labor migration in the philippines essay

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Philippine International Labor Migration in the Past 30 Years: Trends and Prospects

• Abrigo, Michael Ralph M.
• Orbeta, Aniceto Jr. C.
• Philippines
• international labor migration

The paper characterizes how international labor migration became an enduring feature in the country’s development. It presents data on the flow of temporary and permanent international migrant workers in the last thirty years. Characteristics such as destination, occupation, education, sex, and age are presented. Using historical movements and motivations, the study then presented the likely prospects of the Philippine international labor migration market considering domestic and the global labor market developments. Long-term and short-term prospects were discussed and economic, demographic, political, and environmental factors were considered as factors affecting the future flow of international migrant workers.

This publication has been cited 5 times

• Manalo, Jaime A. and lske van de Fliert. 2013. Push and pull factors in rural Filipino youth’s outmigration from agricultural communities . Asian Journal of Agriculture and Development 10, no. 2, 1-15. Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA).
• Orbeta, Aniceto Jr. C. and Michael Ralph M. Abrigo. 2011. Managing international labor migration: The Philippine experience . Discussion Papers DP 2011-33. Philippine Institute for Development Studies.
• Orbeta, Aniceto Jr. C. and Michael Ralph M. Abrigo. 2013. Managing international labor migration: The Philippine experience . Philippine Journal of Development PJD 2011, 38, nos. 1-2. Philippine Institute for Development Studies.
• Racelis, Rachel H., Michael R.M. Abrigo, and J.M. Ian Salas. 2015. Financing consumption over the lifecycle and overseas workers’ remittances: Findings from the 1999 and 2007 Philippine national transfer accounts . The Journal of the Economics of Ageing, 5(C), 69-78. Elsevier.

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Migration and Labor Movement in the Philippines

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The social, economic and political evolution, which took place in the last decades and is still taking place, has created the premises of a significant changing, as far as the migration is concerned, imposing the necessity of a special attention to be given to these problems, which are more and more approached inside the political dialogue and international cooperation.

International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 2017

The article is devoted to an actual problem of labor migration, the study of remittances and their role in the lives of migrant households. Remittances are used in migrant households in Central Asia primarily for the purchase of consumer goods. Since labor migration flows in the region tend to increase, and the volume of remittances increase, it becomes much more urgent to use the remittances not only for consumption, but also for development. To develop the programs on the use of remittances for the development of outcomes in the countries and for the achievement there is a need to study the problem comprehensively: The volumes and methods of transfers, their role in migrant households and national economies.

The article is devoted to the challenges of labour migration which must be solved by our state, society and the migrants themselves. Labour migration is one of the most important issues of population and it must be considered not only in terms of simple mechanical people flow but as complex social process which relates to different aspects of socioeconomic life, and this fact makes such challenges especially up-to-date. Migration of labour resources is a creative economic and social power leading to development of economy, enrichment of cultures and inflow of workforce. The article provides analysis of the situation with migrants in our country and positive and negative consequences of labour migration for sending and receiving countries. Basic adaptation strategies used by migrants are considered. Processes which take place in modern socio-cultural space are key element of changes in social, economic and cultural spheres of society. Migration process influences changes of spatial social relationship both negatively and positively [1-4]. Under the influence of globalization the number of forms of migration in the world has increased. All these forms can not be regarded separately because one form can be transformed into the other depending on specific motives and conditions [5]. No doubts that labour process needs proper organization, not only for getting economic effect but for man's development as well [6]. Labour migration is one of the important questions of population and it must be considered not only in terms of simple mechanical people flow but as complex social process which relates to different aspects of socioeconomic life, and this fact makes such challenges especially up-to-date[11]. At the boundary between XX-XXI centuries Russia like other countries faced great inflow of migrants which was the effect of new political and socio-cultural situation: disintegration of the USSR, intense globalization processes. It is surprising but migration policy often considers labour migration in narrow-economic aspect: either as a source of workforce or as compensation of natural increase of population. Thus, the authorities do not strive to balance the interests of the state, society, business and the migrants themselves, proposed institutional and regulatory mechanisms are insufficient for solution of existing problems. Of course, absence of social costs allows to save much money of Russian employers thanks to temporal labour migrants: otherwise these employers would incur such costs for Russian workforce. Being a part of socioeconomic policy it performs structuring function-ties up the project of socioeconomic development with the project (forecast) of quantity, quality and distribution of population. Attraction of workforce from other countries into Russia and integration of migrants can be fulfilled in conditions of intact socio-cultural nucleus of our society. Maximization of profit from migration must be compared with social risks associated with this phenomenon and the search for the tools of efficient interaction between exporting and importing countries must be done with due regard to mutually beneficial interests and harmonization of international migration legislature [8]. State policy in the sphere of employment is aimed for rational distribution of production forces, higher mobility of labour resources with due regard to the labour market and its perspective needs. One of the most important measures – aid for refugees and forced migrants to adapt themselves, regulation of labour migration flows. In the same time labour migration has both positive and negative features. It reduces labour costs in receiving country; on the contrary, the costs of labour in sending country go up, employment in the receiving country increases while in sending country it decreases, local population is pushed out from labour market (Table 1). While forming migration policy all the consequences of labour migration must be taken into consideration in order to make this process more beneficial for both parties and decrease the number of negative moments [7].

