dissertation on mediation

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Anxiety, Affect, Self-Esteem, and Stress: Mediation and Moderation Effects on Depression

Affiliations Department of Psychology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden, Network for Empowerment and Well-Being, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

Affiliation Network for Empowerment and Well-Being, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

Affiliations Department of Psychology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden, Network for Empowerment and Well-Being, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden, Department of Psychology, Education and Sport Science, Linneaus University, Kalmar, Sweden

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliations Network for Empowerment and Well-Being, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden, Center for Ethics, Law, and Mental Health (CELAM), University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

• Ali Al Nima, 
• Patricia Rosenberg, 
• Trevor Archer, 
• Danilo Garcia

• Published: September 9, 2013
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0073265
• Reader Comments

23 Sep 2013: Nima AA, Rosenberg P, Archer T, Garcia D (2013) Correction: Anxiety, Affect, Self-Esteem, and Stress: Mediation and Moderation Effects on Depression. PLOS ONE 8(9): 10.1371/annotation/49e2c5c8-e8a8-4011-80fc-02c6724b2acc. https://doi.org/10.1371/annotation/49e2c5c8-e8a8-4011-80fc-02c6724b2acc View correction

Mediation analysis investigates whether a variable (i.e., mediator) changes in regard to an independent variable, in turn, affecting a dependent variable. Moderation analysis, on the other hand, investigates whether the statistical interaction between independent variables predict a dependent variable. Although this difference between these two types of analysis is explicit in current literature, there is still confusion with regard to the mediating and moderating effects of different variables on depression. The purpose of this study was to assess the mediating and moderating effects of anxiety, stress, positive affect, and negative affect on depression.

Two hundred and two university students (males  = 93, females  = 113) completed questionnaires assessing anxiety, stress, self-esteem, positive and negative affect, and depression. Mediation and moderation analyses were conducted using techniques based on standard multiple regression and hierarchical regression analyses.

Main Findings

The results indicated that (i) anxiety partially mediated the effects of both stress and self-esteem upon depression, (ii) that stress partially mediated the effects of anxiety and positive affect upon depression, (iii) that stress completely mediated the effects of self-esteem on depression, and (iv) that there was a significant interaction between stress and negative affect, and between positive affect and negative affect upon depression.

The study highlights different research questions that can be investigated depending on whether researchers decide to use the same variables as mediators and/or moderators.

Citation: Nima AA, Rosenberg P, Archer T, Garcia D (2013) Anxiety, Affect, Self-Esteem, and Stress: Mediation and Moderation Effects on Depression. PLoS ONE 8(9): e73265. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0073265

Editor: Ben J. Harrison, The University of Melbourne, Australia

Received: February 21, 2013; Accepted: July 22, 2013; Published: September 9, 2013

Copyright: © 2013 Nima et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: The authors have no support or funding to report.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

Mediation refers to the covariance relationships among three variables: an independent variable (1), an assumed mediating variable (2), and a dependent variable (3). Mediation analysis investigates whether the mediating variable accounts for a significant amount of the shared variance between the independent and the dependent variables–the mediator changes in regard to the independent variable, in turn, affecting the dependent one [1] , [2] . On the other hand, moderation refers to the examination of the statistical interaction between independent variables in predicting a dependent variable [1] , [3] . In contrast to the mediator, the moderator is not expected to be correlated with both the independent and the dependent variable–Baron and Kenny [1] actually recommend that it is best if the moderator is not correlated with the independent variable and if the moderator is relatively stable, like a demographic variable (e.g., gender, socio-economic status) or a personality trait (e.g., affectivity).

Although both types of analysis lead to different conclusions [3] and the distinction between statistical procedures is part of the current literature [2] , there is still confusion about the use of moderation and mediation analyses using data pertaining to the prediction of depression. There are, for example, contradictions among studies that investigate mediating and moderating effects of anxiety, stress, self-esteem, and affect on depression. Depression, anxiety and stress are suggested to influence individuals' social relations and activities, work, and studies, as well as compromising decision-making and coping strategies [4] , [5] , [6] . Successfully coping with anxiety, depressiveness, and stressful situations may contribute to high levels of self-esteem and self-confidence, in addition increasing well-being, and psychological and physical health [6] . Thus, it is important to disentangle how these variables are related to each other. However, while some researchers perform mediation analysis with some of the variables mentioned here, other researchers conduct moderation analysis with the same variables. Seldom are both moderation and mediation performed on the same dataset. Before disentangling mediation and moderation effects on depression in the current literature, we briefly present the methodology behind the analysis performed in this study.

Mediation and moderation

Baron and Kenny [1] postulated several criteria for the analysis of a mediating effect: a significant correlation between the independent and the dependent variable, the independent variable must be significantly associated with the mediator, the mediator predicts the dependent variable even when the independent variable is controlled for, and the correlation between the independent and the dependent variable must be eliminated or reduced when the mediator is controlled for. All the criteria is then tested using the Sobel test which shows whether indirect effects are significant or not [1] , [7] . A complete mediating effect occurs when the correlation between the independent and the dependent variable are eliminated when the mediator is controlled for [8] . Analyses of mediation can, for example, help researchers to move beyond answering if high levels of stress lead to high levels of depression. With mediation analysis researchers might instead answer how stress is related to depression.

