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119 Abnormal Psychology Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

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Abnormal psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on studying unusual patterns of behavior, thoughts, and emotions. This field explores mental disorders and their causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment. If you are studying abnormal psychology or have an interest in the subject, you may need to write essays on various topics related to this field. To help you get started, here are 119 abnormal psychology essay topic ideas and examples.

• The impact of childhood trauma on the development of mental disorders.
• The role of genetics in the development of psychological disorders.
• The relationship between substance abuse and mental illness.
• Exploring the effectiveness of different therapeutic approaches for treating anxiety disorders.
• The influence of social media on body image and eating disorders among adolescents.
• The psychological effects of long-term solitary confinement.
• Understanding the causes and consequences of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
• Exploring the connection between depression and physical health.
• The role of neurotransmitters in the development of schizophrenia.
• The impact of cultural factors on the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders.
• The relationship between sleep disorders and mental health.
• Examining the prevalence and treatment of borderline personality disorder.
• The effects of bullying on mental health in children and adolescents.
• Understanding the psychological impact of natural disasters on survivors.
• The relationship between childhood abuse and the development of dissociative identity disorder (DID).
• The role of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).
• Exploring the stigma surrounding mental illness and its impact on help-seeking behavior.
• The effects of parental divorce on the psychological well-being of children.
• Understanding the causes and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
• The relationship between childhood adversity and the development of antisocial personality disorder.
• Examining the effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions for reducing stress and anxiety.
• The impact of social support on the recovery from substance use disorders.
• Understanding the psychological factors that contribute to the development of eating disorders.
• The role of trauma in the development of dissociative disorders.
• Exploring the link between childhood maltreatment and the risk of developing depression in adulthood.
• The effects of early-life stress on brain development and mental health outcomes.
• The relationship between personality traits and the risk of developing schizophrenia.
• Examining the role of genetics in the development of bipolar disorder.
• The impact of social isolation on mental health in older adults.
• Understanding the psychological factors that contribute to the development of agoraphobia.
• The effects of media violence on aggressive behavior in children.
• The relationship between childhood neglect and the risk of developing substance use disorders.
• Exploring the effectiveness of virtual reality therapy for treating phobias.
• The role of self-esteem in the development and maintenance of eating disorders.
• The impact of discrimination on mental health outcomes among marginalized populations.
• Understanding the psychological factors that contribute to the development of hoarding disorder.
• The effects of early attachment experiences on adult romantic relationships.
• The relationship between trauma and the development of dissociative amnesia.
• Examining the effectiveness of art therapy for individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder.
• The role of parenting styles in the development of conduct disorder in children.
• The impact of chronic illness on mental health and well-being.
• Understanding the psychological factors that contribute to the development of gambling addiction.
• The effects of social media use on body dissatisfaction and eating disorder risk.
• The relationship between childhood ADHD and the risk of developing substance use disorders in adulthood.
• Exploring the effectiveness of exposure therapy for treating specific phobias.
• The role of early-life adversity in the development of borderline personality disorder.
• The impact of workplace stress on mental health and job performance.
• Understanding the psychological factors that contribute to the development of panic disorder.
• The effects of childhood abuse on self-esteem and self-worth in adulthood.
• The relationship between personality disorders and criminal behavior.
• Examining the effectiveness of cognitive remediation therapy for individuals with schizophrenia.
• The role of social support in the recovery from post-traumatic stress disorder.
• The impact of childhood neglect on cognitive development and academic achievement.
• Understanding the psychological factors that contribute to the development of body dysmorphic disorder.
• The effects of parental substance abuse on child development and mental health outcomes.
• The relationship between childhood trauma and the risk of developing dissociative disorders.
• Exploring the effectiveness of acceptance and commitment therapy for treating depression.
• The role of trauma in the development of acute stress disorder.
• The impact of unemployment on mental health and well-being.
• Understanding the psychological factors that contribute to the development of social anxiety disorder.
• The effects of bullying on adolescent self-esteem and mental health.
• The relationship between childhood ADHD and the risk of developing conduct disorder.
• Examining the effectiveness of dialectical behavior therapy for individuals with borderline personality disorder.
• The role of social support in the recovery from eating disorders.
• The impact of parental divorce on adult romantic relationships.
• Understanding the psychological factors that contribute to the development of obsessive-compulsive disorder.
• The effects of childhood trauma on cognitive development and academic achievement.
• The relationship between personality traits and the risk of developing anxiety disorders.
• Exploring the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy for treating post-traumatic stress disorder.
• The role of mindfulness in the treatment of depression and anxiety.
• The impact of chronic pain on mental health and quality of life.
• Understanding the psychological factors that contribute to the development of generalized anxiety disorder.
• The effects of childhood neglect on emotional regulation and self-control in adulthood.
• The relationship between personality disorders and interpersonal relationships.
• Examining the effectiveness of family therapy for individuals with schizophrenia.
• The role of social support in the recovery from substance use disorders.
• The impact of parental substance abuse on child behavior and emotional well-being.
• Understanding the psychological factors that contribute to the development of postpartum depression.
• The effects of childhood trauma on social skills and peer relationships.
• The relationship between personality traits and the risk of developing mood disorders.
• Exploring the effectiveness of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy for trauma-related disorders.
• The role of self-compassion in the treatment of eating disorders.
• The impact of chronic illness on family dynamics and relationships.
• Understanding the psychological factors that contribute to the development of specific phobias.
• The effects of childhood abuse on emotional intelligence and empathy in adulthood.
• The relationship between personality disorders and job performance.
• Examining the effectiveness of cognitive remediation therapy for individuals with bipolar disorder.
• The role of social support in the recovery from depression.
• The impact of childhood neglect on attachment styles and intimate relationships in adulthood.
• Understanding the psychological factors that contribute to the development of bipolar disorder.
• The effects of childhood trauma on executive functioning and decision-making abilities.
• The relationship between personality traits and the risk of developing personality disorders.
• Exploring the effectiveness of exposure therapy for treating panic disorder.
• The role of self-esteem in the treatment of body dysmorphic disorder.
• The impact of chronic stress on immune function and physical health.
• Understanding the psychological factors that contribute to the development of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
• The effects of childhood abuse on social cognition and interpersonal relationships.
• The relationship between personality disorders and treatment outcomes.
• Examining the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy for individuals with social anxiety disorder.
• The role of social support in the recovery from anxiety disorders.
• The impact of childhood trauma on emotional regulation and impulse control.
• Understanding the psychological factors that contribute to the development of substance use disorders.
• The effects of childhood neglect on cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills.
• The relationship between personality traits and the risk of developing eating disorders.
• Exploring the effectiveness of trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy for treating post-traumatic stress disorder.
• The role of self-compassion in the treatment of anxiety disorders.
• The impact of chronic illness on psychological well-being and coping strategies.
• The effects of childhood abuse on emotional regulation and anger management in adulthood.
• The relationship between personality disorders and suicide risk.
• Examining the effectiveness of cognitive remediation therapy for individuals with anxiety disorders.
• The role of social support in the recovery from obsessive-compulsive disorder.
• The impact of childhood neglect on self-esteem and self-confidence in adulthood.
• Understanding the psychological factors that contribute to the development of dissociative identity disorder.
• The effects of childhood trauma on attachment styles and romantic relationships in adulthood.
• The relationship between personality traits and the risk of developing substance use disorders.
• Exploring the effectiveness of exposure therapy for treating generalized anxiety disorder.
• The role of self-esteem in the treatment of panic disorder.
• The impact of chronic stress on mental health and cognitive functioning.

These essay topic ideas provide a wide range of options to explore the fascinating field of abnormal psychology. Remember to choose a topic that interests you and allows you to delve deeper into the subject matter. Good luck with your essays!

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Abnormal Psychology in 7 Studies

Travis Dixon January 20, 2021 Abnormal Psychology , Revision and Exam Preparation

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A challenging aspect of the IB Psychology course is remembering all the studies. It can be made easier. With some careful course planning (by teachers) and wise studying (by students), the Abnormal Psychology option could be covered in 7 studies. 

The IB Guide states that “Each option is divided into three topics. For each option, there will be three essay titles to choose from, one for each topic in the option.” (IB Guide, pg 35). This is incredibly important  to remember because it drastically reduces the amount of content you have to prepare.The following guidance is for the Abnormal Psychology option, since it’s the most popular.

Abnormal Psychology – Overview

The studies listed here are included in our revision resources .

Abnormal Psychology has three topics:

• Factors influencing diagnosis
• Etiology of abnormal psychology
• Treatment of disorder(s)

The fact that questions might link “…research, ethical considerations, or the approaches to understanding behaviour … to the topic heading” (IB Guide, p35) means that you must choose which specific topic you revise carefully.

The examples provided in this post are based on the material in our PTSD unit in the textbook.

• Exam Question Bank: Paper 2 Human Relationships
• Exam Topics in IB Psychology Paper Two: Overview
• Why do marriages end in divorce? A cognitive explanation

IB SL students can prepare for Paper Two in just 7 studies*. 

Abnormal Psychology – The Exam Questions

Before we know which studies to choose, we have to know what exam questions might appear. The content for the Etiology topic is simple:

• Explanations for disorder(s)
• Prevalence rates and disorder(s)

Plus the potential exam questions on the following:

• Research methods used to study the etiology of abnormal psychology
• Ethical considerations in studies on the etiology of abnormal psychology
• Biological approach to study the etiology of abnormal psychology
• Cognitive approach to study the etiology of abnormal psychology
• Sociocultural approach to the etiology of abnormal psychology

Careful study of the IB Guide can help you study smarter, not harder. (Taken from IB Guide p36).

Abnormal Psychology – The Studies

Explanations for disorders.

The following image shows how 7 studies can cover the topic “Explanations for disorders” (PTSD) in 7 studies. By carefully selecting explanations that are directly relevant to the three approaches, those questions are covered also.

Somes studies can be used for multiple approaches, like Urry (bio and cog) and Luby (soc-cult and bio).

Next we have “Prevalence.” When discussing prevalence of PTSD, we look at particular groups who have higher rates of diagnosis (i.e. PTSD is more prevalent in these groups). Three studies can cover three examples, including people from low socioeconomic status, racial minorities and women.

I encourage my students to become experts on socioeconomic status as a risk factor for PTSD, since this can be used for sociocultural explanations or  prevalence rates.

I recommend revising the same studies for research methods and ethics to make these questions more manageable. For instance, anonymity is always relevant in correlational studies, especially those gathering sensitive data like symptoms of PTSD. The following three correlational studies could be used for an essay question on research methods and anonymity.

Note:  It is possible you could be asked for a second research method. In this case, be prepared to write briefly about Urry et al. as a true experiment. Similarly, be prepared to write about a second ethical consideration, like informed consent (also relevant to Urry et al.)

Personally, I think Etiology of Abnormal Psychology lends itself to the best exam preparation. This is because it’s most logical how the three approaches are linked to this topic. Imagine how hard it would be to answer a question on how the biological approach is used to understanding factors influencing diagnosis. This is a potential question, albeit not a likely one.

Final Advice

Now you’ve made the exams easier by limiting the studies, focus on the concepts. This includes being able to explain  how and why   certain factors are associated with PTSD, as well as  how and why   research methods are used and ethical considerations are relevant. Develop your critical thinking as well and you’ll truly separate your answers from the rest. The goal isn’t about reducing studies, it’s about increasing your knowledge and understanding of psychology.

IB Psychology flashcards are now available here .

*This year (May 2021) Standard Level don’t actually have Paper Two since it’s cancelled due to covid. This means it’s actually HL students who can do Paper 2 in just 7 studies.

Travis Dixon is an IB Psychology teacher, author, workshop leader, examiner and IA moderator.

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49 Abnormal Psychology Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on abnormal psychology, 🎓 most interesting abnormal psychology research titles, 💡 simple abnormal psychology essay ideas.

• Abnormal Psychology: Case Studies
• Multiaxial Approach in Abnormal Psychology
• The Abnormal Psychology Case of Billy Milligan
• Stress from a Perspective of Abnormal Psychology
• Abnormal Psychology: Think Abnormal to Deal With It
• Diagnosing Abnormal Psychology in Media: “One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest”
• Schizophrenia. Abnormal Psychology
• Abnormal Psychology: Bipolar Disorder
• Key Concepts and Theories in Abnormal Psychology
• Abnormal Psychology: The Impact of Trauma on Mental Health
• Traditional Therapy vs. Therapies in Abnormal Psychology
• Abnormal Psychology: Adaptive and Maladaptive Behaviors
• Abnormal Psychology: The Stigma of Mental Illness
• Trends, Technologies, and How They Shape the Field of Abnormal Psychology
• Predictions for Abnormal Psychology in the Next Decade
• Examples of Abnormality in Psychology
• Classifying Mental Disorders in Abnormal Psychology
• Nature of Psychological Abnormalities
• Research Methods in Abnormal Psychopathology
• Mental Health Professionals, Societies, and Journals of Abnormal Psychopathology
• Analyzing Abnormal Behavior in Psychology
• Understanding Abnormal Mental Disorders in Psychology
• Difference Between Abnormal Psychology and Positive Psychology
• Abnormal Behavior: Deviance From Social Norms, Dangerousness to Self and Others
• Defining Key Terms as Abnormal Psychology
• Understanding Personal Distress in Abnormal Behavior
• Study of Unusual Patterns of Behaviour: Abnormal Psychology
• Two Ways to Define Abnormal Psychology: Statistical Deviation and Maladaptiveness
• Classification of Abnormal Psychology Through DSM-5 and ICD-10
• Abnormal Psychology: The Supernatural, Biological, and Psychological Traditions
• Overview Methods of Treatment in Abnormal Psychology
• Limitations in Abnormal Psychology
• Abnormal Psychology: Violence in Social Norms
• Abnormal Psychology in the Cultural Context
• Failure to Function Adequately Through Abnormal Behavior
• The Definition Of Abnormality in Psychology
• Implications and Treatment Approach in Abnormal Psychology
• Abnormal Psychology in the Context of Mental Health
• Symptoms of Common Mental Health Disorders in Abnormal Psychology
• Theories of Abnormal Psychology by Sigmund Freud
• The Biological Model of Abnormality Psychology
• Cognitive Model and Abnormal Psychology
• Psychodynamic Model of Sigmund Freud on Abnormal Psychology
• Abnormal Psychology: Unusual Patterns of Behavior, Emotion, and Thought
• Recent Concepts of Psychology Abnormality
• Approaches of Abnormal Psychology: Somatogenic and Psychogenic
• Analyzing Perspectives of Abnormal Psychology
• Causes of Abnormal Psychology and Behavior

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These essay examples and topics on Abnormal Psychology were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on August 12, 2024 .

Module 1: What is Abnormal Psychology?

3rd edition as of July 2023

Module Overview

Cassie is an 18-year-old female from suburban Seattle, WA. She was a successful student in high school, graduating valedictorian and obtaining a National Merit Scholarship for her performance on the PSAT during her junior year. She was accepted to a university on the opposite side of the state, where she received additional scholarships giving her a free ride for her entire undergraduate education. Excited to start this new chapter in her life, Cassie’s parents begin the 5-hour commute to Pullman, where they will leave their only daughter for the first time in her life.

The semester begins as it always does in mid to late August. Cassie meets the challenge with enthusiasm and does well in her classes for the first few weeks of the semester, as expected. Sometime around Week 6, her friends notice she is despondent, detached, and falling behind in her work. After being asked about her condition, she replies that she is “just a bit homesick,” and her friends accept this answer as it is a typical response to leaving home and starting college for many students. A month later, her condition has not improved but worsened. She now regularly shirks her responsibilities around her apartment, in her classes, and on her job. Cassie does not hang out with friends like she did when she first arrived for college and stays in bed most of the day. Concerned, Cassie’s friends contact Health and Wellness for help.

Cassie’s story, though hypothetical, is true of many Freshmen leaving home for the first time to earn a higher education, whether in rural Washington state or urban areas such as Chicago and Dallas. Most students recover from this depression and go on to be functional members of their collegiate environment and accomplished scholars. Some students learn to cope on their own while others seek assistance from their university’s health and wellness center or from friends who have already been through the same ordeal. These are normal reactions. However, in cases like Cassie’s, the path to recovery is not as clear. Instead of learning how to cope, their depression increases until it reaches clinical levels and becomes an impediment to success in multiple domains of life such as home, work, school, and social circles.

In Module 1, we will explore what it means to display abnormal behavior, what mental disorders are, and the way society views mental illness today and how it has been regarded throughout history. Then we will review research methods used by psychologists in general and how they are adapted to study abnormal behavior/mental disorders. We will conclude with an overview of what mental health professionals do.

Module Outline

1.1. Understanding Abnormal Behavior

1.2. classifying mental disorders, 1.3. the stigma of mental illness, 1.4. the history of mental illness, 1.5. research methods in psychopathology, 1.6. mental health professionals, societies, and journals.

Module Learning Outcomes

• Explain what it means to display abnormal behavior.
• Clarify how mental health professionals classify mental disorders.
• Describe the effect of stigma on those who have a mental illness.
• Outline the history of mental illness.
• Describe the research methods used to study abnormal behavior and mental illness.
• Identify types of mental health professionals, societies they may join, and journals they can publish their work in.

