M±SD
SM, social media; SNS, social networking site.
The content, mean score, and standard deviation of the Basic Empathy Scale and Revised Cyber Bullying Inventory-II are presented in Table 2 . The total mean score for empathy was 3.4±0.4 out of 5, indicating a high level of empathy among the participants. The item with the highest mean score was “I can understand my friend’s happiness when she/he does well at something” (3.7±1.1). Followed by “When someone is feeling ‘down’ I can usually understand how they feel” (3.6±1.2), “I often become sad when watching sad things on or in films” (3.6±1.3), “I can often understand how people are feeling even before they tell” (3.7±1.1), and “I can usually work out when people are cheerful” (3.6±1.1). The item with the lowest mean score was “I find it hard to know when my friends are frightened” (2.8±1.1). The average score was divided by 10 which is the number of items. Thus, for cyberbullying was 1.6±0.5, and that for cybervictimization was 1.7±0.6 out of 4, which indicated the existence of cyberbullying and cybervictimization, with a slightly higher score for the latter. “Insulting someone [on the internet]” was the item with the highest average score (1.9±1.0 for cyberbullying and 2.1±1.1 for cybervictimization), followed by “taking over the password of someone’s account [on the internet]”(1.8±0.9 for cyberbullying and 1.8±0.9 for cybervictimization). “Creating a humiliating website [on the internet]” showed the lowest mean score (1.1±0.5 for cyberbullying and 1.2±0.6 for cybervictimization).
Empathy, Cyberbullying, and Cybervictimization of the Participants ( N =168)
Variable | Categories | Contents | M±SD |
---|---|---|---|
Empathy | Cognitive empathy | I can understand my friend’s happiness when she/he does well at something. | 3.7±1.1 |
I find it hard to know when my friends are frightened. | 2.8±1.1 | ||
When someone is feeling ‘down’ I can usually understand how they feel. | 3.6±1.2 | ||
I can usually work out when my friends are scared. | 3.1±1.0 | ||
I can often understand how people are feeling even before they tell me. | 3.6±1.1 | ||
I can usually work out when people are cheerful. | 3.6±1.1 | ||
I am not usually aware of my friend’s feelings. | 3.4±1.2 | ||
I have trouble figuring out when my friends are happy. | 3.0±1.2 | ||
Sub total | 3.4±0.5 | ||
Affective empathy | My friend’s emotions don’t affect me much. | 3.3±1.2 | |
After being with a friend who is sad about something, I usually feel sad. | 3.5±1.0 | ||
I get caught up in other people’s feelings easily. | 3.2±1.1 | ||
Other people’s feelings don’t bother me at all. | 3.3±1.2 | ||
I often become sad when watching sad things on or in films. | 3.6±1.3 | ||
Seeing a person who has been angered has no effect on my feelings. | 3.0±1.1 | ||
I tend to feel scared when I am with friends who are afraid. | 3.0±1.0 | ||
I often get swept up in my friend’s feelings. | 3.3±1.0 | ||
Sub total | 3.3±0.5 | ||
Total | 3.4±0.4 |
Variable | Contents | Cyber bullying | Cyber victimization |
---|---|---|---|
M±SD | M±SD | ||
Cyberbullying and cybervictimization | [On the internet] taking over the password of someone’s account. | 1.8±0.9 | 1.8±0.9 |
[On the internet] using someone’s account without his/her permission. | 1.5±0.8 | 1.6±0.9 | |
[On the internet] threatening someone. | 1.4±0.8 | 1.7±0.9 | |
[On the internet] insulting someone. | 1.9±1.0 | 2.1±1.1 | |
[On the internet] sending embarrassing and hurtful messages. | 1.7±0.9 | 1.8±1.0 | |
[On the internet] sharing an inappropriate photo or a video of someone without his/her permission. | 1.5±0.8 | 1.7±0.9 | |
[On the internet] sharing a secret with others without the permission of the owner. | 1.6±0.8 | 1.8±0.9 | |
[On the internet] spreading rumors. | 1.5±0.7 | 1.7±0.9 | |
[On the internet] creating an account on behalf of someone without letting him/her know and acting like the account’s owner. | 1.3±0.7 | 1.4±0.8 | |
[On the internet] creating a humiliating website. | 1.1±0.5 | 1.2±0.6 | |
Total | 1.6±0.5 | 1.7±0.6 |
Patterns in empathy, cyberbullying and cybervictimization according to participants’ general characteristics are shown in Table 3 . Total empathy, cognitive empathy, and affective empathy were significantly higher among female participants than among male participants (t=3.82, p <.001, t=2.19, p =.030, and t=4.05, p =.001, respectively). However, there were no significant differences in cyberbullying and cybervictimization by gender (t=0.20, p =.838, and t=0.35, p =.724, respectively).
