and society. Domestic violence refers to a pattern of behavior in any relationship that is used to gain or maintain power and control over an intimate partner. It can include physical, sexual, emotional, economic, or psychological actions or threats of actions that influence another person. Begin your essay by defining domestic violence, discussing its various forms, and addressing common misconceptions. It's also crucial to explore the psychological and social factors that contribute to domestic violence, as well as its short and long-term effects on victims, families, and communities.

Developing a Thesis Statement

A strong essay on domestic violence should be anchored by a clear, focused thesis statement. This statement should present a specific viewpoint or argument about domestic violence. For example, you might discuss the societal factors that contribute to domestic violence, the challenges in seeking justice for victims, or the effectiveness of intervention and support programs. Your thesis will guide the direction of your essay and provide a structured approach to your analysis.

Gathering Supporting Evidence

Support your thesis with relevant data, research, and examples. This might include statistics on the prevalence of domestic violence, case studies, or research findings on the effects of domestic violence on individuals and society. Use this evidence to support your thesis and build a persuasive argument. Remember to consider different perspectives and include voices of survivors in your discussion.

Analyzing the Impact of Domestic Violence

Dedicate a section of your essay to analyzing the impact of domestic violence. Discuss various aspects, such as the physical and mental health consequences for victims, the social and economic costs, and the effect on children and families. Explore both the immediate and long-term effects, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the issue.

Concluding the Essay

Conclude your essay by summarizing the main points of your discussion and restating your thesis in light of the evidence provided. Your conclusion should tie together your analysis and emphasize the significance of addressing domestic violence in society. You might also want to highlight areas where further research or policy development is needed, or suggest ways individuals and communities can help combat domestic violence.

Reviewing and Refining Your Essay

After completing your essay, review and edit it for clarity and coherence. Ensure that your arguments are well-structured and supported by evidence. Check for grammatical accuracy and ensure that your essay flows logically from one point to the next. Consider seeking feedback from peers or experts in the field to refine your essay further. A well-written essay on domestic violence will not only demonstrate your understanding of the topic but also your ability to engage with complex social issues.

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Violence Against Women Essay

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Introduction

Efforts in addressing violence against women at the global level, challenges in addressing violence against women at global level, conclusion and recommendations.

Violence against women is undoubtedly an international concern. Despite the numerous global legislations and policies on violence against women, different states have their own versions of laws that assist them in dealing with violation against women. These versions are in adherence to the international policies and laws that attempt to eradicate this evil. Several policies are in place to augment the global standardized laws.

To some extent, the individual states run advertisements that promote equality and campaign against unhealthy practices that undermine women’s rights at their local and international platforms. The inequality aspect cuts across the economic, social, and economic dynamics. The paper addresses how the violence targeting women in the parameters of ethnicity, nationality, race, and religion among others is quite traversed.

Violence against women is any action of aggression based on gender discrimination that by any account contravenes the rights of women. Such acts may entail threats and intimidations aimed at denying women autonomy in either private or public life.

Often, these actions likely result in physical, psychological, sexual harm, or distress to women. Internationally, people of all ages unanimously acknowledge that it is every person’s right to live free from violence. Yet, women of all ages, ranging from toddlers to old age, suffer excessively from violence both in peaceful regions as well as in war torn areas ( Violence against women , 2014). Notably, these violations could be witnessed at their homes, communities, or at the hands of officers envisioned to protect them.

Empirical research indicates that violence against women is not confined to a particular culture, country, community, region, or even to a specific group within a defined society, but rather is a global phenomenal (Fedorova & Wolf, 2005). Even though the act is prevalent to date, violence against women is a grave violation of human rights that requires an immediate solution.

Despite decades of marshal by women movements, civil societies, state agencies, and other stakeholders to end this nuisance, there are still numerous instances of violence targeting the womenfolk. Some of these cases go unreported to the relevant bodies. For these reasons, there is an effort to address this problem at a global level. According to Rao (2000), women of all ages, races, social status, as well as those women at the forefront in the fight against women violation too are abused.

Both scholars and gender experts alike share a similar estimation that violence against women has copious negative outcomes that vary from instantaneous, gradual, as well as long-term consequences to their lives. They may be of different forms such as sexual, psychological, physical, emotional, or economic, but are all interrelated in one way or another.

Subsequently, the situation impoverishes women and their families, thus affecting the fight against equality among communities, nations, and the world in general. Nevertheless, the challenges faced in addressing this issue globally are numerous, thus it cannot be solved from a sole intervention. Some of the most observed issues in addressing this problem are discussed below.

Creating awareness about violence against women

Even though violence against women has always existed, Newman and White (2006) note that it was until the last decade that the international community started to define systematically and, at the same time, began to draw the public’s attention to this act and its dangers. In this, the international communities designate violence against women as a gender-based violence, as well as an abuse to human rights.

This further helps the international community to demarcate acts that are vile and, therefore, can be used in creation of public awareness. This could be achieved by exposing incidences or individual perpetrators of violation of women’s rights to public shame. Alternatively, in creating awareness, the international communities use instances of negative effects of violence on women’s rights to sway the public to shun violation against women (Fedorova & Wolf, 2005).

In addition, in an effort to expose violence against women globally, some women movement groups have created websites that collect, store, and share information about violence against women. The women movements have received support from international organizations that fight for the rights of women in the society.

This information can help the supposed victims acquire abundant knowledge on avoiding situations or dealing with situations that violate their rights (Fedorova & Wolf, 2005). Consequently, this step of conception of awareness has resulted in creation of several women movements that support gender equality in order to address violations against women.

Legal and policy creations

Until recently, several acts of violence against women were not regarded as crime, especially the acts that were committed within families or close relationship settings. Newman and White (2006) affirm that in most of the states, once a woman had accepted to get married to a man, the husband had the responsibility to modify her behaviors by whichever means available. This was not limited to battering in order to restrain the wife from mischievous behaviors.

Because the husbands had the authority over their families, the law thought it was reasonable for men to give their wives any kind of punishment that would restrain them from impish behaviors. In this dimension, the police and other government law enforcing agencies, including the courts were unwilling to punish such acts ( Violence against women , 2014). However, with the initiation and development of international legal frameworks that handle crimes against women, the situation has drastically changed.

Rao (2000) points out that since the 1993 UN declaration on elimination of violence against women and the subsequent international agreements, such as Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), violence against women has reduced tremendously, except that it has not been eradicated fully.

Additionally, in the fight against global violation of women, the international policymakers have integrated numerous policies with international legislations that tackle this vice. As a result, there are international legal resolutions as well as instruments that handle violation of rights of women at the global level.

Whereas it is obvious that the issue of violence against women is an international threat and should involve international communities to be resolved, the differences in forms, causes, as well as the environments that this menace prevail differ, thus commanding distinct challenges in their resolutions. Some of the unique situations that hinder international resolution of violence against women are discussed bellow.

Long-held assumptions

One of the greatest obstacles in addressing violence against women is long-held cultural assumptions. For instance, in some communities men are naturally respected, and are viewed as the dominant ones in the society. Undoubtedly, men in this situation are at the top of the social ladder while women are at the bottom, hence are seen as properties.

Under this circumstance, such women are not in a position to recognize the actions that are internationally considered violations as crimes, but rather as normal day-to-day practices (Dua & Robertson, 1999).

Alternatively, the women may lack the forums to express their disappointments. Nevertheless, international campaigns and awareness might create realization of such vise, which may eventually help the individuals at risk of violations to recognize their rights. On the other hand, the global legislations and laws that prohibit women violation might not be effective, as the women might not report such cases for fear of the consequences.

Differences in perceptions, culture and beliefs regarding gender equality

This situation is also witnessed in the feminism debate about combating family violence. Newman and White (2006) note that in the past decades, policymakers, law enforcement agencies, and the society viewed homes as sacred. As a result, whatever was done behind closed doors internally was not the business of the outside world. Even though this perception is losing ground, feminism scholars and experts alike admit that it is present to date in some communities.

Therefore, addressing such a community on the issue of violence against women at the international level is likely to bear no fruit. Instead, to eradicate women violations efficiently in this circumstance, there should be local laws and groups that address the specific beliefs and taboos that violate the women’s rights. At the same time, the groups should educate both women and men on the benefits of abandoning such beliefs.

Race is another outstanding obstacle in addressing violence against. Dua and Robertson (1999) note that the situation for non-white immigrants in the white dominated countries is totally different to those who speak the native language. Racism and related intolerances do not affect all members of victim groups with the same intensity or in the same way. Even in racism aspects, women are amongst the vulnerable group in this scenario, thus suffering intersection of discrimination based on both gender and race.

Besides, racism presents a situation of double standards that merge communalization from high-level management and the infringed individuals. This double standard in treatment of individuals in relation to skin color creates a situation of informal apartheid. In essence, the double standards in treatment of individuals based on the color of their skin propel the cultural identities that already exist (Evans & Wekerle, 1997).

At the same time, the culture of apartheid flourishes, rendering greater risks to the endangered community. These complexities of the societal structure offer the problematic nature of dealing with unique situations of violence against women. Subsequently, this group demands a unique solution to violence against women as opposed to the global laws and policies that tend to eliminate the vice.

Social Class

In discussing the issue of violence against women, the social class is an issue that should be given a discrete consideration other than the general address at the global level. Primarily, Rao (2000) asserts that literacy level, exposure, and awareness are issues of concern in addressing violence against women. In relation to the social class, the privileged community has access to revenue; therefore, they are well-informed on all aspects including their rights.

On the other hand, the low class individuals are deprived of the basic amenities including education and access to justice. Therefore, this group is vulnerable to exploitation both with and without intent. In addition, the social class demarcates the boundaries within which the poor and the rich interact. Therefore, the higher social class is characterized by abundant wealth, as opposed to the lower social class that flounders in poverty.

According to Class notes (2014), in cases of violence against women, the lower class exposes women to vulnerable situations. For instance, women seeking for employment may be victims of violence such as trafficking as well as rape. The Global Report on Trafficking in Persons of 2009 noted that women are the highly affected in human trafficking globally; they represent close to 70% of the trafficked population.

Handling state involved perpetrations

A vast literature that analyze violence against individuals by the states indicate that dealing with violation of women rights that involve state agencies is an obstacle in eliminating violence against women. The case of violation against women by government agencies is mostly reported in warring regions where the soldiers perceived liable to protect the vulnerable citizens in turn violate them, and, eventually, go scot-free. In rare situations, the governments are reluctant in addressing issues that violate women’s rights.

Such is witnessed in nations like Canada where the federal government is reluctant in tackling the issue of killings of the aboriginals ( Class notes , 2014). Likewise, in most states the governments are reported to reluctantly address issues of devaluation of women. Subsequently, the prevailing violence against women in such regions is reluctantly resolved. In sum, these situations highlight the need to address the violation against women at the local level other than at the global level.

Clearly, progress has undeniably been made in the global based fight against violation of women’s rights; this may be evident in terms of improving public awareness, as well as giving women who suffer from violence supplementary places for rehabilitation. This is not an exclusive solution to women’s problems across the globe as many women continue to suffer violence at the hands of abusive partners in silence or fear of the consequence.

Probably to address the issue effectively, the international organization should involve the public in challenging the traditional attitudes toward gender perceptions. In order to address this, the campaigns against this vice should possibly be devolved into the grass-root level. Recently, several cases that would have gone undisclosed have been reported and handled legally, thereby reducing the instances of such violations.

However, feminism scholars ascertain that most of the cases that go unreported to date occur when perpetrators of violence use the state and its agents to intimidate the offended. However, there are unique cases in specific regions that require special attention to eradicate violence. This is witnessed in the reluctance by the law enforcing agencies to take firm actions against the perpetrators. Notably, addressing such situations on a global level could possibly bear no fruit.

Therefore, there is a need to initiate local-based actions that are specific and tailored to every unique situation in order to get rid of this menace. Arguably, the introduction of legislation at different levels within regions and states is a clear indication that the issue of violation against women cannot be handled at global level alone, but must rather be supplemented by the local legal frameworks.

Class notes (2014).

Dua, E., & Robertson, A. (1999). Scratching the surface: Canadian, anti-racist, feminist thought . Toronto: Women’s Press.

Evans, P. M., & Wekerle, G. R. (1997). Women and the Canadian welfare state: Challenges and change . Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Fedorova, M., & Wolf, W. J. (2005). The United Nations and the protection of the rights of women . Nijmegen, The Netherlands: Wolf Legal Publishers.

Newman, J. A., & White, L. A. (2006). Women, politics, and public policy: The political struggles of Canadian women . Toronto: Oxford University Press.

Rao, D. (2000). Status and Advancement of Women. New Delhi: APH Publishing.

Violence against women . (2014). Web.

• Feminist Political Change
• Feminism and Respect for Culture
• Sexual Trafficking Fight in Legislation and Media
• The Problem of Gender-Based Violence
• What Causes Women’s Rights Violation?
• Feminism in the 20th Century: a Literature Perspective. Research Summaries
• Feminism is for Everybody: Passionate Politics
• Why There Are Few Women in Telecommunications Industry in Europe and Middle East
• Challenges to Build Feminist Movement Against Problems of Globalization and Neoliberalism
• Feministic Movement in Iron Jawed Angels
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Violence in relationships: Love shouldn't hurt 

If you feel that someone is abusing you, trust those feelings. Take it seriously.

• Marriage and Relationships
• Physical Abuse and Violence

Sound familiar?

Kevin is walking in the school hallway with his friends and sees his girlfriend at her locker with her friends. When he goes up to her, she gives him a cold look and says loudly, "I don't know why I even bother with you, loser! I guess I just keep you around because I feel sorry for you." Kevin feels frustrated because he doesn't know what he did and embarrassed because his friends saw his girlfriend putting him down.

That kind of humiliation hurts, and it is a big deal.

Jennie and Tyrone lunch in the cafeteria with her friends. They start teasing each other, but then the playing turns to insults. Tyrone sees that Jennie is upset but doesn’t stop. When Jennie gets up and says, “Get away from me, I hate you,” Tyrone says, “Shut up” and slaps her across the face.

That slap is violence, and it is a big deal.

Tony and Emily have been going out for a few weeks, and he is beginning to act like he owns her. He complains when she spends time with her best friend — or anyone except him. He expects her to meet him in the halls between classes, eat lunch with him, let him go home with her after school, and be with him every weekend. Afraid she’ll lose him, Emily begins to cut herself off from her friends.

That kind of possessiveness isn’t love — it is abuse, and it is a big deal.

Christine and Allison are in an intense argument. Christine gets madder and madder, until she finally grabs Allison, shakes her and shoves her against the wall. Later, Christine apologizes, saying, “I’m not proud I lost my temper, but you really pushed my buttons. You should know better than to get up in my face like that, because you know I get too angry to control myself.”

That kind of behavior — the shoving and then blaming someone else for the behavior — is violence, and it is a big deal.

Alfredo and Maria, who have been going out for a few weeks, are making out. Maria has been clear that she doesn’t want to go any further than kissing, but Alfredo becomes aggressive, disregarding her request to slow down and back off. He forces her to have intercourse, later telling her she was a tease and asking for it.

That kind of sex is rape, and it is a big deal.

Love shouldn’t hurt like this

It’s wonderful to be in love. It’s exciting, romantic and fun, and you feel like nothing can go wrong. Sure, like the love songs say, love hurts sometimes. You worry, you wonder if the person you love really loves you, or if he or she is cheating on you. But knowing that love hurts doesn’t mean you should expect to get hurt — to be put down, slapped, embarrassed in front of your friends, pushed, yelled at, forced to have sex if you don’t want it, controlled by, or afraid of the person you’re going out with.