Section Learning Objectives

• Describe the disease model and its impact on the field of psychology throughout history.
• Describe positive psychology.
• Define abnormal behavior.
• Explain the concept of dysfunction as it relates to mental illness.
• Explain the concept of distress as it relates to mental illness.
• Explain the concept of deviance as it relates to mental illness.
• Explain the concept of dangerousness as it relates to mental illness.
• Define culture and social norms.
• Clarify the cost of mental illness on society.
• Define abnormal psychology, psychopathology, and mental disorders.

1.1.1. Understanding Abnormal Behavior

To understand what abnormal behavior is, we first have to understand what normal behavior is. Normal really is in the eye of the beholder, and most psychologists have found it easier to explain what is wrong with people then what is right. How so?

Psychology worked with the disease model for over 60 years, from about the late 1800s into the middle part of the 20th century. The focus was simple – curing mental disorders – and included such pioneers as Freud, Adler, Klein, Jung, and Erickson. These names are synonymous with the psychoanalytical school of thought. In the 1930s, behaviorism, under B.F. Skinner, presented a new view of human behavior. Simply, human behavior could be modified if the correct combination of reinforcements and punishments were used. This viewpoint espoused the dominant worldview of the time – mechanism – which presented the world as a great machine explained through the principles of physics and chemistry. In it, human beings serve as smaller machines in the larger machine of the universe.

Moving into the mid to late 1900s, we developed a more scientific investigation of mental illness, which allowed us to examine the roles of both nature and nurture and to develop drug and psychological treatments to “make miserable people less miserable.” Though this was an improvement, there were three consequences as pointed out by Martin Seligman in his 2008 TED Talk entitled, “The new era of positive psychology.” These are:

• “The first was moral; that psychologists and psychiatrists became victimologists, pathologizers; that our view of human nature was that if you were in trouble, bricks fell on you. And we forgot that people made choices and decisions. We forgot responsibility. That was the first cost.”
• “The second cost was that we forgot about you people. We forgot about improving normal lives. We forgot about a mission to make relatively untroubled people happier, more fulfilled, more productive. And “genius,” “high-talent,” became a dirty word. No one works on that.”
• “And the third problem about the disease model is, in our rush to do something about people in trouble, in our rush to do something about repairing damage, it never occurred to us to develop interventions to make people happier — positive interventions.”

Starting in the 1960s, figures such as Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers sought to overcome the limitations of psychoanalysis and behaviorism by establishing a “third force” psychology, also known as humanistic psychology. As Maslow said,

“The science of psychology has been far more successful on the negative than on the positive side; it has revealed to us much about man’s shortcomings, his illnesses, his sins, but little about his potentialities, his virtues, his achievable aspirations, or his full psychological height. It is as if psychology had voluntarily restricted itself to only half its rightful jurisdiction, and that the darker, meaner half.” (Maslow, 1954, p. 354).

Humanistic psychology instead addressed the full range of human functioning and focused on personal fulfillment, valuing feelings over intellect, hedonism, a belief in human perfectibility, emphasis on the present, self-disclosure, self-actualization, positive regard, client centered therapy, and the hierarchy of needs. Again, these topics were in stark contrast to much of the work being done in the field of psychology up to and at this time.

In 1996, Martin Seligman became the president of the American Psychological Association (APA) and called for a positive psychology or one that had a more positive conception of human potential and nature. Building on Maslow and Roger’s work, he ushered in the scientific study of such topics as happiness, love, hope, optimism, life satisfaction, goal setting, leisure, and subjective well-being. Though positive and humanistic psychology have similarities, their methodology was much different. While humanistic psychology generally relied on qualitative methods, positive psychology utilizes a quantitative approach and aims to help people make the most out of life’s setbacks, relate well to others, find fulfillment in creativity, and find lasting meaning and satisfaction ( https://www.positivepsychologyinstitute.com.au/what-is-positive-psychology ).

So, to understand what normal behavior is, do we look to positive psychology for an indication, or do we first define abnormal behavior and then reverse engineer a definition of what normal is? Our preceding discussion gave suggestions about what normal behavior is, but could the darker elements of our personality also make up what is normal to some extent? Possibly. The one truth is that no matter what behavior we display, if taken to the extreme, it can become disordered – whether trying to control others through social influence or helping people in an altruistic fashion. As such, we can consider abnormal behavior to be a combination of personal distress, psychological dysfunction, deviance from social norms, dangerousness to self and others, and costliness to society.

1.1.2. How Do We Determine What Abnormal Behavior Is?

In the previous section we showed that what we might consider normal behavior is difficult to define. Equally challenging is understanding what abnormal behavior is, which may be surprising to you. A publication which you will become intimately familiar with throughout this book, the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR; 2022), states that, “Although no definition can capture all aspects of the range of disorders contained in DSM-5″ (pg. 13) certain aspects are required. These include:

• Dysfunction – Includes “clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning” (pg. 14). Abnormal behavior, therefore, has the capacity to make well-being difficult to obtain and can be assessed by looking at an individual’s current performance and comparing it to what is expected in general or how the person has performed in the past. As such, a good employee who suddenly demonstrates poor performance may be experiencing an environmental demand leading to stress and ineffective coping mechanisms. Once the demand resolves itself, the person’s performance should return to normal according to this principle.
• Distress – When the person experiences a disabling condition “in social, occupational, or other important activities” (pg. 14). Distress can take the form of psychological or physical pain, or both concurrently. Alone though, distress is not sufficient enough to describe behavior as abnormal. Why is that? The loss of a loved one would cause even the most “normally” functioning individual pain. An athlete who experiences a career-ending injury would display distress as well. Suffering is part of life and cannot be avoided. And some people who exhibit abnormal behavior are generally positive while doing so.
• Deviance – Closer examination of the word abnormal indicates a move away from what is normal, or the mean (i.e., what would be considered average and in this case in relation to behavior), and so is behavior that infrequently occurs (sort of an outlier in our data). Our culture , or the totality of socially transmitted behaviors, customs, values, technology, attitudes, beliefs, art, and other products that are particular to a group, determines what is normal. Thus, a person is said to be deviant when he or she fails to follow the stated and unstated rules of society, called social norms . Social norms change over time due to shifts in accepted values and expectations. For instance, homosexuality was taboo in the U.S. just a few decades ago, but today, it is generally accepted. Likewise, PDAs, or public displays of affection, do not cause a second look by most people unlike the past when these outward expressions of love were restricted to the privacy of one’s own house or bedroom. In the U.S., crying is generally seen as a weakness for males. However, if the behavior occurs in the context of a tragedy such as the Vegas mass shooting on October 1, 2017, in which 58 people were killed and about 500 were wounded while attending the Route 91 Harvest Festival, then it is appropriate and understandable. Finally, consider that statistically deviant behavior is not necessarily negative. Genius is an example of behavior that is not the norm.

Though not part of the DSM conceptualization of what abnormal behavior is, many clinicians add dangerousness to this list when behavior represents a threat to the safety of the person or others. It is important to note that having a mental disorder does not imply a person is automatically dangerous. The depressed or anxious individual is often no more a threat than someone who is not depressed, and as Hiday and Burns (2010) showed, dangerousness is more the exception than the rule.  Still, mental health professionals have a duty to report to law enforcement when a mentally disordered individual expresses intent to harm another person or themselves. It is important to point out that people seen as dangerous are also not automatically mentally ill.

1.1.3. The Costs of Mental Illness

This leads us to wonder what the cost of mental illness is to society. The National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) states that mental illness affects a person’s life which then ripples out to the family, community, and world. For instance, people with serious mental illness are at increased risk for diabetes, cancer, and cardiometabolic disease while 18% of those with a mental illness also have a substance use disorder. Within the family, an estimated 8.4 million Americans provide care to an adult with an emotional or mental illness with caregivers spending about 32 hours a week providing unpaid care. At the community level 21% of the homeless also have a serious mental illness while 70% of youth in the juvenile justice system have at least one mental health condition. And finally, depression is a leading cause of disability worldwide and depression and anxiety disorders cost the global economy $1 trillion each year in lost productivity (Source: NAMI, The Ripple Effect of Mental Illness infographic; https://www.nami.org/Learn-More/Mental-Health-By-the-Numbers ).

In terms of worldwide impact, data from 2010 estimates $2.5 trillion in global costs, with $1.7 trillion being indirect costs (i.e., invisible costs “associated with income losses due to mortality, disability, and care seeking, including lost production due to work absence or early retirement”) and the remainder being direct (i.e., visible costs to include “medication, physician visits, psychotherapy sessions, hospitalization,” etc.). It is now projected that mental illness costs will be around $16 trillion by 2030. The authors add, “It should be noted that these calculations did not include costs associated with mental disorders from outside the healthcare system, such as legal costs caused by illicit drug abuse” (Trautmann, Rehm, & Wittchen, 2016). The costs for mental illness have also been found to be greater than the combined costs of somatic diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and respiratory disorders (Whiteford et al., 2013).

Christensen et al. (2020) did a review of 143 cost-of-illness studies that covered 48 countries and several types of mental illness. Their results showed that mental disorders are a substantial economic burden for societies and that certain groups of mental disorders are more costly than others. At the higher cost end were developmental disorders to include autism spectrum disorders followed by schizophrenia and intellectual disabilities. They write, “However, it is important to note that while disorders such as mood, neurotic and substance use disorders were less costly according to societal cost per patient, these disorders are much more prevalent and thus would contribute substantially to the total national cost in a country.” And much like Trautmann, Rehm, & Wittchen (2016) other studies show that indirect costs are higher than direct costs (Jin & Mosweu, 2017; Chong et al., 2016).

1.1.4. Defining Key Terms

Our discussion so far has concerned what normal and abnormal behavior is. We saw that the study of normal behavior falls under the providence of positive psychology. Similarly, the scientific study of abnormal behavior, with the intent to be able to predict reliably, explain, diagnose, identify the causes of, and treat maladaptive behavior, is what we refer to as abnormal psychology . Abnormal behavior can become pathological and has led to the scientific study of psychological disorders, or psychopathology . From our previous discussion we can fashion the following definition of a psychological or mental disorder: mental disorders are characterized by psychological dysfunction, which causes physical and/or psychological distress or impaired functioning, and is not an expected behavior according to societal or cultural standards.

Key Takeaways

You should have learned the following in this section:

• Abnormal behavior is a combination of personal distress, psychological dysfunction, deviance from social norms, dangerousness to self and others, and costliness to society.
• Abnormal psychology is the scientific study of abnormal behavior, with the intent to be able to predict reliably, explain, diagnose, identify the causes of, and treat maladaptive behavior.
• The study of psychological disorders is called psychopathology.
• Mental disorders are characterized by psychological dysfunction, which causes physical and/or psychological distress or impaired functioning, and is not an expected behavior according to societal or cultural standards

Section 1.1 Review Questions

• What is the disease model and what problems existed with it? What was to overcome its limitations?
• Can we adequately define normal behavior? What about abnormal behavior?
• What aspects are part of the American Psychiatric Association’s definition of abnormal behavior?
• How costly is mental illness?
• What is abnormal psychology?
• What is psychopathology?
• How do we define mental disorders?
• Define and exemplify classification.
• Define nomenclature.
• Define epidemiology.
• Define the presenting problem and clinical description.
• Differentiate prevalence, incidence, and any subtypes.
• Define comorbidity.
• Define etiology.
• Define course.
• Define prognosis.
• Define treatment.

1.2.1. Classification

Classification is not a foreign concept and as a student you have likely taken at least one biology class that discussed the taxonomic classification system of Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species revolutionized by Swedish botanist, Carl Linnaeus.  You probably even learned a witty mnemonic such as ‘King Phillip, Come Out For Goodness Sake’ to keep the order straight. The Library of Congress uses classification to organize and arrange their book collections and includes such categories as B – Philosophy, Psychology, and Religion; H – Social Sciences; N – Fine Arts; Q – Science; R – Medicine; and T – Technology.

Simply, classification is how we organize or categorize things. The second author’s wife has been known to color-code her Blu Ray collection by genre, movie title, and release date. It is useful for us to do the same with abnormal behavior, and classification provides us with a nomenclature , or naming system, to structure our understanding of mental disorders in a meaningful way. Of course, we want to learn as much as we can about a given disorder so we can understand its cause, predict its future occurrence, and develop ways to treat it.

1.2.2. Determining Occurrence of a Disorder

Epidemiology is the scientific study of the frequency and causes of diseases and other health-related states in specific populations such as a school, neighborhood, a city, country, and the world. Psychiatric or mental health epidemiology refers to the occurrence of mental disorders in a population. In mental health facilities, we say that a patient presents with a specific problem, or the presenting problem , and we give a clinical description of it, which includes information about the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that constitute that mental disorder. We also seek to gain information about the occurrence of the disorder, its cause, course, and treatment possibilities.

Occurrence can be investigated in several ways. First, prevalence is the percentage of people in a population that has a mental disorder or can be viewed as the number of cases divided by the total number of people in the sample. For instance, if 20 people out of 100 have bipolar disorder, then the prevalence rate is 20%. Prevalence can be measured in several ways:

• Point prevalence indicates the proportion of a population that has the characteristic at a specific point in time. In other words, it is the number of active cases.
• Period prevalence indicates the proportion of a population that has the characteristic at any point during a given period of time, typically the past year.
• Lifetime prevalence indicates the proportion of a population that has had the characteristic at any time during their lives.

According to a 2020 infographic by the National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI), for U.S. adults, 1 in 5 experienced a mental illness, 1 in 20 had a serious mental illness, 1 in 15 experienced both a substance use disorder and mental disorder, and over 12 million had serious thoughts of suicide (2020 Mental Health By the Numbers: US Adults infographic). In terms of adolescents aged 12-17, in 2020 1 in 6 experienced a major depressive episode, 3 million had serious thoughts of suicide, and there was a 31% increase in mental health-related emergency department visits. Among U.S. young adults aged 18-25, 1 in 3 experienced a mental illness, 1 in 10 had a serious mental illness, and 3.8 had serious thoughts of suicide (2020 Mental Health By the Numbers: Youth and Young Adults infographic). These numbers would represent period prevalence rates during the pandemic, and for the year 2020. In the, You are Not Alone infographic, NAMI reported the following 12-month prevalence rates for U.S. Adults: 19% having an anxiety disorder, 8% having depression, 4% having PTSD, 3% having bipolar disorder, and 1% having schizophrenia.

Source: https://www.nami.org/mhstats

Incidence indicates the number of new cases in a population over a specific period. This measure is usually lower since it does not include existing cases as prevalence does. If you wish to know the number of new cases of social phobia during the past year (going from say Aug 21, 2015 to Aug 20, 2016), you would only count cases that began during this time and ignore cases before the start date, even if people are currently afflicted with the mental disorder. Incidence is often studied by medical and public health officials so that causes can be identified, and future cases prevented.

Finally, comorbidity describes when two or more mental disorders are occurring at the same time and in the same person. The National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R) study conducted by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) and published in the June 6, 2005 issue of the Archives of General Psychiatry, sought to discover trends in prevalence, impairment, and service use during the 1990s. The first study, conducted from 1980 to 1985, surveyed 20,000 people from five different geographical regions in the U.S. A second study followed from 1990-1992 and was called the National Comorbidity Survey (NCS). The third study, the NCS-R, used a new nationally representative sample of the U.S. population, and found that 45% of those with one mental disorder met the diagnostic criteria for two or more disorders. The authors also found that the severity of mental illness, in terms of disability, is strongly related to comorbidity, and that substance use disorders often result from disorders such as anxiety and bipolar disorders. The implications of this are significant as services to treat substance abuse and mental disorders are often separate, despite the disorders appearing together.

1.2.3. Other Key Factors Related to Mental Disorders

The etiology is the cause of the disorder. There may be social, biological, or psychological explanations for the disorder which need to be understood to identify the appropriate treatment. Likewise, the effectiveness of a treatment may give some hint at the cause of the mental disorder. More on this in Module 2.

The course of the disorder is its particular pattern. A disorder may be acute , meaning that it lasts a short time, or chronic, meaning it persists for a long time. It can also be classified as time-limited , meaning that recovery will occur after some time regardless of whether any treatment occurs.

Prognosis is the anticipated course the mental disorder will take. A key factor in determining the course is age, with some disorders presenting differently in childhood than adulthood.

Finally, we will discuss several treatment strategies in this book in relation to specific disorders, and in a general fashion in Module 3. Treatment is any procedure intended to modify abnormal behavior into normal behavior. The person suffering from the mental disorder seeks the assistance of a trained professional to provide some degree of relief over a series of therapy sessions. The trained mental health professional may prescribe medication or utilize psychotherapy to bring about this change. Treatment may be sought from the primary care provider, in an outpatient facility, or through inpatient care or hospitalization at a mental hospital or psychiatric unit of a general hospital. According to NAMI, the average delay between symptom onset and treatment is 11 years with 45% of adults with mental illness, 66% of adults with serious mental illness, and 51% of youth with a mental health condition seeking treatment in a given year. They also report that 50% of white, 49% of lesbian/gay and bisexual, 43% of mixed/multiracial, 34% of Hispanic or Latinx, 33% of black, and 23% of Asian adults with a mental health diagnosis received treatment or counseling in the past year (Source: Mental Health Care Matters infographic, https://www.nami.org/mhstats ).

