conclusion of research in education

• What is Educational Research? + [Types, Scope & Importance]

Education is an integral aspect of every society and in a bid to expand the frontiers of knowledge, educational research must become a priority. Educational research plays a vital role in the overall development of pedagogy, learning programs, and policy formulation. 

Educational research is a spectrum that bothers on multiple fields of knowledge and this means that it draws from different disciplines. As a result of this, the findings of this research are multi-dimensional and can be restricted by the characteristics of the research participants and the research environment. 

What is Educational Research?

Educational research is a type of systematic investigation that applies empirical methods to solving challenges in education. It adopts rigorous and well-defined scientific processes in order to gather and analyze data for problem-solving and knowledge advancement. 

J. W. Best defines educational research as that activity that is directed towards the development of a science of behavior in educational situations. The ultimate aim of such a science is to provide knowledge that will permit the educator to achieve his goals through the most effective methods.

The primary purpose of educational research is to expand the existing body of knowledge by providing solutions to different problems in pedagogy while improving teaching and learning practices. Educational researchers also seek answers to questions bothering on learner motivation, development, and classroom management. 

Characteristics of Education Research  

While educational research can take numerous forms and approaches, several characteristics define its process and approach. Some of them are listed below:

• It sets out to solve a specific problem.
• Educational research adopts primary and secondary research methods in its data collection process . This means that in educational research, the investigator relies on first-hand sources of information and secondary data to arrive at a suitable conclusion. 
• Educational research relies on empirical evidence . This results from its largely scientific approach.
• Educational research is objective and accurate because it measures verifiable information.
• In educational research, the researcher adopts specific methodologies, detailed procedures, and analysis to arrive at the most objective responses
• Educational research findings are useful in the development of principles and theories that provide better insights into pressing issues.
• This research approach combines structured, semi-structured, and unstructured questions to gather verifiable data from respondents.
• Many educational research findings are documented for peer review before their presentation. 
• Educational research is interdisciplinary in nature because it draws from different fields and studies complex factual relations.

Types of Educational Research 

Educational research can be broadly categorized into 3 which are descriptive research , correlational research , and experimental research . Each of these has distinct and overlapping features. 

Descriptive Educational Research

In this type of educational research, the researcher merely seeks to collect data with regards to the status quo or present situation of things. The core of descriptive research lies in defining the state and characteristics of the research subject being understudied. 

Because of its emphasis on the “what” of the situation, descriptive research can be termed an observational research method . In descriptive educational research, the researcher makes use of quantitative research methods including surveys and questionnaires to gather the required data.

Typically, descriptive educational research is the first step in solving a specific problem. Here are a few examples of descriptive research: 

• A reading program to help you understand student literacy levels.
• A study of students’ classroom performance.
• Research to gather data on students’ interests and preferences. 

From these examples, you would notice that the researcher does not need to create a simulation of the natural environment of the research subjects; rather, he or she observes them as they engage in their routines. Also, the researcher is not concerned with creating a causal relationship between the research variables. 

Correlational Educational Research

This is a type of educational research that seeks insights into the statistical relationship between two research variables. In correlational research, the researcher studies two variables intending to establish a connection between them. 

Correlational research can be positive, negative, or non-existent. Positive correlation occurs when an increase in variable A leads to an increase in variable B, while negative correlation occurs when an increase in variable A results in a decrease in variable B. 

When a change in any of the variables does not trigger a succeeding change in the other, then the correlation is non-existent. Also, in correlational educational research, the research does not need to alter the natural environment of the variables; that is, there is no need for external conditioning. 

Examples of educational correlational research include: 

• Research to discover the relationship between students’ behaviors and classroom performance.
• A study into the relationship between students’ social skills and their learning behaviors. 

Experimental Educational Research

Experimental educational research is a research approach that seeks to establish the causal relationship between two variables in the research environment. It adopts quantitative research methods in order to determine the cause and effect in terms of the research variables being studied. 

Experimental educational research typically involves two groups – the control group and the experimental group. The researcher introduces some changes to the experimental group such as a change in environment or a catalyst, while the control group is left in its natural state. 

The introduction of these catalysts allows the researcher to determine the causative factor(s) in the experiment. At the core of experimental educational research lies the formulation of a hypothesis and so, the overall research design relies on statistical analysis to approve or disprove this hypothesis.

Examples of Experimental Educational Research

• A study to determine the best teaching and learning methods in a school.
• A study to understand how extracurricular activities affect the learning process. 

Based on functionality, educational research can be classified into fundamental research , applied research , and action research. The primary purpose of fundamental research is to provide insights into the research variables; that is, to gain more knowledge. Fundamental research does not solve any specific problems. 

Just as the name suggests, applied research is a research approach that seeks to solve specific problems. Findings from applied research are useful in solving practical challenges in the educational sector such as improving teaching methods, modifying learning curricula, and simplifying pedagogy. 