Getting hurt like that isn’t love. It’s dangerous. It’s violence. It can happen to anybody, even if you’re smart or popular or strong or sophisticated. And it doesn’t matter who you’re seeing. It happens to girls and to boys. It happens in same-sex relationships.

At first, if it happens to you or to a friend, you might not get what’s going on. You’re thinking, “I can handle this. I can make it stop”; of “There’s no black eye. I’m not getting pushed down a stairway.” “I shouldn’t take put-downs so seriously.” Maybe you’re thinking, “He only gets jealous because he loves me.” “She only slapped me to show attitude.” “She won’t love me if I don’t do everything she wants, when she wants it.” “To show my love, I should want to spend every spare moment with him.”

Or maybe you do get it. You know things aren’t right, but you feel alone. You’re ashamed to tell your friends. You’re afraid the explosions and jealousy will get worse if you tell anyone. You’re afraid to tell your parents because they might make you break up. Maybe you also are afraid of losing your boyfriend or girlfriend. Maybe you think it’s worth it to put up with anything just to have someone special in your life.

Every relationship has problems and upsets.

That’s just part of life. But if you see patterns of uncontrolled anger, jealousy or possessiveness, or if there is shoving, slapping, forced sex or other physical violence — even once — it’s time to find help.

Think about this. Imagine that your best friend is going with someone who thinks and acts that way. Would it seem okay? Would you want them to stop hurting each other? Would you treat your best friend this way?

You have the right to be treated with respect and to not be harmed physically or emotionally by another person. Violence and abuse are not acceptable in any relationship.

Love shouldn’t hurt like this.

What’s the first step in turning the situation around?

Take it seriously. Listen to yourself. If you feel that someone is abusing you, trust those feelings. Take it seriously.

What’s the second step?

Take care of yourself. You’re too valuable to settle for love that hurts. Don’t stay silent — find support and help.

Believe it — it’s happening

Nearly one in 10 high school students will experience physical violence from someone they’re going out with. Even more teens will experience verbal or emotional abuse during the relationship.

Between 10 and 25 percent of girls between the ages of 15 and 24 will be the victims of rape or attempted rape. In more than half of those cases, the attacker is someone the girl goes out with.

Girls are not the only ones who are abused physically or emotionally in relationships. Boys also experience abuse, especially psychological abuse. Boys rarely are hurt physically in relationships, but when it happens, it’s often severe. Boys also can be pressured or forced into unwanted sex, by girls or by other boys.

Violence happens in same-sex relationships, too. When it does, gay and lesbian teenagers often don’t know where to turn for help. If they are not comfortable telling people that they’re gay, that makes their situation even harder.

Often a relationship doesn’t start out violent, but the violence starts after the two people have known each other for a while. The one big exception is forced sex (sometimes called “date rape” or “acquaintance rape”). Forced sex can sometimes happen the first or second time two people go out, especially when one person has very little dating experience and is afraid to say “no.”

If you think something is wrong, it probably is. You may feel anxious, have trouble sleeping or experience a change in appetite or weight. Your body may be telling you that something is not right—pay attention to these signs.

Why does it happen?

Violence is so common that sometimes it seems like the normal thing. But it’s not. It’s something we learn — and something we can change.

To understand why relationship violence happens, start by thinking about some of the situations you deal with every day.

Learning the rules of love

When you first begin to go out with someone seriously, you have new and unfamiliar experiences. You start to discover society’s rules for dating and relationship behavior. In addition, you are trying to figure out how to impress someone who is really special to you and how to be yourself in a relationship. You see all kinds of images of what relationships are supposed to be like — but how do you know which ones are the right ones to follow? It’s hard to ignore other people’s examples of relationships — for example, if your mother and father don’t show respect for each other. But you can decide for yourself what sort of relationships you want to have with your friends and your boyfriends or girlfriends. You can learn to have a healthy relationship and be loved and treated well by someone you care about. Violence is not the way to do it. Respect is.

Stereotypes that hurt

In every culture, people have certain ideas about what it means to be a man or a woman. These ideas are called stereotypes. When you first start going out seriously, stereotypes can get you really confused about how you or the person you’re going with ought to behave.

Boys often have the idea that it’s a “guy thing” to act tough and to treat girls like property, like they own them. Guys often try to get their friends’ approval by acting like they don’t care about anything or anyone. Even a guy who likes a particular girl might show off for his friends by treating her badly or acting like she’s been put on earth just to have sex with him.

Girls often accept the idea that it’s a “guy thing” to push girls around, and so they should learn to go along with it. Girls also may believe it’s a “girl thing” to try to figure out and do whatever will keep their boyfriends happy. So, they may feel that they have to do only what the guy wants, or they may put up with the guy ignoring them, treating them badly around other guys, being really possessive, or being violent or abusive.

Both girls and boys often have the idea that boys can’t control themselves when it comes to sex. They may believe that if a man forces a woman to have sex against her will, she was probably leading him on in some way.

The violence around us

Violence is all around us — on television, in movies, in music videos, in computer games and even in our schools, neighborhoods and homes. People get into fights on the street, on buses, and in malls and use every kind of threat just to get their way. Drivers shout at and even shoot at each other. Television and movies show buildings and people being blown to bits. Bench-emptying brawls break out regularly on hockey, baseball and football fields. Schools around the country use metal detectors and security guards to protect students from outsiders and from each other. And even at home, parents resort to violence to express their feelings to each other — and sometimes to their children.

Personal pressures

Some social and personal situations are hard for anyone to handle, but they are especially hard when they affect teenagers. These personal pressures can contribute to abusive or violent behavior in relationships and to accepting that kind of behavior from a boyfriend or girlfriend.

Violence at home. When children see a parent being abused, they often grow up thinking that name-calling, screaming or hitting is normal between people in love. Children in violent homes often get the idea that it is acceptable to threaten, intimidate, bully or hit another person to get their own way.

Cultural beliefs. Teenagers’ cultural and ethnic backgrounds affect their relationships. Some teenagers come from cultures in which people don’t date someone unless they’re going to marry that person, so they may not let their families know they are going out with someone. In some cultures, loyalty is such an important value that a teen in an abusive relationship may decide not to ask for help. Also, teenage girls who believe they can’t do much with their lives because of their family’s or culture’s rules, or because of discrimination or poverty, may place their hopes for the future on finding someone to love and take care of them. Abuse may seem like a small price to pay to escape a life without hope.

Being lesbian, gay or bisexual. Teenagers who are lesbian, gay or bisexual face special pressures. When under a lot of stress from the outside world, some gay or lesbian teens may respond by getting angry at the person they’re going out with. Even if victims decide they want help to stop the violence, they may not be able to get their friends, their teachers or other adults to listen and understand what they’re going through. If they haven’t told anyone else about their sexual orientation, finding help also means taking the risk of coming out.

Having a disability. People who have disabilities often face a higher risk of violence of all kinds, especially if they are less able to defend themselves or to report abuse. Any behavior that intentionally harrasses, teases or takes advantage of a person with a disability is abusive. That includes such acts as keeping something out of reach of a person who uses a wheelchair, making it hard for someone who uses hearing aids to hear you or deliberately trying to confuse someone with a learning disability.

Getting pregnant. Pregnancy is a vulnerable time that often leaves a teenage mother-to-be feeling alone, dependent, helpless and condemned by parents, teachers and friends. If her boyfriend is abusing her, she may not tell anyone because she fears losing him, doesn’t want to face more disapproval from her family or fears her baby will be taken away from her.

Drinking alcohol or taking drugs. Drinking alcohol or taking drugs does not cause violence, but it can have unpredictable effects: It can lower inhibitions or change perceptions of what is really going on. Even one drink is enough for some teens to say or do things they regret. Alcohol and drugs also cause people to misread situations — to see a come-on when there isn’t one, or to see only friendliness in a situation that could lead to rape or other violence. Drugs and alcohol often are used as excuses for abuse: “I didn’t mean to hurt you. I was out of control.” Being drunk or high is never an excuse for hurting someone.

Getting sexually involved with an adult . Young teenagers sometimes find themselves involved in sexual relationships with persons much older than they are. Although you may have romantic feelings for someone five or 10 years older, even if both of you consent to having sex, you should know that the older partner is committing a crime called statutory rape. Also, some adults beat or otherwise seek control over their young teen lovers. A sexual relationship where an adult dominates and controls a young teen should never be confused with love.

When you’re ready to change the situation

Hurting someone is never a sign of love. When a relationship is violent, the people involved need to either make the relationship work without violence or get out of it. You don’t have to settle for an abusive relationship, and you don’t have to continue to behave in abusive ways. Both of you deserve better.

People often need help to get out of abusive relationships. There are lots of reasons why breaking free can be hard.

From a very early age, we get the idea that having a romantic relationship is the most important thing in the world and is worth any sacrifice.

Going out with someone can be a status symbol, a way to feel more secure, or a way to break into a new circle of friends.

Some people just don’t like to be alone. They may feel that any relationship is better than no relationship.

Many teenagers don’t want to ask their parents for help. A girl whose boyfriend has slapped her might be afraid her parents won’t let her go out with him or with anyone if they find out. A boy’s parents might not approve of his girlfriend’s influence and take away his car keys. The parents of a lesbian, gay or bisexual teen might see one violent relationship as proof that all same-sex relationships are unhealthy.

Don’t think the violence and abuse will just stop.

Violent behavior won’t disappear on its own. One or both of you may have wrong ideas about relationships, expressing anger, what to expect from each other, what you deserve from someone you love. Usually, both of you need support and help to make a change. Being hurt by someone that you care about can make you feel weak, worthless, helpless and alone. Turning to drugs or alcohol is not a good way to handle the situation — it will not make the abuse disappear or feel more bearable.

Start by talking to someone. A counselor, a coach, a teacher, a parent, a doctor, a minister or rabbi, or a close friend can help you get an objective opinion of the situation. They may also have some good ideas to help you stop the hurting and start talking to each other about what you really want and need in a relationship.

Then take some action!

If you are the one getting hurt

If a person who claims to love you also threatens, intimidates or injures you, that person has some wrong ideas about love and isn’t worth your time. If you can’t love someone without also feeling afraid of him or her, you’re better off getting out of that relationship.

Assault is a crime. If you are afraid that someone you’re going out with may hurt you badly or if he or she already has, don’t hesitate to call the police. In many states, teens who have been threatened or harmed can get the same restraining orders and other protections as adults.

The most important thing you can do is take care of yourself. As serious as the situation may seem, there are always alternatives to having a relationship with someone who hurts you. Demand to be treated with respect. You’re worth it!

Make sure you’re safe. Even if you haven’t decided yet whether to leave the relationship, you can decide to be safe. Take some time to think about ways you can take yourself out of a dangerous situation the next time it occurs. For example, you can screen your phone calls, see your boyfriend or girlfriend only in a public place with other people around or find a friend to stay with if you need to. Thinking through a plan of action can help you feel more in control of a situation so that you can take the next step.

Get support. One of the most common forms of relationship violence is isolation — keeping you from spending time with your friends. If someone you’re going out with controls your free time, you start to feel like you have nowhere else to turn. You aren’t as likely to hear the support of friends who want you to leave the relationship. This is the time you need that support most. Talk to a friend, a teacher, a counselor, anyone who will support you as you stand up for yourself. Knowing that you don’t have to rely only on yourself can give you the courage you need to break free. If the first person you talk to doesn’t give you the support you need, try someone else. Don’t give up!

Demand respect. Point out the ways you’ve been hurt physically, sexually and emotionally to the person you’re going out with. Say that it’s a big deal to you and that you want it to stop, now. This can be a hard step for many reasons. The person may deny the abuse, get furious and threaten to hurt you, your family, or himself or herself if you try to leave the relationship or tell anyone else about the problem. Or the person may get really sweet and remorseful, crying and promising never to hurt you again, only to return to the same old patterns later. Encourage the person you’re going out with to find help in dealing with anger. Face facts though: Most people won’t make that change, even if they really love you. You can’t change them. And as much as you might want to help the person you care about get over the abusive behavior, you have to think of yourself first.

Find help. Just because this is your relationship doesn’t mean you should try to solve the problem on your own. A boyfriend or girlfriend who is hurting you already doesn’t respect you in the way you deserve. Talk to an adult — a teacher, counselor, coach or friend — who will stick with you. Asking for help isn’t a sign of weakness. It’s about getting the support you deserve and making sure your boyfriend or girlfriend gets the message: Abuse is serious, and you deserve better.

If you are the one doing the hurting

For your own sake and for the sake of the person you love, get help. The problem of hurting people when you’re angry or frustrated or jealous is not going to go away on its own. Even if you honestly think you’re sometimes justified in your actions, you need to talk over this behavior with someone who can give you some new ideas about how to handle your feelings.

Drinking alcohol or using drugs does not make you hurt someone. It can have unpredictable effects, though, and can change the way you view situations. You can never use drugs and alcohol as an excuse for abusive behavior. You should make it a reason to go for help for substance abuse.

Nobody is ever justified in hurting someone else to get their way. You’re not going to get what you’re looking for — love, respect, kindness, affection, a happy time with someone who loves and trusts you — unless you learn how to deal with your frustrations in a way that is not hurtful to others. You’re not a bad person — just someone who needs help to stop a bad behavior. You can learn new ways to deal with your anger, to fight fair, to communicate and to give and get love in relationships. Don’t let shame or fear stop you — talk to a parent, teacher, religious leader, doctor, nurse, psychologist or guidance counselor today.

How can I help my friend?

Seeing a friend in a violent relationship is painful. You might want to help but don’t know what to say or do. You might be afraid of getting involved in someone else’s problem. Or maybe you haven’t seen the violence or abuse, and the person your friend is dating seems so nice that you wonder how much of the story to believe.

If you’re worried, say something. If you’re concerned about your friend’s safety, mention it. People who are being hurt in a relationship often feel they can’t talk to anyone. They may be ashamed. They may think the abuse is their fault. They may think they deserve it. Let your friend know that you’re there, you’re willing to listen, and you’re not going to judge. If your friend isn’t ready to admit that there is a problem, don’t give up. By being supportive and letting your friend know that someone is willing to listen, you’re making it easier to start dealing with the problem.

Listen, support, believe. If a friend asks for your help, take it seriously. Believe what your friend tells you, not the gossip you might hear in the hallway. Your friend is trusting you with very personal and painful information — be a true friend and don’t spread gossip. Give support by making it clear that your friend doesn’t deserve to be abused in any way. Recognize that, as abusive as the person your friend is going out with might be, he or she might find it difficult to leave the relationship, particularly if your friend believes it will make the violence worse.

Call in reinforcements. Your friend might tell you about a violent relationship only if you promise to keep it a secret. Violence and abuse are not problems to be kept secret. Whether your friend is ready to get help or not, find an adult you can talk to. Take your friend along if you can. You can tell the adult that you don’t want to break a promise to keep a secret, but don’t carry this burden all by yourself.

Stopping violence in teen relationships is everyone's responsibility. Boyfriends, girlfriends, friends, parents, adults — all have a responsibility to speak out against behavior that is harmful and to prevent it from occurring.

Here are some people and organizations that can help. You can usually find phone numbers in you local phone book, or ask a counselor at school to help you get connected.