Differences in Participants’ Empathy, Cyberbullying, and Cybervictimization According to Their Characteristics ( N =168)
Characteristics | Categories | Cognitive empathy | Affective empathy | Empathy (total) | Cyberbullying | Cybervictimization | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M±SD | t or F ( ) | M±SD | t or F ( ) | M±SD | t or F ( ) | M±SD | t or F ( ) | M±SD | t or F ( ) | ||
Gender | Male | 27.0±4.4 | 2.19 (.030) | 25.6±3.9 | 4.05 (.001) | 52.7±7.0 | 3.82 (<.001) | 15.7±4.4 | 0.20 (.838) | 16.9±6.3 | 0.35 (.724) |
Female | 28.5±4.3 | 28.4±4.3 | 57.3±7.7 | 15.5±4.4 | 17.2±5.0 | ||||||
Grade | 7th | 26.2±4.7 | 3.80 (.012) | 25.3±4.9 | 3.45 (.010) | 51.9±8.0 | 3.90 (.010) | 14.0±3.9 | 3.03 (.031) | 15.0±5.2 | 7.66 (<.001) |
8th | 27.7±4.6 | 27.3±4.6 | 55.2±7.8 | 16.9±5.0 | 19.6±6.9 | ||||||
9th | 27.5±3.8 | 27.5±4.5 | 55.1±7.0 | 15.2±3.8 | 15.2±4.3 | ||||||
10th | 29.5±3.9 | 28.4±3.9 | 57.9±7.1 | 16.1±4.5 | 18.3±4.4 | ||||||
Age (year) | 12-15 | 27.3±4.4 | 2.67 (.008) | 26.7±4.7 | 2.51 (.013) | 54.3±7.7 | 2.86 (.005) | 15.3±4.1 | 0.59 (.558) | 16.7±5.8 | 1.13 (.262) |
16-19 | 29.5±3.7 | 28.8±3.9 | 58.4±7.0 | 15.8±4.8 | 17.9±4.6 | ||||||
Daily use (time) | 1-2 | 26.96±4.35 | 0.60 (.615) | 25.79±4.19 | 1.05 (.372) | 52.65±7.53 | 0.92 (.434) | 14.42±3.05 | 0.71 (.547) | 15.42±3.96 | 1.37 (.253) |
3-4 | 26.86±4.59 | 26.09±4.15 | 53.19±7.63 | 15.65±4.17 | 17.04±5.29 | ||||||
5-6 | 26.73±3.44 | 26.85±3.49 | 53.54±6.38 | 15.90±4.71 | 16.67±5.73 | ||||||
≥7 | 27.71±3.55 | 27.10±3.98 | 55.06±6.29 | 15.91±5.01 | 18.11±6.50 |
There was a statistically significant difference in total empathy and both cognitive and affective empathy according to grade level (F=3.90, p =.010, F=3.80, p =.012, and F=3.45, p = .010, respectively). Empathy was significantly higher among grade 10 students than among students of the other grade levels, but the Duncan post hoc test showed no significant difference in the mean scores. In addition, participants’ grade showed a statistically significant association with cyberbullying (F=3.03, p =.031). Cyberbullying was significantly more common among students in grade 8 than among students of the other grade levels, but the Duncan post hoc test showed no significance. In addition, cybervictimization showed a statistically significant difference according to grade level (F=7.66, p <.001), and was also higher in grade 8 participants, but the Duncan post hoc test showed no significance.