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Migration for employment has increasingly become a reality for peoples facing difficulties in finding adequate and promising development opportunities at home. The expansion of the global economy accompanied by policy shifts towards greater deregulation, trade liberalization and privatization has also led to the rise of the role of private employment agencies in enabling an environment for better jobs matching – locally, and between countries…

International low-skilled labor migrant workers such as construction workers, agricultural workers and domestic helpers are projected to increase over the medium- and long- term in high-income and emerging economies due to demographic changes (e.g., ageing populations) and lack of decent work opportunities in migrant sending countries. Cognizant of the development impact of migration to migrants and their families as well as to origin and…

In 2015, 2.3 million Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) left the country to work in various destinations all over the world. OFWs, along with other Overseas Filipinos (OFs), sent home a total of US$25.6 billion in cash remittances that year (BSP). If taking into account remittances sent through both formal and non-formal sectors, remittances are estimated to reach US$29.7 billion (WB), which is around 10% of the country's GDP.

Philippine labor…

Much of the migration scholarship tends to focus either on the migrant or on the left-behind families. In this dissertation, I seek to explore an understudied aspect of migration- the links between parental migration and the migration aspirations and employment trajectories of left-behind children. The analysis is based on in-depth interviews with Filipino migrant parents in London and their children left behind in the Philippines. The findings…

The number of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) being deployed has been considerably increasing. Reports of the Philippine Overseas Labor Office (POLO) show that there is an urgent need to address the following concerns: low number of personnel assigned in the processing and issuance of Overseas Employment Certificates (OECs); and increased number of OFWs requesting for OECs both at POLOs and at the Philippine Overseas Employment Administration…

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Mi Figue, Mi Raisin: The Filipinos' Culture of Migration In the Age of Globalization

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Related publications, effect of covid-19 on overseas filipino workers’ salaries and remittances, perceptions of overseas filipino workers on the 2022 philippine national elections, an analysis of ofw return experiences and program challenges amid the covid-19 pandemic: advancing a crisis-oriented reintegration framework.

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From US Reign to Brain Drain: The Mass Emigration of Filipino Nurses to the United States

After four centuries of colonization , the Philippines, influenced by Spanish, US, and Japanese rule, continues to feel the lasting impact of US colonial practices. This legacy is particularly evident in the emigration and export of Filipino nurses. Despite the Philippines gaining full independence in 1946, the United States continues to drain the country of its resources.  The incentivization and employment of Filipino healthcare professionals to fill staffing gaps in the US healthcare system, especially during crises, facilitates their mass emigration.