Action research is tailored to solve immediate problems that are specific to a context such as educational challenges in a local primary school. The goal of action research is to proffer solutions that work in this context and to solve general or universal challenges in the educational sector. 

Importance of Educational Research

• Educational research plays a crucial role in knowledge advancement across different fields of study. 
• It provides answers to practical educational challenges using scientific methods.
• Findings from educational research; especially applied research, are instrumental in policy reformulation. 
• For the researcher and other parties involved in this research approach, educational research improves learning, knowledge, skills, and understanding.
• Educational research improves teaching and learning methods by empowering you with data to help you teach and lead more strategically and effectively.
• Educational research helps students apply their knowledge to practical situations.

Educational Research Methods 

• Surveys/Questionnaires

A survey is a research method that is used to collect data from a predetermined audience about a specific research context. It usually consists of a set of standardized questions that help you to gain insights into the experiences, thoughts, and behaviors of the audience. 

Surveys can be administered physically using paper forms, face-to-face conversations, telephone conversations, or online forms. Online forms are easier to administer because they help you to collect accurate data and to also reach a larger sample size. Creating your online survey on data-gathering platforms like Formplus allows you to.also analyze survey respondent’s data easily. 

In order to gather accurate data via your survey, you must first identify the research context and the research subjects that would make up your data sample size. Next, you need to choose an online survey tool like Formplus to help you create and administer your survey with little or no hassles. 

An interview is a qualitative data collection method that helps you to gather information from respondents by asking questions in a conversation. It is typically a face-to-face conversation with the research subjects in order to gather insights that will prove useful to the specific research context. 

Interviews can be structured, semi-structured , or unstructured . A structured interview is a type of interview that follows a premeditated sequence; that is, it makes use of a set of standardized questions to gather information from the research subjects. 

An unstructured interview is a type of interview that is fluid; that is, it is non-directive. During a structured interview, the researcher does not make use of a set of predetermined questions rather, he or she spontaneously asks questions to gather relevant data from the respondents. 

A semi-structured interview is the mid-point between structured and unstructured interviews. Here, the researcher makes use of a set of standardized questions yet, he or she still makes inquiries outside these premeditated questions as dedicated by the flow of the conversations in the research context. 

Data from Interviews can be collected using audio recorders, digital cameras, surveys, and questionnaires. 

• Observation

Observation is a method of data collection that entails systematically selecting, watching, listening, reading, touching, and recording behaviors and characteristics of living beings, objects, or phenomena. In the classroom, teachers can adopt this method to understand students’ behaviors in different contexts. 

Observation can be qualitative or quantitative in approach . In quantitative observation, the researcher aims at collecting statistical information from respondents and in qualitative information, the researcher aims at collecting qualitative data from respondents. 

Qualitative observation can further be classified into participant or non-participant observation. In participant observation, the researcher becomes a part of the research environment and interacts with the research subjects to gather info about their behaviors. In non-participant observation, the researcher does not actively take part in the research environment; that is, he or she is a passive observer. 

How to Create Surveys and Questionnaires with Formplus

• On your dashboard, choose the “create new form” button to access the form builder. You can also choose from the available survey templates and modify them to suit your need.
• Save your online survey to access the form customization section. Here, you can change the physical appearance of your form by adding preferred background images and inserting your organization’s logo.
• Formplus has a form analytics dashboard that allows you to view insights from your data collection process such as the total number of form views and form submissions. You can also use the reports summary tool to generate custom graphs and charts from your survey data. 

Steps in Educational Research

Like other types of research, educational research involves several steps. Following these steps allows the researcher to gather objective information and arrive at valid findings that are useful to the research context. 

• Define the research problem clearly. 
• Formulate your hypothesis. A hypothesis is the researcher’s reasonable guess based on the available evidence, which he or she seeks to prove in the course of the research.
• Determine the methodology to be adopted. Educational research methods include interviews, surveys, and questionnaires.
• Collect data from the research subjects using one or more educational research methods. You can collect research data using Formplus forms.
• Analyze and interpret your data to arrive at valid findings. In the Formplus analytics dashboard, you can view important data collection insights and you can also create custom visual reports with the reports summary tool. 
• Create your research report. A research report details the entire process of the systematic investigation plus the research findings. 

Conclusion 

Educational research is crucial to the overall advancement of different fields of study and learning, as a whole. Data in educational research can be gathered via surveys and questionnaires, observation methods, or interviews – structured, unstructured, and semi-structured. 

You can create a survey/questionnaire for educational research with Formplu s. As a top-tier data tool, Formplus makes it easy for you to create your educational research survey in the drag-and-drop form builder, and share this with survey respondents using one or more of the form sharing options. 

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• education research
• educational research types
• examples of educational research
• importance of educational research
• purpose of educational research
• busayo.longe

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Action Research in Education: What You Need to Know

Action research  involves taking actions to improve teaching and learning practices and collecting data to measure the impact of those actions. 