• Classification, or how we organize or categorize things, provides us with a nomenclature, or naming system, to structure our understanding of mental disorders in a meaningful way.
• Epidemiology is the scientific study of the frequency and causes of diseases and other health-related states in specific populations.
• Prevalence is the percentage of people in a population that has a mental disorder or can be viewed as the number of cases divided by the total number of people in the sample.
• Incidence indicates the number of new cases in a population over a specific period.
• Comorbidity describes when two or more mental disorders are occurring at the same time and in the same person.
• The etiology is the cause of a disorder while the course is its particular pattern and can be acute, chronic, or time-limited.
• Prognosis is the anticipated course the mental disorder will take.

Section 1.2 Review Questions

• What is the importance of classification for the study of mental disorders?
• What information does a clinical description include?
• In what ways is occurrence investigated?
• What is the etiology of a mental illness?
• What is the relationship of course and prognosis to one another?
• What is treatment and who seeks it?
• Clarify the importance of social cognition theory in understanding why people do not seek care.
• Define categories and schemas.
• Define stereotypes and heuristics.
• Describe social identity theory and its consequences.
• Differentiate between prejudice and discrimination.
• Contrast implicit and explicit attitudes.
• Explain the concept of stigma and its three forms.
• Define courtesy stigma.
• Describe what the literature shows about stigma.

In the previous section, we discussed the fact that care can be sought out in a variety of ways. The problem is that many people who need care never seek it out. Why is that?  We already know that society dictates what is considered abnormal behavior through culture and social norms, and you can likely think of a few implications of that. But to fully understand society’s role in why people do not seek care, we need to determine the psychological processes underlying this phenomenon in the individual.

Social cognition is the process through which we collect information from the world around us and then interpret it. The collection process occurs through what we know as sensation – or detecting physical energy emitted or reflected by physical objects. Detection occurs courtesy of our eyes, ears, nose, skin and mouth; or via vision, hearing, smell, touch, and taste, respectfully. Once collected, the information is relayed to the brain through the neural impulse where it is processed and interpreted, or meaning is added to this raw sensory data which we call perception .

One way meaning is added is by taking the information we just detected and using it to assign people to categories , or groups. For each category, we have a schema , or a set of beliefs and expectations about a group of people, believed to apply to all members of the group, and based on experience. You might think of them as organized ways of making sense of experience. So, it is during our initial interaction with someone that we collect information about them, assign the person to a category for which we have a schema, and then use that to affect how we interact with them. First impressions, called the primacy effect , are important because even if we obtain new information that should override an incorrect initial assessment, the initial impression is unlikely to change. We call this the perseverance effect , or belief perseverance .

Stereotypes are special types of schemas that are very simplistic, very strongly held, and not based on firsthand experience. They are heuristics , or mental shortcuts, that allow us to assess this collected information very quickly. One piece of information, such as skin color, can be used to assign the person to a schema for which we have a stereotype. This can affect how we think or feel about the person and behave toward them. Again, human beings tend to imply things about an individual solely due to a distinguishing feature and disregard anything inconsistent with the stereotype.

Social identity theory (Tajfel, 1982; Turner, 1987) states that people categorize their social world into meaningfully simplistic representations of groups of people. These representations are then organized as prototypes , or “fuzzy sets of a relatively limited number of category-defining features that not only define one category but serve to distinguish it from other categories” (Foddy and Hogg, as cited in Foddy et al., 1999). We construct in-groups and out-groups and categorize the self as an in-group member. The self is assimilated into the salient in-group prototype, which indicates what cognitions, affect, and behavior we may exhibit. Stereotyping, out-group homogeneity, in-group/out-group bias, normative behavior, and conformity are all based on self-categorization.

How so? Out-group homogeneity occurs when we see all members of an outside group as the same. This leads to a tendency to show favoritism to, and exclude or hold a negative view of, members outside of, one’s immediate group, called the in-group/out-group bias . The negative view or set of beliefs about a group of people is what we call prejudice , and this can result in acting in a way that is negative against a group of people, called discrimination . It should be noted that a person can be prejudicial without being discriminatory since most people do not act on their attitudes toward others due to social norms against such behavior. Likewise, a person or institution can be discriminatory without being prejudicial. For example, when a company requires that an applicant have a certain education level or be able to lift 80 pounds as part of typical job responsibilities. Individuals without a degree or ability to lift will be removed from consideration for the job, but this discriminatory act does not mean that the company has negative views of people without degrees or the inability to lift heavy weight. You might even hold a negative view of a specific group of people and not be aware of it. An attitude we are unaware of is called an implicit attitude , which stands in contrast to explicit attitudes, which are the views within our conscious awareness.

We have spent quite a lot of space and time understanding how people gather information about the world and people around them, process this information, use it to make snap judgements about others, form groups for which stereotypes may exist, and then potentially hold negative views of this group and behave negatively toward them as a result. Just one piece of information can be used to set this series of mental events into motion. Outside of skin color, the label associated with having a mental disorder can be used. Stereotypes about people with a mental disorder can quickly and easily transform into prejudice when people in a society determine the schema to be correct and form negative emotions and evaluations of this group (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). This, in turn, can lead to discriminatory practices such as an employer refusing to hire, a landlord refusing to rent an apartment, or avoiding a romantic relationship, all due to the person having a mental illness.

Overlapping with prejudice and discrimination in terms of how people with mental disorders are treated is stigma , or when negative stereotyping, labeling, rejection, and loss of status occur. Stigma takes on three forms as described below:

• Public stigma – When members of a society endorse negative stereotypes of people with a mental disorder and discriminate against them. They might avoid them altogether, resulting in social isolation. An example is when an employer intentionally does not hire a person because their mental illness is discovered.
• Label avoidance –To avoid being labeled as “crazy” or “nuts” people needing care may avoid seeking it altogether or stop care once started. Due to these labels, funding for mental health services could be restricted and instead, physical health services funded.
• Self-stigma – When people with mental illnesses internalize the negative stereotypes and prejudice, and in turn, discriminate against themselves. They may experience shame, reduced self-esteem, hopelessness, low self-efficacy, and a reduction in coping mechanisms. An obvious consequence of these potential outcomes is the why try effect, or the person saying ‘Why should I try and get that job? I am not worthy of it’ (Corrigan, Larson, & Rusch, 2009; Corrigan, et al., 2016).

Another form of stigma that is worth noting is that of courtesy stigma or when stigma affects people associated with a person who has a mental disorder. Karnieli-Miller et al. (2013) found that families of the afflicted were often blamed, rejected, or devalued when others learned that a family member had a serious mental illness (SMI). Due to this, they felt hurt and betrayed, and an important source of social support during a difficult time had disappeared, resulting in greater levels of stress. To cope, some families concealed their relative’s illness, and some parents struggled to decide whether it was their place to disclose their child’s condition. Others fought with the issue of confronting the stigma through attempts at education versus just ignoring it due to not having enough energy or desiring to maintain personal boundaries. There was also a need to understand the responses of others and to attribute it to a lack of knowledge, experience, and/or media coverage. In some cases, the reappraisal allowed family members to feel compassion for others rather than feeling put down or blamed. The authors concluded that each family “develops its own coping strategies which vary according to its personal experiences, values, and extent of other commitments” and that “coping strategies families employ change over-time.”

Other effects of stigma include experiencing work-related discrimination resulting in higher levels of self-stigma and stress (Rusch et al., 2014), higher rates of suicide especially when treatment is not available (Rusch, Zlati, Black, and Thornicroft, 2014; Rihmer & Kiss, 2002), and a decreased likelihood of future help-seeking intention (Lally et al., 2013). The results of the latter study also showed that personal contact with someone with a history of mental illness led to a decreased likelihood of seeking help. This is important because 48% of the university sample stated that they needed help for an emotional or mental health issue during the past year but did not seek help. Similar results have been reported in other studies (Eisenberg, Downs, Golberstein, & Zivin, 2009). It is also important to point out that social distance, a result of stigma, has also been shown to increase throughout the life span, suggesting that anti-stigma campaigns should focus on older people primarily (Schomerus, et al., 2015).

One potentially disturbing trend is that mental health professionals have been shown to hold negative attitudes toward the people they serve. Hansson et al. (2011) found that staff members at an outpatient clinic in the southern part of Sweden held the most negative attitudes about whether an employer would accept an applicant for work, willingness to date a person who had been hospitalized, and hiring a patient to care for children. Attitudes were stronger when staff treated patients with a psychosis or in inpatient settings. In a similar study,

Martensson, Jacobsson, and Engstrom (2014) found that staff had more positive attitudes towards persons with mental illness if their knowledge of such disorders was less stigmatized; their workplaces were in the county council where they were more likely to encounter patients who recover and return to normal life in society, rather than in municipalities where patients have long-term and recurrent mental illness; and they have or had one close friend with mental health issues.

To help deal with stigma in the mental health community, Papish et al. (2013) investigated the effect of a one-time contact-based educational intervention compared to a four-week mandatory psychiatry course on the stigma of mental illness among medical students at the University of Calgary. The curriculum included two methods requiring contact with people diagnosed with a mental disorder: patient presentations, or two one-hour oral presentations in which patients shared their story of having a mental illness, and “clinical correlations” in which a psychiatrist mentored students while they interacted with patients in either inpatient or outpatient settings. Results showed that medical students held a stigma towards mental illness and that comprehensive medical education reduced this stigma. As the authors stated, “These results suggest that it is possible to create an environment in which medical student attitudes towards mental illness can be shifted in a positive direction.” That said, the level of stigma was still higher for mental illness than it was for the stigmatized physical illness, type 2 diabetes mellitus.

What might happen if mental illness is presented as a treatable condition? McGinty, Goldman, Pescosolido, and Barry (2015) found that portraying schizophrenia, depression, and heroin addiction as untreated and symptomatic increased negative public attitudes towards people with these conditions. Conversely, when the same people were portrayed as successfully treated, the desire for social distance was reduced, there was less willingness to discriminate against them, and belief in treatment effectiveness increased among the public.

Self-stigma has also been shown to affect self-esteem, which then affects hope, which then affects the quality of life among people with severe mental illness. As such, hope should play a central role in recovery (Mashiach-Eizenberg et al., 2013). Narrative Enhancement and Cognitive Therapy (NECT) is an intervention designed to reduce internalized stigma and targets both hope and self-esteem (Yanos et al., 2011). The intervention replaces stigmatizing myths with facts about illness and recovery, which leads to hopefulness and higher levels of self-esteem in clients. This may then reduce susceptibility to internalized stigma.

Stigma leads to health inequities (Hatzenbuehler, Phelan, & Link, 2013), prompting calls for stigma change. Targeting stigma involves two different agendas: The services agenda attempts to remove stigma so people can seek mental health services, and the rights agenda tries to replace discrimination that “robs people of rightful opportunities with affirming attitudes and behavior” (Corrigan, 2016). The former is successful when there is evidence that people with mental illness are seeking services more or becoming better engaged. The latter is successful when there is an increase in the number of people with mental illnesses in the workforce who are receiving reasonable accommodations. The federal government has tackled this issue with landmark legislation such as the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010, Mental Health Parity and Addiction Equity Act of 2008, and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. However, protections are not uniform across all subgroups due to “1) explicit language about inclusion and exclusion criteria in the statute or implementation rule, 2) vague statutory language that yields variation in the interpretation about which groups qualify for protection, and 3) incentives created by the legislation that affect specific groups differently” (Cummings, Lucas, and Druss, 2013). More on this in Module 15.

• Stigma is when negative stereotyping, labeling, rejection, and loss of status occur and take the form of public or self-stigma, and label avoidance.

Section 1.3 Review Questions

• How does social cognition help us to understand why stigmatization occurs?
• Define stigma and describe its three forms. What is courtesy stigma?
• What are the effects of stigma on the afflicted?
• Is stigmatization prevalent in the mental health community? If so, what can be done about it?
• How can we reduce stigmatization?
• Describe prehistoric and ancient beliefs about mental illness.
• Describe Greco-Roman thought on mental illness.
• Describe thoughts on mental illness during the Middle Ages.
• Describe thoughts on mental illness during the Renaissance.
• Describe thoughts on mental illness during the 18th and 19th centuries.
• Describe thoughts on mental illness during the 20th and 21st centuries.
• Describe the status of mental illness today.
• Outline the use of psychoactive drugs throughout time and their impact.
• Clarify the importance of managed health care for the treatment of mental illness.
• Define and clarify the importance of multicultural psychology.
• State the issue surrounding prescription rights for psychologists.
• Explain the importance of prevention science.

As we have seen so far, what is considered abnormal behavior is often dictated by the culture/society a person lives in, and unfortunately, the past has not treated the afflicted very well. In this section, we will examine how past societies viewed and dealt with mental illness.

1.4.1. Prehistoric and Ancient Beliefs

Prehistoric cultures often held a supernatural view of abnormal behavior and saw it as the work of evil spirits, demons, gods, or witches who took control of the person. This form of demonic possession often occurred when the person engaged in behavior contrary to the religious teachings of the time. Treatment by cave dwellers included a technique called trephination , in which a stone instrument known as a trephine was used to remove part of the skull, creating an opening. Through it, the evil spirits could escape, thereby ending the person’s mental affliction and returning them to normal behavior. Early Greek, Hebrew, Egyptian, and Chinese cultures used a treatment method called exorcism in which evil spirts were cast out through prayer, magic, flogging, starvation, having the person ingest horrible tasting drinks, or noisemaking.

1.4.2. Greco-Roman Thought

Rejecting the idea of demonic possession, Greek physician Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.) said that mental disorders were akin to physical ailments and had natural causes. Specifically, they arose from brain pathology , or head trauma/brain dysfunction or disease, and were also affected by heredity. Hippocrates classified mental disorders into three main categories – melancholia, mania, and phrenitis (brain fever) – and gave detailed clinical descriptions of each. He also described four main fluids or humors that directed normal brain functioning and personality – blood which arose in the heart, black bile arising in the spleen, yellow bile or choler from the liver, and phlegm from the brain. Mental disorders occurred when the humors were in a state of imbalance such as an excess of yellow bile causing frenzy and too much black bile causing melancholia or depression. Hippocrates believed mental illnesses could be treated as any other disorder and focused on the underlying pathology.

Also noteworthy was the Greek philosopher Plato (429-347 B.C.), who said that the mentally ill were not responsible for their actions and should not be punished. It was the responsibility of the community and their families to care for them. The Greek physician Galen (A.D. 129-199) said mental disorders had either physical or psychological causes, including fear, shock, alcoholism, head injuries, adolescence, and changes in menstruation.

In Rome, physician Asclepiades (124-40 BC) and philosopher Cicero (106-43 BC) rejected Hippocrates’ idea of the four humors and instead stated that melancholy arises from grief, fear, and rage; not excess black bile. Roman physicians treated mental disorders with massage or warm baths, the hope being that their patients would be as comfortable as they could be. They practiced the concept of contrariis contrarius , meaning opposite by opposite, and introduced contrasting stimuli to bring about balance in the physical and mental domains. An example would be consuming a cold drink while in a warm bath.

1.4.3. The Middle Ages – 500 AD to 1500 AD

The progress made during the time of the Greeks and Romans was quickly reversed during the Middle Ages with the increase in power of the Church and the fall of the Roman Empire. Mental illness was yet again explained as possession by the Devil and methods such as exorcism, flogging, prayer, the touching of relics, chanting, visiting holy sites, and holy water were used to rid the person of demonic influence. In extreme cases, the afflicted were exposed to confinement, beatings, and even execution. Scientific and medical explanations, such as those proposed by Hippocrates, were discarded.

Group hysteria, or mass madness , was also seen when large numbers of people displayed similar symptoms and false beliefs. This included the belief that one was possessed by wolves or other animals and imitated their behavior, called lycanthropy , and a mania in which large numbers of people had an uncontrollable desire to dance and jump, called tarantism . The latter was believed to have been caused by the bite of the wolf spider, now called the tarantula, and spread quickly from Italy to Germany and other parts of Europe where it was called Saint Vitus’s dance .

Perhaps the return to supernatural explanations during the Middle Ages makes sense given events of the time. The black death (bubonic plague) killed up to a third, or according to other estimates almost half, of the population. Famine, war, social oppression, and pestilence were also factors. The constant presence of death led to an epidemic of depression and fear. Near the end of the Middle Ages, mystical explanations for mental illness began to lose favor, and government officials regained some of their lost power over nonreligious activities. Science and medicine were again called upon to explain psychopathology.

1.4.4. The Renaissance – 14th to 16th centuries

The most noteworthy development in the realm of philosophy during the Renaissance was the rise of humanism , or the worldview that emphasizes human welfare and the uniqueness of the individual. This perspective helped continue the decline of supernatural views of mental illness. In the mid to late 1500s, German physician Johann Weyer (1515-1588) published his book, On the Deceits of the Demons, that rebutted the Church’s witch-hunting handbook, the Malleus Maleficarum , and argued that many accused of being witches and subsequently imprisoned, tortured, and/or burned at the stake, were mentally disturbed and not possessed by demons or the Devil himself. He believed that like the body, the mind was susceptible to illness. Not surprisingly, the book was vehemently protested and banned by the Church. It should be noted that these types of acts occurred not only in Europe, but also in the United States. The most famous example, the Salem Witch Trials of 1692, resulted in more than 200 people accused of practicing witchcraft and 20 deaths.