In contrast to mediation, moderation investigates the unique conditions under which two variables are related [3] . The third variable here, the moderator, is not an intermediate variable in the causal sequence from the independent to the dependent variable. For the analysis of moderation effects, the relation between the independent and dependent variable must be different at different levels of the moderator [3] . Moderators are included in the statistical analysis as an interaction term [1] . When analyzing moderating effects the variables should first be centered (i.e., calculating the mean to become 0 and the standard deviation to become 1) in order to avoid problems with multi-colinearity [8] . Moderating effects can be calculated using multiple hierarchical linear regressions whereby main effects are presented in the first step and interactions in the second step [1] . Analysis of moderation, for example, helps researchers to answer when or under which conditions stress is related to depression.

Mediation and moderation effects on depression

Cognitive vulnerability models suggest that maladaptive self-schema mirroring helplessness and low self-esteem explain the development and maintenance of depression (for a review see [9] ). These cognitive vulnerability factors become activated by negative life events or negative moods [10] and are suggested to interact with environmental stressors to increase risk for depression and other emotional disorders [11] , [10] . In this line of thinking, the experience of stress, low self-esteem, and negative emotions can cause depression, but also be used to explain how (i.e., mediation) and under which conditions (i.e., moderation) specific variables influence depression.

Using mediational analyses to investigate how cognitive therapy intervations reduced depression, researchers have showed that the intervention reduced anxiety, which in turn was responsible for 91% of the reduction in depression [12] . In the same study, reductions in depression, by the intervention, accounted only for 6% of the reduction in anxiety. Thus, anxiety seems to affect depression more than depression affects anxiety and, together with stress, is both a cause of and a powerful mediator influencing depression (See also [13] ). Indeed, there are positive relationships between depression, anxiety and stress in different cultures [14] . Moreover, while some studies show that stress (independent variable) increases anxiety (mediator), which in turn increased depression (dependent variable) [14] , other studies show that stress (moderator) interacts with maladaptive self-schemata (dependent variable) to increase depression (independent variable) [15] , [16] .

The present study

In order to illustrate how mediation and moderation can be used to address different research questions we first focus our attention to anxiety and stress as mediators of different variables that earlier have been shown to be related to depression. Secondly, we use all variables to find which of these variables moderate the effects on depression.

The specific aims of the present study were:

• To investigate if anxiety mediated the effect of stress, self-esteem, and affect on depression.
• To investigate if stress mediated the effects of anxiety, self-esteem, and affect on depression.
• To examine moderation effects between anxiety, stress, self-esteem, and affect on depression.

Ethics statement

This research protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Gothenburg and written informed consent was obtained from all the study participants.

Participants

The present study was based upon a sample of 206 participants (males  = 93, females  = 113). All the participants were first year students in different disciplines at two universities in South Sweden. The mean age for the male students was 25.93 years ( SD  = 6.66), and 25.30 years ( SD  = 5.83) for the female students.

In total, 206 questionnaires were distributed to the students. Together 202 questionnaires were responded to leaving a total dropout of 1.94%. This dropout concerned three sections that the participants chose not to respond to at all, and one section that was completed incorrectly. None of these four questionnaires was included in the analyses.

Instruments

Hospital anxiety and depression scale [17] ..

The Swedish translation of this instrument [18] was used to measure anxiety and depression. The instrument consists of 14 statements (7 of which measure depression and 7 measure anxiety) to which participants are asked to respond grade of agreement on a Likert scale (0 to 3). The utility, reliability and validity of the instrument has been shown in multiple studies (e.g., [19] ).

Perceived Stress Scale [20] .

The Swedish version [21] of this instrument was used to measures individuals' experience of stress. The instrument consist of 14 statements to which participants rate on a Likert scale (0 =  never , 4 =  very often ). High values indicate that the individual expresses a high degree of stress.

Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale [22] .

The Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale (Swedish version by Lindwall [23] ) consists of 10 statements focusing on general feelings toward the self. Participants are asked to report grade of agreement in a four-point Likert scale (1 =  agree not at all, 4 =  agree completely ). This is the most widely used instrument for estimation of self-esteem with high levels of reliability and validity (e.g., [24] , [25] ).

Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule [26] .

This is a widely applied instrument for measuring individuals' self-reported mood and feelings. The Swedish version has been used among participants of different ages and occupations (e.g., [27] , [28] , [29] ). The instrument consists of 20 adjectives, 10 positive affect (e.g., proud, strong) and 10 negative affect (e.g., afraid, irritable). The adjectives are rated on a five-point Likert scale (1 =  not at all , 5 =  very much ). The instrument is a reliable, valid, and effective self-report instrument for estimating these two important and independent aspects of mood [26] .

Questionnaires were distributed to the participants on several different locations within the university, including the library and lecture halls. Participants were asked to complete the questionnaire after being informed about the purpose and duration (10–15 minutes) of the study. Participants were also ensured complete anonymity and informed that they could end their participation whenever they liked.