• State domestic violence coalitions
• Local rape crisis centers
• Gay and lesbian resources/centers for teens
• 4H programs in rural areas
• Students Against Driving Drunk (SADD)
• National Domestic Violence Hotline, (800) 799-SAFE
• National Organization for Victim Assistance, (800) TRYNOVA
• National Resource Center on Domestic Violence, (800) 537- 2238
• Rape, Abuse and Incest National Network, (800) 656- HOPE
• Teachers, school counselors, school nurses
• Doctors and other health professionals
• Psychologists and other mental health professionals
• Shelters for battered women

Acknowledgements

The American Psychological Association developed this document with consultation from the Partners in Program Planning in Adolescent Health (PIPPAH), whose members include: American Bar Association’s Center on Children and the Law, and Commission on Domestic Violence, American Dietetic Association, American Medical Association and National Association of Social Workers.

PIPPAH is supported by the Office of Adolescent Health of the Maternal and Child Health Bureau, Health Resources and Services Administration, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The views expressed herein have not been approved by the governing or policy setting bodies of any of the PIPPAH organizations, and accordingly, should not be construed as representing the policy of any of these organizations.

The printing and distribution of this publication is supported in part by Cooperative Agreement No. 5 MCU-11A302-02- from the Maternal and Child Health Bureau.

Recommended Reading

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• Violence Prevention Office

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Domestic violence against women: Recognize patterns, seek help

Domestic violence is a serious threat for many women. Know the signs of an abusive relationship and how to leave a dangerous situation.

Your partner apologizes and says the hurtful behavior won't happen again — but you fear it will. At times you wonder whether you're imagining the abuse, yet the emotional or physical pain you feel is real. If this sounds familiar, you might be experiencing domestic violence.

Recognize domestic violence

Domestic violence — also called intimate partner violence — occurs between people in an intimate relationship. Domestic violence can take many forms, including emotional, sexual and physical abuse and threats of abuse. Abuse by a partner can happen to anyone, but domestic violence is most often directed toward women. Domestic violence can happen in heterosexual and same-sex relationships.

Abusive relationships always involve an imbalance of power and control. An abuser uses intimidating, hurtful words and behaviors to control a partner.

It might not be easy to identify domestic violence at first. While some relationships are clearly abusive from the outset, abuse often starts subtly and gets worse over time. You might be experiencing domestic violence if you're in a relationship with someone who:

• Calls you names, insults you or puts you down
• Prevents or discourages you from going to work or school or seeing family members or friends
• Tries to control how you spend money, where you go, what medicines you take or what you wear
• Acts jealous or possessive or constantly accuses you of being unfaithful
• Gets angry when drinking alcohol or using drugs
• Threatens you with violence or a weapon
• Hits, kicks, shoves, slaps, chokes or otherwise hurts you, your children or your pets
• Forces you to have sex or engage in sexual acts against your will
• Blames you for his or her violent behavior or tells you that you deserve it

If you're in a same-sex relationship or if you're bisexual or transgender, you might also be experiencing abuse if you're in a relationship with someone who:

• Threatens to tell friends, family, colleagues or community members your sexual orientation or gender identity
• Tells you that authorities won't help you because of your sexuality or gender identity
• Justifies abuse by questioning your sexuality or gender identity

Pregnancy, children, family members and domestic violence

Sometimes domestic violence begins — or increases — during pregnancy. Domestic violence puts your health and the baby's health at risk. The danger continues after the baby is born.

Even if your child isn't abused, simply witnessing domestic violence can be harmful. Children who grow up in abusive homes are more likely to be abused and have behavioral problems than are other children. As adults, they're more likely to become abusers or think abuse is a normal part of relationships.

You might worry that telling the truth will further endanger you, your child or other family members — and that it might break up your family. But seeking help is the best way to protect yourself and your loved ones.

Break the cycle

If you're in an abusive situation, you might recognize this pattern:

• Your abuser threatens violence.
• Your abuser strikes.
• Your abuser apologizes, promises to change and offers gifts.
• The cycle repeats itself.

The longer you stay in an abusive relationship, the greater the physical and emotional toll. You might become depressed and anxious, or you might begin to doubt your ability to take care of yourself. You might feel helpless or paralyzed.

You may also wonder if the abuse is your fault — a common point of confusion among survivors of domestic abuse that may make it more difficult to seek help.

Don't take the blame

You may not be ready to seek help because you believe you're at least partially to blame for the abuse in the relationship. Reasons may include:

• Your partner blames you for the violence in your relationship. Abusive partners rarely take responsibility for their actions.
• Your partner only exhibits abusive behavior with you. Abusers are often concerned with outward appearances and may appear charming and stable to those outside of your relationship. This may cause you to believe that his or her actions can only be explained by something you've done.
• Therapists and health care providers who see you alone or with your partner haven't detected a problem. If you haven't told your health care provider about the abuse, they may only take note of unhealthy patterns in your thinking or behavior. This can lead to a misdiagnosis. For example, survivors of intimate partner violence may develop symptoms that resemble chronic disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome or fibromyalgia. Exposure to intimate partner violence also increases your risk of mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
• You have acted out verbally or physically against your abuser, yelling, pushing or hitting your partner during conflicts. You may worry that you are abusive, but it's much more likely that you acted in self-defense or intense emotional distress. Your abuser may use such incidents to manipulate you, describing them as proof that you are the abusive partner.

If you're having trouble identifying what's happening, take a step back and look at larger patterns in your relationship. Then review the signs of domestic violence. In an abusive relationship, the person who routinely uses these behaviors is the abuser. The person on the receiving end is being abused.

Unique challenges

If you're an immigrant , you may be hesitant to seek help out of fear that you will be deported. Language barriers, lack of economic independence and limited social support can increase your isolation and your ability to access resources.

Laws in the United States guarantee protection from domestic abuse, regardless of your immigrant status. Free or low-cost resources are available, including lawyers, shelter and medical care for you and your children. You may also be eligible for legal protections that allow immigrants who experience domestic violence to stay in the United States.

Call a national domestic violence hotline for guidance. These services are free and protect your privacy.

• If you're an older woman , you may face challenges related to your age and the length of your relationship. You may have grown up in a time when domestic violence was simply not discussed. You or your partner may have health problems that increase your dependency or sense of responsibility.
• If you're in a same-sex relationship , you might be less likely to seek help after an assault if you don't want to disclose your sexual orientation. If you've been sexually assaulted by another woman, you might also fear that you won't be believed.

Still, the only way to break the cycle of domestic violence is to take action. Start by telling someone about the abuse, whether it's a friend, a loved one, a health care provider or another close contact. You can also call a national domestic violence hotline.

At first, you might find it hard to talk about the abuse. But understand that you are not alone and there are experts who can help you. You'll also likely feel relief and receive much-needed support.

Create a safety plan

Leaving an abuser can be dangerous. Consider taking these precautions:

• Call a women's shelter or domestic violence hotline for advice. Make the call at a safe time — when the abuser isn't around — or from a friend's house or other safe location.
• Pack an emergency bag that includes items you'll need when you leave, such as extra clothes and keys. Leave the bag in a safe place. Keep important personal papers, money and prescription medications handy so that you can take them with you on short notice.
• Know exactly where you'll go and how you'll get there.

Protect your communication and location

An abuser can use technology to monitor your telephone and online communication and to track your location. If you're concerned for your safety, seek help. To maintain your privacy:

• Use phones cautiously. Your abuser might intercept calls and listen to your conversations. An abusive partner might use caller ID, check your cellphone or search your phone billing records to see your call and texting history.
• Use your home computer cautiously. Your abuser might use spyware to monitor your emails and the websites you visit. Consider using a computer at work, at the library or at a friend's house to seek help.
• Turn off GPS devices. Your abuser might use a GPS device on your vehicle or your phone to pinpoint your location.
• Frequently change your email password. Choose passwords that would be difficult for your abuser to guess.
• Clear your viewing history. Follow your browser's instructions to clear any record of websites or graphics you've viewed.

Where to find help

In an emergency, call 911 or your local emergency number or law enforcement agency. The following resources also can help:

• Someone you trust. Turn to a friend, loved one, neighbor, co-worker, or religious or spiritual adviser for support.
• National Domestic Violence Hotline: 800-799-SAFE (800-799-7233; toll-free). Call the hotline for crisis intervention and referrals to resources, such as women's shelters.
• Your health care provider. A health care provider typically will treat injuries and can refer you to safe housing and other local resources.
• A local women's shelter or crisis center. Shelters and crisis centers typically provide 24-hour emergency shelter as well as advice on legal matters and advocacy and support services.
• A counseling or mental health center. Counseling and support groups for women in abusive relationships are available in most communities.
• A local court. A court can help you obtain a restraining order that legally mandates the abuser to stay away from you or face arrest. Local advocates might be available to help guide you through the process.

It can be hard to recognize or admit that you're in an abusive relationship — but help is available. Remember, no one deserves to be abused.

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• Intimate partner violence. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/intimatepartnerviolence/index.html. Accessed March 4, 2022.
• American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Committee Opinion No. 518. Intimate partner violence and women's health. Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2012; doi:10.1097/AOG.0b013e318249ff74. Reaffirmed 2019.
• Frequently asked questions about domestic violence. National Network to End Domestic Violence. https://nnedv.org/content/frequently-asked-questions-about-domestic-violence/. Accessed March 5, 2022.
• Domestic and intimate partner violence. Office on Women's Health. https://www.womenshealth.gov/relationships-and-safety/domestic-violence. Accessed March 4, 2022.
• AskMayoExpert. Intimate partner violence. Mayo Clinic; 2021.
• Goldman L, et al., eds. Intimate partner violence. In: Goldman-Cecil Medicine. 26th ed. Elsevier; 2020. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed March 5, 2022.
• Ferri FF. Intimate partner violence. In: Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2022. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed March 5, 2022.
• Internet & computer safety. National Network to End Domestic Violence. https://nnedv.org/content/internet-computer-safety/. Accessed March 5, 2022.
• Technology safety & privacy: A toolkit for survivors. Technology Safety. https://www.techsafety.org/resources-survivors. Accessed March 5, 2022.
• Intimate partner violence: A guide for psychiatrists treating IPV survivors. American Psychiatric Association. https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/cultural-competency/education/intimate-partner-violence/women. Accessed March 5, 2022.
• Domestic violence and lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender relationships. National Coalition Against Domestic Violence. http://www.mmgconnect.com/projects/userfiles/File/DCE-STOP_NOW/NCADV_LGBT_Fact_Sheet.pdf. Accessed March 5, 2022.
• Bakes K, et al. Intimate partner violence. In: Emergency Medicine Secrets. Elsevier: 2022. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed March 5, 2022.
• What is domestic violence? National Coalition Against Domestic Violence. https://ncadv.org/learn-more. Accessed March 5, 2022.
• Intimate partner abuse and relationship violence. American Psychological Association: Working Group on Intimate Partner Abuse and Relationship Violence. https://www.apa.org/about/division/activities/partner-abuse.pdf. Accessed March 5, 2022.
• The myth of mutual abuse. National Domestic Violence Hotline. https://www.thehotline.org/resources/the-myth-of-mutual-abuse/. Accessed March 5, 2022.
• Final recommendation statement: Intimate partner violence, elder abuse, and abuse of vulnerable adults. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/recommendation/intimate-partner-violence-and-abuse-of-elderly-and-vulnerable-adults-screening. Accessed March 5, 2022.
• Information on the legal rights available to immigrant victims of domestic violence in the United States and facts about immigrating on a marriage-based visa fact sheet. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. https://www.uscis.gov/archive/information-on-the-legal-rights-available-to-immigrant-victims-of-domestic-violence-in-the-united. Accessed March 5, 2022.
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Why Do People Stay in Abusive Relationships?

The answer is more complicated than you think..

Posted March 6, 2013 | Reviewed by Kaja Perina

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During one of my breaks last week, I received an email from a colleague. The subject: "Another Know Nothing." Included was a link to the evolving story about New Hampshire state legislator Mark Warden's recent comments . I scanned down the page, and just below the header, next to Warden's innocently beaming face, I found his offending remarks: "Some people could make the argument that a lot of people like being in abusive relationships. It's a love-hate relationship. It's very, very common for people to stick around with somebody they love who also abuses him or her."

Warden was attending a state House Criminal Justice and Public Safety Committee meeting on legislation designed to reduce a charge of simple assault from a misdemeanor to a violation. Apparently he'd argued that victims can leave at any time, so more legislation isn't the answer. Later, he trotted out an explanation for his gaffe that's become popular among many politicians: his words had been taken out of context.

He's right in one respect: More legislation isn't enough to end domestic violence . Many domestic violence specialists agree that the problem is much broader , requiring widespread cultural, institutional, and psychological education and intervention (the Battered Women's Movement of the '70s is the first instance of just such a concerted, grassroots effort). But you won't find a single expert familiar with domestic violence who agrees that victims like being in an abusive relationship.

It would be easy, then, to dismiss Warden's remarks as those of someone shockingly ill-informed -- the insipid ramblings of an idiot. We could call him vapid or simple-minded or hopelessly out of touch. And doing all that might be gratifying. But he's hardly an isolated example.

In pondering this post, my mind flashed at once to a client I saw decades ago: a tall, brooding woman with firmly-sculpted arms -- the result of years of working out -- whose rolled-up sleeves revealed several fading bruises on her forearms, courtesy of her boyfriend. "I love him," she told me resolutely. "I know he can do better."

She was an impressive, thoughtful, strong woman -- not at all the type I expected to be a target of domestic violence. Yet she'd become trapped in a dangerous relationship, a prisoner of her own hope, waiting for the day the assaults would end. Her friends' words to her? If you don't stay, he can't hurt you . She seemed so powerful that surely she had the strength to leave.

The reality is the abused, like my client, aren't always fragile or powerless. They come from all walks of life -- rich, poor, strong, weak -- and from both genders, female and male. My client's friends loved and cared about her, that much was clear. But here they were, guilty of the same thinking as Warden. "You must be choosing to stay with an abuser for some reason," they told her. They couldn't reconcile their vision of her as strong and powerful with her apparent powerlessness to leave. So they blamed her for the choice

But let's be honest, Warden's comments -- and those of my client's friends -- reflect our shared confusion and impatience as a society. It doesn't matter whether we're conservatives or liberals, Republicans or Democrats, ignorant or well-informed, we all have an instant negative reaction when we see people return to or stay in abusive relationships. We think it's all so clear, even if we're not guilty, like Warden, of saying it out loud. Just leave!

But the truth is that we have yet, as a society, to come to terms with the dynamics of abuse. Here's the reality.

Take a look at the chilling photo essay by photographer Sara Naomi Lewkowicz (it appeared near the story on Warden). In serial images, she captures a relationship as it escalates into violence. The danger grows, subtly, insidiously, through each successive image, but you'll also notice, if you look closely, moments of enormous tenderness and vulnerability between the man and woman. Those snapshots are poignant reminders of what abuse victims hold onto in staying with their abuser. They don't stay for the pain. Their desperate, often palpable hope, if you sit in the room with them, is that the abuse will go away. And they tend to block out all evidence to the contrary. In point of fact, they stay for love. Many abuse survivors cling to the positive traits in their partners -- like being affectionate and reliable. In one study , more than half of the abuse survivors saw their partners as "highly dependable."

Many others suffer from post- traumatic stress syndrome, one symptom of which is dissociation, which often creates such profound detachment from the reality of the abuse that sufferers scarcely remember being hurt at all. Dissociating victims can't leave the abuse because they aren't psychologically present enough to recall the pain of what happened.

There are other, well-documented hurdles to victims leaving their abusive partner. For one, the abused are often cut off from friends and financial supports. For another, they're often afraid to leave, and with good reason (more than 70 percent of domestic violence injuries and murders happen after the victim has left). One can't escape a dangerous situation if it feels safer to stay. But perhaps one of the most formidable and dangerous obstacles abuse victims face is their own searing guilt and shame ; they're incredibly adept at blaming themselves for the abuse (see here for more about the dynamics of self-blame).