Statistically significant differences in total empathy and both cognitive and affective empathy were found according to participants’ age (t=2.86, p =.005, t=2.67, p =.008, and t=2.51, p =.013, respectively). There were no significant differences in cyberbullying or cybervictimization by age (t=0.59, p =.558, and t=1.13, p =.262, respectively). Finally, there were no significant differences in any dependent variables according to the daily use of SM.
Cybervictimization was significantly correlated with participants’ total empathy (r=.18, p =.025) and cognitive empathy (r=.17, p =.030), but not with affective empathy (r=.12, p =.114). Total empathy was not significantly correlated with cyberbullying (r=−.07, p =.359). Cyberbullying was significantly correlated with cybervictimization (r=.60, p <.001) ( Table 4 ).
Correlations among Empathy, Cyberbullying, and Cybervictimization ( N =168)
Variables | Empathy | Cyberbullying | Cybervictimization | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cognitive empathy | Affective empathy | Total | ||||
r ( ) | r ( ) | r ( ) | r ( ) | r ( ) | ||
Empathy | Cognitive empathy | 1 | ||||
Affective empathy | 1 | |||||
Total | .86 (<.001) | .87 (<.001) | 1 | |||
Cyberbullying | .03 (.753) | −.09 (.274) | −.07 (.359) | 1 | ||
Cybervictimization | .17 (.030) | .12 (.114) | .18 (.025) | .60 (<.001) | 1 |
The Philippines has a total population of 108 million, of whom 73 million are active SM users [ 3 , 18 ]. In the current study, Facebook was the most used SM application used by adolescents. In 2020, Facebook had approximately of 2.4 billion monthly users worldwide, thus making it the most popular SM application [ 3 ]. In the Philippines, Facebook is currently the most popular SM application, with at least 70 million users, and most SM users use cellphones to access SM; this trend was also found in a study conducted among Filipino adolescents [ 18 ]. The Philippines have had the longest average daily time of SM use for 4 consecutive years, which reached 4 hours in 2020 [ 3 ]. This finding is in line with the current study, which recorded an average of almost 5 hours of SM use. Most respondents used SM to watch videos (n=121) and for communication (n=106). Watching videos and communication were also the top 2 purposes of using SM in an earlier study [ 18 ].
Filipinos have been observed to value camaraderie and find it natural to be friendly to others, for which reason they place considerable importance on interpersonal relationships [ 11 ]. The importance placed on friendship may be interpreted as reflecting a high level of empathy among Filipino adolescents. The existence of cyberbullying and cybervictimization was evident according to the findings of the study. Even with the increase in cyberbullying in the Philippines, some undocumented cases may exist due to victims’ fear of their situation being publicized. Some schools also tend to under-report cyberbullying due to fears of tarnishing the school’s reputation [ 19 ].
Demographic characteristics are believed to possibly influence empathy, cyberbullying, and cybervictimization. A significant relationship was found between empathy and gender in the current study, with female adolescents scoring higher for empathy than male adolescents. This may result from gender expectations in Filipino culture between the two genders. Female adolescents are expected to help their mothers with chores and to take care of their siblings, which fosters nurturing characteristics and helps them to understand different emotions. In contrast, male adolescents are trained to be logical and independent, and to keep their emotions to themselves [ 20 ]. This may explain why the female participants in this study had a higher degree of empathy than the male participants. However, no significant relationship was found between cyberbullying or cybervictimization and gender, similar to another study conducted in the Philippines [ 21 ]. These results show that when considering factors influencing empathy, other demographic characteristics such as age, educational level, and economic level must also be considered, as well as gender. Thus, further research is needed to predict the variables that affect Filipino adolescents’ empathy regarding cyberbullying and cybervictimization.