Correlational analysis

Depression showed positive, significant relationships with anxiety, stress and negative affect. Table 1 presents the correlation coefficients, mean values and standard deviations ( sd ), as well as Cronbach ' s α for all the variables in the study.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0073265.t001

Mediation analysis

Regression analyses were performed in order to investigate if anxiety mediated the effect of stress, self-esteem, and affect on depression (aim 1). The first regression showed that stress ( B  = .03, 95% CI [.02,.05], β = .36, t  = 4.32, p <.001), self-esteem ( B  = −.03, 95% CI [−.05, −.01], β = −.24, t  = −3.20, p <.001), and positive affect ( B  = −.02, 95% CI [−.05, −.01], β = −.19, t  = −2.93, p  = .004) had each an unique effect on depression. Surprisingly, negative affect did not predict depression ( p  = 0.77) and was therefore removed from the mediation model, thus not included in further analysis.

The second regression tested whether stress, self-esteem and positive affect uniquely predicted the mediator (i.e., anxiety). Stress was found to be positively associated ( B  = .21, 95% CI [.15,.27], β = .47, t  = 7.35, p <.001), whereas self-esteem was negatively associated ( B  = −.29, 95% CI [−.38, −.21], β = −.42, t  = −6.48, p <.001) to anxiety. Positive affect, however, was not associated to anxiety ( p  = .50) and was therefore removed from further analysis.

A hierarchical regression analysis using depression as the outcome variable was performed using stress and self-esteem as predictors in the first step, and anxiety as predictor in the second step. This analysis allows the examination of whether stress and self-esteem predict depression and if this relation is weaken in the presence of anxiety as the mediator. The result indicated that, in the first step, both stress ( B  = .04, 95% CI [.03,.05], β = .45, t  = 6.43, p <.001) and self-esteem ( B  = .04, 95% CI [.03,.05], β = .45, t  = 6.43, p <.001) predicted depression. When anxiety (i.e., the mediator) was controlled for predictability was reduced somewhat but was still significant for stress ( B  = .03, 95% CI [.02,.04], β = .33, t  = 4.29, p <.001) and for self-esteem ( B  = −.03, 95% CI [−.05, −.01], β = −.20, t  = −2.62, p  = .009). Anxiety, as a mediator, predicted depression even when both stress and self-esteem were controlled for ( B  = .05, 95% CI [.02,.08], β = .26, t  = 3.17, p  = .002). Anxiety improved the prediction of depression over-and-above the independent variables (i.e., stress and self-esteem) (Δ R 2  = .03, F (1, 198) = 10.06, p  = .002). See Table 2 for the details.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0073265.t002

A Sobel test was conducted to test the mediating criteria and to assess whether indirect effects were significant or not. The result showed that the complete pathway from stress (independent variable) to anxiety (mediator) to depression (dependent variable) was significant ( z  = 2.89, p  = .003). The complete pathway from self-esteem (independent variable) to anxiety (mediator) to depression (dependent variable) was also significant ( z  = 2.82, p  = .004). Thus, indicating that anxiety partially mediates the effects of both stress and self-esteem on depression. This result may indicate also that both stress and self-esteem contribute directly to explain the variation in depression and indirectly via experienced level of anxiety (see Figure 1 ).

Changes in Beta weights when the mediator is present are highlighted in red.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0073265.g001

For the second aim, regression analyses were performed in order to test if stress mediated the effect of anxiety, self-esteem, and affect on depression. The first regression showed that anxiety ( B  = .07, 95% CI [.04,.10], β = .37, t  = 4.57, p <.001), self-esteem ( B  = −.02, 95% CI [−.05, −.01], β = −.18, t  = −2.23, p  = .03), and positive affect ( B  = −.03, 95% CI [−.04, −.02], β = −.27, t  = −4.35, p <.001) predicted depression independently of each other. Negative affect did not predict depression ( p  = 0.74) and was therefore removed from further analysis.

The second regression investigated if anxiety, self-esteem and positive affect uniquely predicted the mediator (i.e., stress). Stress was positively associated to anxiety ( B  = 1.01, 95% CI [.75, 1.30], β = .46, t  = 7.35, p <.001), negatively associated to self-esteem ( B  = −.30, 95% CI [−.50, −.01], β = −.19, t  = −2.90, p  = .004), and a negatively associated to positive affect ( B  = −.33, 95% CI [−.46, −.20], β = −.27, t  = −5.02, p <.001).

A hierarchical regression analysis using depression as the outcome and anxiety, self-esteem, and positive affect as the predictors in the first step, and stress as the predictor in the second step, allowed the examination of whether anxiety, self-esteem and positive affect predicted depression and if this association would weaken when stress (i.e., the mediator) was present. In the first step of the regression anxiety ( B  = .07, 95% CI [.05,.10], β = .38, t  = 5.31, p  = .02), self-esteem ( B  = −.03, 95% CI [−.05, −.01], β = −.18, t  = −2.41, p  = .02), and positive affect ( B  = −.03, 95% CI [−.04, −.02], β = −.27, t  = −4.36, p <.001) significantly explained depression. When stress (i.e., the mediator) was controlled for, predictability was reduced somewhat but was still significant for anxiety ( B  = .05, 95% CI [.02,.08], β = .05, t  = 4.29, p <.001) and for positive affect ( B  = −.02, 95% CI [−.04, −.01], β = −.20, t  = −3.16, p  = .002), whereas self-esteem did not reach significance ( p < = .08). In the second step, the mediator (i.e., stress) predicted depression even when anxiety, self-esteem, and positive affect were controlled for ( B  = .02, 95% CI [.08,.04], β = .25, t  = 3.07, p  = .002). Stress improved the prediction of depression over-and-above the independent variables (i.e., anxiety, self-esteem and positive affect) (Δ R 2  = .02, F (1, 197)  = 9.40, p  = .002). See Table 3 for the details.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0073265.t003