Which brings us back to Warden -- and anyone who's ever wondered what an abuse victim derives from staying. It's giving into this very thought -- they must like this -- that creates one more barrier to the abused being able to leave. It makes the world simpler, no doubt, for us to indulge this theory. We feel safer. "That couldn't happen to me," we can say. "I'd never put up with it." But the research proves anyone can end up abused. And blaming the victims in this way is a huge part of the problem. It reinforces their shame.

Victim-blaming is dangerous enough that, in summarizing the conclusions of hundreds of studies on domestic violence, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services cites, as a barrier to ending domestic violence, the brute fact that "peers, family members, and others in the community (e.g., coworkers, social service-providers, police, or clergy) minimize or ignore the abuse and fail to provide consequences." Instead of condemning the abuse, people around the victims often simply admonish them with "What do you expect if you choose to stay?"

While Warden's right that legislation alone isn't the answer, reducing consequences to the perpetrator certainly isn't, either. Minimizing the nature of the crime sends the wrong message to everyone: It's no big deal. It wouldn't happen if you didn't stay . It makes the abused want to hide their pain, and when that happens -- when their plight remains invisible -- they have no hope at all of leaving.

The reality of abuse is far more complex. As a culture, we must grapple with the fact that many of us agree with some version of what Warden says -- that the victim is to blame for their abuse when they choose to stay. Sadly, even the abused can start to believe the explanation. But making Warden a scapegoat for our own ignorance won't change any of this. Only educating ourselves will.

A version of this article previously appeared in the Huffington Post

Craig Malkin, Ph.D. , is an author, clinical psychologist, and lecturer for Harvard Medical School.

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Home — Essay Samples — Law, Crime & Punishment — Domestic Violence — Breaking Free from Abusive Relationship: Domestic Violence

Breaking Free from Abusive Relationship: Domestic Violence

• Categories: Domestic Violence Relationship Victim

About this sample

Words: 1738 |

Published: Jun 5, 2019

Words: 1738 | Pages: 4 | 9 min read

Table of contents

Introduction, understanding domestic violence: a complex web of abusive relationships, escaping domestic violence: a complex process, preventing further violence: predictive tools, forms of abuse in abusive relationships.

• Physical Abuse: This form of abuse involves physical harm inflicted upon the victim. It includes acts such as hitting, kicking, slapping, choking, or any other form of bodily violence. Often, the physical scars are visible, serving as a grim reminder of the trauma endured.
• Sexual Abuse: Sexual abuse within abusive relationships involves non-consensual sexual activities imposed upon the victim. This may range from unwanted sexual advances and coercion to sexual assault. Victims often grapple with profound feelings of violation and shame.
• Psychological and Emotional Abuse: Psychological and emotional abuse is insidious, leaving no visible marks but causing severe psychological harm. It encompasses tactics like manipulation, verbal threats, humiliation, isolation, and control. The scars of emotional abuse run deep, eroding the victim's self-esteem and sense of self-worth.
• Financial Abuse: Abusers often exercise control over their victims' financial resources, leaving them financially dependent and powerless. This form of abuse may involve withholding money, preventing employment, or sabotaging the victim's financial stability.
• Digital Abuse: In the digital age, abusers have found new avenues to exert control. Digital abuse includes actions like cyberbullying, stalking on social media, or using technology to monitor and intimidate the victim.

The Complex Dynamics of Abusive Relationships

• Cycle of Abuse: Abusive relationships often follow a cyclical pattern. The cycle typically begins with a period of tension building, characterized by escalating conflict and tension. This tension culminates in an acute abusive incident, such as physical violence. Following the abusive episode, an abuser may display remorse and offer apologies, initiating a phase of reconciliation. However, this reconciliation phase is often short-lived and eventually gives way to renewed tension, perpetuating the cycle.
• Isolation: Abusers frequently isolate their victims, cutting them off from friends and family. Isolation serves to control the victim's social interactions and limit their support network, making it harder for them to seek help or escape the relationship.
• Gaslighting: Gaslighting is a manipulative tactic used by abusers to make victims doubt their reality. Abusers may deny their actions, trivialize the abuse, or shift blame onto the victim, causing them to question their perception of events.
• Dependency: Abusers often foster financial and emotional dependency, making it challenging for victims to imagine a life outside the relationship. This dependency can be a significant barrier to leaving the abuser.
• Emotional Bonding: Paradoxically, abusive relationships may involve moments of intimacy and affection. These intermittent displays of love can create a strong emotional bond that keeps victims attached to their abusers, hoping for change.
• Patterns of Escalation: Recognizing patterns of escalating abuse is essential. Victims and their support networks should be vigilant about increases in the frequency or severity of violence, as this can signal a heightened risk.
• Isolation and Control: Assess the extent to which the abuser isolates and controls the victim. Isolation tactics and increased control can indicate a greater risk, as they may signify the abuser's desperation to maintain dominance.
• Access to Weapons: Determine the abuser's access to weapons. The presence of firearms or other deadly weapons can significantly elevate the risk of lethal violence.
• History of Violence: Consider the abuser's history of violence. If they have a documented history of violent behavior, including previous arrests or restraining orders, this should be taken seriously as a predictive factor.
• Escalation of Threats: Monitor any escalation in threats made by the abuser. Expressions of intent to harm the victim or themselves should be treated as urgent warning signs.
• Support System: Assess the strength of the victim's support system. A robust support network can be a protective factor, potentially reducing the risk of further violence.
• Legal Intervention: Evaluate whether legal interventions, such as restraining orders, have been sought or granted. Understanding the legal measures in place can provide insights into the victim's safety.
• Campbell, J. C. (2003). Danger assessment: Validation of a lethality risk assessment instrument for intimate partner femicide. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18(11), 1153-1176.
• Adams, D. M. (2016). Why do they kill? Men who murder their intimate partners. Vanderbilt University Press.
• Babcock, J. C., Green, C. E., & Robie, C. (2004). Does batterers' treatment work? A meta-analytic review of domestic violence treatment. Clinical Psychology Review, 23(8), 1023-1053.
• Stark, E. (2007). Coercive control: How men entrap women in personal life. Oxford University Press.
• Golding, J. M. (1999). Intimate partner violence as a risk factor for mental disorders: A meta-analysis. Journal of Family Violence, 14(2), 99-132.
• Johnson, M. P. (2008). A typology of domestic violence: Intimate terrorism, violent resistance, and situational couple violence. Northeastern University Press.
• National Domestic Violence Hotline. (n.d.). Danger assessment. https://www.thehotline.org/identify-abuse/danger-assessment/

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Ideas for a Thesis Statement on Domestic Violence

Good Homeland Security Thesis Ideas

Depending on the type of paper that you are writing, your domestic violence thesis statement may answer a social services question, spell out the statistics or explain the hows and whys of a specific issue such as confidentiality or stalking. Crafting a thesis statement involves narrowing your focus and deciding on a point of view or position for the reader to follow.

Selection Process

Choosing one idea for your thesis statement requires careful consideration, evaluating the evidence and digesting the significance of the material or research on the subject. It may also depend on a specific topic that your professor requires. You're providing the reader with an introduction to your domestic violence paper and want to ensure that you clearly spell out your message and communicate why your point of view is important. For example, a general statement that simply says domestic violence happens between partners isn't clear and doesn't help the reader to understand where your paper is going. In contrast, a statement that says domestic violence affects 1.3 million people in relationships annually demonstrates a specific call for action.

Types of Injuries

Domestic violence isn't always the same. Some victims suffer emotional abuse, while others endure the physical kind. If your paper focuses on injuries incurred during spousal or relationship abuse, ideas for a possible thesis can address a particular type of injury. For example, traumatic brain injury is a possible result when one partner strikes the other in the head. If you choose this type of injury, your thesis should spell out how prevalent this is, why it is a problem and what the symptoms are. You may take an even more focused approach and design a thesis statement that includes the issue of repeat brain injury or the healing process. Other potential topics for your thesis in this area include bone breaks, bruises or weapon-inflicted wounds.

The Other Victims

The picture of the battered wife that the media depicts isn't always accurate. Not every instance of domestic violence is abuse against a woman. Women can assault men and men can also assault their males partners. A thesis statement on non-female victims of domestic violence may assert the position that prevention programs are essential for both genders or explain the problem of abuse toward males through facts and figures. If you're choosing this focus for your thesis idea, first define which population -- hetero- or homosexual men -- you are going to present in your paper. Doing so can help you to narrow the topic and present a concise statement.

Professional Issues

It's possible that your paper won't focus on the victims of violence, but instead on how the social service professional handles a client who is being abused. This type of thesis is often geared more toward a professional practice, ethics in practice or professionalism in the workplace course. You might, for example, include confidentiality as a topic and your thesis could reflect your position on why keeping client's identity safe is important. Other professional issues topics might include a statement on a specific counseling technique, an outline of legislation that social service workers must follow when it comes to client confidentiality.

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• Time: The Surprising Truth About Women and Violence
• Pennsylvania Coalition Against Domestic Violence: Stalking

Based in Pittsburgh, Erica Loop has been writing education, child development and parenting articles since 2009. Her articles have appeared in "Pittsburgh Parent Magazine" and the website PBS Parents. She has a Master of Science in applied developmental psychology from the University of Pittsburgh's School of Education.

Families in Unhealthy and Abusive Relationships

**Warning: This post discusses interpersonal violence (domestic, relationship, or family violence). The clip illustrating accusations is graphic. Please take care of yourself as you read this post. This link goes directly to the resources on- and off- campus.**

Last week , I discussed challenges and disagreements that are part of healthy relationships.  However, some responses to the challenges of parenting can go beyond the realm of healthy and unhealthy into the realm of abuse.  Relationships exist on a continuum from healthy to abusive with unhealthy relationships in the middle .

In an unhealthy relationship, one partner attempts to control the other person. For instance, one person tries to make most of the decisions about what y’all will do and where y’all will go.  Or, your partner may pressure you about sex and refuse to see how their actions are hurting you.  These relationships can include breaks in communication, pressure, dishonesty, and struggle for control.  Additionally, your partner might make you feel bad about yourself or like you should only spend time with them.  There are many other characteristics of an unhealthy relationship, including

• Putting your partner’s needs first while neglecting your own most of the time
• Feeling pressure to change yourself into the person your partner wants
• Not enjoying and/or belittle your respective successes
• Attempting to control and manipulate each other
• Unequal control of resources

Some relationships may exhibit one or two unhealthy characteristics, but that does not necessarily mean that the relationship is abusive.  The best way to use this information is to recognize how these characteristics affect you and impact your relationship.  Partners can improve unhealthy aspects of their relationship to move towards a healthy one. Last week’s post gives some tips on how to redirect your relationship to a healthy one.

Abusive relationships are based on unequal power and control. Interpersonal violence (IPV) is when an individual exerts power and control over another individual or individuals with whom they are in a close relationship through physical, sexual, verbal, emotional, financial, and psychological actions or threats.  That person makes all of the decisions about topics such as sexual activity, friend groups, and boundaries.  If you are in an abusive relationship, you may spend all of your time with your partner and feel like you cannot talk to other people, especially about how you feel in your relationship.  Abusive relationships can be characterized by accusations , isolation, gas lighting , and manipulation of one person by the other.  There are other ways in which abuse can exhibit itself.

Families are affected by abusive relationships, including children who witness and/or experience the abuse and violence.  Being a parent in an abusive relationship makes a difficult situation that much harder.  You may not only worry about your own safety, but you also worry for the safety and well-being of your children.  Often times, the abuser may use your children against you— not letting you see your children, abusing (or threatening to abuse) your child, and/or using your child to check up on you, for example.  The best thing to do in this difficult situation is to talk to your children and let them know that the abuser’s behavior is wrong.  Children can have long-lasting mental health symptoms such as depression and anxiety, or they may grow up thinking IPV is normal and may attempt to mimic the behavior of the abusive relationship.

It is important to remember that abuse is never your fault.  The abuse falls on the abuser, and they are responsible for their behavior.  It is up to them to change their abusive behavior.  Even though you may love and want to help fix the behavior or fix the person, you don’t deserve to be abused or to carry the psychological burden of fixing someone.

Attempting to leave the abuser is hard, especially with children involved.  If you are ready to leave or not, here are some steps that you can take to ensure safety for you and your children :

• Prepare a safety plan with your children: Arrange a safe place for your children (such as hiding in a closet or going to a neighbor’s house), and plan a code word so they know when to leave and where to get help.
• Have a conversation with your children to let them know that it’s not their fault
• Pack an emergency bag, including things like important documentation, formula, diapers, medicine. Keep the bag hidden or with someone you trust.

If you or someone you know is experiencing IPV, there are a lots of options for help. UNC has on- and off-campus resources for you.

• Gender Violence Service Coordinator (GVSC): The coordinator is a confidential resource to all students who are experiencing or have experienced IPV either before or during their time at UNC. The GVSC has drop in hours, in addition to meeting by appointment. You can find more information here .
• Safe at UNC : This is the university’s website dedicated to information and resources related to IPV, including interim protective measures like safe housing.
• UNC LGBTQ Center : This organization provides great information and resources to the LGBTQ-identified students on campus. The GVSC has drop-in hours on Thursdays 3 – 5 pm in the center. Additionally, they offer online relationship modules that range from differentiating between healthy and unhealthy relationships and IPV.
• Orange County Rape Crisis Center (OCRCC ): They have a free and confidential hotline and resources for survivors of sexual violence. You can call them at 1-866-WE-LISTEN or visit them at ocrcc.org .
• Crisis counseling (in office and in hotline)
• Safety planning
• Support and advocacy in civil and criminal domestic violence court
• Support groups with free childcare
• The National Domestic Violence Hotline is another confidential and free hotline. The number is 1-800-799-7233

I Used to Judge Women in Abusive Relationships — Until I Became One

When your self esteem is chipped away and you're terrified of being alone, you may not even realize it's abuse.

He threw the car into park, and turned to face me with a look of pure rage. His fist connected with the left side of my jaw, the right side of my head hit the passenger-side window, and I heard a loud crack .

He wasn't finished, though. He grabbed my hair and pinched my arm, bruising it instantly, and then he reached over and squeezed my throat. I somehow croaked out, "You loved me once!" and he let go, disgust on his face. It was after midnight, and I got out of the car, numb and overwhelmingly ashamed, and walked a mile back to my friend's house as he squealed the tires and raced away from me.

Two days later, I drove myself to an urgent care facility when I couldn't move my neck.

"How did you sustain the injury?" the young doctor asked me.

"I was at a Super Bowl party and playing on the floor with some kids, and one of them jumped on my neck," I lied. It was the first of many lies I would tell about my relationship. The thought of telling the truth was humiliating. Plus, I thought, It's my fault anyway .

The doctor glanced at the fading finger imprints around my throat and the angry green and black bruises on my arm. I could feel his gaze on me as he wrote a prescription for a painkiller and muscle relaxers.

"You have a severe sprain," he told me. "You're lucky you didn't break it."

Later that week, I was in a golf cart with a colleague at a client event, wearing a short-sleeved shirt with a collar. I reached over to grab a water bottle, and the bruises on my upper arm were exposed.

My colleague took my hand and looked me in the eye. "Please don't tell me it's like that, Kristin," he said quietly. I looked away.

A Slippery Slope

It didn't start like this when I met my live-in boyfriend six years earlier. At first, he was loving and sweet and attentive. I was already in love with him by the first time he called me a worthless piece of s*** in an alcohol-infused fury; I was in shock. I thought about leaving him that night, but I was frozen with indecision. I loved him, after all. And my mind had started to believe what he said about me.