Colonial History Behind Filipino Nurse Migration

In 1898, the United States acquired the Philippines from Spain through the Treaty of Paris concluding the Spanish-American War. US President William McKinley wanted to garner support from the Filipino population and facilitate a smooth transfer of authority. To accomplish this goal, he characterized the colonization of the Philippines as a “ benevolent assimilation ,” pledging the protection of individual rights and freedoms throughout the transition of power.

McKinley declared in an executive order on December 21, 1898: “It will be the duty of the commander of the forces of occupation to announce and proclaim in the most public manner that we come, not as invaders or conquerors, but as friends, to protect the natives in their homes, in their employments, and in their personal and religious rights.” To initiate the process of “benevolent assimilation,” the US government dispatched US educators known as the Thomasites to the Philippines to integrate Filipinos into US culture and cultivate a new generation of followers who embraced US ideals and values.

Under this system , Filipinos were taught to speak English fluently, adopt US culture, and ultimately aspire to the American Dream. As University of California, Berkeley professor Catherine Ceniza Choy describes it, “[There were] American colonial officials going to the Philippines and exposing the Filipinos to American culture, to the English language, to Americanized education. And this kind of training influenced so many different groups of Filipinos to dream about the US and to desire to migrate there.”

In 1903, US President William Howard Taft enacted the Pensionado Act , creating a scholarship program enabling qualified Filipinos, known as pensionados , to pursue education and training in the United States. Focused on government and administration degrees, the act aimed to develop future Filipino leaders with knowledge of the US government system. The intention was for them to implement similar practices upon their return, shaping the Philippines’ government and institutions in alignment with US ideals.

Among the pensionados were some of the earliest Filipino nursing students. Upon returning to their home country, pensionado nurses played a crucial role in founding 17 nursing schools in the Philippines between 1903 and 1940. Meanwhile, those who stayed in the United States formed the Philippine Nurses Association in 1922 whose mission statement was: “Championing the global competence, welfare, and positive and professional image of the Filipino nurse.” The Pensionado Act, the largest US scholarship program until the Fulbright Program in 1948, concluded in 1943, just three years before the Philippines gained independence.

Enduring Impacts of Colonial Mentality

On July 4, 1946, the United States acknowledged the Philippines as an independent and sovereign nation, relinquishing its role as the colonizer and withdrawing its authority over the archipelago. Despite this transition, the United States continues to rely on the Philippines to address its medical staffing shortages.

In 1948—about four decades after the Pensionado Act and two years after the Philippines attained its freedom—the United States introduced the Exchange Visitor Program (EVP). This program invited individuals from foreign countries to temporarily study and gain work experience in the United States. Participants were granted admission as nonimmigrant visitors for business under the Immigration Act of 1924. The EVP was implemented to fight Soviet propaganda during the Cold War and spread US democratic ideals.

At the same time, the United States was experiencing a medical shortage after World War II. Numerous nurses left their jobs due to lower wages and harmful working conditions. Rather than addressing the root causes of the problem—such as increasing pay and improving working conditions to encourage people to return to work—the United States sought to fill the void by looking beyond its borders, turning to the Philippines to bridge the gap. This approach reflected the historical framework of “benevolent assimilation” from the early years of US occupation in the Philippines. The system trained Filipino nurses in an Americanized curriculum, creating a direct pathway for their education and migration to the United States.

The EVP was followed by amendments to the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) in 1965. This landmark legislation eliminated the National Origins Quota System, which had served as the cornerstone of US immigration policy since the 1920s. More specifically, the INA of 1965 terminated a discriminatory immigration policy towards Asia and other regions, instituting a preference system that prioritized the entry of individuals with high educational qualifications and essential skills. These amendments appealed to Filipino nurses as they provided an opportunity to adjust nurses’ immigration status and seek permanent residency in the United States. Simultaneously, the United States experienced a heightened demand for healthcare workers due to the implementation of Medicare and Medicaid under the Social Security Amendments of 1965; for example, after coverage began in 1966, 19 million Americans enrolled in Medicare alone.