Furthermore, the Sobel test indicated that the complete pathways from the independent variables (anxiety: z  = 2.81, p  = .004; self-esteem: z  =  2.05, p  = .04; positive affect: z  = 2.58, p <.01) to the mediator (i.e., stress), to the outcome (i.e., depression) were significant. These specific results might be explained on the basis that stress partially mediated the effects of both anxiety and positive affect on depression while stress completely mediated the effects of self-esteem on depression. In other words, anxiety and positive affect contributed directly to explain the variation in depression and indirectly via the experienced level of stress. Self-esteem contributed only indirectly via the experienced level of stress to explain the variation in depression. In other words, stress effects on depression originate from “its own power” and explained more of the variation in depression than self-esteem (see Figure 2 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0073265.g002

Moderation analysis

Multiple linear regression analyses were used in order to examine moderation effects between anxiety, stress, self-esteem and affect on depression. The analysis indicated that about 52% of the variation in the dependent variable (i.e., depression) could be explained by the main effects and the interaction effects ( R 2  = .55, adjusted R 2  = .51, F (55, 186)  = 14.87, p <.001). When the variables (dependent and independent) were standardized, both the standardized regression coefficients beta (β) and the unstandardized regression coefficients beta (B) became the same value with regard to the main effects. Three of the main effects were significant and contributed uniquely to high levels of depression: anxiety ( B  = .26, t  = 3.12, p  = .002), stress ( B  = .25, t  = 2.86, p  = .005), and self-esteem ( B  = −.17, t  = −2.17, p  = .03). The main effect of positive affect was also significant and contributed to low levels of depression ( B  = −.16, t  = −2.027, p  = .02) (see Figure 3 ). Furthermore, the results indicated that two moderator effects were significant. These were the interaction between stress and negative affect ( B  = −.28, β = −.39, t  = −2.36, p  = .02) (see Figure 4 ) and the interaction between positive affect and negative affect ( B  = −.21, β = −.29, t  = −2.30, p  = .02) ( Figure 5 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0073265.g003

Low stress and low negative affect leads to lower levels of depression compared to high stress and high negative affect.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0073265.g004

High positive affect and low negative affect lead to lower levels of depression compared to low positive affect and high negative affect.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0073265.g005

The results in the present study show that (i) anxiety partially mediated the effects of both stress and self-esteem on depression, (ii) that stress partially mediated the effects of anxiety and positive affect on depression, (iii) that stress completely mediated the effects of self-esteem on depression, and (iv) that there was a significant interaction between stress and negative affect, and positive affect and negative affect on depression.

Mediating effects

The study suggests that anxiety contributes directly to explaining the variance in depression while stress and self-esteem might contribute directly to explaining the variance in depression and indirectly by increasing feelings of anxiety. Indeed, individuals who experience stress over a long period of time are susceptible to increased anxiety and depression [30] , [31] and previous research shows that high self-esteem seems to buffer against anxiety and depression [32] , [33] . The study also showed that stress partially mediated the effects of both anxiety and positive affect on depression and that stress completely mediated the effects of self-esteem on depression. Anxiety and positive affect contributed directly to explain the variation in depression and indirectly to the experienced level of stress. Self-esteem contributed only indirectly via the experienced level of stress to explain the variation in depression, i.e. stress affects depression on the basis of ‘its own power’ and explains much more of the variation in depressive experiences than self-esteem. In general, individuals who experience low anxiety and frequently experience positive affect seem to experience low stress, which might reduce their levels of depression. Academic stress, for instance, may increase the risk for experiencing depression among students [34] . Although self-esteem did not emerged as an important variable here, under circumstances in which difficulties in life become chronic, some researchers suggest that low self-esteem facilitates the experience of stress [35] .

Moderator effects/interaction effects

The present study showed that the interaction between stress and negative affect and between positive and negative affect influenced self-reported depression symptoms. Moderation effects between stress and negative affect imply that the students experiencing low levels of stress and low negative affect reported lower levels of depression than those who experience high levels of stress and high negative affect. This result confirms earlier findings that underline the strong positive association between negative affect and both stress and depression [36] , [37] . Nevertheless, negative affect by itself did not predicted depression. In this regard, it is important to point out that the absence of positive emotions is a better predictor of morbidity than the presence of negative emotions [38] , [39] . A modification to this statement, as illustrated by the results discussed next, could be that the presence of negative emotions in conjunction with the absence of positive emotions increases morbidity.

The moderating effects between positive and negative affect on the experience of depression imply that the students experiencing high levels of positive affect and low levels of negative affect reported lower levels of depression than those who experience low levels of positive affect and high levels of negative affect. This result fits previous observations indicating that different combinations of these affect dimensions are related to different measures of physical and mental health and well-being, such as, blood pressure, depression, quality of sleep, anxiety, life satisfaction, psychological well-being, and self-regulation [40] – [51] .