The current study established a significant relationship between age and empathy. Another study also reported a similar result, and this relationship reflects the development of empathy, which grows with age until it reaches full development in adolescence [ 22 ]. However, some studies have reported a decrease in cognitive empathy and an increase in affective empathy in the elderly. A decrease in cognitive empathy may be related to reduced activity in brain areas associated with cognitive function [ 23 ].
No significant relationship was found between age and cybervictimization or cyberbullying in this study. This finding is similar to a study conducted among Filipino university students, where it was found that cyberbullying and cybervictimization experiences of students were not significantly related to their age [ 24 ].
There is scarce evidence regarding the relationships among grade level, empathy, cyberbullying, and cybervictimization. The current study identified a significant relationship between grade level and empathy, as well as with cyberbullying and cybervictimization. A study among grade 7-12 students found that the cognitive empathy of victims of cyberbullying was high [ 25 ]. However, in a comparison of cognitive empathy in cyberbully-victims (a term for victims who also engaged in cyberbullying) and bystanders, lower grade levels had higher levels of cognitive empathy than other groups, while higher grade levels had higher levels of cognitive empathy only among cyberbully-victims, but not bystanders. Furthermore, it was found that victimization increased after grade 7 and continued through grade 12 [ 25 ].
Empathy has consistently shown a negative relationship with antisocial behavior [ 15 ], implying that empathy may have a possible influence on cyberbullying. A study investigating the relationship between cyberbullying and empathy found out that a low level of both cognitive and affective empathy predicted cyberbullying [ 26 ]. The current study found no significant relationship between empathy and cyberbullying. The same result was found in another study, and a possible explanation for this result is that even though the participants had a high empathy level, which may make them sensitive to others’ emotions, they may have viewed cyberbullying as a normal phenomenon [ 27 ]. As such, it is crucial to provide Filipino adolescents with the necessary information to protect themselves against cyberbullying. In addition, active interest and participation of parents and teachers are needed for the development of programs, practices, and policies to protect and support this population from this problem.
Few studies have reported a relationship between empathy and cybervictimization. It was found that cybervictims scored higher than cyberbullies and uninvolved students or bystanders in both cognitive and affective empathy [ 28 ]. One study reported higher affective empathy among cybervictims [ 29 ]. Another study reported significant relationships of both cognitive and affective empathy with cybervictimization [ 30 ]. In the current study, total empathy and cognitive empathy, but not affective empathy, had significant relationships with cybervictimization. This finding of distinct relationships of cognitive and affective empathy with cybervictimization was not found in previous research. The significant relationship between cybervictimization and cognitive empathy may be explained by cybervictims’ capability to understand the perspective of others, while still having problematic social relationships, as shown by the lack of a significant association between affective empathy and cybervictimization. Furthermore, affective empathy is important in establishing social relationships [ 27 ].
Taking revenge is a possible response of a cybervictim to his or her bullies. The desire to take revenge may lead a cybervictim to engage in cyberbullying [ 30 ]. Another explanation is the application of general strain theory, which was developed by Agnew [ 13 ]. Greater exposure or experiences of cyberbullying may increase the likelihood that cybervictims will engage in cyberbullying to release their stress. This is an example of a negative response to strain. A study conducted in the Philippines and Turkey reported a positive relationship between cyberbullying and cybervictimization [ 21 ]. The current study yielded a significant relationship between cyberbullying and cybervictimization.