The next morning, he was sober again and rushed to apologize, holding me in his arms while I cried. The cycle began.

Over the course of several years, I had learned to see myself through his eyes: unattractive, unlovable, and stupid.

The first time he kicked me, I was walking down the stairs to our apartment, and he told me it was my fault. I "pushed his buttons" and made him do it. Soon, I started taking all the blame for his rages, walking on eggshells every moment we were together.

Over the course of several years, I had learned to see myself through his eyes: unattractive, unlovable, and stupid. I believed him when he told me that he was the best I would ever find and that I was not sexy or desirable. I wish I could go back in time and tell myself that he was talking about himself — not about me.

I thought I knew all about abusive relationships before I found myself in the middle of one. I thought I was too smart to get involved with someone who would hurt me physically and mentally. I thought I knew what to look for and that it would be so obvious that I needed to walk away. I thought I didn't fit into the "stereotypical" mold of what a domestic violence survivor looks like. I'm sure that once upon a time, I looked down on women who were in abusive relationships and found them weak.

Breaking the Silence

In the end, I didn't walk away from him. And I didn't tell my closest friends and family for years about what happened — most of them not until after he left me to move in with another woman four years into our marriage. Now, I tell my story without (most of) the shame; I believe it's important to share it to show others that someone can come through this and survive. And perhaps thrive. Maybe it will help someone you know. Maybe it will help you . I tell the story to help my nieces, my friends, my colleagues, myself.

People are often baffled by how beautiful, intelligent women fall in love with (and even marry) abusers. The truth is that it happens very gradually. It begins with a sarcastic putdown, and is followed up quickly by an apology. It may escalate to a kick or a slap, with more apologies and promises that it will never happen again. By the time I realized that I was in a bad relationship, I had invested so much of myself and my self-esteem had been chipped away so drastically, I was terrified to be alone.

You may know someone who has been abused, and you can't understand why she doesn't leave. She may be afraid that no one else will love her. Perhaps she has kids and doesn't know how to provide for them on her own. He may have threatened to kill her. She may be so ashamed that no one knows the extent of the abuse and suffers in silence. He may be someone powerful or well-liked in the community, and she is afraid no one would believe her.

Be there for her. Stand by and be ready to help, if you can. Know the signs of abuse . And teach your children about healthy relationships — you owe it to them to get help if you are in a destructive relationship yourself.

This post is part of a Good Housekeeping series of stories about domestic violence and abuse . If you or someone you know is at risk, reach the National Domestic Violence Hotline at 1-800-799-7233 . If you are in danger, call 911. More information and resources are available at the National Resource Center on Domestic Violence or the National Online Resource Center for Violence Against Women .

Kristin Shaw fell in love with cars while visiting dozens of auto shows as a kid, which explains her fascination with fins and hood ornaments. She has competed twice in the Rebelle Rally, an all-female eight-day off-roading competition in a lifted Hyundai Santa Cruz. Her work has appeared in numerous publications like Popular Science, Road & Track , Edmunds, The Drive, U.S. News & World Report, Forbes, Today, The Washington Post, and more. Yes, she knows she has the best job in the world.

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• How to write an argumentative essay | Examples & tips

How to Write an Argumentative Essay | Examples & Tips

Published on July 24, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

An argumentative essay expresses an extended argument for a particular thesis statement . The author takes a clearly defined stance on their subject and builds up an evidence-based case for it.

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Table of contents

When do you write an argumentative essay, approaches to argumentative essays, introducing your argument, the body: developing your argument, concluding your argument, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about argumentative essays.

You might be assigned an argumentative essay as a writing exercise in high school or in a composition class. The prompt will often ask you to argue for one of two positions, and may include terms like “argue” or “argument.” It will frequently take the form of a question.

The prompt may also be more open-ended in terms of the possible arguments you could make.

Argumentative writing at college level

At university, the vast majority of essays or papers you write will involve some form of argumentation. For example, both rhetorical analysis and literary analysis essays involve making arguments about texts.

In this context, you won’t necessarily be told to write an argumentative essay—but making an evidence-based argument is an essential goal of most academic writing, and this should be your default approach unless you’re told otherwise.

Examples of argumentative essay prompts

At a university level, all the prompts below imply an argumentative essay as the appropriate response.

Your research should lead you to develop a specific position on the topic. The essay then argues for that position and aims to convince the reader by presenting your evidence, evaluation and analysis.

• Don’t just list all the effects you can think of.
• Do develop a focused argument about the overall effect and why it matters, backed up by evidence from sources.
• Don’t just provide a selection of data on the measures’ effectiveness.
• Do build up your own argument about which kinds of measures have been most or least effective, and why.
• Don’t just analyze a random selection of doppelgänger characters.
• Do form an argument about specific texts, comparing and contrasting how they express their thematic concerns through doppelgänger characters.

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An argumentative essay should be objective in its approach; your arguments should rely on logic and evidence, not on exaggeration or appeals to emotion.

There are many possible approaches to argumentative essays, but there are two common models that can help you start outlining your arguments: The Toulmin model and the Rogerian model.

Toulmin arguments

The Toulmin model consists of four steps, which may be repeated as many times as necessary for the argument:

• Make a claim
• Provide the grounds (evidence) for the claim
• Explain the warrant (how the grounds support the claim)
• Discuss possible rebuttals to the claim, identifying the limits of the argument and showing that you have considered alternative perspectives

The Toulmin model is a common approach in academic essays. You don’t have to use these specific terms (grounds, warrants, rebuttals), but establishing a clear connection between your claims and the evidence supporting them is crucial in an argumentative essay.

Say you’re making an argument about the effectiveness of workplace anti-discrimination measures. You might:

• Claim that unconscious bias training does not have the desired results, and resources would be better spent on other approaches
• Cite data to support your claim
• Explain how the data indicates that the method is ineffective
• Anticipate objections to your claim based on other data, indicating whether these objections are valid, and if not, why not.

Rogerian arguments

The Rogerian model also consists of four steps you might repeat throughout your essay:

• Discuss what the opposing position gets right and why people might hold this position
• Highlight the problems with this position
• Present your own position , showing how it addresses these problems
• Suggest a possible compromise —what elements of your position would proponents of the opposing position benefit from adopting?

This model builds up a clear picture of both sides of an argument and seeks a compromise. It is particularly useful when people tend to disagree strongly on the issue discussed, allowing you to approach opposing arguments in good faith.

Say you want to argue that the internet has had a positive impact on education. You might:

• Acknowledge that students rely too much on websites like Wikipedia
• Argue that teachers view Wikipedia as more unreliable than it really is
• Suggest that Wikipedia’s system of citations can actually teach students about referencing
• Suggest critical engagement with Wikipedia as a possible assignment for teachers who are skeptical of its usefulness.

You don’t necessarily have to pick one of these models—you may even use elements of both in different parts of your essay—but it’s worth considering them if you struggle to structure your arguments.

Regardless of which approach you take, your essay should always be structured using an introduction , a body , and a conclusion .

Like other academic essays, an argumentative essay begins with an introduction . The introduction serves to capture the reader’s interest, provide background information, present your thesis statement , and (in longer essays) to summarize the structure of the body.

Hover over different parts of the example below to see how a typical introduction works.

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise, and its role in learning is hotly debated. For many teachers who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its critical benefits for students and educators—as a uniquely comprehensive and accessible information source; a means of exposure to and engagement with different perspectives; and a highly flexible learning environment.

The body of an argumentative essay is where you develop your arguments in detail. Here you’ll present evidence, analysis, and reasoning to convince the reader that your thesis statement is true.

In the standard five-paragraph format for short essays, the body takes up three of your five paragraphs. In longer essays, it will be more paragraphs, and might be divided into sections with headings.

Each paragraph covers its own topic, introduced with a topic sentence . Each of these topics must contribute to your overall argument; don’t include irrelevant information.

This example paragraph takes a Rogerian approach: It first acknowledges the merits of the opposing position and then highlights problems with that position.

Hover over different parts of the example to see how a body paragraph is constructed.

A common frustration for teachers is students’ use of Wikipedia as a source in their writing. Its prevalence among students is not exaggerated; a survey found that the vast majority of the students surveyed used Wikipedia (Head & Eisenberg, 2010). An article in The Guardian stresses a common objection to its use: “a reliance on Wikipedia can discourage students from engaging with genuine academic writing” (Coomer, 2013). Teachers are clearly not mistaken in viewing Wikipedia usage as ubiquitous among their students; but the claim that it discourages engagement with academic sources requires further investigation. This point is treated as self-evident by many teachers, but Wikipedia itself explicitly encourages students to look into other sources. Its articles often provide references to academic publications and include warning notes where citations are missing; the site’s own guidelines for research make clear that it should be used as a starting point, emphasizing that users should always “read the references and check whether they really do support what the article says” (“Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia,” 2020). Indeed, for many students, Wikipedia is their first encounter with the concepts of citation and referencing. The use of Wikipedia therefore has a positive side that merits deeper consideration than it often receives.

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An argumentative essay ends with a conclusion that summarizes and reflects on the arguments made in the body.

No new arguments or evidence appear here, but in longer essays you may discuss the strengths and weaknesses of your argument and suggest topics for future research. In all conclusions, you should stress the relevance and importance of your argument.

Hover over the following example to see the typical elements of a conclusion.

The internet has had a major positive impact on the world of education; occasional pitfalls aside, its value is evident in numerous applications. The future of teaching lies in the possibilities the internet opens up for communication, research, and interactivity. As the popularity of distance learning shows, students value the flexibility and accessibility offered by digital education, and educators should fully embrace these advantages. The internet’s dangers, real and imaginary, have been documented exhaustively by skeptics, but the internet is here to stay; it is time to focus seriously on its potential for good.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

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An argumentative essay tends to be a longer essay involving independent research, and aims to make an original argument about a topic. Its thesis statement makes a contentious claim that must be supported in an objective, evidence-based way.

An expository essay also aims to be objective, but it doesn’t have to make an original argument. Rather, it aims to explain something (e.g., a process or idea) in a clear, concise way. Expository essays are often shorter assignments and rely less on research.

At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises).

Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.

The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago .

The majority of the essays written at university are some sort of argumentative essay . Unless otherwise specified, you can assume that the goal of any essay you’re asked to write is argumentative: To convince the reader of your position using evidence and reasoning.

In composition classes you might be given assignments that specifically test your ability to write an argumentative essay. Look out for prompts including instructions like “argue,” “assess,” or “discuss” to see if this is the goal.

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Abused Children and their Relationships as Adults

• Psychology and Mental Health Care

Abused children and their relationship as adults

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Review Article | DOI: https://doi.org/10.31579/2637-8892/144

• Ami Rokach 1*
• Karalyn MacFarlane 2

1 Department of Psychology, York University, Canada.  2 Department of Psychology, Trent University, Canada

*Corresponding Author: Ami Rokach, Department of Psychology, York University, Canada.

Citation: Ami Rokach and Karalyn MacFarlane (2021) Abused Children and their Relationships as Adults; J, Psychology and Mental Health Care. 5(3); DOI: 10.31579/2637-8892/144

Copyright: © 2021, Ami Rokach, This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Received: 23 September 2021 | Accepted: 04 November 2021 | Published: 16 November 2021

Keywords: ACE, child abuse, parenting, romantic relations, sexual abuse, emotional abuse

Intimate relationships are not just between lovers, but is also present in parenting as well as the individual’s relationship with the larger family and kin. This article sheds light on those who underwent abuse and have consequently been marked for life and in many areas of their personhood, their ability to relate, and to intimately connect with others. 

Adverse Childhood Experiences [ACE] and its effect on adult relationships

Ace happens, and in the past decade or so, we are poignantly aware of it, and its damaging consequences. One of the areas which is negatively affected by it, is the child’s relationship, or attachment, with its caregiver.  Disorganized attachment,  has been described as the fourth category of infant attachment alongside avoidance, anxiety (resistance) and security (Main et al., 1990).  Infants who were grouped in the disorganized category were shown to be fearful, conflicted, apprehensive and showed disoriented behaviors when coping with distress experienced during the separation and reunion to the mother. Disorganization has not only been observed in infancy, but also in childhood and adolescence. For example, some disorganized children behave punitively towards their parents with a goal of challenging or even humiliating those, while others undertake a “caregiving” stance in which the child adopts the role of the parent in order to comfort them. Some other forms of disorganized behavior include fear or difficulty while interacting with parents, negatively impacting parental intimacy, engaging in self-harm, and preferring strangers in comparison to caregivers.  (Bureau et al., 2009; Rholes et al., 2016). Studies have found that disorganized children, as well as adolescents have behavioral consequences that are externalized through delinquency, hostility or aggression (Fearon, et al., 2010; Lecompte et al., 2014; Obsuth et al., 2014).

It is believed that fear-arousing behaviors, or confusing communication, demonstrated by the parents, are the primary cause of disorganization seen in infants (Lyons-Ruth et al., 2008). Disorganization is a result of frightening, confusing, or traumatic behaviors exhibited by attachment figures resulting in avoidance by the infant which discourages the infant from approaching attachment figures when frightened or distressed (Rholes et al., 2016). Paetzold et al., (2015) argued that disorganization plays an important part in the adult attachment system and should be part of the adult working model of attachment. Experiencing fear of the attachment figure and confusion about relationships are argued to be the central features of disorganization seen in adulthood. Fear experienced in anxious adults’ forefront’s feelings such as their partner would leave them, or not assist in having their needs met. This fear allows the individual to pull their romantic partner closer in order to ensure their needs will be met. However, in avoidant individuals, the fear results in them distancing themselves from their romantic partner in order to prevent rejection. Disorganization results in an approach-avoidance conflict in the partner which includes the fearful confusion, disorientation, and other odd or conflicting behaviors which are seen in disorganized infants and children. 

Rholes et al. (2016) expanded on the current literature and argued that early childhood trauma results in individuals externalizing behaviors while in romantic relationships due to disorganized attachment.  These externalizer behaviors may include acquiescing to one’s partner, but also displaying aggression, violence or anger when one’s needs are being threatened, or distancing themselves from the partner who may be seeking closeness.

ACE & romantic relations

Child emotional maltreatment (CEM) which includes both abuse and neglect, is linked to later victimization in adult romantic relationships which aligns with the revictimization of those who were sexually abused (Crawford et al., 2007; Selby, et al., 2008). Not only does CEM affect relationships, it also negatively impacts one’s self-concept, resulting in challenges with trust, safety, and control (Messman-Moore et al., 2003).  Self-criticism, which may potentially mediate the link between CEM and romantic relationships, relates to the likelihood of one to become self-stance when standards are not met (Blatt et al., 1992; Priel et al., 2000; Shahar et al., 2003; Shahar, et al., 2004).  This behaviour negatively affects intimate relationships by generating both failure-related and interpersonal stressful events, and adversely affects close relationships (Blatt, 1995; Priel et al., 2000; Shahar et al., 2003) Recent research discusses the association between child maltreatment (CM) and self-criticism, and the idea that self-criticism is a mediator in the relationship between emotional/verbal abuse and psychopathology (Dunkley et al., 2010; Glassman, et al., 2007; Soffer, et al., 2008), as well as a mediator in emotional abuse and self-injurious behavior.