Limitations

The result indicated a relatively low mean value for depression ( M  = 3.69), perhaps because the studied population was university students. These might limit the generalization power of the results and might also explain why negative affect, commonly associated to depression, was not related to depression in the present study. Moreover, there is a potential influence of single source/single method variance on the findings, especially given the high correlation between all the variables under examination.

Conclusions

The present study highlights different results that could be arrived depending on whether researchers decide to use variables as mediators or moderators. For example, when using meditational analyses, anxiety and stress seem to be important factors that explain how the different variables used here influence depression–increases in anxiety and stress by any other factor seem to lead to increases in depression. In contrast, when moderation analyses were used, the interaction of stress and affect predicted depression and the interaction of both affectivity dimensions (i.e., positive and negative affect) also predicted depression–stress might increase depression under the condition that the individual is high in negative affectivity, in turn, negative affectivity might increase depression under the condition that the individual experiences low positive affectivity.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the reviewers for their openness and suggestions, which significantly improved the article.

Author Contributions

Conceived and designed the experiments: AAN TA. Performed the experiments: AAN. Analyzed the data: AAN DG. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: AAN TA DG. Wrote the paper: AAN PR TA DG.

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Mandatory Mediation in Family Disputes; The Solution to Northern Ireland's exponentially increasing Civil Legal-aid Crisis.

This dissertation will seek to address the civil legal aid crisis in Northern Ireland (Hereafter referred to as NI). It will contend that the current budget is unsustainable and that the proposed reforms are insufficient. It advocates for the use of mandatory mediation in family disputes as a means of bringing civil legal aid spending within budget whilst providing access to justice. It will examine how current family disputes are dealt with and the role of mediation in doing so. It will contend that an escalating rate of disputing is causing more delays on an already overburdened system. This dissertation will include research gathered from Mary Lynch, Director of Mediation NI and Joan Davis Director of Family Mediation NI to demonstrate the high success rates of mediation and will suggest reasons as to why it is being underutilised. The dissertation will argue that mandatory mediation whilst not a panacea has a proven track record and is not, as purist mediators would argue, an affront to the very principles of mediation. It will address the main arguments against its usage and demonstrate that it is a viable option by drawing upon various jurisdictions and their experiences and examine how these could effectively be used in NI.

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As a process, mediation has evolved in the Republic of Ireland as an increasingly significant part of the work of alternative dispute resolution agencies and services funded by the State. This evolution has occurred without any overarching policy framework being in place. Yet the lack of an policy framework means that there is no integrated understanding of what is being done, by whom and to what return on the State’s investment. This 2020 project , funded by the Irish Research Council New Foundations programme, sets out to bring together all those ADR agencies and services currently involved in mediation provision in the Republic of Ireland, who are funded by the Irish State. There is limited research to date on mediation provision and impact in Ireland and a growing interest in developing a systematic evidence base in relation to mediation. The project will enable shared understanding of current mediation provision, the development of a draft public policy framework and a basis fo...

SCLS Law Review, Vol 3 No 3

M Jashim Ali Chowdhury

This paper argues that Mediation has been extremely emphasized recently in the administration of civil justice in the U.K. Explaining the series of English cases, particularly the most recent Lomax v Lomax decision, the paper sets out the English legal system's historic journey towards a full-fledged adoption of Mandatory Mediation. Experiences from Italy (E.U.), Canada and the U.S.A. are almost touched upon where relevant. The central argument of the paper remains that the legal world-common law or civil law alike-is moving towards Mandatory Mediation as a sensible alternative to the adversarial, time and money consuming traditional civil process. The prelude on Bangladesh at the beginning is added for setting a stage for the Bangladeshi readers from which they may feel the relevance of the topic we are talking about.

mieke brandon

Australian Journal of Family Law

Rachael Field

ACTA PROSPERITATIS

Jolanta Sondaite

The goal of this research is to examine the advantages and limitations of compulsory family mediation (CFM) as well as to understand subjective experience and attitude towards CFM from the perspective of family dispute resolution practitioners in Australia. The qualitative research method was chosen for this research. Information was collected using the semi‐structured interview method. The data analysis method was based on inductive thematic analysis. In completion of the data analysis, 4 main themes were identified: CFM is better option for conflict resolution, limitations caused by factors outside of the process, mediators create safe space to process disputes & emotions, the benefits of CMF on mediators. Findings of this study suggest that the practice of CFM is worth being embraced and that there are benefits to be had from an increased use of compulsory family mediation, both for families and legal system in Australia. The practitioners are optimistic of compulsory family medi...

Conflict Resolution Quarterly

Judy Corlyon

Review of European and Comparative Law

Agne Tvaronaviciene

The Mediation Directive (2008) obliged the Member States of the European Union to promote the use of mediation through their own means. A decade later, the results of several studies revealed that national efforts to foster mediation were not as effective as planned in most cases. Despite some scholars’ concerns about restricting mediation voluntariness as means for increasing its application, Italy introduced a mandatory mediation scheme which proved that forcing parties to mediate results in high numbers of mediation procedures with favorable success rates. This led other Member States to reconsider the role of the State in fostering mediation. This article tackles the prevalence of mandatory mediation in family disputes, as an area widely recognized as most suitable for it. The co-authors raised the research question of whether the introduction of mandatory mediation in family disputes is an emerging trend in the European Union. A short overview of the mandatory mediation concept...