US immigration policies and sociopolitical conditions motivated an increased number of Filipinos to pursue careers in nursing. In just five years, the number of Filipino nurses in the Philippines grew by an astounding 700 percent, from 7,000 in 1948 to 57,000 in 1953. The surge continued, with the number of nursing schools in the Philippines increasing from 17 in 1940 to 429 in 2005 and reaching 1,282 as of September 24, 2023. Since 1960, over 150,000 Filipino nurses have immigrated to the United States. A 2021 study revealed that registered nurses (RNs) trained in the Philippines constitute one out of 20 RNs in the United States, maintaining their status as the largest group of foreign-trained nurses to date. As of 2022, Filipino nurses constituted 33 percent of all foreign-born RNs—and, as of 2021, four percent of all RNs—in the United States. The Philippines is the largest exporter of nurses worldwide.

Domestic Struggles in the Philippines in the Wake of Nurses’ Emigration

Due to the mass exodus of Filipino nurses both to other countries and from the profession within the Philippines, the country currently faces a shortage of nurses, undermining the quality of healthcare within the country. According to a 2023 study , 200,000 to 250,000 Filipino nurses have left the profession in the Philippines due to burnout, low pay, overextension, and job precarity. A 2021 estimate revealed that 51 percent of licensed Filipino nurses (about 316,000 nurses) had left the Philippines to work in foreign countries. The Philippines now faces a shortage of 127,000 nurses, which is expected to increase to 250,000 by 2030. In response, the Philippines has even lowered professional standards, allowing over 300 nursing graduates without licenses to be hired as nurses.

The United States is not the only country responsible for the mass emigration of Filipino nurses. The Philippines is also complicit in the United States’ continued pull on the nation’s labor export. Filipino nurses are caught in the crossfire between the United States and the Philippines due to various push and pull factors. On one hand, the United States pulls Filipino nurses to address its medical shortage. On the other hand, the Philippines actively pushes workers away due to poor working conditions and lower quality of life. Furthermore, the Philippine government actively promotes the export of Filipino workers globally for economic gains.

In the 1960s, when the United States carried out immigration policies and underwent important cultural developments, the Philippines experienced hardships under the dictatorial rule of former president Ferdinand Marcos . In September of 1972, Marcos proclaimed martial law to combat the growing chaos stemming from violent student demonstrations, perceived threats of communist insurgency by the new Communist Party of the Philippines, and the Muslim separatist movement of the Moro National Liberation Front. Under the Marcos regime , human rights violations and corruption were rampant. More notably, under Marcos’ rule, unemployment was exacerbated and poverty endured , which prompted many Filipinos to seek jobs overseas. In response, Marcos devised the Labor Export Policy in 1974 to tackle the economic struggles the Philippines faced. The initiative sought to address unemployment within the educated sector by providing opportunities for overseas employment, which in turn generated foreign currency revenues through remittances sent back by Filipinos working abroad.

Since the 1950s, money sent back home by nurses employed overseas has played a substantial role in the Philippine economy. According to the advocacy group Filipino Nurses United, about one-third of the over 900,000 registered nurses in the Philippines were working abroad as of 2021. The remittances from nurses contribute roughly US$8 billion annually to the economy, making up approximately 25 percent of all remittances. Collectively, these remittances account for around nine percent of the country’s gross domestic product.

Filipino nurses were significantly affected by US imperialism and misgovernment under Marcos’ dictatorship. During the period of US occupation, Filipino nurses were trained to work in the United States. After the Philippines gained independence, the United States continued to depend on the Philippines to address medical staffing shortages. Domestically, the Philippines’ promotion of overseas labor, coupled with challenging living conditions, has fueled an increase in Filipino nurses emigrating to the United States. The continued mass exodus of Filipino nurses underscores the need for a comprehensive examination of the factors contributing to this brain drain and a collaborative effort to address the associated challenges.

Laurinne Jamie Eugenio

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