The number of asylums , or places of refuge for the mentally ill where they could receive care, began to rise during the 16th century as the government realized there were far too many people afflicted with mental illness to be left in private homes. Hospitals and monasteries were converted into asylums. Though the intent was benign in the beginning, as the facilities overcrowded, the patients came to be treated more like animals than people. In 1547, the Bethlem Hospital opened in London with the sole purpose of confining those with mental disorders. Patients were chained up, placed on public display, and often heard crying out in pain. The asylum became a tourist attraction, with sightseers paying a penny to view the more violent patients, and soon was called “Bedlam” by local people; a term that today means “a state of uproar and confusion” (https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bedlam).

1.4.5. Reform Movement – 18th to 19th centuries

The rise of the moral treatment movement occurred in Europe in the late 18th century and then in the United States in the early 19th century. The earliest proponent was Francis Pinel (1745-1826), the superintendent of la Bicetre, a hospital for mentally ill men in Paris. Pinel stressed respectful treatment and moral guidance for the mentally ill while considering their individual, social, and occupational needs. Arguing that the mentally ill were sick people, Pinel ordered that chains be removed, outside exercise be allowed, sunny and well-ventilated rooms replace dungeons, and patients be extended kindness and support. This approach led to considerable improvement for many of the patients, so much so, that several were released.

Following Pinel’s lead, William Tuke (1732-1822), a Quaker tea merchant, established a pleasant rural estate called the York Retreat. The Quakers believed that all people should be accepted for who they are and treated kindly. At the retreat, patients could work, rest, talk out their problems, and pray (Raad & Makari, 2010). The work of Tuke and others led to the passage of the Country Asylums Act of 1845, which required that every county provide asylum to the mentally ill. This sentiment extended to English colonies such as Canada, India, Australia, and the West Indies as word of the maltreatment of patients at a facility in Kingston, Jamaica spread, leading to an audit of colonial facilities and their policies.

Reform in the United States started with the figure largely considered to be the father of American psychiatry, Benjamin Rush (1745-1813). Rush advocated for the humane treatment of the mentally ill, showing them respect, and even giving them small gifts from time to time.  Despite this, his practice included treatments such as bloodletting and purgatives, the invention of the “tranquilizing chair,” and reliance on astrology, showing that even he could not escape from the beliefs of the time.

Due to the rise of the moral treatment movement in both Europe and the United States, asylums became habitable places where those afflicted with mental illness could recover. Regrettably, its success was responsible for its decline. The number of mental hospitals greatly increased, leading to staffing shortages and a lack of funds to support them. Though treating patients humanely was a noble endeavor, it did not work for some patients and other treatments were needed, though they had not been developed yet. Staff recognized that the approach worked best when the facility had 200 or fewer patients, but waves of immigrants arriving in the U.S. after the Civil War overwhelmed the facilities, and patient counts soared to 1,000 or more. Prejudice against the new arrivals led to discriminatory practices in which immigrants were not afforded the same moral treatments as native citizens, even when the resources were available to treat them.

The moral treatment movement also fell due to the rise of the mental hygiene movement , which focused on the physical well-being of patients. Its leading proponent in the United States was Dorothea Dix (1802-1887), a New Englander who observed the deplorable conditions suffered by the mentally ill while teaching Sunday school to female prisoners. Over the next 40 years, from 1841 to 1881, she motivated people and state legislators to do something about this injustice and raised millions of dollars to build over 30 more appropriate mental hospitals and improve others. Her efforts even extended beyond the U.S. to Canada and Scotland.

Finally, in 1908 Clifford Beers (1876-1943) published his book, A Mind that Found Itself , in which he described his struggle with bipolar disorder and the “cruel and inhumane treatment people with mental illnesses received. He witnessed and experienced horrific abuse at the hands of his caretakers. At one point during his institutionalization, he was placed in a straitjacket for 21 consecutive nights” ( https://www.mhanational.org/our-history ). His story aroused sympathy from the public and led him to found the National Committee for Mental Hygiene, known today as Mental Health America, which provides education about mental illness and the need to treat these people with dignity. Today, MHA has over 200 affiliates in 41 states and employs 6,500 affiliate staff and over 10,000 volunteers.

“In the early 1950s, Mental Health America issued a call to asylums across the country for their discarded chains and shackles. On April 13, 1953, at the McShane Bell Foundry in Baltimore, Md., Mental Health America melted down these inhumane bindings and recast them into a sign of hope: the Mental Health Bell.

Now the symbol of Mental Health America, the 300-pound Bell serves as a powerful reminder that the invisible chains of misunderstanding and discrimination continue to bind people with mental illnesses. Today, the Mental Health Bell rings out hope for improving mental health and achieving victory over mental illnesses.”

For more information on MHA, please visit: https://www.mhanational.org/

1.4.6. 20th – 21st Centuries

The decline of the moral treatment approach in the late 19th century led to the rise of two competing perspectives – the biological or somatogenic perspective and the psychological or psychogenic perspective.

     1.4.6.1. Biological or Somatogenic Perspective. Recall that Greek physicians Hippocrates and Galen said that mental disorders were akin to physical disorders and had natural causes. Though the idea fell into oblivion for several centuries, it re-emerged in the late 19th century for two reasons.  First, German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926) discovered that symptoms occurred regularly in clusters, which he called syndromes . These syndromes represented a unique mental disorder with a distinct cause, course, and prognosis. In 1883 he published his textbook, Compendium der Psychiatrie (Textbook of Psychiatry), and described a system for classifying mental disorders that became the basis of the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) that is currently in its 5th edition Text Revision (published in 2022).

Secondly, in 1825, the behavioral and cognitive symptoms of advanced syphilis were identified to include a belief that everyone is plotting against you or that you are God (a delusion of grandeur), and were termed general paresis by French physician A.L.J. Bayle. In 1897, Viennese psychiatrist Richard von Krafft-Ebbing injected patients suffering from general paresis with matter from syphilis spores and noted that none of the patients developed symptoms of syphilis, indicating they must have been previously exposed and were now immune. This led to the conclusion that syphilis was the cause of the general paresis. In 1906, August von Wassermann developed a blood test for syphilis, and in 1917 a cure was found. Julius von Wagner-Jauregg noticed that patients with general paresis who contracted malaria recovered from their symptoms. To test this hypothesis, he injected nine patients with blood from a soldier afflicted with malaria. Three of the patients fully recovered while three others showed great improvement in their paretic symptoms. The high fever caused by malaria burned out the syphilis bacteria. Hospitals in the United States began incorporating this new cure for paresis into their treatment approach by 1925.

Also noteworthy was the work of American psychiatrist John P. Grey. Appointed as superintendent of the Utica State Hospital in New York, Grey asserted that insanity always had a physical cause. As such, the mentally ill should be seen as physically ill and treated with rest, proper room temperature and ventilation, and a nutritive diet.

The 1930s also saw the use of electric shock as a treatment method, which was stumbled upon accidentally by Benjamin Franklin while experimenting with electricity in the early 18th century. He noticed that after suffering a severe shock his memories had changed, and in published work, he suggested physicians study electric shock as a treatment for melancholia.

            1.4.6.2. Psychological or Psychogenic Perspective. The psychological or psychogenic perspective states that emotional or psychological factors are the cause of mental disorders and represented a challenge to the biological perspective. This perspective had a long history but did not gain favor until the work of Viennese physician Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815). Influenced heavily by Newton’s theory of gravity, he believed that the planets also affected the human body through the force of animal magnetism and that all people had a universal magnetic fluid that determined how healthy they were. He demonstrated the usefulness of his approach when he cured Franzl Oesterline, a 27-year-old woman suffering from what he described as a convulsive malady. Mesmer used a magnet to disrupt the gravitational tides that were affecting his patient and produced a sensation of the magnetic fluid draining from her body. This procedure removed the illness from her body and provided a near-instantaneous recovery. In reality, the patient was placed in a trancelike state which made her highly suggestible. With other patients, Mesmer would have them sit in a darkened room filled with soothing music, into which he would enter dressed in a colorful robe and pass from person to person touching the afflicted area of their body with his hand or a rod/wand. He successfully cured deafness, paralysis, loss of bodily feeling, convulsions, menstrual difficulties, and blindness.

His approach gained him celebrity status as he demonstrated it at the courts of English nobility. However, the medical community was hardly impressed. A royal commission was formed to investigate his technique but could not find any proof for his theory of animal magnetism. Though he was able to cure patients when they touched his “magnetized” tree, the result was the same when “non-magnetized” trees were touched. As such, Mesmer was deemed a charlatan and forced to leave Paris. His technique was called mesmerism , better known today as hypnosis.

The psychological perspective gained popularity after two physicians practicing in the city of Nancy in France discovered that they could induce the symptoms of hysteria in perfectly healthy patients through hypnosis and then remove the symptoms in the same way. The work of Hippolyte-Marie Bernheim (1840-1919) and Ambroise-Auguste Liebault (1823-1904) came to be part of what was called the Nancy School and showed that hysteria was nothing more than a form of self-hypnosis. In Paris, this view was challenged by Jean Charcot (1825-1893), who stated that hysteria was caused by degenerative brain changes, reflecting the biological perspective. He was proven wrong and eventually turned to their way of thinking.

The use of hypnosis to treat hysteria was also carried out by fellow Frenchman Pierre Janet (1859-1947), and student of Charcot, who believed that hysteria had psychological, not biological causes. Namely, these included unconscious forces, fixed ideas, and memory impairments. In Vienna, Josef Breuer (1842-1925) induced hypnosis and had patients speak freely about past events that upset them. Upon waking, he discovered that patients sometimes were free of their symptoms of hysteria. Success was even greater when patients not only recalled forgotten memories but also relived them emotionally. He called this the cathartic method , and our use of the word catharsis today indicates a purging or release, in this case, of pent-up emotion.

By the end of the 19th century, it had become evident that mental disorders were caused by a combination of biological and psychological factors, and the investigation of how they develop began. Sigmund Freud’s development of psychoanalysis followed on the heels of the work of Bruner, and others who came before him.

1.4.7. Current Views/Trends

            1.4.7.1. Mental illness today. An article published by the Harvard Medical School in March 2014 called “The Prevalence and Treatment of Mental Illness Today” presented the results of the National Comorbidity Study Replication of 2001-2003, which included a sample of more than 9,000 adults. The results showed that nearly 46% of the participants had a psychiatric disorder at some time in their lives. The most commonly reported disorders were:

• Major depression – 17%
• Alcohol abuse – 13%
• Social anxiety disorder – 12%
• Conduct disorder – 9.5%

Also of interest was that women were more likely to have had anxiety and mood disorders while men showed higher rates of impulse control disorders. Comorbid anxiety and mood disorders were common, and 28% reported having more than one co-occurring disorder (Kessler, Berglund, et al., 2005; Kessler, Chiu, et al., 2005; Kessler, Demler, et al., 2005).

About 80% of the sample reported seeking treatment for their disorder, but with as much as a 10-year gap after symptoms first appeared. Women were more likely than men to seek help while whites were more likely than African and Hispanic Americans (Wang, Berglund, et al., 2005; Wang, Lane, et al., 2005). Care was sought primarily from family doctors, nurses, and other general practitioners (23%), followed by social workers and psychologists (16%), psychiatrists (12%), counselors or spiritual advisers (8%), and complementary and alternative medicine providers (CAMs; 7%).

In terms of the quality of the care, the article states:

Most of this treatment was inadequate, at least by the standards applied in the survey. The researchers defined minimum adequacy as a suitable medication at a suitable dose for two months, along with at least four visits to a physician; or else eight visits to any licensed mental health professional. By that definition, only 33% of people with a psychiatric disorder were treated adequately, and only 13% of those who saw general medical practitioners.

In comparison to the original study conducted from 1991-1992, the use of mental health services has increased over 50% during this decade. This may be attributed to treatment becoming more widespread and increased attempts to educate the public about mental illness. Stigma, discussed in Section 1.3, has reduced over time, diagnosis is more effective, community outreach programs have increased, and most importantly, general practitioners have been more willing to prescribe psychoactive medications which themselves are more readily available now. The article concludes, “Survey researchers also suggest that we need more outreach and voluntary screening, more education about mental illness for the public and physicians, and more effort to treat substance abuse and impulse control disorders.” We will explore several of these issues in the remainder of this section, including the use of psychiatric drugs and deinstitutionalization, managed health care, private psychotherapy, positive psychology and prevention science, multicultural psychology, and prescription rights for psychologists.

            1.4.7.2. Use of psychiatric drugs and deinstitutionalization . Beginning in the 1950s, psychiatric or psychotropic drugs were used for the treatment of mental illness and made an immediate impact. Though drugs alone cannot cure mental illness, they can improve symptoms and increase the effectiveness of treatments such as psychotherapy. Classes of psychiatric drugs include anti-depressants used to treat depression and anxiety, mood-stabilizing medications to treat bipolar disorder, anti-psychotic drugs to treat schizophrenia, and anti-anxiety drugs to treat generalized anxiety disorder or panic disorder

Frank (2006) found that by 1996, psychotropic drugs were used in 77% of mental health cases and spending on these drugs grew from $2.8 billion in 1987 to about $18 billion in 2001 (Coffey et al., 2000; Mark et al., 2005), representing over a sixfold increase. The largest classes of psychotropic drugs are anti-psychotics and anti-depressants, followed closely by anti-anxiety medications. Frank, Conti, and Goldman (2005) point out, “The expansion of insurance coverage for prescription drugs, the introduction and diffusion of managed behavioral health care techniques, and the conduct of the pharmaceutical industry in promoting their products all have influenced how psychotropic drugs are used and how much is spent on them.” Is it possible then that we are overprescribing these mediations? Davey (2014) provides ten reasons why this may be so, including leading suffers from believing that recovery is in their hands but instead in the hands of their doctors; increased risk of relapse; drug companies causing the “medicalization of perfectly normal emotional processes, such as bereavement” to ensure their survival; side effects; and a failure to change the way the person thinks or the socioeconomic environments that may be the cause of the disorder. For more on this article, please see: https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/why-we-worry/201401/overprescribing-drugs-treat-mental-health-problems . Smith (2012) echoed similar sentiments in an article on inappropriate prescribing. He cites the approval of Prozac by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1987 as when the issue began and the overmedication/overdiagnosis of children with ADHD as a more recent example.

A result of the use of psychiatric drugs was deinstitutionalization , or the release of patients from mental health facilities. This shifted resources from inpatient to outpatient care and placed the spotlight back on the biological or somatogenic perspective.  When people with severe mental illness do need inpatient care, it is typically in the form of short-term hospitalization.

            1.4.7.3. Managed health care. Managed health care is a term used to describe a type of health insurance in which the insurance company determines the cost of services, possible providers, and the number of visits a subscriber can have within a year. This is regulated through contracts with providers and medical facilities. The plans pay the providers directly, so subscribers do not have to pay out-of-pocket or complete claim forms, though most require co-pays paid directly to the provider at the time of service. Exactly how much the plan costs depends on how flexible the subscriber wants it to be; the more flexibility, the higher the cost. Managed health care takes three forms:

• Health Maintenance Organizations (HMO) – Typically only pay for care within the network. The subscriber chooses a primary care physician (PCP) who coordinates most of their care. The PCP refers the subscriber to specialists or other health care providers as is necessary. This is the most restrictive option.
• Preferred Provider Organizations (PPO) – Usually pay more if the subscriber obtains care within the network, but if care outside the network is sought, they cover part of the cost.
• Point of Service (POS) – These plans provide the most flexibility and allow the subscriber to choose between an HMO or a PPO each time care is needed.

Regarding the treatment needed for mental illness, managed care programs regulate the pre-approval of treatment via referrals from the PCP, determine which mental health providers can be seen, and oversee which conditions can be treated and what type of treatment can be delivered. This system was developed in the 1980s to combat the rising cost of mental health care and took responsibility away from single practitioners or small groups who could charge what they felt was appropriate. The actual impact of managed care on mental health services is still questionable at best.

            1.4.7.4. Multicultural psychology. As our society becomes increasingly diverse, medical practitioners and psychologists alike must take into account the patient’s gender, age, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic (SES) status, and culture and how these factors shape the individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Additionally, we need to understand how the various groups, whether defined by race, culture, or gender, differ from one another. This approach is called multicultural psychology .

In August 2002, the American Psychological Association’s (APA) Council of Representatives put forth six guidelines based on the understanding that “race and ethnicity can impact psychological practice and interventions at all levels” and the need for respect and inclusiveness. They further state, “psychologists are in a position to provide leadership as agents of prosocial change, advocacy, and social justice, thereby promoting societal understanding, affirmation, and appreciation of multiculturalism against the damaging effects of individual, institutional, and societal racism, prejudice, and all forms of oppression based on stereotyping and discrimination.” The guidelines from the 2002 document are as follows:

• “Guideline #1: Psychologists are encouraged to recognize that, as cultural beings, they may hold attitudes and beliefs that can detrimentally influence their perceptions of and interactions with individuals who are ethnically and racially different from themselves.
• Guideline #2: Psychologists are encouraged to recognize the importance of multicultural sensitivity/responsiveness, knowledge, and understanding about ethnically and racially different individuals.
• Guideline #3: As educators, psychologists are encouraged to employ the constructs of multiculturalism and diversity in psychological education.
• Guideline #4: Culturally sensitive psychological researchers are encouraged to recognize the importance of conducting culture–centered and ethical psychological research among persons from ethnic, linguistic, and racial minority backgrounds.
• Guideline #5: Psychologists strive to apply culturally-appropriate skills in clinical and other applied psychological practices.
• Guideline #6: Psychologists are encouraged to use organizational change processes to support culturally informed organizational (policy) development and practices.”