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Search for dissertations about: "thesis on Mediation"

Showing result 1 - 5 of 171 swedish dissertations containing the words thesis on Mediation .

1. Elusive Peacemakers : A Bargaining Perspective on Mediation in Internal Armed Conflicts

Author : Isak Svensson ; Mats Hammarström ; David Mason ; Uppsala universitet ; [] Keywords : SAMHÄLLSVETENSKAP ; SOCIAL SCIENCES ; mediation ; third party ; civil war ; peace agreement ; conflict resolution ; negotiated settlement ; bargaining ; conflict termination ; internal conflict ; Peace and conflict research ; Freds- och konfliktforskning ;

Abstract : This composite dissertation explores mediation in internal armed conflicts from a bargaining perspective. Four separate essays investigate why mediation occurs, why it is successful, and why peace guarantors’ commitments are credible. Essay 1 examines the conditions under which mediation takes place. READ MORE

2. Mediation and the legal system : Extracting the legal principles of civil and commercial mediation

Author : Petra Hietanen-Kunwald ; Risto Koulu ; Matti Rudanko ; Finland Helsinki University of Helsinki ; [] Keywords : SAMHÄLLSVETENSKAP ; SOCIAL SCIENCES ;

Abstract : It is common to perceive mediation as a social practice, a practice that takes place outside the law and is unrestricted by legal rules. The subject of my dissertation is the normative dimension of mediation. READ MORE

3. Video letters, mediation and (proper) distance : A qualitative study of international development communication in practice

Author : Florencia Enghel ; Miyase Christensen ; Karin Wilkins ; Robin Mansell ; Karlstads universitet ; [] Keywords : SAMHÄLLSVETENSKAP ; SOCIAL SCIENCES ; development communication ; mediation ; proper distance ; international ; video letters ; Media and Communication Studies ; Medie- och kommunikationsvetenskap ;

Abstract : This study scrutinizes the trajectory of an international development communication intervention aimed at mediating, rendering public and mobilizing processes of reconnection among estranged citizens across the former Yugoslavia. The intervention, which took place between 2000 and 2005 in the wider context of post-conflict international development assistance and peacebuilding operations in the region, was known as the Videoletters project. READ MORE

4. Teacher professional learning in response to contemporary challenges in early childhood education and care

Author : Emelie Stavholm ; Göteborgs universitet ; [] Keywords : SAMHÄLLSVETENSKAP ; SOCIAL SCIENCES ; Early childhood teachers ; teacher professional learning ; preschool ; play ; teaching ; digital media ; sociocultural perspective ; appropriation ; mediation ; re-mediation ; cultural tools ;

Abstract : The purpose of this doctoral thesis is to generate new knowledge, through the empirical study, of how an Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) work team collectively learn about two contemporary challenges in ECEC, by means of a theoretical framework. More specifically, how they learn about the relationship between teaching and play, particularly in relation to children’s digital experiences in play. READ MORE

5. Walking on the Pages of the Word of God : Self, Land, and Text Among Evangelical Volunteers in Jerusalem

Author : ARON ENGBERG ; Mika Vähäkangas ; James S. Bielo ; Simon Coleman ; Kyrko- och missionsstudier ; [] Keywords : HUMANIORA ; HUMANITIES ; Agency ; Anthropology of Christianity ; Christian ZIonism ; Evangelicalism ; Identity ; Israel ; Language Ideology ; Literalism ; Materiality ; Mediation ; Narrative ; Sacred Space ; Volunteering ;

Abstract : During the last thirty years, the Evangelical relationship with the State of Israel has drawn much academic and popular attention, particularly from historical, theological, and political perspectives. This dissertation engages with this literature but also complements it with an ethnographic account of the discursive practices of Evangelical Zionists through which, it is suggested, much of the religious significance of the contemporary state is being produced. READ MORE

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Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) Dissertation Topics

Info: 2396 words (10 pages) Dissertation Topic Published: 17th Aug 2021 in Dissertation Topic

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We have provided a selection of example alternative dispute resolution dissertation topics below to help and inspire you.

Negotiation

This topic is a great topic to choose for your dissertation are there are many different avenues that could be explored! Take a look at some of our suggestions below:

Example negotiation dissertation topic 1:

Different approaches to negotiation: Hard hitter or calm collaborator?

Negotiation and other forms of ADR allow for varying styles and methods, concentrating often more on the content of the ADR than the manner in which it is conducted. However, it has been posited that even with the strongest case, ADR battles can be won and lost due to the technique of negotiation chosen. This dissertation looks at the two most well-known styles of mediation and ADR (collaborative and competitive) and considers if changing style aids in better resolutions. This dissertation will also review whether the success of the style is determined by the type of litigation (commercial, family, and so on) or whether, irrespective of issue, style is paramount.