Lassri et al. (2012) investigated the connection that self-criticism and CEM have on relational problems and concluded that self-criticism was a mediator in the link between CEM and young adults’ romantic relationships. This allows for strong evidence to suggest that self-criticism is a negative outcome in individuals who experienced CM, and in particular those who experienced CEM. CEM promotes the tendency for one to internalize critical thoughts about oneself which distorts the individual’s personality and can ultimately sabotage both general relationships and romantic relationships (see also Dunkley et al., 2010; Sachs-Ericsson et al., 2006). Lassri et al. (2012) also highlight that childhood emotional trauma may increase the risk of emotional and cognitive challenges in adulthood as seen in negative personality factors resulting in increased fragility in intimate relationships. In addition, they demonstrated that PTSD severity is also a significant mediator in the association between CEM and commitment.

ACE & adult intimate relations

Several theories have demonstrated a strong correlation between childhood maltreatment and impaired social functioning. The social learning theory argues that individuals learn how to interact with other individuals through observation and modelling the behaviors of their significant others. Similarly, developmental theories propose that individuals formulate expectations of self, others, and relationships on interactions between our primary caregivers. When looking at childhood maltreatment, these findings predict that abused and neglect children will form cognitions and behaviors that are damaging to their future interpersonal relationships (Crittenden & Ainsworth, 1989; Ornduff, 2000). Child maltreatment associated with poor social functioning in early and middle childhood exhibited by social stimuli seen as threatening which results in the adolescence to withdraw, or avoid social interactions (Haskett et al., 1991; Ornduff, 2000).  Additionally, maltreated children have a difficult time interacting with peers, resulting in them being less socially popular, having increased conflict and less intimacy with close friends (Shields et al., 2001; Colman & Widom, 2004).

Research suggests that individuals who were maltreated in their childhood continue to experience difficulties within their relationships in adulthood. Women who experienced childhood sexual abuse encounter increased social isolation, are distrustful and/or fearful of others, and stay away from marital relations and report dissatisfaction if they are married (Davis & Petretic-Jackson, 2000; Harter et al., 1988; Finkelhor et al., 1989; Fleming et al., 1999).  Adult males with a history of sexual and physical abuse in childhood have greater incidences of violence toward intimate partners and family members when compared to non-abused males (Bevans & Higgins, 2002; White & Widom, 2003).  Likewise, women who were abused as children, are more likely to commit, or receive intimate partner violence when compared to non-abused women (Clarke et al., 1999; White & Widom, 2003; Ornduff et al., 2001). 

Colman and Widom (2004) drew data from a prospective study of childhood maltreatment that was used examine the intimate relationships between grown up individuals who were abused and neglected and controlled as children. They concluded that the intimate relationships of adults maltreated as children differ from other adults who were not abused on the basis of stability and quality.  Colman and Widom (2004) found that both male and female adults that were abused and/or neglected as children reported substantially higher rates of relationship disruption when compared to those with no history of abuse. Women who were abused and/or neglected were not as likely to perceive their current romantic partners as caring, empathic, or open to communicate with them, when compared to their controls and were less sexually faithful to their romantic partners. The researchers noted that the patterns of relation demonstrated were consistent across all maltreatment types and were not altered when family background variables were introduced. 

The findings portray the negative long-term effects that child abuse and neglect have on both males’ and females’ intimate relationships in during adulthood. Although the incidence of abuse and neglect in disadvantaged backgrounds was increased when compared to controls, conclusions were made that family early childhood family disadvantage did not contribute significantly to their poor relationships in adulthood. Moreover, women had a greater risk of experiencing intimacy related difficulties such as dissatisfaction and infidelity within their on-going romantic relationships when abused and neglected males were not. Consequently, early childhood experiences of abuse and neglect may more heavily impact the female victims’ expectations and social behavior compared to males.

In conclusion, early physical abuse, neglect and sexual abuse position individuals at a significantly higher risk of difficulties in their intimate relationship (Colman & Widom, 2004).  Adults who were abused or neglected in childhood also manifested relationship problems. All three types of abuse experienced in abused women increased the risk of infidelity with multiple partners. Although child maltreatment affects adults’ willingness to both form and maintain romantic partnerships, abused and neglected adults were at increased likelihood than the control to cohabit with their partners for over a year. This suggests that individuals who were abused or neglected as children may be more hesitant than others to enter the next step of marriage. This reluctance relates to their ability to stay in marriages as they are more likely to leave their intimate partners during marriage than the non-abused individuals. 

ACE & Adult love relationships

An abundance of growing research demonstrates a strong correlation between adverse childhood experiences and poor psychosocial outcomes in adulthood. For example, negative parent-child relationships have been proven to poorly affect adult love relationships and parenting, and can cause a range of mental health and antisocial difficulties (Brown & Moran, 1994; Kessler & Magee, 1993; McCarthy & Taylor, 1999; McCarthy & Maughan, 2010). The ways that individuals interpret and process adverse childhood experiences may affect future psychosocial behavior. Attachment theory argues that young children will form cognitive-affective representations or internal working models of their experiences during attachment relationships which determines whether adverse effects of the negative experiences will persist (Bowlby, 1973, 1985; Rutter, 2002). Attachment is believed to affect our love relationships in adulthood. 

A prospective longitudinal study of 80 Israeli young men found that having a secure state of mind, predicted levels of intimacy in both romantic and friendly relationships (Mayseless & Scharf, 2007). Roisman and colleagues (2002), found that at aged 20 and 21 securely attached individuals engaged in higher quality relationships compared to insecure individuals. Both of these studies shine light on the ways in which adverse childhood experiences are processed and how they affect the later patterns of psychosocial functioning. 

McCarthy and Maughan’s (2010) completed a study to test the ways in which negative childhood experiences are processed affects psychosocial functioning in adulthood. Out of the 34 women that were all subject to ACE, 50% reported a history of satisfaction in their romantic relationships, and the other 50% had problematic past relationships.  The researchers concluded that the majority of women with a satisfying adult love relationship demonstrated secure/autonomous attachment status. These women demonstrated the ability to accept the reality of bad past experiences, and came to terms with their attachment experiences despite going through adverse childhood experiences. The authors, thus, postulated that the ability to work through and accept adverse childhood experiences may be associated with one’s ability to achieve positive functioning in close relationships later in life.  Subsequently, there was a strong correlation noted between insecure attachment status and poor functioning in adulthood relationships. This insecure attachment status contributes to problems in initiating and maintaining close intimate relationships in adult life.  The authors demonstrated a possible connection between the ability for one to think in a coherent and unified way about attachment-related experiences and the ability to alter negative cycles of psychosocial functioning. 

McCarthy and Maughan’s (2010) demonstrate that although 40% of women had a history of satisfying adult relationships, negative internal working models of attachment were still present. This suggests that individuals’ internal working models of attachment greatly influences the quality of romantic and marital relationships (Cowan et al., 2009; Creasey, 2002).  Evidence is also present to show that having a secure partner provides a buffering system against negative relationship outcomes (Paley et al., 2002). 

Overall, the findings demonstrated from McCarthy and Maughan’s (2010) study indicate that despite negative parent-child experiences, some women are able to clearly about attachment, and that internal models are strongly associated with the quality of adulthood relationships. 

Long term effects of abuse on relationships

Child maltreatment is defined by Wells et al. (2016) as  the abuse and neglect of children under age 18 resulting in harm to the child’s health, development, dignity, and survival in a relational context involving responsibility, trust, and power” (p. 22).

An astounding one-third of partners in couples therapy have a history of childhood maltreatment (Anderson & Miller, 2006; Wells et al., 2016). Although adult survivors of childhood abuse may deny that the interpersonal effects that abuse has on them impact their adult relationships, it common that these effects greatly impact their intimate relationships in adulthood (Lindauer, 2012; Millwood, 2011). When an individual’s perception of safety is distorted at an early age, it can result in them feeling unsafe, and lacking trust in their adult relationships (Brown et al., 2012; Kochka & Carolan, 2002; Nelson & Wampler, 2002). Survivors may demonstrate problems with regulating their emotions which results in displaying anger, or fear of intimacy which then negatively affects their sexual lives (Liang et al., 2006; MacIntosh & Johnson, 2008). In a study by Chauncey (1994), husbands of women who had suffered childhood sexual abuse reported feeling uncertain in how to treat their wives appropriately. The rage still present that these women held against their perpetrator(s) caused disparities within their relationships resulting in both parties feeling disoriented. This demonstrates the great influence that one partner’s negative history can have on the romantic relationships by not only negatively impacting them, but also their partner (Wiersma, 2003).

Wells et al. (2016) examined the significance that power balances have within relationships. They argued that power within the relationship influences how each partner may influence the other to fulfill their needs (Wells et al., 2016; Knudson-Martin, 2015). When we see power inequality in relationships the couple it alters their connection since one partner undertakes a role of carrying the excess burden of maintaining order within the relationship. Power difference may be gender-based and covert which can result in the other partner being taken for granted as a result of cultural and societal discourses which impact the give – and – take balance between the partners (Lips, 1991; Knudson-Martin, 2013, 2015). These can often be tied to childhood abuse. No matter the gender of the individual, childhood abuse and maltreatment can cause the disempowered victim to seek power and control within their adult intimate relationships (Henry et al., 2011; Hill & Alexander, 1993; Liem et al., 1996). In some situations, the need for power over their loved one can be attributed to fear of abandonment (Reyome, 2010). The same power disparities that were embedded in the child during childhood may carry over to their loving relationships externalized in their inability to trust their intimate partner, and foster suspicion and hostility (Wright et al., 2007).  Both men and women face power discrepancies in adult intimate relationships when trying to uphold the typical cultural masculine and feminine norms. The cultural message of masculinity dictates that men need to be independent, autonomous, and invulnerable however they may feel powerless within their relationship (Bergman, 1995; Mejia, 2005).  Similarly, adult women survivors seeking power may not uphold the cultural beliefs of femininity which are the vulnerable, self – sacrificing image of women in successful, romantic relationships (Aronson & Buccholz, 2001; Miller, 1976). 

Insecurity with power in a relationship can be attributed to adult survivors perceiving their partners as unfair or untrustworthy (Silverstein et al., 2009). This may lead to the suppression of the other partners needs within the relationship.  In instances such as this, when an individual feels threatened, the brain’s amygdala generates a fight or flight response within our body that may ultimately impact the interpersonal communication between the couple (Wells et al., 2016). These negative interactions may cause detrimental complications for individuals in these relationships such as emotional distancing, conflict or having a constant (Fishbane, 2007, 2013; Fishbane & Wells, 2015). 

The effect of neglect on romantic relationships

Interparental relationships significantly influences their offspring’s future romantic relationships, communication skills, conflict resolution styles, and ability to form trust in others (Crockett & Randall, 2006; Maleck & Papp, 2015; Weigel, 2007). When looking in the homes of neglected children, they commonly witness interpersonal conflict, infidelity, poor communication, and detachment. As a result of what was witnessed growing up, these often are insecurely attached, find it difficult to trust and create bonds with others, which negatively impacts their romantic relationships (Hazan & Shaver, 1987; Maleck & Papp, 2015).   Various adult attachment styles can impact the relationship between childhood neglect/abuse and adult depression and anxiety (Bifulco et al., 2006). In particular, children who experienced neglect significantly related to adult attachment insecurity resulting in difficulties with adulthood relationships (Sciarrino et al., 2018). Maleck and Papp’s (2015) study found that during times of conflict with their romantic partners males displayed ineffective communication strategies whereas females did not. These differences could be due to the differing skills and opportunities that men and women acquire and undergo though out their lives.  Since females engage in more self-disclosure and intimacy among relationships with their friends they are always perfecting and improving upon communication skills. Comparatively, males are less likely to engage in deep communication since their friendships are often characterized by shared activity, which leaves less room for them to improve their communication skills (Underwood & Rosen, 2009). 

“The effects of neglect permeate multiple facets of development, hindering social, emotional, physical, and attachment development throughout the lifespan. Children who were reared in neglectful families exhibit language deficits, interpersonal deficits, cognitive deficits, psychological issues, and attachment insecurity. Specifically, neglect can disrupt and impede the development of attachment security between an infant and his caregiver due to the lack of interaction between the caregiver and child, necessary modeling of appropriate emotion regulation skills, and trust that the caregiver will meet the infant’s needs” (Sciarrino et al., 2018; p. 24).

Insufficient parenting, as seen through ineffective parental behaviors, negatively affects the children and result in them developing both, inappropriate ways of coping, such as impulsive behaviors, and ineffective interpersonal styles of relating to others (Kim & Cicchetti, 2010; Maheu et al., 2010; Widom, 2000).  Neglected children aged 6-12 experience difficulties in regulating their emotions which are externalized by aggressive behaviors, resulting in negative relationships with peers which attributed to the way they were neglected and rejected at home by their parents (Chapple et al., 2005; Kim & Cicchetti, 2010). In a retrospective report, childhood neglect (i.e., physical and emotional neglect) was negatively correlated with perceived family and friend support (Powers et al., 2009). Children who experienced neglect demonstrated lower levels of perceived support in adulthood may be associated with deficient interpersonal skills when compared to non-maltreated controls (Sperry & Widom, 2013). As neglected children grow up, they may experience lower levels of support which reinforces their attachment insecurity. Perceived support in adulthood in women is negatively correlated with depression, however it is not in men (Powers et al., 2009). Sperry and Widom (2013) believed that childhood lack of support due to the stresses present in the household may destroy later relationships overtime. 

Unsuccessful familial environments demonstrate high levels of conflict and control, and low levels of cohesion and independence (Gold, 2000; Gold et al., 2004). Therefore, it is not surprising that both neglected and abused children most commonly do not disclose to others their interactions at home, resulting in social withdrawal, lower instances of marriage and higher rates of divorce (Powers et al., 2009; Widom, 2000). Even though neglected children have higher rates of marital difficulties when they age, developing a healthy relationship, romantic or not, may buffer the effects of ineffective parenting (Sperry & Widom, 2013). Emotional regulation difficulties which can contribute to the development of psychopathology can be due to chronic neglect (Glaser, 2000; Pechtel & Pizzagalli, 2011). 

Maheu et al., (2010) concluded that individuals that experienced caregiver deprivation and emotional neglect presented problems in identifying emotional expressions, which partially is attributed to adverse neurological development associated with neglect. In particular, neglected or abused children could not identify and process positive emotions, which can be a result of not having experienced them in childhood (Bogdan et al., 2012; Kim & Cicchetti, 2010; Young & Widom, 2014). Additionally, lack of adequate emotion regulation as a result of parental neglect may also be related to the higher rate of eating disorders seen in adulthood (Pignatelli et al., 2017). 

ACE & interpersonal relations in adulthood

Various studies completed have concluded that childhood trauma is related to the onset, symptom severity, and course of depression and anxiety disorders. Evidence suggests that poor social function before treatment is associated with earlier age of onset, higher levels of depressive symptoms, and lower remission rates after psychotherapy (Huh et al., 2014). Additionally, recurrent episodes and chronicity of depression and suicidality were a result of childhood trauma (Jaworska et al., 2014; Moskvina et al., 2007; Tunnard et al., 2014).  Therefore Huh et al. (2014) investigated the relationship between various childhood traumatic experiences and adult interpersonal and social functioning in a large clinical sample. They concluded that depressive symptoms, state-trait anxiety, and anxiety sensitivity are related to various types of childhood trauma, conclusions that are the same as other research (Hankin, 2005; Rademaker et al., 2008). 