Source: https://apa.org/pi/oema/resources/policy/multicultural-guidelines.aspx

This type of sensitivity training is vital because bias based on ethnicity, race, and culture has been found in the diagnosis and treatment of autism (Harrison et al., 2017; Burkett, 2015), borderline personality disorder (Jani et al., 2016), and schizophrenia (Neighbors et al., 2003; Minsky et al., 2003). Despite these findings, Schwartz and Blankenship (2014) state, “It should also be noted that although clear evidence supports a longstanding trend in differential diagnoses according to consumer race, this trend does not imply that one race ( e.g ., African Americans) actually demonstrate more severe symptoms or higher prevalence rates of psychosis compared with other races ( e.g ., Euro-Americans). Because clinicians are the diagnosticians and misinterpretation, bias or other factors may play a role in this trend caution should be used when making inferences about actual rates of psychosis among ethnic minority persons.” Additionally, white middle-class help seekers were offered appointments with psychotherapists almost three times as often as their black working-class counterparts. Women were offered an appointment time in their preferred time range more than men were, though average appointment offer rates were similar between genders (Kugelmass, 2016). These findings collectively show that though we are becoming more culturally sensitive, we have a lot more work to do.

            1.4.7.5. Prescription rights for psychologists . To reduce inappropriate prescribing as described in 1.4.7.2, it has been proposed to allow appropriately trained psychologists the right to prescribe. Psychologists are more likely to utilize both therapy and medication, and so can make the best choice for their patient. The right has already been granted in New Mexico, Louisiana, Guam, the military, the Indian Health Services, and the U.S. Public Health Services. Measures in other states “have been opposed by the American Medical Association and American Psychiatric Association over concerns that inadequate training of psychologists could jeopardize patient safety. Supporters of prescriptive authority for psychologists are quick to point out that there is no evidence to support these concerns” (Smith, 2012).

            1.4.7.6. Prevention science. As a society, we used to wait for a mental or physical health issue to emerge, then scramble to treat it. More recently, medicine and science has taken a prevention stance, identifying the factors that cause specific mental health issues and implementing interventions to stop them from happening, or at least minimize their deleterious effects. Our focus has shifted from individuals to the population. Mental health promotion programs have been instituted with success in schools (Shoshani & Steinmetz, 2014; Weare & Nind, 2011; Berkowitz & Beer, 2007), in the workplace (Czabała, Charzyńska,  & Mroziak, B., 2011), with undergraduate and graduate students (Conley et al., 2017; Bettis et al., 2016), in relation to bullying (Bradshaw, 2015), and with the elderly (Forsman et al., 2011). Many researchers believe it is the ideal time to move from knowledge to action and to expand public mental health initiatives (Wahlbeck, 2015). The growth of positive psychology in the late 1990s has further propelled this movement forward. For more on positive psychology, please see Section 1.1.1.

• Some of the earliest views of mental illness saw it as the work of evil spirts, demons, gods, or witches who took control of the person, and in the Middle Ages it was seen as possession by the Devil and methods such as exorcism, flogging, prayer, the touching of relics, chanting, visiting holy sites, and holy water were used to rid the person of demonic influence.
• During the Renaissance, humanism was on the rise which emphasized human welfare and the uniqueness of the individual and led to an increase in the number of asylums as places of refuge for the mentally ill.
• The 18th to 19th centuries saw the rise of the moral treatment movement followed by the mental hygiene movement.
• The psychological or psychogenic perspective states that emotional or psychological factors are the cause of mental disorders and represented a challenge to the biological perspective which said that mental disorders were akin to physical disorders and had natural causes.
• Psychiatric or psychotropic drugs used to treat mental illness became popular beginning in the 1950s and led to deinstitutionalization or a shift from inpatient to outpatient care.

Section 1.4 Review Questions

• How has mental illness been viewed across time?
• Contrast the moral treatment and mental hygiene movements.
• Contrast the biological or somatogenic perspective with that of the psychological or psychogenic perspective.
• Discuss contemporary trends in relation to the use of drugs to treat mental illness, deinstitutionalization, managed health care, multicultural psychology, prescription rights for psychologists, and prevention science.
• Define the scientific method.
• Outline and describe the steps of the scientific method, defining all key terms.
• Identify and clarify the importance of the three cardinal features of science.
• List the five main research methods used in psychology.
• Describe observational research, listing its advantages and disadvantages.
• Describe case study research, listing its advantages and disadvantages.
• Describe survey research, listing its advantages and disadvantages.
• Describe correlational research, listing its advantages and disadvantages.
• Describe experimental research, listing its advantages and disadvantages.
• State the utility and need for multimethod research.

1.5.1. The Scientific Method

Psychology is the “scientific study of behavior and mental processes.” We will spend quite a lot of time on the behavior and mental processes part throughout this book and in relation to mental disorders. Still, before we proceed, it is prudent to further elaborate on what makes psychology scientific. It is safe to say that most people outside of our discipline or a sister science would be surprised to learn that psychology utilizes the scientific method at all. That may be even truer of clinical psychology, especially in light of the plethora of self-help books found at any bookstore. But yes, the treatment methods used by mental health professionals are based on empirical research and the scientific method.

As a starting point, we should expand on what the scientific method is.

The keyword here is systematic , meaning there is a set way to use it. What is that way? Well, depending on what source you look at, it can include a varying number of steps. I like to use the following:

Table 1.1: The Steps of the Scientific Method

Science has at its root three cardinal features that we will see play out time and time again throughout this book. They are:

• Observation – To know about the world around us, we have to be able to see it firsthand. When a mental disorder afflicts an individual, we can see it through their overt behavior. An individual with depression may withdraw from activities he/she enjoys, those with social anxiety disorder will avoid social situations, people with schizophrenia may express concern over being watched by the government, and individuals with dependent personality disorder may leave major decisions to trusted companions. In these examples and numerous others, the behaviors that lead us to a diagnosis of a specific disorder can easily be observed by the clinician, the patient, and/or family and friends.
• Experimentation – To be able to make causal or cause and effect statements, we must isolate variables. We must manipulate one variable and see the effect of doing so on another variable. Let’s say we want to know if a new treatment for bipolar disorder is as effective as existing treatments, or more importantly, better. We could design a study with three groups of bipolar patients. One group would receive no treatment and serve as a control group. A second group would receive an existing and proven treatment and would also be considered a control group. Finally, the third group would receive the new treatment and be the experimental group. What we are manipulating is what treatment the groups get – no treatment, the older treatment, and the newer treatment. The first two groups serve as controls since we already know what to expect from their results. There should be no change in bipolar disorder symptoms in the no-treatment group, a general reduction in symptoms for the older treatment group, and the same or better performance for the newer treatment group. As long as patients in the newer treatment group do not perform worse than their older treatment counterparts, we can say the new drug is a success. You might wonder why we would get excited about the performance of the new drug being the same as the old drug. Does it really offer any added benefit? In terms of a reduction of symptoms, maybe not, but it could cost less money than the older drug and that would be of value to patients.
• Measurement – How do we know that the new drug has worked? Simply, we can measure the person’s bipolar disorder symptoms before any treatment was implemented, and then again once the treatment has run its course.  This pre-post test design is typical in drug studies.

1.5.2. Research Methods

Step 3 called on the scientist to test his or her hypothesis. Psychology as a discipline uses five main research designs. They are:

            1.5.2.1. Naturalistic and laboratory observation . In terms of naturalistic observation , the scientist studies human or animal behavior in its natural environment, which could include the home, school, or a forest. The researcher counts, measures, and rates behavior in a systematic way and, at times, uses multiple judges to ensure accuracy in how the behavior is being measured. The advantage of this method is that you see behavior as it happens, and the experimenter does not taint the data. The disadvantage is that it could take a long time for the behavior to occur, and if the researcher is detected, then this may influence the behavior of those being observed.

Laboratory observation involves observing people or animals in a laboratory setting. The researcher might want to know more about parent-child interactions, and so, brings a mother and her child into the lab to engage in preplanned tasks such as playing with toys, eating a meal, or the mother leaving the room for a short time. The advantage of this method over the naturalistic method is that the experimenter can use sophisticated equipment to record the session and examine it later. The problem is that since the subjects know the experimenter is watching them, their behavior could become artificial. Clinical observation is a commonly employed research method to study psychopathology; we will talk about it more throughout this book.

            1.5.2.2. Case studies. Psychology can also utilize a detailed description of one person or a small group based on careful observation. This was the approach the founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, took to develop his theories. The advantage of this method is that you arrive at a detailed description of the investigated behavior, but the disadvantage is that the findings may be unrepresentative of the larger population, and thus, lacking generalizability . Again, bear in mind that you are studying one person or a tiny group. Can you possibly make conclusions about all people from just one person, or even five or ten? The other issue is that the case study is subject to researcher bias in terms of what is included in the final narrative and what is left out. Despite these limitations, case studies can lead us to novel ideas about the cause of abnormal behavior and help us to study unusual conditions that occur too infrequently to analyze with large sample sizes and in a systematic way.

            1.5.2.3. Surveys/Self-Report data. This is a questionnaire consisting of at least one scale with some questions used to assess a psychological construct of interest such as parenting style, depression, locus of control, or sensation-seeking behavior. It may be administered by paper and pencil or computer. Surveys allow for the collection of large amounts of data quickly, but the actual survey could be tedious for the participant and social desirability , when a participant answers questions dishonestly so that they are seen in a more favorable light, could be an issue. For instance, if you are asking high school students about their sexual activity, they may not give genuine answers for fear that their parents will find out. You could alternatively gather this information via an interview in a structured or unstructured fashion.

            1.5.2.4. Correlational research. This research method examines the relationship between two variables or two groups of variables. A numerical measure of the strength of this relationship is derived, called the correlation coefficient . It can range from -1.00, a perfect inverse relationship in which one variable goes up as the other goes down, to 0 indicating no relationship at all, to +1.00 or a perfect relationship in which as one variable goes up or down so does the other. In terms of a negative correlation, we might say that as a parent becomes more rigid, controlling, and cold, the attachment of the child to parent goes down. In contrast, as a parent becomes warmer, more loving, and provides structure, the child becomes more attached. The advantage of correlational research is that you can correlate anything. The disadvantage is that you can correlate anything, including variables that do not have any relationship with one another. Yes, this is both an advantage and a disadvantage. For instance, we might correlate instances of making peanut butter and jelly sandwiches with someone we are attracted to sitting near us at lunch. Are the two related? Not likely, unless you make a really good PB&J, but then the person is probably only interested in you for food and not companionship. The main issue here is that correlation does not allow you to make a causal statement.

A special form of correlational research is the epidemiological study in which the prevalence and incidence of a disorder in a specific population are measured (See Section 1.2 for definitions).

            1.5.2.5. Experiments. This is a controlled test of a hypothesis in which a researcher manipulates one variable and measures its effect on another variable. The manipulated variable is called the independent variable (IV) , and the one that is measured is called the dependent variable (DV) . In the example under Experimentation in Section 1.5.1, the treatment for bipolar disorder was the IV, while the actual intensity or number of symptoms serve as the DV.  A common feature of experiments is a control group that does not receive the treatment or is not manipulated and an experimental group that does receive the treatment or manipulation. If the experiment includes random assignment , participants have an equal chance of being placed in the control or experimental group. The control group allows the researcher (or teacher) to make a comparison to the experimental group and make a causal statement possible, and stronger. In our experiment, the new treatment should show a marked reduction in the intensity of bipolar symptoms compared to the group receiving no treatment, and perform either at the same level as, or better than, the older treatment. This would be the initial hypothesis made before starting the experiment.

In a drug study, to ensure the participants’ expectations do not affect the final results by giving the researcher what he/she is looking for (in our example, symptoms improve whether the participant is receiving treatment or not), we might use what is called a placebo , or a sugar pill made to look exactly like the pill given to the experimental group. This way, participants all are given something, but cannot figure out what exactly it is. You might say this keeps them honest and allows the results to speak for themselves.

Finally, the study of mental illness does not always afford us a large sample of participants to study, so we have to focus on one individual using a single-subject experimental design . This differs from a case study in the sheer number of strategies available to reduce potential confounding variables , or variables not originally part of the research design but contribute to the results in a meaningful way. One type of single-subject experimental design is the reversal or ABAB design . Kuttler, Myles, and Carson (1998) used social stories to reduce tantrum behavior in two social environments in a 12-year old student diagnosed with autism, Fragile-X syndrome, and intermittent explosive disorder. Using an ABAB design, they found that precursors to tantrum behavior decreased when the social stories were available (B) and increased when the intervention was withdrawn (A). A more recent study (Balakrishnan & Alias, 2017) also established the utility of social stories as a social learning tool for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) using an ABAB design. During the baseline phase (A), the four student participants were observed, and data recorded on an observation form. During the treatment phase (B), they listened to the social story and data was recorded in the same manner. Upon completion of the first B, the students returned to A, which was followed one more time by B and the reading of the social story. Once the second treatment phase ended, the participation was monitored again to obtain the outcome. All students showed improvement during the treatment phases in terms of the number of positive peer interactions, but the number of interactions reduced in the absence of social stories. From this, the researchers concluded that the social story led to the increase in positive peer interactions of children with ASD.

            1.5.2.6. Multi-method research. As you have seen above, no single method alone is perfect. All have strengths and limitations. As such, for the psychologist to provide the most precise picture of what is affecting behavior or mental processes, several of these approaches are typically employed at different stages of the research study. This is called multi-method research.

• The scientific method is a systematic method for gathering knowledge about the world around us.
• A systematic explanation of a phenomenon is a theory and our specific, testable prediction is the hypothesis .
• Replication is when we repeat the study to confirm its results.
• Psychology’s five main research designs are observation, case studies, surveys, correlation, and experimentation.
• No single research method alone is perfect – all have strengths and limitations.

Section 1.5 Review Questions

• What is the scientific method and what steps make it up?
• Differentiate theory and hypothesis.
• What are the three cardinal features of science and how do they relate to the study of mental disorders?
• What are the five main research designs used by psychologists? Define each and then state its strengths and limitations.
• What is the advantage of multi-method research?
• Identify and describe the various types of mental health professionals.
• Clarify what it means to communicate findings.
• Identify professional societies in clinical psychology.
• Identify publications in clinical psychology.

1.6.1. Types of Professionals

There are many types of mental health professionals that people may seek out for assistance. They include:

Table 1.2: Types of Mental Health Professionals

For more information on types of mental health professionals, please visit:

https://www.mhanational.org/types-mental-health-professionals

1.6.2. Professional Societies and Journals

One of the functions of science is to communicate findings. Testing hypotheses, developing sound methodology, accurately analyzing data, and drawing sound conclusions are important, but you must tell others what you have done too. This is accomplished by joining professional societies and submitting articles to peer-reviewed journals. Below are some of the organizations and journals relevant to applied behavior analysis.

1.6.2.1. Professional Societies

• Website – https://div12.org/
• Mission Statement – “The mission of the Society of Clinical Psychology is to represent the field of Clinical Psychology through encouragement and support of the integration of clinical psychological science and practice in education, research, application, advocacy and public policy, attending to the importance of diversity.”
• Publications – Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice and the newsletter Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice(quarterly)
• Other Information – Members and student affiliates may join one of eight sections such as clinical emergencies and crises, clinical psychology of women, assessment psychology, and clinical geropsychology
• Website – https://www.clinicalchildpsychology.org/
• Mission Statement – “Our mission is to serve children, adolescents and families with the best possible clinical care based on psychological science. SCCAP strives to integrate scientific and professional aspects of clinical child and adolescent psychology, in that it promotes scientific inquiry, training, and clinical practice related to serving children and their families.”
• Publication – Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology
• Website – https://www.aacpsy.org/
• Mission Statement – The American Academy of Clinical Psychology seeks to “recognize and promote advanced competence within Professional Psychology,” “provide a professional community that encourages communication between and among Members and Fellows of the Academy,” “provide opportunities for advanced education in Professional Psychology,” and “expand awareness and availability of AACP Members and Fellows to the public through promotion and education.”
• Publication – Bulletin of the American Academy of Clinical Psychology (newsletter)
• Website – http://www.sscpweb.org/
• Mission Statement – “ The Society for a Science of Clinical Psychology (SSCP) was established in 1966. Its purpose is to affirm and continue to promote the integration of the scientist and the practitioner in training, research, and applied endeavors. Its members represent a diversity of interests and theoretical orientations across clinical psychology. The common bond of the membership is a commitment to empirical research and the ideal that scientific principles should play a role in training, practice, and establishing public policy for health and mental health concerns. SSCP has organizational affiliations with both the American Psychological Association (Section III of Division 12) and the Association for Psychological Science.”
• Other Information – Offers ten awards ranging from early career award, outstanding mentor award, outstanding student teacher award, and outstanding student clinician award.
• Website – http://www.asch.net/
• Mission Statement – “To provide and encourage education programs to further, in every ethical way, the knowledge, understanding, and application of hypnosis in health care; to encourage research and scientific publication in the field of hypnosis; to promote the further recognition and acceptance of hypnosis as an important tool in clinical health care and focus for scientific research; to cooperate with other professional societies that share mutual goals, ethics and interests; and to provide a professional community for those clinicians and researchers who use hypnosis in their work.”
• Publication – American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis
• Other Information – Offers certification in clinical hypnosis

1.6.2.2. Professional Journals

• Website – http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1468-2850
• Published by – American Psychological Association, Division 12
• Description – “ Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice presents cutting-edge developments in the science and practice of clinical psychology and related mental health fields by publishing scholarly articles, primarily involving narrative and systematic reviews as well as meta-analyses related to assessment, intervention, and service delivery.”
• Website – https://www.clinicalchildpsychology.org/JCCAP
• Published by – American Psychological Association, Division 53
• Description – “It publishes original contributions on the following topics: (a) the development and evaluation of assessment and intervention techniques for use with clinical child and adolescent populations; (b) the development and maintenance of clinical child and adolescent problems; (c) cross-cultural and socio-demographic issues that have a clear bearing on clinical child and adolescent psychology in terms of theory, research, or practice; and (d) training and professional practice in clinical child and adolescent psychology, as well as child advocacy.”
• Website – http://www.asch.net/Public/AmericanJournalofClinicalHypnosis.aspx
• Published by – American Society of Clinical Hypnosis
• Description – “The Journal publishes original scientific articles and clinical case reports on hypnosis, as well as reviews of related books and abstracts of the current hypnosis literature.”
• Mental health professionals take on many different forms with different degree requirements, training, and the ability to prescribe mediations.
• Telling others what we have done is achieved by joining professional societies and submitting articles to peer-reviewed journals.