Suggested initial topic reading:

• Guttman, R and Maes, P. ‘Cooperative vs competitive multi-agent negotiations in retail electronic commerce’ [1998] 1435 LNAI 135
• Robinson, P ‘Contending with Wolves in Sheep’s Clothing: A Cautiously Cooperative Approach to Mediation Advocacy’ [1998] 50 Baylor L Rev 963
• Shell, GR ‘Bargaining styles and negotiation: The Thomas-Kilmann conflict mode instrument in negotiation training’ [2001] 17(2) Negotiation Journal 155

Example negotiation dissertation topic 2:

Holding out for more: The use of the competitive model in negotiations

More and more the varying approaches to negotiation and mediation are becoming mainstream legal practice; however, there is little analysis as to whether using one method over the other is more effective and whether in reality one method can yield better results. This dissertation compares the two most popular styles of mediation and negotiation models and attempts to determine whether one is more effective than the other. Further, this dissertation will compare information and results from real life examples to academic studies to see if the reality is different to the theory.

• Hollander-Blumoff, R ‘Just Negotiation’ [2010] 88 WashULRev 381
• Morgan, A ‘ADR: In Search of the Emperor’s New Clothes’ [1991] 21 Golden Gate ULRev 351
• Tjosvold, D ‘Cooperative and Competitive Goal Approach to Conflict: Accomplishments and Challenges’ [1998] 47(3) AP 285

Whether you are interested in mediation of divore or child custody, deciding to complete your dissertation on family law could be the way to go! Take a look at some examples below:

Example family law dissertation topic 1:

Mediation in family law has passed its prime

Mediation has long been used in family disputes as a method of congenial dispute resolution. The ability to include a third party, wholly independent of the dispute between the members of the family, has, at least in theory, allowed the amicable settlement of disputes. While the inability to legally enforce mediation caused concern, the implementation of such a system soon overshadowed any such issues. This dissertation looks at whether, in today’s legal system, mediation in family law is more prevalent than ever or whether mediation has outgrown its usefulness. Considering this, this dissertation takes examples of real life mediation and determines whether the participants feel that they are truly coming to a just result. Therefore, within this dissertation there will be a consideration of the ethical issues surrounding surveys.

• Berman, D and Alfini, J ‘The Future of the Court ADR: Mediation and Beyond: Lawyer Colonisation of Family Mediation: Consequences and Implications’ [2012] 95 Marq L Rev 2012
• Murphy, J ‘Revitalizing the Adversary System in Family Law’ [2010] 78 UCinLRev891
• Payne, J ‘Whither Mediation?’ [2010] OAFM 1

Young Offenders

Deciding to base your dissertation on young offenders could be a very exciting topic. If you are struggling to decide on a topic, these examples may help:

Example young offenders dissertation topic 1:

The integration of mediation into the prosecution of young offenders

Mediation is extremely popular in resolving family disputes, mainly because of its diffusion of aggressive tactics and its reluctance to apportion blame to any single party but to work towards an end goal which benefits all parties. For the past decade mediation had been used, formally, to address youth offending and attempt to heal the wounds of both the victim and offender. Historically, native aboriginals in the US or Australia, for example, have used mediation to settle conflicts between offenders and victims in order to reduce the branding of people as ‘bad’ and address the true problems behind offending. This dissertation looks at whether the attempts to use mediation for youth offenders has been successful and to what extent mediation has a permanent place in the criminal justice system.

• Baldry, A and Scardaccione, G ‘Victim and Offender Mediation in the Juvenile Justice System’ in Psychology and Law in a Changing World: New Trends, in Theory, Practice and Research (Routledge 2013)
• Doak, J and O’Mahony, D ‘Developing Mediation and Restorative Justice for Young Offenders across Europe’ [2010] 4(36) SchriftenzumStrafvollzug, Jugendstrafrecht und zurKriminologie 1691
• Sawyer, B An Evaluation of the SACRO Young Offender Mediation Project (Scottish Central Research Unit 1999)

The ADR Method

Mediation is some times disputed as a good form of justice. Investigating this further could make for a captivating piece of work. Take a look at some examples below:

Example ADR method dissertation topic 1:

Can mediation be effective even though agreements cannot be enforced?

Mediation is slowly becoming a form of compulsory pre-action conduct with the introduction of the Dunnett theory. Given the almost uniform pre-requisite of mediation, or some other forms of ADR, in civil litigation is there an ability to reach truly lasting conclusions? Can mediation result in fair and lasting conclusions to legal matters? Where there is no legally binding result are there indications that the results are being adhered to none-the-less? This dissertation looks at the inability of mediation to impose legally binding results upon parties and whether, due to this inability, mediation should be required before proceeding with a claim.

• Datta, D and Ghosh, A ‘Mediation and Enforceability’ [2011] GNLU 1
• Davidovich, C ‘Mediation as a Method of Resolving Commercial Disputes’ in Lex nouveaux enjeux du management: Le temps des turbulence de la connivience a la competence (L’Harmattan 2012)
• Tanielian, A ‘Arbitration Still Best Road to Binding Dispute Resolution’ [2012] JLADREC 1

Example ADR method dissertation topic 2:

ADR: Forced compromise or suggested resolution?