Huh et al.’s (2014) research demonstrates that individuals with a history of childhood trauma experience higher depression and anxiety severity than those who were not abused in childhood. Not only is childhood trauma been shown to impact depression and anxiety, it has also been associated with other types of psychopathology such as dissociation, affecting age of onset, chronicity, and recurrence of anxiety/depressive disorder (Kilic et al., 2014; Sar et al., 2013).  They concluded that although sensitivity to anxiety was significantly associated with childhood physical neglect, it was not with childhood emotional neglect. In addition, depressive symptoms and state-trait anxiety were not significantly associated with childhood physical neglect however it is significantly associated with anxiety sensitivity. This may suggest, argued Huh et al. (2014), that the various types of childhood trauma impact a different component of anxiety and depression. Huh et al. (2014) also found that child abuse, and in particular emotional abuse, emotional neglect, and sexual abuse, is expressed via adult interpersonal problems and distress when compared to those without history of such. In patients with a history of childhood physical abuse we see significantly higher levels of dominant/controlling and intrusive/needy interpersonal patterns. However that is not observed with interpersonal difficulty, when compared to patients that did not go through physical abuse in childhood. Evidence indicates the strong impact that child abuse has on intimate relationships later in life, and one’s ability to form a secure attachment to others (Davis et al., 2001; Hankin, 2005; Withers et al., 2013).  Factors such as earlier age of onset, chronicity, and more recurrent episodes of trauma-related depression might impacts one’s ability to form strong interpersonal relationships (Jaworska et al., 2014).  Individuals that were subject to trauma in childhood are at risk for abusive or traumatic relationships in adulthood. Huh et al. (2014) argued that individuals with a history of abuse may attempt to resolve the emotional turmoil (which is present as a result of the abuse) by exhibiting control in their interpersonal relationships through initiating potentially traumatic interactions with their intimate partner (see also Freud, 1958a, 1958b). In addition, Huh et al. (2014) emphasized that childhood sexual abuse is greatly associated with diverse interpersonal problems in adulthood when compared to other forms of abuse/trauma. The patients who were sexually abused in childhood suffered from domineering/controlling, overly accommodating, self-sacrificing, and intrusive/needy interpersonal traits. Consequently, childhood sexual abuse has divergent interpersonal patterns through dominant and submissive attitude expression simultaneously.  Huh et al. (2014) supported that finding by suggesting that sexually abused victims tend to fluctuate by seeking closeness to others in order to get help but they also keep their distance in order to protect themselves from being hurt (see also Drapeau & Perry, 2004).  Huh et al. (2014) also found that patients who were emotionally neglected during childhood also exhibited a wide range of interpersonal problems.  In addition to domineering/controlling and intrusive/needy problems mainly in the interpersonal domain, they also displayed nonassertive, overly accommodating, and self-sacrificing interpersonal issues.  There was no correlation found between childhood physical neglect and adult interpersonal relationship problems.

ACE & adult intimate relationships of women

The effects of ACE

Unfortunately, the effects of childhood abuse and neglect do not stop in childhood, but are experienced long-term into adulthood (Schutze et al. 2020). Results of childhood maltreatment include poorer psychological and physical wellbeing, resulting in an increase of mental health disorders including substance abuse, depression and anxiety (Hughes et al., 2017; Norman et al., 2012; Reiser et al., 2014). ACE can modify central regulatory processes and impair the activity of major neuroregulatory systems (Anda et al., 2006). For example, the negative impact on the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal axis and the sympathetic nervous system may lead to an increased response to stressors (Bremner, 1999; Ladd et al., 1996).  ACE may also impact the endocrine and immune system resulting in impairments of cognition, behavior, emotional regulation, and health (Hughes et al., 2017). In addition, a positive correlation between ACE and different diseases was found such as cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, cancer, neurological and musculoskeletal problems, endometriosis, frequent headaches and migraines, sleep disturbances, and chronic pain (Anda et al., 2010; Chapman et al., 2011; Davis et al., 2005; Elfgen, et al., 2017; Leeners et al., 2016; Leeners, et al., 2013; Liebermann et al., 2018). Finally, since ACE increases risky behaviors, individuals may have a higher chance of contracting STDs (Norman et al., 2012).

Long term consequences of ACE

Various studies investigated the impact that ACE has on interpersonal relationships since partnership greatly affects one’s health and overall quality of life (Davis et al., 2000; Davis et al., 2001; Poole et al., 2018). Supportive social relationships are health enhancing as they serve as a buffer system for stress (Chao, 2011; Finch et al., 1999), and negative social relationships may lead to psychological distress and depression (Shahar et al., 2004). Schutze et al. (2020) argued that in women who were abused as children, and now experience negative social relationships it may contribute to impaired health (Monnat & Chandler, 2015; Anda et al., 2006; Felitti et al., 1998; Hughes et al., 2017 Reiser et al., 2014). Additionally, conflicts in their social relationships, in which these women may be involved in, increase the incidence of abuse and neglect towards children raised in such households (Stith et al., 2009). Since ACE may contribute to emotional dysregulation in individuals, they may cause interpersonal difficulties resulting in fear of intimacy, forming trusting relationships in child- and adulthood, and sexual dysfunction (Davis et al., 2001; Maniglio, 2009; Poole et al., 2018).  It is evident that women who underwent abuse in childhood tend to be more sensitive to criticism, have an impaired self-esteem, and deploy emotional avoidance to cope with their past trauma, which all negatively impact their adult relationships (Davis et al., 2001; Maniglio, 2009; Poole et al., 2018). Consequently, women with a history of ACE display less interest in serious relationships, have lower marriage rates, higher divorce rates (Davis et al., 2000; Poole et al., 2018), and are often unsatisfied with the quality of their relationships. Schutze et al. (2020) compared women who underwent ACE, to those who did not, in order to investigate the impact that ACE has on the quality of adulthood relationships. The researchers investigated the impact that the four measures of abuse, namely, emotional abuse, emotional neglect, physical abuse/neglect and sexual abuse as well as household dysfunction have on intimate relationships.  Schutze et al. (2020) found that women who had a history of abuse as a child had lower partnership quality, with a history of emotional and sexual abuse in childhood showing the strongest association with lower partnership quality. They rate their partnership happiness lower and have a greater number of relational conflicts when compared to those without ACE. However, the duration of their intimate relationships was found to be equal in both groups. This demonstrates that regardless of ACE, women still commit to, and maintain, long-term relationships. Previous research that looked at the different forms of ACE indicated strong associations between emotional abuse and consequences of traumatic experiences (Liebermann et al., 2018; Poole et al., 2018).  Schutze et al. (2020) found that an abundance of participants who suffered ACE reported lower partnership quality in regard to factors such as good argumentative behavior, affection, solidarity, and communication. These women disclosed lower levels of happiness in their relationships, and were contemplating separation (see also Poole et al., 2018). 

Abuse is most commonly inflicted on children by individuals who are closest to them, who should be in charge of their safety and wellbeing. However, since these individuals are doing the opposite of what they should be, the children learn that no one is trustworthy, which negatively impacts their future relationships. These children then commonly display emotional dysregulation, fear of intimacy, emotional argumentative behavior and bad communication, which are all detrimental in intimate relationships. 

When Schutze et al. (2020) examine the effects that specific forms of abuse have on adulthood intimate behavior, they found ACE of a sexual and emotional nature to have a significant association with impaired partnership quality, to a larger extent than the other types of ACE had.  The researchers stated that it may be possible for women to succeed in preventing consequences of physical abuse more easily due to physical abuse usually being limited to specific situations, while emotional abuse is mostly omnipresent. Since emotional and sexual abuse demonstrated a strong association with psychological disorders such as depression or anxiety in their participants, this shines light on the difficulties that the women encounter in their intimate relationships. In addition, conflicts around sexuality were reported by women who were sexually abused in childhood which showed that the level of sexual activity of women with ACE was found to be either less or more than women who were not abused as children.  Similar to the findings of Wegman and Stetler (2009), Schutze et al. (2020) found higher prevalence of chronic pain and sleep disorders in association with ACE. 

ACE & relating to family in adulthood

Childhood maltreatment and adverse events that occur early in life can have a significant influence on the quality of intimate, social and familial relationships over one’s life course (Gregory et al., 2006; Schafer et al., 2011; Underwood et al., 2011). Individuals in their adult life, who were abused in their childhood demonstrate social and psychological difficulties including detached relationships with parents (Davey et al., 2007), interpersonal difficulties (Johnson et al., 2002; Wilson et al., 2006), marital problems (Whisman, 2006), and impaired emotional regulation (Repetti et al., 2002). Studies demonstrate that emotional support obtained from family members moderates, and mediates the effects of severe physical abuse on one’s physical and mental health (Pitzer & Fingerman, 2010; Shaw & Krause, 2002).  A study conducted, with older adults being the focus, found that negative relationships with parents in addition to childhood adversities, interfered with the development of strong social skills in adulthood, which resulted in reduced social or close relationships and feeling emotionally isolated (Wilson et al., 2006).  Due to the importance that strong familial relationships have for the general wellbeing and positive physical, mental, and social functioning in old age, the connection between childhood abuse and familial relationships in later life is an important area of research. Researchers who study attachment argue that individuals who underwent ACE exhibit an insecure attachment style, which promotes cognitive vulnerabilities that are sustained by one feeling negatively about their self-worth, and getting support from others (Bowlby, 1982; Wright et al., 2009).  Consequently, relationships in later life that incorporate feelings of trust, intimacy and security may be harmed (Elder, 1974). The influence of perceived control, which is one’s belief that they influence their life outcomes, has been the most common psychosocial resource explored within the literature. Perceived control significantly impacts one’s wellbeing, health and life satisfaction (Lachman & Prenda, 2004; Neupert et al., 2009 Pitzer & Fingerman, 2010). Ryff and Singer (1996) argued that self-acceptance, which is reflective of self-actualization, maturity and a sense of integrity, is another factor that is crucial for positive psychological functioning.

There is little research on the effects that childhood abuse has on relationships with kin in later years, therefore Savla et al. (2013) were determined to explore this topic. Their participants included 1266 middle aged and 1,219 older adults who reported emotional abuse, physical abuse and childhood adversities. Their research brought to light the impact that childhood physical abuse, emotional abuse and adversities have on middle-aged adults and older adults. The researchers found no correlation between childhood physical abuse and family closeness in older adults. They believed that part of the difference between the two age groups could partially be the way the cohorts were raised. In older adults, though not in younger ones, strict parenting might have been interpreted as acceptable (Forehand & McKinney, 1993).  Consistent with attachment theory, it demonstrates that childhood emotional abuse had a negative impact on both cohorts’ feelings of closeness to family, and negatively impacted their relationships in their later years (Savla et al., 2013).  Childhood adversities were not found to be associated with emotional closeness to family (Savla et al., 2013). In addition, personal control was proven to be an important psychosocial resource for middle-aged adults however there was no relationship for the older adults. Savla et al. (2013) researched a component, which was not featured within previous research, is the relationship between childhood family abuse and family closeness later in life. In particular, it was concluded that self-acceptance was positively correlated with family closeness and acted as a buffer to the negative effects that childhood emotional and physical abuse had on maintaining family closeness among the middle-aged cohort yet not the older adults. The differences seen could be a result of the inherent values that each cohort has. The older adults came out of a time of war and economic hardship, they were able to preserve and build lives out of minimal resources (Elder & Conger, 2002). In comparison, the middle-aged participants were part of the baby boomers which allowed them to have higher education, fought for equal rights for women, and embraced civil rights which resulted in them finding self-fulfillment and self-respect (Savla et al, 2013).

ACE and sexual victimization in adulthood

Children and adolescents who are exposed to early trauma (abuse and neglect) are at increased risk for experiencing violence during their lifetime, along with an increased risk for poorer health and social outcomes (Wilkins et al., 2014). Approximately 19.3% of women and 1.7% of men in the United States (U.S.) have been raped in their lifetime and an estimated 43.9% of women and 23.4% of men have experienced other forms of sexual violence, such as for example sexual coercion, unwanted sexual contact or sexual experiences (Breiding et al., 2014). Since sexual violence is a significant problem, Ports et al.’s (2016) researched the relationship between adverse childhood experiences, including childhood sexual abuse (CSA), and sexual victimization (SV) in adulthood. In the U.S., 6% of children and youth experienced a sexual offense and 1.4% experienced a sexual assault within the last year. Incidence rates were highest for 14–17-year-old girls, however both male and female rates of lifetime sexual assault in this age group were 6% and 14.3% respectively (Finkelhor et al., 2015). 

The impact that CSA has on an individual are significant and long lasting. CSA is linked to poor psychological, social, and physiological outcomes across one’s life, including an increased risk of mental health challenges such as depression, dissociation and suicide attempts as well as engagement in unsafe sexual behaviors (Dube et al., 2005; Kendler et al., 2000; Tyler, 2002; Weiss, et al., 1999; Steel & Herlitz, 2005; Van Dorn et al., 2005). Trickett et al.’s, (2011) 23-year longitudinal study of sexually abused women found these women had an earlier onset of puberty, various cognitive deficits, hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal attenuation, higher rates of obesity, more major illnesses and healthcare utilization than non-abused females, self-mutilation, and physical and sexual re-victimization. 

Parenting after ACE

ACE & emotional inhibition

Emotional regulation (ER) development is a key task that should be obtained in childhood through various interactions with their primary caregivers (Eisenberg & Morris, 2002).  However, childhood maltreatment is thought to interfere with the development of ER due to the disruption in the relationship between the children and the caregiver, resulting in the child not acquiring skills that are essential for self-regulation which can impact their adult life (Cabechinha-Alati et al., 2020; Langevin et al., 2015). When non-abused adults were compared to those who were abused as children, we see deficits in emotional processing and greater emotional dysregulation in those who were abused (Burns et al., 2010; Young & Widom, 2014). The collective effects of various types of adverse childhood experiences include increased occurrence of mental health problems and interpersonal difficulties in adulthood (Hughes et al., 2017; Poole et al., 2018). Emotional dysregulation appears to mediate the relationship between cumulative childhood adversities and negative psychosocial outcomes (Abravanel et al., 2015). Various research confirms the impact that various forms of victimization in childhood have on ER difficulties and interpersonal problems in adulthood (Barnes et al., 2016; Cloitre et al., 2009). 

Parenting after ER

ER is a difficult process in which parents are required to regulate their own emotions, while at the same time attempting to provide support to their child (Cabechinha-Alati et al., 2020).  Smith et al.’s (2014) research concluded that parents, in particular mothers with a history of child maltreatment, who display negative affect and experience problems in regulating emotions such as anger, increase the risk for abusive parenting. For example, McCullough et al. (2014) found that mothers who were abused as children exhibited negative parenting behaviors such as psychological control of the child, hostility, and unavailability. This was particularly important in mothers who had trouble with their ER, resulting in possibly compromising their children’s emotional development (Plant et al., 2018).

Parental emotion socialization

Parental emotion socialization (ES) is a very important parental behavior in children developing ER. Morris et al. (2007) proposed that a child’s ER is impacted by three types of ES: (a) observation and modelling, (b) parenting practices and behaviors, and (c) the emotional climate of the family. Of the three types of ES, the most influential are the behaviors that parents display when children express their emotions. This is due to parental responses being a significant indication for a direct method of socialization since the children are provided with explicit feedback after expressing their feelings (Eisenberg et al., 1998; Thompson & Meyer, 2007). Morris et al. (2007) also believed that parental characteristics, and in particular their ER skills, may influence children’s ER through parental ES practices.  For example, in mothers who have difficulties with their ER, they often respond to their child’s distress by punishing or by showing minimizing responses, which then cause the children’s ER difficulties (Briscoe et al., 2019).     