Section 1.6 Review Questions

• Provide a general overview of the types of mental professionals and the degree, training, and ability to prescribe medications that they have.
• Briefly outline professional societies and journals related to clinical psychology and related disciplines.

Module Recap

In Module 1, we undertook a relatively lengthy discussion of what abnormal behavior is by first looking at what normal behavior is. What emerged was a general set of guidelines focused on mental illness as causing dysfunction, distress, deviance, and at times, being dangerous for the afflicted and others around him/her. Then we classified mental disorders in terms of their occurrence, cause, course, prognosis, and treatment. We acknowledged that mental illness is stigmatized in our society and provided a basis for why this occurs and what to do about it. This involved a discussion of the history of mental illness and current views and trends.

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. The word scientific is key as psychology adheres to the strictest aspects of the scientific method and uses five main research designs in its investigation of mental disorders – observation, case study, surveys, correlational research, and experiments. Various mental health professionals use these designs, and societies and journals provide additional means to communicate findings or to be good consumers of psychological inquiry.

It is with this foundation in mind that we move to examine models of abnormality in Module 2.

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Essays on Abnormal Psychology

Abnormal psychology essay topics and outline examples, essay title 1: understanding the spectrum of mental disorders: causes, diagnosis, and treatment.

Thesis Statement: This research essay delves into the diverse world of mental disorders, examines their underlying causes, discusses methods of diagnosis, and explores various approaches to treatment and therapy.

• Introduction
• Defining Abnormal Psychology and Mental Disorders
• Biological, Psychological, and Environmental Causes of Mental Disorders
• Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM): A Tool for Classification
• Common Methods of Diagnosis: Interviews, Tests, and Observations
• Treatment Approaches: Medication, Psychotherapy, and Alternative Therapies
• Case Studies: Real-Life Examples of Diagnoses and Treatments
• Conclusion: Advancing Understanding and Compassion for Mental Health

Essay Title 2: Psychological Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence: Early Identification and Intervention

Thesis Statement: This research essay focuses on psychological disorders that manifest in childhood and adolescence, emphasizes the importance of early identification, and explores evidence-based intervention strategies.

• Prevalence of Childhood and Adolescent Mental Health Issues
• Common Psychological Disorders in Youth: Anxiety, Depression, and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
• Challenges in Identifying and Diagnosing Mental Health Issues in Young Individuals
• Effective Intervention Approaches: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Family Therapy, and School-Based Programs
• Preventive Measures and Early Intervention Initiatives
• Success Stories: Case Studies of Early Intervention and Positive Outcomes
• Conclusion: Enhancing Mental Well-being in Young Populations

Essay Title 3: Stigmatization of Mental Illness: Impact, Reduction Strategies, and Advocacy

Thesis Statement: This research essay explores the damaging effects of stigmatization surrounding mental illness, presents strategies to reduce stigma, and highlights the role of advocacy in reshaping public perception.

• The Social and Emotional Consequences of Stigmatization
• Media Portrayals and Stereotypes of Mental Illness
• Efforts to Combat Stigma: Anti-Stigma Campaigns, Education, and Awareness Programs
• Advocacy Movements: Voices for Change in Mental Health Policy and Care
• Personal Narratives: Individuals Who Have Overcome Stigma
• Future Directions: Promoting Inclusivity and Compassion for Those with Mental Health Challenges
• Conclusion: Striving for a Stigma-Free Society

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50+ Research Topics for Psychology Papers

How to Find Psychology Research Topics for Your Student Paper

• Specific Branches of Psychology
• Topics Involving a Disorder or Type of Therapy
• Human Cognition
• Human Development
• Critique of Publications
• Famous Experiments
• Historical Figures
• Specific Careers
• Case Studies
• Literature Reviews
• Your Own Study/Experiment

Are you searching for a great topic for your psychology paper ? Sometimes it seems like coming up with topics of psychology research is more challenging than the actual research and writing. Fortunately, there are plenty of great places to find inspiration and the following list contains just a few ideas to help get you started.

Finding a solid topic is one of the most important steps when writing any type of paper. It can be particularly important when you are writing a psychology research paper or essay. Psychology is such a broad topic, so you want to find a topic that allows you to adequately cover the subject without becoming overwhelmed with information.

I can always tell when a student really cares about the topic they chose; it comes through in the writing. My advice is to choose a topic that genuinely interests you, so you’ll be more motivated to do thorough research.

In some cases, such as in a general psychology class, you might have the option to select any topic from within psychology's broad reach. Other instances, such as in an  abnormal psychology  course, might require you to write your paper on a specific subject such as a psychological disorder.

As you begin your search for a topic for your psychology paper, it is first important to consider the guidelines established by your instructor.

Research Topics Within Specific Branches of Psychology

The key to selecting a good topic for your psychology paper is to select something that is narrow enough to allow you to really focus on the subject, but not so narrow that it is difficult to find sources or information to write about.

One approach is to narrow your focus down to a subject within a specific branch of psychology. For example, you might start by deciding that you want to write a paper on some sort of social psychology topic. Next, you might narrow your focus down to how persuasion can be used to influence behavior .

Other social psychology topics you might consider include:

• Prejudice and discrimination (i.e., homophobia, sexism, racism)
• Social cognition
• Person perception
• Social control and cults
• Persuasion, propaganda, and marketing
• Attraction, romance, and love
• Nonverbal communication
• Prosocial behavior

Psychology Research Topics Involving a Disorder or Type of Therapy

Exploring a psychological disorder or a specific treatment modality can also be a good topic for a psychology paper. Some potential abnormal psychology topics include specific psychological disorders or particular treatment modalities, including:

• Eating disorders
• Borderline personality disorder
• Seasonal affective disorder
• Schizophrenia
• Antisocial personality disorder
• Profile a  type of therapy  (i.e., cognitive-behavioral therapy, group therapy, psychoanalytic therapy)

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Human Cognition

Some of the possible topics you might explore in this area include thinking, language, intelligence, and decision-making. Other ideas might include:

• False memories
• Speech disorders
• Problem-solving

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Human Development

In this area, you might opt to focus on issues pertinent to  early childhood  such as language development, social learning, or childhood attachment or you might instead opt to concentrate on issues that affect older adults such as dementia or Alzheimer's disease.

Some other topics you might consider include:

• Language acquisition
• Media violence and children
• Learning disabilities
• Gender roles
• Child abuse
• Prenatal development
• Parenting styles
• Aspects of the aging process

Do a Critique of Publications Involving Psychology Research Topics

One option is to consider writing a critique paper of a published psychology book or academic journal article. For example, you might write a critical analysis of Sigmund Freud's Interpretation of Dreams or you might evaluate a more recent book such as Philip Zimbardo's  The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil .

Professional and academic journals are also great places to find materials for a critique paper. Browse through the collection at your university library to find titles devoted to the subject that you are most interested in, then look through recent articles until you find one that grabs your attention.

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Famous Experiments

There have been many fascinating and groundbreaking experiments throughout the history of psychology, providing ample material for students looking for an interesting term paper topic. In your paper, you might choose to summarize the experiment, analyze the ethics of the research, or evaluate the implications of the study. Possible experiments that you might consider include:

• The Milgram Obedience Experiment
• The Stanford Prison Experiment
• The Little Albert Experiment
• Pavlov's Conditioning Experiments
• The Asch Conformity Experiment
• Harlow's Rhesus Monkey Experiments

Topics of Psychology Research About Historical Figures

One of the simplest ways to find a great topic is to choose an interesting person in the  history of psychology  and write a paper about them. Your paper might focus on many different elements of the individual's life, such as their biography, professional history, theories, or influence on psychology.

While this type of paper may be historical in nature, there is no need for this assignment to be dry or boring. Psychology is full of fascinating figures rife with intriguing stories and anecdotes. Consider such famous individuals as Sigmund Freud, B.F. Skinner, Harry Harlow, or one of the many other  eminent psychologists .

Psychology Research Topics About a Specific Career

​Another possible topic, depending on the course in which you are enrolled, is to write about specific career paths within the  field of psychology . This type of paper is especially appropriate if you are exploring different subtopics or considering which area interests you the most.

In your paper, you might opt to explore the typical duties of a psychologist, how much people working in these fields typically earn, and the different employment options that are available.

Topics of Psychology Research Involving Case Studies

One potentially interesting idea is to write a  psychology case study  of a particular individual or group of people. In this type of paper, you will provide an in-depth analysis of your subject, including a thorough biography.

Generally, you will also assess the person, often using a major psychological theory such as  Piaget's stages of cognitive development  or  Erikson's eight-stage theory of human development . It is also important to note that your paper doesn't necessarily have to be about someone you know personally.

In fact, many professors encourage students to write case studies on historical figures or fictional characters from books, television programs, or films.

Psychology Research Topics Involving Literature Reviews

Another possibility that would work well for a number of psychology courses is to do a literature review of a specific topic within psychology. A literature review involves finding a variety of sources on a particular subject, then summarizing and reporting on what these sources have to say about the topic.

Literature reviews are generally found in the  introduction  of journal articles and other  psychology papers , but this type of analysis also works well for a full-scale psychology term paper.

Topics of Psychology Research Based on Your Own Study or Experiment

Many psychology courses require students to design an actual psychological study or perform some type of experiment. In some cases, students simply devise the study and then imagine the possible results that might occur. In other situations, you may actually have the opportunity to collect data, analyze your findings, and write up your results.

Finding a topic for your study can be difficult, but there are plenty of great ways to come up with intriguing ideas. Start by considering your own interests as well as subjects you have studied in the past.

Online sources, newspaper articles, books , journal articles, and even your own class textbook are all great places to start searching for topics for your experiments and psychology term papers. Before you begin, learn more about  how to conduct a psychology experiment .

What This Means For You

After looking at this brief list of possible topics for psychology papers, it is easy to see that psychology is a very broad and diverse subject. While this variety makes it possible to find a topic that really catches your interest, it can sometimes make it very difficult for some students to select a good topic.

If you are still stumped by your assignment, ask your instructor for suggestions and consider a few from this list for inspiration.

• Hockenbury, SE & Nolan, SA. Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers; 2014.
• Santrock, JW. A Topical Approach to Lifespan Development. New York: McGraw-Hill Education; 2016.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Abnormal Psychology Essays

Ever wondered what makes normal behavior turn into what we call psychological conditions ? Looking into abnormal psychology essays shows us many answers. These range from old views to new treatments.

These essays show us why understanding mental health is key. It changes how we see and help people with mental issues today. They tell us about the big changes in mental health care and what we still need to do.

Looking at historical figures like Abraham Lincoln also gives us deep insights. It shows how our views on mental health have changed over time. Through these essays, we learn and think more deeply about mental health.

For students, using a professional essay writing service can really help. Services like Wisescriber offer expert advice and ensure top-notch work and happy customers 1 .

Key Takeaways

• Abnormal psychology essays cover a wide range of topics, from history to modern treatments.
• Understanding mental health is key to changing how society views it.
• Looking at figures like Abraham Lincoln shows how mental health care has evolved.
• Using services like Wisescriber ensures quality academic work.
• These essays encourage deeper thought and can lead to positive changes in mental health views.

Introduction to Abnormal Psychology

Abnormal psychology looks into behaviors and mental disorders that are not normal. It studies these conditions and how they affect people in society. This field is key for understanding and treating mental health issues , helping in both school and clinical settings.

Definition and Scope

Abnormal psychology examines behaviors that greatly impact a person’s feelings, actions, and overall health. It aims to understand and categorize mental disorders like anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia . These disorders can cause a lot of distress and harm to a person’s life.

Historical Context

The study of abnormal psychology has seen many important steps. The American Psychiatric Association’s DSM-5-TR highlights dysfunction as a main factor in abnormal behavior 2 . Figures like B.F. Skinner, with his work on behaviorism, and Martin Seligman, who focused on positive psychology, have greatly shaped our understanding of human behavior 2 .

Importance in Psychology

Abnormal psychology is crucial for diagnosing and treating mental health issues . It helps improve mental health and how well people function. It also looks at how society and culture affect mental health, which is key for correct diagnosis and treatment 3 .

For those needing help with abnormal psychology essays , Wisescriber’s team offers top-notch writing and research. They ensure your work is private and secure 2 .

Theoretical Perspectives in Abnormal Psychology

Exploring abnormal psychology means looking into different theoretical views. These views help us understand mental health issues , from behavior to thinking patterns. The main views include psychodynamic, behavioral, and cognitive models.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Sigmund Freud started the psychodynamic view. It says the unconscious mind affects our actions. Freud believed childhood conflicts and hidden desires play a big role in mental health. This view looks at feelings and thoughts to understand abnormal behavior, unlike just looking at biology or medicine abnormal psychology essay 4 .

Behavioral Perspective

The behavioral view looks at what we do and how we learn it. B.F. Skinner and others showed that bad behaviors come from learning in our environment. They think we can change these behaviors with rewards or punishments. This view often works with the cognitive perspective for a full picture of abnormal psychology 4 5 .

Cognitive Perspective

The cognitive view focuses on our thoughts, beliefs, and feelings inside. Aaron Beck and Albert Ellis have made big contributions here. They believe bad thinking leads to emotional and behavioral problems. Therapies aim to change these negative thoughts to help people feel better. This view is great for understanding and treating depression and anxiety 4 . By using insights from psychodynamic, behavioral, and cognitive views, experts get a full picture of abnormal psychology.

Common Mental Disorders Explored

It’s key to understand common mental disorders to see how they affect people and communities. These disorders are complex and need a full approach for treatment.

Anxiety Disorders

Anxiety disorders are very common, affecting millions worldwide. They include things like generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder, and social anxiety. People with these disorders worry too much and feel fear and physical symptoms like a fast heart rate and sweating.

The biological model says these disorders come from the nervous system and imbalanced neurotransmitters. This affects daily life and relationships. It talks about how genes and hormones can play a part in these disorders 6 .

Mood Disorders

Mood disorders , like depression and bipolar disorder, change how someone feels deeply. They can make someone feel sad or have big mood swings. This can make it hard to do everyday tasks.

The psychological view says these disorders come from thinking problems and stress. The biological model adds that neurotransmitter issues and how the brain sends signals can also cause them 6 . Culture and society also affect how these disorders are seen and treated 6 .

Schizophrenia and Psychotic Disorders

Schizophrenia is a serious disorder that changes how someone thinks, feels, and acts. It’s marked by things like seeing or hearing things that aren’t there and thinking strange thoughts. Diagnosing and treating schizophrenia is hard because of its complex nature.

The multi-dimensional model says it’s caused by genes, brain structure, and environmental factors like infections before birth and stress. Knowing this helps doctors make better treatment plans 6 .

Psychopathology and Its Assessment

Psychopathology is all about studying mental disorders . It’s a key part of clinical psychology . Accurate diagnoses and treatment plans rely on good psychological assessments. Articles in the Journal of Psychopathology and Clinical Science 7 focus on understanding disordered thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

The study of psychopathology has a long history. It goes back to 1878 with Emminghaus H’s book. Today, the DSM-5 from 2013 gives clear criteria for mental disorders 8 . In 2017, Kotov R talked about a new way to look at psychopathology called “The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP)” 8 .

There are many ways to assess mental health. The Schizophrenia Proneness Instrument (SPI-CY) helps spot early psychosis signs in young people and adults 8 . The Journal of Psychopathology and Clinical Science also looks at reviews and studies to improve our understanding 7 .

The way we assess mental health is always getting better. Heckers S talked about new tech and methods in 2014 8 . The journal aims for research that includes everyone, focusing on social and cultural factors 7 .

Cultural Influences on Mental Disorders

Culture greatly shapes how we see and deal with mental health issues. In Malay culture, for example, “amok” and “lâtah” are specific mental health issues tied to cultural beliefs 9 . These disorders show how culture affects mental health in unique ways 9 .

What we call mental disorders can vary by culture. “Piblokto” in the eastern Arctic and “arctic hysteria” in Siberia show how culture and environment impact mental health 9 . It’s key to avoid cultural bias in diagnosing mental health issues (Cooper et al., 1969) 9 10 .