Several limitations were found in this study. The first is the length of the duration of data collection, which resulted in a small sample of participants from a single school. The second is that the researcher used convenience sampling to choose where to conduct the study and the participants to be included. Participants were picked by the teachers due to their availability and knowledge regarding SM use. The third is the use of a self-report survey. There is a possibility that students over-reported or misreported some data (e.g., SM time usage per day and the reasons for SM usage). The questionnaires used may have made the students feel discomfort, anxiety, and fear due to the questions. The fourth is the scarcity of articles about empathy, cyberbullying, cybervictimization, and characteristics of Filipino adolescents. The fifth is the reliability of the Basic Empathy Scale. This study recorded Cronbach’s α values of .67 for the total Basic Empathy Scale, .51 for the cognitive empathy subscale, and .52 for the affective empathy subscale. This is considered a low reliability score, but according to a book by Hinton et al. [ 15 ], a Cronbach’s α value ranging from .50 to .75 is accepted because it indicates moderate reliability.
Despite the limitations of this study, it still made a pertinent contribution to the study of empathy, cyberbullying, and cybervictimization.
The findings of this study shed important light on the issues of cyberbullying and cybervictimization, which could become more problematic in the COVID-19 pandemic. Empathy was not found to be negatively associated with cyberbullying. This can be explained by a lack of self-awareness, because some SM users post or send whatever they want without thinking about whether the content can harm others [ 1 ]. It is also possible that cyberbullying was viewed as a normal phenomenon, especially as SM use has increased over time. Cognitive empathy, but not affective empathy, was significantly associated with cybervictimization. It is possible for cybervictims to understand the emotions of others but still have difficulty in establishing social relationships or feeling the emotions of other people. The finding of this study that cyberbullying was significantly associated with cybervictimization is alarming. This relationship may be explained by the stress that cybervictims experience and their desire to take revenge on the perpetrators, especially since SM can be anonymously.
We expect that the findings of this study may contribute to the prevention of cyber-related problems among adolescents as it offers basic guidelines. Since adolescence can be a confusing period due to changes and transitions from childhood to adulthood, adolescents deserve special attention and guidance from people surrounding them. It is vital for parents, teachers, and even guardians to establish open and good communication with adolescents to properly guide them towards betterment. At this time, with one’s capacity to empathize, it is possible to become a bystander or a defender of a victim, for which reason we should highlight empathy in efforts to prevent and solve various types of cyber-related problems. We also suggest that as cyberbullying and cybervictimization are closely related, it is important to focus on this relationship and to make multilateral efforts to ensure that cyberbullying does not lead to other negative problems.
Conflict of interest
No existing or potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.
Data availability
Please contact the corresponding author for data availability.
Deped: mga kaso ng physical bullying sa mga paaralan umabot ng lagpas 200,000.
Higit 200,000 kaso ng physical bullying ang naitala noong nakaraang school year ayon sa Department of Education. Bukod pa diyan ang 7,758 na kaso ng cyber bullying, gender-based bullying na nasa 7,800, at social bullying na umabot naman sa 17,258 ayon sa ulat ni Bernadette Reyes sa '24 Oras'. Pero posibleng mas mataas pa ang aktwal na bilang ng mga kaso dahil mayroon pang mga estudyante na hindi nagsumbong ng mga ganitong uri ng pambu-bully. Nakakagulat din ang numero ng reported suicide cases na nasa 404 at attempted suicide cases na pumalo naman sa 2,147. Binberipika na ng Deped sa ngayon ang mga report na eto. Samantala, nag lunsad na ang DepEd ng helpline para sa mga estudyanteng nakakaranas ng bullying at iba pang uri ng pang-aabuso. Issue din ngayon ang kakulangan ng mga guidance counselors sa mga pampublikong paaralan. "Nakita nating problema, yung suweldo nila ay 'entry level' na suweldo. Aside from that, yung career progression", ayon kay DepEd Spokesperson Atty. Michael Poa. —Sherylin Untalan/VL, GMA Integrated News
Deped logs over 260k cases of physical bullying in sy 2021-2022, davao de oro, niyanig ng magnitude 6 na lindol, babae, inagawan ng bag at binaril ng salaring sakay ng motorsiklo sa quezon city.
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