Regulatory styles greatly impact one’s ability to exercise ER. For example, for individuals that utilize adaptive regulatory styles, they are able to take advantage of a wide range of ER strategies and can access them dependent on the situation at hand (Bonnanno & Burton, 2013). On the other hand, individuals may exhibit over-resilience on a single strategy, which is considered a maladaptive regulatory style. For example, when individuals opt to suppress their emotions, they experience greater negative emotionality and interpersonal problems when compared to those who do not use this approach consistently (Gross & John, 2003).  When individuals rely on suppressing their emotions, they have been proven to have an increased risk of trauma-related social anxiety, depressive disorder, and psychopathology (D’Avanzato et al., 2013; Moore et al., 2008).  When parental figures demonstrate unsupportive behaviors towards their children, it increases the risk of the children inhibiting their emotions throughout their life course (Gunzenhauser et al., 2014). Cabechinha-Alati et al (2020) researched the relationship between polyvictimization in childhood and parental ER and ES in adulthood.  Their findings indicate that individuals that had a history of polyvictimization and experienced problems with ER may in adulthood utilize unsupportive contingencies, resulting in their children’s reliance on emotional inhibition.  In addition, the researchers found that parents with higher levels of polyvictimization, demonstrated lower levels of ER skills for anger, sadness, and anxiety meaning that parents who underwent multiple types of maltreatment in childhood utilized unsupportive responses to these emotions (see also Berthelot et al., 2014; Hopfinger et al., 2016). However, parental ER skills and ES practices were highly correlated across all three emotions. These findings line up with previous studies that have found that parental emotion dysregulation is a predictor of unsupportive ES (Briscoe et al., 2019; Morelen et al., 2016). Furthermore, Cabechinha-Alati et al. (2020) found that in populations with psychopathologies (for example depression and psychosis), inconsistencies with emotion-specific ER may be more apparent. Research done on ES in maltreating parents found that maltreating parents have a higher probability of invalidating their children’s negative emotions (Shipman et al., 2007) or responding to them in a neglectful, or disciplinary manner (Shipman et al., 2005).  Additionally, children raised by maltreating parents had an increased probability of having parental models who engage in unsupportive ES practices, which may be them replicating the behavioral models from their own childhood, which demonstrates the concept of social learning (McCullough et al., 2014). 

Navigating parenthood following CSA

CSA is defined as “experiencing at least one contact (e.g., intercourse, genital contact) or noncontact (e.g. sexual invitations, exhibitionism) episode by either a family or nonfamily member before the age of 18” (Schuetze & Eiden, 2005, p. 649). In the case of CSA, the perpetrator is most often a person that the child trusts, which enhances the long-lasting effects it has on the child. Although some children, who were subject to CSA, exhibit immediate psychological, and interpersonal effects in childhood (Cohen et al., 2004), the negative effects are often extended into adulthood, affecting not only the victim but also their social, familial (children) and intimate relationships (Dube et al., 2005; Testa et al., 2011). Previous research suggests that parenting styles of survivors of CSA may have difficulties around healthy emotional expression, positive coping skills, strong internal locus of control, and the ability to healthily parent their children (Wright et al., 2012). This may be attribut5ed to women who are CSA survivors experiencing depression (Wilson & Scarpa, 2015), intimate partner violence (Schuetze & Eiden, 2005), low confidence and discomfort with physical contact (Douglass, 2000).  Haiyasoso and Trepal (2019) set out to explore how CSA impacted women’s parenting styles in adulthood. Consequently, the authors utilized narratology, which allowed them to gather information about their topic, through the personal stories of the participants (Hays & Singh, 2012). 

Effects of CSA

Felitti et al.’s (1998) seminal research found that adverse childhood experiences (ACE) can lead to a variety of life-threatening illnesses in adults such as skeletal fractures, emphysema, hepatitis, heart disease, and cancer. Although the study focused on ACE, it was determined that CSA was the second most prevalent type of ACE, and the findings determine that CSA affects adult physical health. In addition to the impact that CSA has on physical health, Maniglio’s (2012) research outlines the psychological toll that CSA adult survivors have. This includes anxiety (Mangilio, 2012), symptoms of posttraumatic stress (see also Ullman, 2007) as well as depression (Wilson & Scarpa, 2015). Wilson and Scarpa (2015) argued that depression mediates the relationship between CSA and interpersonal difficulties, which may be externalized as aggression, ambivalence, sensitivity, or need for approval (Wilson & Scarpa, 2015).  Previous research indicates that some survivors of CSA have difficulties around trust, intimacy, control, and insecurity for years following their abuse which negatively impacts their future relationships (Nelson & Wampler, 2000; Tummala-Narra et al., 2012).

Impact of CSA on parenting

Typical stressors of being a parent accompanied by psychological and interpersonal struggles associated with a history of CSA negatively interfere with survivors’ parenting (DiLillo & Damashek 2003; Wright et al., 2012). Adult women who are survivors of CSA may become proficient at avoiding emotions, which may in turn appear as them being less alert to threats that their children may be facing (Leonard & Follette, 2002).  In addition, these mothers often struggle with enforcing appropriate levels of discipline for their children, which is externalized as being permissive towards their children (Ruscio, 2001; Testa et al., 2011).

Haiyasoso and Trepal’s (2019) study determined the impact that CSA survivors’ problems have on parenting experiences by utilizing a relational-cultural lens. It was found that mothers tried to prevent their children from experiencing CSA by educating them about ways to be safe, and the steps to take if anything like CSA happened to them. The participants exhibited difficulties in letting go, or losing sight of their children due to not trusting those involved in their children’s lives. Haiyasoso and Trepal (2019) observed that their participants understood the overwhelming, life-long impact of surviving CSA and having negative parental/close figures therefore they insisted on different relational images for their children by protecting their children not only from CSA but from any inappropriate parental response. Parents were found to enact relational resilience in which was displayed in their aim to create new relational templates for their children. Additionally, multiple participants used faith, or spirituality, for guidance and support, which is supported by other research (Singh et al., 2013). Participants also experienced disconnection during important developmental stages of interaction with their children such as diaper changes, and physical intimacy. They believed that this way of parenting was different from the “normal” way which may fuel feelings of vulnerability in their parenting styles. 

To summarize , it is clear form this brief review that child abuse has significant, sometime severe, and life-long effects on its victims.  These effects may be experienced emotionally, physically, behaviorally, spiritually, or socially. That is to say, we as a society need to do all we can to prevent child abuse, and if ACE does occur, it should be treated with a long-term view and not just addressing the victimized child’s immediate needs and pain.  Since ACE may be transmitted across generations, a reduction of ACE on today’s children will result in healthier future generations.

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"We recently published an article entitled “Influence of beta-Cyclodextrins upon the Degradation of Carbofuran Derivatives under Alkaline Conditions" in the Journal of “Pesticides and Biofertilizers” to show that the cyclodextrins protect the carbamates increasing their half-life time in the presence of basic conditions This will be very helpful to understand carbofuran behaviour in the analytical, agro-environmental and food areas. We greatly appreciated the interaction with the editor and the editorial team; we were particularly well accompanied during the course of the revision process, since all various steps towards publication were short and without delay".

Jesus Simal-Gandara

I would like to express my gratitude towards you process of article review and submission. I found this to be very fair and expedient. Your follow up has been excellent. I have many publications in national and international journal and your process has been one of the best so far. Keep up the great work.

Douglas Miyazaki

We are grateful for this opportunity to provide a glowing recommendation to the Journal of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy. We found that the editorial team were very supportive, helpful, kept us abreast of timelines and over all very professional in nature. The peer review process was rigorous, efficient and constructive that really enhanced our article submission. The experience with this journal remains one of our best ever and we look forward to providing future submissions in the near future.

Dr Griffith

I am very pleased to serve as EBM of the journal, I hope many years of my experience in stem cells can help the journal from one way or another. As we know, stem cells hold great potential for regenerative medicine, which are mostly used to promote the repair response of diseased, dysfunctional or injured tissue using stem cells or their derivatives. I think Stem Cell Research and Therapeutics International is a great platform to publish and share the understanding towards the biology and translational or clinical application of stem cells.

Dr Tong Ming Liu

I would like to give my testimony in the support I have got by the peer review process and to support the editorial office where they were of asset to support young author like me to be encouraged to publish their work in your respected journal and globalize and share knowledge across the globe. I really give my great gratitude to your journal and the peer review including the editorial office.

Husain Taha Radhi

I am delighted to publish our manuscript entitled "A Perspective on Cocaine Induced Stroke - Its Mechanisms and Management" in the Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery. The peer review process, support from the editorial office, and quality of the journal are excellent. The manuscripts published are of high quality and of excellent scientific value. I recommend this journal very much to colleagues.

Dr.Tania Muñoz, My experience as researcher and author of a review article in The Journal Clinical Cardiology and Interventions has been very enriching and stimulating. The editorial team is excellent, performs its work with absolute responsibility and delivery. They are proactive, dynamic and receptive to all proposals. Supporting at all times the vast universe of authors who choose them as an option for publication. The team of review specialists, members of the editorial board, are brilliant professionals, with remarkable performance in medical research and scientific methodology. Together they form a frontline team that consolidates the JCCI as a magnificent option for the publication and review of high-level medical articles and broad collective interest. I am honored to be able to share my review article and open to receive all your comments.

Tania Munoz

“The peer review process of JPMHC is quick and effective. Authors are benefited by good and professional reviewers with huge experience in the field of psychology and mental health. The support from the editorial office is very professional. People to contact to are friendly and happy to help and assist any query authors might have. Quality of the Journal is scientific and publishes ground-breaking research on mental health that is useful for other professionals in the field”.

George Varvatsoulias

Dear editorial department: On behalf of our team, I hereby certify the reliability and superiority of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews in the peer review process, editorial support, and journal quality. Firstly, the peer review process of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is rigorous, fair, transparent, fast, and of high quality. The editorial department invites experts from relevant fields as anonymous reviewers to review all submitted manuscripts. These experts have rich academic backgrounds and experience, and can accurately evaluate the academic quality, originality, and suitability of manuscripts. The editorial department is committed to ensuring the rigor of the peer review process, while also making every effort to ensure a fast review cycle to meet the needs of authors and the academic community. Secondly, the editorial team of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is composed of a group of senior scholars and professionals with rich experience and professional knowledge in related fields. The editorial department is committed to assisting authors in improving their manuscripts, ensuring their academic accuracy, clarity, and completeness. Editors actively collaborate with authors, providing useful suggestions and feedback to promote the improvement and development of the manuscript. We believe that the support of the editorial department is one of the key factors in ensuring the quality of the journal. Finally, the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is renowned for its high- quality articles and strict academic standards. The editorial department is committed to publishing innovative and academically valuable research results to promote the development and progress of related fields. The International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is reasonably priced and ensures excellent service and quality ratio, allowing authors to obtain high-level academic publishing opportunities in an affordable manner. I hereby solemnly declare that the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews has a high level of credibility and superiority in terms of peer review process, editorial support, reasonable fees, and journal quality. Sincerely, Rui Tao.

Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions I testity the covering of the peer review process, support from the editorial office, and quality of the journal.

Khurram Arshad

Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, we deeply appreciate the interest shown in our work and its publication. It has been a true pleasure to collaborate with you. The peer review process, as well as the support provided by the editorial office, have been exceptional, and the quality of the journal is very high, which was a determining factor in our decision to publish with you.

Gomez Barriga Maria Dolores

The peer reviewers process is quick and effective, the supports from editorial office is excellent, the quality of journal is high. I would like to collabroate with Internatioanl journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews journal clinically in the future time.

Lin Shaw Chin

Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude for the trust placed in our team for the publication in your journal. It has been a true pleasure to collaborate with you on this project. I am pleased to inform you that both the peer review process and the attention from the editorial coordination have been excellent. Your team has worked with dedication and professionalism to ensure that your publication meets the highest standards of quality. We are confident that this collaboration will result in mutual success, and we are eager to see the fruits of this shared effort.

Maria Dolores Gomez Barriga

Dear Dr. Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator 0f Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, I hope this message finds you well. I want to express my utmost gratitude for your excellent work and for the dedication and speed in the publication process of my article titled "Navigating Innovation: Qualitative Insights on Using Technology for Health Education in Acute Coronary Syndrome Patients." I am very satisfied with the peer review process, the support from the editorial office, and the quality of the journal. I hope we can maintain our scientific relationship in the long term.

Dr Maria Dolores Gomez Barriga

Dear Monica Gissare, - Editorial Coordinator of Nutrition and Food Processing. ¨My testimony with you is truly professional, with a positive response regarding the follow-up of the article and its review, you took into account my qualities and the importance of the topic¨.

Dr Maria Regina Penchyna Nieto

Dear Dr. Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator 0f Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, The review process for the article “The Handling of Anti-aggregants and Anticoagulants in the Oncologic Heart Patient Submitted to Surgery” was extremely rigorous and detailed. From the initial submission to the final acceptance, the editorial team at the “Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions” demonstrated a high level of professionalism and dedication. The reviewers provided constructive and detailed feedback, which was essential for improving the quality of our work. Communication was always clear and efficient, ensuring that all our questions were promptly addressed. The quality of the “Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions” is undeniable. It is a peer-reviewed, open-access publication dedicated exclusively to disseminating high-quality research in the field of clinical cardiology and cardiovascular interventions. The journal's impact factor is currently under evaluation, and it is indexed in reputable databases, which further reinforces its credibility and relevance in the scientific field. I highly recommend this journal to researchers looking for a reputable platform to publish their studies.

Dr Marcelo Flavio Gomes Jardim Filho

Dear Editorial Coordinator of the Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing! "I would like to thank the Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing for including and publishing my article. The peer review process was very quick, movement and precise. The Editorial Board has done an extremely conscientious job with much help, valuable comments and advices. I find the journal very valuable from a professional point of view, thank you very much for allowing me to be part of it and I would like to participate in the future!”

Zsuzsanna Bene

Our collaborations.

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Why People stay in Abusive Relationships

While a person that has never been subjected to any form of abuse may find it inconceivable to stay in an abusive relationship, there are many reasons that push the victims into staying. One of the main reasons is conflicting emotions. They may be afraid to leave if they have been threatened while others may feel that abuse is normal especially if they have never been in a healthy relationship (O’Grady). Others may feel embarrassed to leave because their friends will find out that they left because of abuse or even low self-esteem if the victim is blamed for the abuse. Another reason is pressure from religious reasons that may force them to keep the marriage intact or the pressure from society to raise children with both parents (Goodale). Some religions require people to save marriages at almost all costs. Another crucial reason is relying on the abusive partner for all needs especially financial ones. In such a case, the victim may not have a way to start over if they left the abusive relationship. Others may not have anywhere else to go if they decided to leave (Why Women Continue in Abusive Relationships). There is also the complex concept of abuse cycle. Here, abuse happens periodically after which the abusive individual blames something like alcohol for the behavior or even expresses a lot of guilt asking for forgiveness and saying that it would never happen again prompting the victim to believe. The possibility of ‘make-up sex’ is also high and that happens to be significantly pleasurable. This prompts the victim to stay but the same happens when they are abused again in future. Some may not even acknowledge the seriousness of the situation. As such, there are many reasons why a person stays in an abusive relationship, the main ones being fear, dependability, embarrassment, and a complex cycle of abuse.

• Goodale, Gloria. “‘Why I Stayed’: Ray Rice Video Rekindles US Debate on Abusive Relationships.”  ProQuest.  11 Sep. 2014. Web. 18 Dec. 2017.
• O’Grady, Gabriella. “Domestic Violence Inspires Twitter Hashtag Movement.”  ProQuest.  15 Sep. 2014. Web. 18 Dec. 2017.
• “Why Women Continue in Abusive Relationships.” ProQuest. 3 Nov. 2016. Web. 18 Dec. 2017.
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