Cross-Cultural Perspectives

Understanding mental health means looking at it from different cultures. Personality traits and cultural background can affect mental health 9 . Studies comparing countries like the U.S. and others show big differences in how mental health is viewed and treated 10 . A 2019 study highlighted how culture deeply affects mental health (Tanaka-Matsumi, 2019) 11 .

Impact of Cultural Stigma

Cultural stigma can really hurt mental health efforts. It stops people from getting help for mental issues. This leads to not enough diagnosis and treatment in many places (Kennedy, 1973) 9 10 . Mental health is often seen differently in various cultures, affecting both the person and their community. Being aware of these differences can help improve mental health care for everyone.

Abnormal Psychology Essays: Key Topics

Abnormal psychology essays let us dive deep into important mental health topics. They cover various key areas, giving us deep insights into human behavior and mental disorders.

Childhood Trauma and Mental Disorders

Childhood trauma can affect mental health for life, leading to disorders like dissociative disorders and PTSD 12 . Studies show how early trauma affects the development of these disorders 13 . Research finds PTSD is more common in people from low-income backgrounds and minority groups 13 . This shows why it’s key to understand what causes mental health problems from childhood trauma .

Substance Abuse and Mental Illness

There’s a strong link between substance abuse and mental illness, with each affecting the other 12 . Addiction can lead to more mental health issues, like anxiety and depression 12 . Therapies like psychodynamic and cognitive help us understand and fix these issues 13 . It’s important to study this link to help people with both substance abuse and mental health problems.

Effectiveness of Therapeutic Approaches

It’s crucial to look at how well different therapies work in abnormal psychology essays. Therapies like CBT and mindfulness help with phobias and depression 12 . Research methods show the complex nature of treatment success 13 . These essays can also talk about how well these therapies work and their ethics.

There are many topics to explore in abnormal psychology essays. They help students and researchers learn more about mental health. For tips on writing these essays, check out Verywell Mind 13 and Wise Scribe 12 .

Psychological Factors in Deviant Behavior

Deviant behavior means actions that go against what society expects. It’s often linked to psychological issues. For example, problems with thinking and managing feelings play big roles 14 . Things like seeking thrills, acting on impulse, and internal struggles can lead to drug use and other deviant actions 14 . These issues aren’t just about drugs but also about other addictions like internet and gambling 15 .

Why do some teens start acting out? It’s often because of both psychological and social reasons. This time in their lives is key for learning right from wrong and social skills 15 . Stress and coping methods can push teens to use substances, showing abnormal behavior 14 . Changes in the late 20th century also played a part in more teens acting out 15 .

Research on Filipino teens shows that being agreeable or not can affect their actions 16 . This age is full of changes and stress that can lead to bad choices. But, having a good family life can help prevent these issues 16 .

Friends also play a big part in how teens act. Hanging out with others who use drugs or alcohol can make teens more likely to do the same 14 . Being around drug-using friends can also make deviant actions worse, showing how important friends are 14 .

To stop deviant behavior , we need to understand what drives it. Focusing on feelings, thoughts, and friends can help change things for the better. This way, we can help people grow up healthier.

Innovative Treatments and Therapies

Exploring new treatments and therapies can greatly improve how we handle mental health issues. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), exposure therapy , and mindfulness-based interventions are showing great promise.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is known as a top treatment for mental health issues like depression and anxiety. A study with 409 trials and 52,702 patients showed CBT’s big impact on depression 17 . Over the last 60 years, CBT has grown, improving its models and methods 17 . Experts call CBT the best in psychotherapy because of its proven success 17 .

Exposure Therapy

Exposure therapy works well with CBT to treat phobias and PTSD. A study showed how exposure therapy , based on cognitive-behavioral and extinction theories, really works 17 . It helps patients face their fears in a safe way, lowering anxiety and boosting coping skills. This method is getting more popular with digital tools and virtual reality to make therapy better and reach more people 18 .

Mindfulness-Based Interventions

Mindfulness-based interventions are becoming more popular for handling stress, anxiety, and other mental health problems. Techniques like mindfulness meditation help with emotional control and building resilience. Studies and reviews show they work well with traditional therapies like CBT and offer new insights 19 . The Global Burden of Disease study from 1990 to 2010 also highlights their impact on mental health 18 .

By always improving and using new digital tools, therapies like CBT, exposure therapy, and mindfulness-based interventions are making mental health care better.

Role of Genetics and Environment

Understanding mental disorders requires looking at how genetics and environment work together. Both genetic factors and environmental triggers play big roles in these disorders.

Genetic Predispositions

Genetics greatly affect our risk for mental disorders. For example, genetics can explain 40% to 60% of the risk for addiction 20 . Twin studies show that 71% of the risk for alcohol abuse comes from genes 20 . This shows how important genetics are.

Behavior genetics studies how genes and environment work together to shape our actions 21 .

Environmental Triggers

Environmental factors also have a big impact on our mental health. Early use of substances is often influenced by family and social surroundings 20 . Later, genetics takes over more. This shows how complex these triggers are.

Studies on adoptees show how genes and environment interact. They find that genes and environment both affect mental health 22 .

This mix of genetics and environment is key to understanding mental health. It shows how our genes and surroundings work together to shape our behaviors 21 .

For more on how genes and environment affect mental health, check out this study 22 . For academic insights, see this essay service link 20 .

Exploring abnormal psychology essays has given us deep insights into mental disorders. The change from seeing mental issues as moral failures to medical conditions in the 1800s was a big step forward. It shows how history helps us understand mental health today 23 .

Looking at different theories like psychodynamic, behavioral, and cognitive, we see each has its own value. These theories help us understand and treat mental health issues better. They show the power of therapy, including Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT), exposure therapy, and mindfulness-based interventions.

Culture also plays a big role in how we see mental health. In many places, what’s seen as normal or abnormal varies greatly 24 . In the past, some believed evil spirits caused certain behaviors, showing how culture shapes mental health care 24 . Now, we know that genetics and environment also play a part, leading to more personalized treatments.

Studying abnormal psychology helps us learn more and improve treatments. It also helps society understand mental health better. By looking at different cultures and pushing research forward, we can make mental health care more inclusive and caring.

Source Links

• BVT Publishing – Abnormal Psychology: Clinical and Scientific Perspectives 7 – https://www.bvtpublishing.com/book/1178
• What is Abnormal Psychology? – Fundamentals of Psychological Disorders – https://opentext.wsu.edu/abnormal-psych/chapter/module-1-what-is-abnormal-psychology/
• What Is Abnormal Psychology? Definition and Examples – https://www.simplypsychology.org/abnormal-psychology.html
• Theories Of Abnormality In Psychology – 805 Words – https://www.cram.com/essay/Biological-Theory-Of-Abnormal-Behavior/PKVHNFFNB5ZW
• Theories of Abnormal Psychology – https://brainmass.com/psychology/theories-of-abnormal-psychology
• Models of Abnormal Psychology – Fundamentals of Psychological Disorders – https://opentext.wsu.edu/abnormal-psych/chapter/module-2-models-of-abnormal-psychology/
• Journal of Psychopathology and Clinical Science – https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/abn
• Psychopathology—a Precision Tool in Need of Re-sharpening – https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6156265/
• Cultures as a Causative of Mental Disorder – https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2690278/
• Abnormal Behavior in Cultural Context – https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4615-6681-6_5
• Abnormal Psychology and Culture | The Handbook of Culture and Psychology – https://academic.oup.com/book/34980/chapter/298642847
• Explore these 200+ Engaging Psychology Essay Topics – https://collegeessay.org/blog/psychology-essay-topics
• Abnormal Psychology in 7 Studies | IB Psychology – https://www.themantic-education.com/ibpsych/2021/01/20/abnormal-psychology-in-7-studies/
• Psychosocial Influences of the Escalation of Deviance: The Case of Prescription Drug Sniffing – https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6377195/
• PDF – https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1117749.pdf
• Determinants of a Variety of Deviant Behaviors: An Analysis of Family Satisfaction, Personality Traits, and Their Relationship to Deviant Behaviors Among Filipino Adolescents – https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8131551/
• How effective psychological treatments work: mechanisms of change in cognitive behavioural therapy and beyond | Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy | Cambridge Core – https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/behavioural-and-cognitive-psychotherapy/article/how-effective-psychological-treatments-work-mechanisms-of-change-in-cognitive-behavioural-therapy-and-beyond/E204698C526F8F312606E7D4EEDB9BBB
• Evidence-based psychological treatments for mental disorders: Modifiable barriers to access and possible solutions – https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4395546/
• Finding new and better treatments for psychiatric disorders – Neuropsychopharmacology – https://www.nature.com/articles/s41386-023-01690-5
• Genetic and Environmental Influences and Its Impact on Personality and Behavior Development – https://www.ukessays.com/essays/psychology/genetic-and-environmental-influences-and-its-impact-on-personality-and-behavior-development.php
• LibGuides: PSY 142 – Abnormal Psychology – Textbook: The Nature-Nurture Question – https://guides.hostos.cuny.edu/psy142/11-1
• Gene-environment interactions in mental disorders – https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1414673/
• Answers to: Write an essay about Conclusion about the topic of historical perspectives in abnormal psychology – https://www.classace.io/answers/write-an-essay-about-conclusion-about-the-topic-of-historical-perspectives-in-abnormal-psychology
• Normal And Abnormal Behavior – Free Essay Example – Edubirdie – https://edubirdie.com/examples/normal-and-abnormal-behavior/

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Psychology Essay Topics

Get Inspired with Over 200 Psychology Essay Topics and Writing Tips

14 min read

Published on: May 2, 2023

Last updated on: Jan 30, 2024

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Are you struggling to come up with interesting and unique psychology essay topics? Do you find it challenging to write a compelling psychology essay that stands out from the rest?

Psychology is a fascinating subject. However, selecting a topic that is both engaging and informative can be a daunting task.

But fear not!

This blog provides a comprehensive guide to help you navigate the world of psychology essay topics. From general psychology topics to specific and interesting areas of research, we have got you covered. Additionally, we offer tips to help you write a successful essay, from choosing a topic to editing your final draft.

By the end of it, you will be able to write a standout psychology essay that fully showcases your understanding.

Let's dive in!

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Psychology Research Topics For High School Students

Here is a persuasive essay topics list to get you started:

• The influence of social media on mental health
• The psychology of dreams and their interpretations
• Effects of stress on academic performance
• Does childhood trauma impact mental health in adulthood, and if so, how?
• How does meditation impact the brain and promote well-being?
• Why do we make the choices we do, and how can we make better decisions?
• How does spending time in nature impact mental health and well-being?
• How does perception affect our interpretation of reality, and can it be changed
• The power of music on human emotions and behavior
• The relationship between exercise and mental health

 Psychology Paper Topics For College Students

• The psychology of addiction and effective treatments.
• The impact of childhood experiences on adult mental health.
• The psychology of prejudice and how to overcome biases.
• The role of emotions in decision-making and behavior.
• The effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive function and well-being.
• Effective leadership traits and development.
• The psychology of procrastination: Why we do it and how to overcome it.
• The impact of social support on mental health.
• The effects of mindfulness on stress and anxiety.
• The psychology of motivation: What drives our behavior and how to stay motivated.

Research Topics In Psychology For University Students

• The effects of social media on self-esteem and body image.
• The impact of childhood trauma on brain development and function.
• The psychology of happiness: What makes us happy and how can we cultivate it?
• The role of genetics in mental health disorders and treatment implications.
• How does social media affect self-esteem and body image?
• What is the impact of childhood trauma on brain development and function?
• What makes us happy and how can we cultivate happiness?
• The psychology of mindfulness: Benefits and applications for well-being.
• The impact of cultural differences on cognitive processes and behavior.
• What are the dynamics of attraction, attachment, and relationships in the psychology of love?

Social Psychology Essay Topics

• How do social roles and expectations affect behavior?
• What is the role of social identity in intergroup relations?
• How do attitudes and persuasion shape behavior?
• What are the psychological factors that influence conformity?
• What is the impact of social comparison on self-esteem?
• The influence of culture on social behavior
• The role of empathy in social interactions
• The impact of social exclusion on mental health
• The effects of social comparison on body image
• The psychology of altruism and helping behavior

Forensic Psychology Essay Topics

• How can forensic psychology contribute to criminal profiling?
• What is the impact of psychological factors on criminal behavior?
• How do juries make decisions in criminal cases, and what role does psychology play?
• What is the impact of false confessions on the criminal justice system?
• How can forensic psychologists help prevent and treat juvenile delinquency?
• The psychology of criminal behavior and decision-making
• The use of psychological assessment in criminal trials
• The role of media in shaping public perceptions of crime
• The impact of trauma on criminal behavior
• The psychology of witness testimony

Criminal Psychology Essay Topics

• How do psychological factors contribute to the development of criminal behavior?
• What is the impact of childhood experiences on criminal behavior?
• How can criminal psychology contribute to the prevention and treatment of criminal behavior?
• What is the relationship between mental health and criminal behavior?
• How can criminal profiling be used to aid criminal investigations?
• The psychology of white-collar crime
• The use of forensic psychology in criminal investigations
• The impact of incarceration on mental health
• The effectiveness of rehabilitation programs for offenders
• The psychology of recidivism

Cognitive Psychology Essay Topics

• How do cognitive processes shape our perceptions and decisions?
• What are the neural mechanisms underlying cognitive processes such as attention and memory?
• How do emotions and motivation affect cognitive processing?
• What is the relationship between language and thought?
• What is the impact of cognitive biases on decision-making?
• The role of cognitive development in learning and education
• The impact of technology on cognitive processing
• The psychology of creativity and problem-solving
• The effects of sleep on cognitive function
• The psychology of expertise and skill acquisition

Developmental Psychology Essay Topics

• How do genetics and the environment interact to shape development?
• What are the stages of cognitive and emotional development in childhood and adolescence?
• What is the impact of parenting styles on child development?
• How do cultural differences impact child development?
• What are the effects of early adversity on later development?
• The psychology of attachment and bonding
• The impact of technology on child development
• The effects of divorce and separation on child development
• The psychology of adolescent identity development
• The role of play in child development

Abnormal Psychology Essay Topics

• The impact of childhood trauma on the development of dissociative disorders
• The role of genetics in the development of schizophrenia
• The link between eating disorders and body image dissatisfaction
• The impact of addiction on mental health
• The effectiveness of psychotherapy for treating personality disorders
• The relationship between anxiety and depression in bipolar disorder
• The impact of trauma on the development of obsessive-compulsive disorder
• The role of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating phobias
• The impact of culture on the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness
• The effectiveness of mindfulness-based therapies for treating anxiety and depression

Child Psychology Essay Topics

• The impact of attachment styles on child development
• The role of play therapy in treating childhood trauma
• The impact of parenting styles on adolescent mental health
• The role of technology in children's social and emotional development
• The impact of peer relationships on child development
• The effectiveness of early intervention for children with autism spectrum disorder
• The impact of divorce on child development
• The role of schools in supporting children's mental health
• The impact of childhood bullying on mental health in adolescence and adulthood
• The effectiveness of family therapy in treating childhood anxiety and depression

Sports Psychology Essay Topics

• The role of mental toughness in athletic performance
• The impact of anxiety on sports performance
• The relationship between goal setting and athletic success
• The impact of visualization techniques on sports performance
• The role of self-talk in athletic performance
• The impact of team cohesion on athletic performance
• The relationship between personality traits and sports performance
• The impact of pre-performance routines on sports performance
• The role of coaching in supporting athletes' mental health
• The effectiveness of psychological skills training in improving athletic performance

Argumentative Psychology essay topics

• Is intelligence innate or acquired?
• Should psychotherapy be used as a first-line treatment for mental illness?
• Is the use of medication in treating mental illness over-prescribed?
• Is social media use linked to increased rates of anxiety and depression?
• Is addiction a disease or a choice?
• Should personality disorders be treated differently than other mental illnesses?
• Is the use of restraints ethical in mental health treatment?
• Is it ethical to use animals in psychological research?
• Should parents be held responsible for their children's mental health?
• Is there a link between childhood trauma and criminal behavior?