After the decisions in Hurst v Leeming and Halsey v Milton Keynes General NHS Trust, many argued that ADR had effectively become a requirement during the litigation process. This dissertation looks at whether ADR has become a requirement and what affects such a requirement would have on the resultant ADR process. Have the Hurst and Halsey criteria lessened the blow of the Dunnettrequirement? Is the threat of cost implications enough to result in forced ADR? Can forced ADR ever result in successful resolutions or are parties simply ‘going through the motions’ of dispute resolution? All such questions will be considered.

• Isaac, K ‘Pre-Litigation Compulsory Mediation: A Concept Worth Negotiating’ [2010] 32 U La Verne L Rev 165
• McGuire, J ‘Mediation Mandate: Refusing to mediate becoming more difficult on both sides of the Atlantic’ [2002] 9(1) DRM 17
• Newmark, C and Dalhberg, A’New English ADR Principles Advance Law, Raise New Questions’ [2004] 22(9)Alternatives to the High Cost of Litigation 146

Example ADR method dissertation topic 3:

To mediate or negotiate, that is the question

Mediation has often been espoused as a more productive form of ADR due to its inclusion of an unbiased third party. The ability of a third party to step in where both parties come to a head and suggest creative alternative solutions is arguably more productive than the negotiation, where two opposing sides effectively ‘argue’ a resolution. Moreover, the different types of negotiation techniques (including competitive vs cooperative) often result in session with no hope of adequate resolution. This dissertation compares the differing styles of mediation and negotiation and attempts to determine whether mediation is more effective through its use of a ‘middleman’.

• Bercovitch, J and Jackson, R ‘Negotiation or Mediation?: An Exploration of Factors Affecting the Choice of Conflict Management’ [2001] 17(1) NJ 59
• Carnevale, P and Pruitt, D ‘Negotiation and Mediation’ [1992] 43 ARP 531
• Goltsman, M, Horner, J, Pavlov, G and Squintani, F ‘Mediation, arbitration and negotiation’ [2009] 144(4) JET 1397

Example ADR method dissertation topic 4:

Can ADR deliver justice?

Increasingly, prior to litigation, parties are involved in some form of ADR; however, has the growing dependency on ADR actually resulted in greater access to justice or is it a false economy? ADR can, notoriously, be extremely expensive with ADR ‘specialists’ being employed to iron out a resolution to a dispute. Moreover, in contractual contracts the inclusion of express arbitration clauses has resulted in the legally enforceable requirement to participate in a form of ADR which can often be just as expensive (if not more so) than litigation itself. This dissertation looks at whether the various forms of ADR can actually delivery justice, and whether such justice is the bargain it was once espoused to be.

• Landsman, S ‘ADR and the Cost of Compulsion’ [2005] 57(5) SLRS 1593
• Sternlight, J ‘ADR is here: Preliminary reflections on where it fits in a system of justice’ [2002] 3 Nev LJ 289
• Stipanowich, T ‘ADR and the “Vanishing Trial”: the growth and impact of “Alternative Dispute Resolution”‘ [2004] 1(3) JELS 843

Example ADR method dissertation topic 5:

Has ADR become a form of privatised justice?

Justice has always been theorised as a system which should be available to all, regardless of financial ability. However, with growing reliance on ADR prior to litigation, the concept of justice is changing. Growing reliance on an industry, which, by its very nature, is a commercial industry, is contrary to the concept of open access justice. This dissertation looks at whether the growing privatisation of ADR has resulted in only the wealthy accessing its benefits, while the poor are left with little access. Moreover, this dissertation questions whether a private system can really fit into the concept of justice.

• Garth, B ‘Tilting the Justice System: From ADR as Idealistic Movement to a Segmented Market in Dispute Resolution’ [2002] 18 GaStULRev 9277
• Noone, M ‘ADR, Public Interest Law and Access to Justice: The Need for Vigilance’ [2011] 37 MonashULRev 57
• Weinstein, J ‘Some Benefits and Risks of Privatization of Justice through ADR’ [1996] 11 Ohio StJLDR 241

Critical Studies and Cases

Maybe specific cases or a critical study could be more for you? If so, take a look at some of these examples:

Example critical studies and cases dissertation topic 1:

A critical study of the ADR movement

The increasing reference to ADR since the Halsey and Dunnett decisions has resulted in greater reliance on ADR methods. However, has the Court’s suggestion of a near compulsory requirement of pre-litigation dispute resolution resulted in an over-reliance of a system which is by no means flawless? Can mediation, with its non-binding agreements really resolve issues to a point where litigation is avoided? Do the costs of ineffective ADR result in an inability to pursue consequent litigation? Does negotiation rely too heavily on being able to afford barristers with reputations as being excellent ‘closers’? This dissertation critically reviews the various types of ADR.

• Green, C ‘ADR: Where did the “alternative” go? Why mediation should not be a mandatory step in the litigation process’ [2010] 12(3) ADRB 1
• Guill, J and SlavinJr, E ‘Rush to Unfairness: The Downside of ADR’ [1989] 28(3) JJ 8
• Joseph, J ‘Alternate to Alternatives: Critical Review of the Claims of ADR’ [2011] West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences

If these example topics have given you some inspiration and you now feel ready to choose a dissertation topic, see our guide to choosing a dissertation topic to help you get started.

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