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Descriptive Psychology Essay Topics

• The history and evolution of psychoanalytic theory
• The role of culture in shaping our understanding of mental illness
• The impact of attachment theory on contemporary psychology
• The development of cognitive psychology as a discipline
• The role of social psychology in understanding human behavior
• The impact of behaviorism on modern psychology
• The role of neuroscience in understanding mental illness
• The development of positive psychology as a field
• The impact of feminist psychology on contemporary practice
• The role of evolutionary psychology in understanding human behavior

Biological Psychology Essay Topics

• The role of genetics in addiction and substance abuse
• The impact of hormonal changes on mood disorders
• Neural mechanisms underlying decision making
• The effect of sleep deprivation on brain function
• The link between brain development and mental health disorders
• The role of neurotransmitters in regulating emotions and behavior
• The impact of stress on the immune system
• The relationship between diet and brain function
• The biological basis of schizophrenia
• The role of epigenetics in mental health disorders

Controversial Psychology Essay Topics

• The Ethics of using placebos in clinical trials
• The Validity of repressed memories in Therapy
• The controversy surrounding conversion therapy
• The debate over the existence of multiple personality disorder
• The controversy surrounding the use of medication to treat ADHD
• The ethics of using animals in psychological research
• The controversy surrounding the validity of personality tests
• The debate over the use of cognitive enhancement drugs
• The controversy surrounding the diagnosis of borderline personality disorder
• The debate over the use of hypnosis in therapy

Cultural Psychology Essay Topics

• The impact of cultural values on mental health treatment
• Cross-cultural differences in emotion regulation
• The role of cultural norms in shaping attitudes towards mental health disorders
• The impact of acculturation on mental health
• The role of cultural values in shaping parenting styles
• Cross-cultural differences in attachment styles
• The influence of culture on body image and eating disorders
• The impact of cultural values on the experience of depression
• The role of culture in shaping perceptions of happiness
• The impact of cultural diversity on group dynamics

Good Psychology Essay Topics

• The importance of social support for mental health
• The benefits of mindfulness meditation for stress reduction
• The role of exercise in improving mental health
• The impact of gratitude on well-being
• The role of humor in coping with stress
• The benefits of nature exposure for mental health
• The impact of social media on mental health and well-being
• The benefits of expressive writing for emotional processing
• The role of positive self-talk in building resilience
• The impact of volunteering on mental health and well-being

Exciting Psychology Essay Topics

• The psychology of thrill-seeking behavior
• The impact of virtual reality on behavior and cognition
• The relationship between music and mood
• The psychology of conspiracy theories
• The impact of social comparison on self-esteem
• The psychology of persuasion and influence
• The role of culture in shaping perceptions of beauty
• The psychology of color and its effects on behavior
• The impact of humor on creativity and problem-solving
• The psychology of flow and peak performance

Psychology Essay Topics on Dreams

• Why do we dream? The scientific and psychological explanations.
• Can we control our dreams? The effectiveness and limitations of lucid dreaming.
• The interpretation of dreams: Freudian theory vs. modern approaches.
• The role of dreams in problem-solving and creativity.
• How dreams impact our mental health and well-being.
• The use of dream analysis in therapy: Benefits and limitations.
• Nightmares: Causes, effects, and treatments.
• The cultural significance of dreams and dream interpretation.
• Sleep disorders and their impact on dreaming.
• The ethical considerations of using dream manipulation for personal gain.

Psychology-Related Topics from Other Subjects

• The intersection of psychology and neuroscience
• The relationship between psychology and economics
• The psychology of decision making in politics
• The psychology of leadership and organizational behavior
• The impact of technology on social psychology
• The psychology of marketing and consumer behavior
• The relationship between psychology and law
• The psychology of education and learning
• The impact of environmental factors on behavior
• The psychology of creativity and innovation

 Psychology Paper Topics for Any Assignment

• The influence of video games on cognitive development
• A case study analysis of borderline personality disorder
• The role of cognitive psychology in treating depression
• Historical perspectives on the evolution of cognitive psychology
• Analyzing the impact of social media on mental health
• An exploration of the psychology behind addiction
• A comparative analysis of Freudian and Jungian theories of personality
• Investigating the effects of mindfulness on anxiety disorders
• The role of positive psychology in promoting well-being
• A case study on the effects of childhood trauma on adult mental health
• Examining the link between physical health and mental health
• An overview of various psychological disorders and their treatment options
• The role of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating anxiety
• Analyzing the use of art therapy in treating mental health disorders
• The impact of culture on mental health and well-being

How To Choose A Psychology Topic?

Choosing a psychology topic can seem daunting, but there are some helpful steps you can take to make the process easier. 

Here are some tips to consider:

Identify Your Interests

Start by considering what topics in psychology interest you the most. Are you fascinated by abnormal psychology, cognitive psychology, or social psychology? 

By choosing a topic that you are interested in, you are more likely to be motivated to research and write about it.

Consider The Assignment Requirements

If you are choosing a topic for a specific assignment, make sure to read the instructions and guidelines carefully. Consider the length of the assignment, the required sources, and any other specific instructions that the professor may have provided.

Do Some Preliminary Research

Once you have identified your interests and considered the assignment requirements, start doing some preliminary research. Look for articles, books, and other resources on your topic to get a sense of what has already been written about it and to help refine your focus.

Narrow Down Your Topic

After doing some preliminary research, you may need to narrow down your topic. Try to focus on a specific aspect of the broader topic that you are interested in. This will help you to stay focused and write a more cohesive and effective paper.

By following these steps, you can choose a psychology topic that is interesting, manageable and meets the requirements of your assignment.

 Tips To Write a Compelling Psychology Essay

Writing a good psychology essay requires attention to detail, critical thinking, and clear writing. Here are some tips to help you write a great psychology essay:

• Understand The Essay Prompt

Make sure you fully understand the prompt before you start writing. Identify the key terms and concepts and make sure you have a clear understanding of what is being asked of you.

• Conduct Thorough Research

Conduct thorough research using reliable sources such as academic journals, books, and reputable websites. Be sure to take detailed notes and keep track of your sources.

• Organize Your Thoughts

Organize your thoughts and ideas before you start the writing process. Create an outline or a mind map to help you structure your essay and ensure your ideas flow logically.

• Use Clear, Concise Language

Use clear, concise language to convey your ideas. Avoid using jargon or technical terms unless necessary, and make sure your sentences are well-structured and easy to understand.

• Support Your Arguments

Use evidence to support your arguments and claims. This could include citing research studies or other sources to back up your points.

• Edit and Proofread

Edit and proofread your psychology research paper to eliminate errors and ensure your writing is polished and professional. Check for grammar and spelling mistakes, and make sure your formatting and referencing are consistent and accurate.

By following these tips, you can write a compelling psychology essay that effectively communicates your ideas and arguments.

In conclusion, choosing a psychology essay topic can be a daunting task. But with the right approach, it can be an enjoyable and rewarding experience. 

Consider your interests, current events, and the audience when selecting a topic. Be sure to conduct thorough research and organize your ideas before writing. 

Additionally, keep in mind the tips for writing a compelling essay and crafting a strong thesis statement.

At CollegeEssay.org, we understand that any psychology course can be challenging, especially when you have to write an essay about it.

That's why we offer top essay writing service to help you score good grades.

Our essay writer meets all requirements and exceeds expectations. 

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Betty is a freelance writer and researcher. She has a Masters in literature and enjoys providing writing services to her clients. Betty is an avid reader and loves learning new things. She has provided writing services to clients from all academic levels and related academic fields.

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89 Psychopathology Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best psychopathology topic ideas & essay examples, 🎓 good research topics about psychopathology, ⭐ simple & easy psychopathology essay titles, ❓ psychopathology essay questions.

• Triggers and Communication With Ted Bundy, a Psychopath The triggers within a background leading to the development of a psychopathic personality disorder and those for a sociopath are essentially similar.
• Introduction to Psychopathology With psychology, in general, dealing with the study of human behavior and behavior change; abnormal psychology is therefore a branch of psychology that investigates people’s maladjusted behavior relative to the socially approved behavior.
• Psychopathology: Nature vs. Nurture The discourse about nature and nurture concerning mental illness often involves factors that influence the mental development of a person. While some gene disorders also exist, schizophrenia is a classical case for explaining the role […]
• Developmental History of the Psychopathological Condition Therefore, in the current case, it is notable that the child’s mother did not consume adequate nutrients to support the growth processes of the fetus because she was an alcoholic and a drug addict.
• Cultural Influence on Developmental Psychopathology Tendency to over relate: Culture can be defined in such a way that it seeks to defend the values and practices of a certain group taking advantage of the fact that the ideal values have […]
• Ted Bundy, a Serial Killer and Psychopath The same was said about Ted Bundy, one of the most notorious serial killers in the criminal history of the United States.
• Sociopaths and Psychopaths: Similarities and Differences On the other hand, it is argued that the sociopath usually poses a greater amount of danger to the society due to the fact that they are much greater in numbers, are capable of “metastasizing” […]
• Antisocial Personality Disorder and Psychopathy: The AMPD in Review The main task of the writing is to show a different perspective on development and a new perspective on the study of the connection between antisocial disorder and psychopathy.
• Schizophrenia and Workplace Behaviors Besides, their condition and performance at work may be significantly improved in case of a proper help from the company’s leadership.
• “Psychopathy and Antisocial Personality Disorder” by Robert D. Hare The main source of the problem is the failure of the DSM versions to provide clear definitions for ASPD and psychopathy.
• Psychopathy Development in Children Most studies do not even have a satisfactory resolution to the inquiry of whether children become psychopaths as a result of nature or environmental impacts in the course of upbringing.
• Identifying Psychopathic Fraudsters The interview is focused on who psychopaths are, why they are dangerous to corporations, and how corporate psychopaths can be detected and treated.
• Child Sex Abuse Impact on Adult Psychopathology The article by Roth addresses the issue of gene-environment and the important role it plays in determining the functions of the brain.
• Sleep and Psychopathology Relationships – Psychology Generally, available evidence shows that feelings of negative emotions such as anxiety are characterized by the dysfunction in cognitive and interpersonal spheres.
• Diagnosis in Child Psychopathology Given a chance to be in the committee for a new edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, I would include non-suicidal self-injury as a new child/adolescent disorder.
• Psychopathologies: Co-occurring Diagnoses According to Samuel &Widiger it was developed as an acknowledgment that a significant number of people suffer clinically considerable mood as well as anxiety disorder symptomatology; however, these symptoms do not meet the attributes for […]
• Contingent Negative Variation in Psychopaths The prediction of a difference for early contingent negative variation in psychopaths was lower than for non psychopaths. Interpretation of the early contingent negative variation difference was significantly larger in psychopaths than in nonpsychopaths.
• Münchhausen Syndrome: Psychopathology and Management Even as researchers continue unraveling the truth behind the causes of this disorder, it is believed that Munchausen syndrome affects people who may have suffered a severe illness in their childhood or may have experienced […]
• The Psychopathology of Bipolar Disorder In addition to the depressive and manic episodes, patients may experience mixed episodes of the bipolar disorder, which severely distort neuropsychological coordination thus impairing cognitive functions. The two period episodes of bipolar disorder, mania and […]
• Without Conscience: The Disturbing World of the Psychopaths among Us The second message the author gives is that it should be known that the personality of a psychopathic patient is unlikely to change.
• Neuropeptides and Behavior: From Motivation to Psychopathology
• Women Undergoing Hormonal Treatments for Infertility: Psychopathology and Newly Diagnosed Mood and Psychotic Disorders
• Loneliness and Schizotypy: Are Distinct Constructs, Separate From General Psychopathology
• Avoidance: From Basic Science to Psychopathology
• Lucid Dreaming: Intensity, but Not Frequency, Is Inversely Related to Psychopathology
• Abnormal Psychology: The Theory of Psychopathology
• Psychopathology: Abnormal Psychology and Cognitive Behavioral Approach
• Creativity and Psychopathology: Similar Mental Processes Involved in Creativity and Psychosis-Proneness
• Narcissistic Personality Disorder and Its Psychopathology
• Adolescent Alcohol Exposure: Burden of Epigenetic Reprogramming, Synaptic Remodeling, and Adult Psychopathology
• Childhood Maltreatment, Psychopathology, and Offending Behavior in Patients With Schizophrenia
• Neurological Soft Signs and Psychopathology in Chronic Schizophrenia
• Comorbidities Between Specific Learning Disorders and Psychopathology in Elementary School Children
• Relationships Among Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation: Implications for Intervention and Neuroplasticity in Psychopathology
• Child Psychopathology: Oppositional Defiant Disorder Interventions
• Symptomatic and Chance Actions: Psychopathology
• Gender and Age Differences in Safety-Oriented Personality Style or Phobicentric Psychopathology
• Emotion Regulation Strategies Across Psychopathology
• Comparing the Biological and Psychodynamic Paradigms of Psychopathology
• Event-Related Potentials and Emotion Processing in Child Psychopathology
• Nonsuicidal Self-Injury: Its Associations With Pathological Internet Use and Psychopathology Among Adolescents
• Bridging the Gap Between the Lab and the Clinic: Psychopathology’s Grand Challenge
• Loneliness and Social Distancing During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Risk Factors and Associations With Psychopathology
• The Executive Function Impairments in Psychopathology: Bridging the Gap Between Clinical and Cognitive Approaches
• Extending the Transdiagnostic Model of Attachment and Psychopathology
• Legal and Ethical Issues in Psychopathology
• Behavioral and Psychopathology Analysis
• Cognitive Event-Related Potentials in Psychopathology: New Experimental and Clinical Perspectives
• Increasing Our Insular World View: Interoception and Psychopathology for Psychotherapists
• Mapping Psychopathology With FMRI and Effective Connectivity Analysis
• Differential Susceptibility Theory in Psychopathology
• Behavioral and Biological Approach to Psychopathology
• Asymmetric Drug-Induced Parkinsonism and Psychopathology: A Prospective Naturalistic Study in Long-Stay Psychiatric Patients
• Mental Imagery and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: A Neuroimaging and Experimental Psychopathology Approach to Intrusive Memories of Trauma
• Expectations as the Missing Link Between Life History Strategies and Psychopathology
• Mental Retardation Psychopathology
• Embodying the Self: Neurophysiological Perspectives on the Psychopathology of Anomalous Bodily Experiences
• Culture and Psychopathology: New Perspectives on Research, Practice, and Clinical Training in a Globalized World
• Neuroscience Behind Psychopathology: Schizophrenia
• The Psychological Basis: Psychopathology of Everyday Life
• Does Poverty Cause Psychopathology or Does Psychopathology Cause Poverty?
• What Are the Four D’s of Psychopathology?
• What Is the Main Focus of Psychopathology?
• What Is Another Term for Psychopathology?
• What Is the Most Common Psychopathology?
• What Do People Study in Psychopathology?
• What Is Psychopathology in Simple Words?
• What Careers Are in Psychopathology?
• What Is the Theory of Psychopathology?
• What Is the Difference Between Psychology and Psychopathology?
• Why Is It Important to Study Psychopathology?
• Who Uses Psychopathology?
• Who Created Psychopathology?
• What Are the Four Important Personal Components of Psychopathology?
• Where Did the Term Psychopathology Originate?
• Who Is the Father of Modern Psychopathology?
• What Are the Four Models of Psychopathology?
• What Is the Purpose of Psychopathology?
• What Is the Formal Definition of Psychopathology?
• What Is Medical Model of Psychopathology?
• What Is Humanistic Model of Psychopathology?
• What Is Psychopathology in Criminology?
• What Is the Historical Overview of Psychopathology?
• What Are the Objectives of Psychopathology?
• When Was Psychopathology Invented?
• BPD Research Ideas
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Abnormal Psychology Questions

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true or false: the lifetime prevalence of schizophrenia spectrum disorders is greater than 1%

true or false: the onset age of schizophrenia spectrum disorders is 18-30

Case study of schizophrenia:Amanda is 25 and has a history of Major Depressive Disorder, and has been being treated for it for the past year. She is super sad, irritable, and withdraws from her friends and family. She usually feels negatively about herself, and has gained weight from mindlessly eating and not moving around as much. However, while she is socially withdrawing, it seems to be more because she does not trust her friends (who she says are reporting on her to the FBI). She has very flat affect, and she does not seem interested in doing anything. Nothing brings her joy. Additionally, lately when she is talking, she will be hard to understand because she makes up words (saying: "I'm going to the park to ride the wallywhoop." ). Her parents are reminded of one time, in high school, she (for almost 20 days) was convinced that the FBI was bugging their home and that they would come and take her away from her parents. During that time, she refused to leave the home. However, this episode eventually passed. A. Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorder B. Schizophreniform Disorder C. Schizoaffective Disorder D. Brief Psychotic Disorder E. Delusional Disorder

true or false: the male:female ration of schizophrenia spectrum disorders is 1.4:1

what is the lifetime prevalence of alcohol-use disorders?

Case study for eating disorders: Sarah is a 15 year-old girl. She has a BMI of 15.6 and she has low potassium levels. For the past 4 years, she has regularly stolen money from her parents to pay for food purchases. Sarah binges in restaurants 4-5 times per week. Afterwards, she uses laxatives and often vomits. She weighs herself every day, and engaged in compulsive physical activity consisting of constantly walking around or shaking her legs. Though her size 0 clothes are huge on her, she often states that she is fat.

what is the only thing that can actually lower your BAC?

Case study for eating disorders:G is a 26 year old cis-female who presented to session for health anxiety, specifically related to fears of colon cancer. Over the course of a few sessions, G mentions things like she "wishes she was skinnier" and "shouldn't have eaten that XYZ food after work yesterday." After further questioning, G reports she typically binges on food 2-3 times per week, including periods where she will stop at multiple fast food restaurants for dinner on her way home from work. G then tries to restrict her calories significantly the day after a binge, leading her to end up tired and hungry by mid-day, and resulting in her eating more than she intends at lunch and dinner. G reports she hasn't told anyone about her binge episodes, for fear of judgment from others. She is of typical weight for her height and age.

fact or myth: people with schizophrenia have "split personalities"

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true or false: intoxication is associated with 40-50% of all auto accidents, murders, and assaults

true or false: 40% of hospital admission have alcohol or drugs associated

fact or myth: schizophrenia is caused by bad parenting or an unhappy childhood

fact or myth: people with schizophrenia can live happy and productive lives

fact or myth: schizophrenia is due to a weakness in character

fact or myth: people with schizophrenia are addicted to their drugs

true or false: it is really hard to maintain sobriety

fact or myth: people with schizophrenia are intellectually diasabled