Researchers who use this approach believe that it is the best way to ensure that the needs of students are being met.

Table of Contents

What Is the Purpose of Action Research in Education

The purpose of action research in education is to improve teaching and learning by taking a collaborative, reflective, problem-solving approach to investigating classroom practice. Action research involves cycles of planning, implementing, observing, and reflecting on changes made to improve practice.

Why Action Research Is a Preferred Method of Inquiry in Education

There are several reasons why action research is becoming more popular in education:

• It is an inclusive process that allows all stakeholders to be involved in the research. This includes teachers, students, administrators, and even parents.
• It is a very effective way to get feedback from teachers and students about what is working and what needs improvement.
• It helps build educators’ shared understanding of teaching and learning.
• It allows teachers to reflect on their practice and learn new strategies for improving student outcomes . 
• It is focused on practical solutions to real problems faced by educators.
• It has been found to be particularly effective in professional development contexts. Many teacher education programs now require their students to complete an action research project as part of their degree.
• It is more effective than traditional research methods, which often fail to address the unique needs of specific groups.
• It is a cyclical and recursive process, which means that it allows for constant reflection and improvement.

How Does Action Research Differ From Other Research Methods

One of the main differences between action research and other research methods is that action research focuses on solving specific problems. It is also designed to be interactive so that researchers can get feedback from those impacted by their work. This makes it an effective tool for changing schools and other educational settings.

How Does Action Research Work

Action research  is a cyclical process that involves four steps: planning, action, observation, and reflection. 

During the  planning stage , researchers identify a problem or question they would like to explore. They then develop a plan for how they will go about investigating this question. 

The  action stage  is when the research takes place. It involves conducting experiments, changing teaching practices, or collecting student data. 

The  observation stage  is when researchers collect data about what is happening during the action stage. This data can be used to measure the impact of the actions taken and determine if they successfully achieved their goals. 

The  reflection stage  is when researchers analyze the data collected during observation and discuss what they have learned. It allows them to change their plan and continue with the cycle.

What Are the Benefits of Action Research for Teachers and Students

There are several benefits of using action research in education, including the following:

• It helps teachers to become more reflective practitioners. Through reflection, teachers can learn new strategies for improving student outcomes.
• It helps teachers to develop a shared understanding of teaching and learning. This can lead to collaboration among educators and improved communication between teachers and students.
• It is a collaborative process that encourages teamwork and builds relationships among educators.
• It allows teachers to try new ideas and see how they work in practice.
• It encourages teacher-student dialogue about learning and helps students become more engaged in their education.
• It promotes professional development among educators.
• It is a cyclical process, so researchers can continue to refine their practices based on the feedback they receive.
• It can lead to positive changes in the classroom and the school.

What Examples of How Action Research Has Been Used to Improve Teaching and Learning Practices

One example of how action research has been used to improve teaching and learning practices is using portfolios . A portfolio is a collection of student work used to assess their learning progress. Portfolios can track students’ development over time and identify areas where they need assistance. They are also used to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching practices.

Another example is the use of formative assessments .  Formative assessments  are tests throughout the school year to measure students’ understanding of a topic. They help teachers to determine which concepts students understand and which ones they need more help with. They are also used to adjust teaching strategies based on students’ needs.

Action research can also be used to improve instruction for English Language Learners (ELLs) . ELLs are students who are new to English or who are not yet proficient in the language. Instruction for ELLs should be differentiated based on their level of proficiency. Additionally, it should be tailored to meet their individual needs. Action research can help educators to identify the best ways to teach ELLs and help them to achieve success in school.

What Are the Challenges Associated With Action Research

There are also some challenges associated with Action Research, including the following:

• It can be time-consuming, especially if researchers are working alone.
• Finding the resources needed to implement action research projects can be difficult.
• Getting buy-in from stakeholders, including administrators, teachers, and students, can be challenging.
• Not all research projects will yield positive results, discouraging those involved.

There are also some challenges associated with action research that can be difficult to overcome:

• It can be challenging to get everyone on board with the changes being made. This is especially true if the changes are controversial or involve significant changes to the status quo.
• It can be difficult to measure the impact of actions taken, especially in the short term. This can make it hard to determine whether or not the changes positively impact students.

These obstacles, however, can be overcome by following a few simple steps:

• Ensure that everyone involved in the research process understands why the changes are being made and what they hope to achieve.
• Collect data regularly and track progress over time. This will help to determine whether or not the changes are having a positive impact on students.
• Be willing to adapt and change course if necessary to achieve desired results.

Action research  is a powerful tool that can help to improve teaching and learning practices. However, it is important to be aware of the challenges associated with this type of research to overcome them. 

By taking the steps outlined above, researchers can ensure that they can make the most of action research and its potential benefits.

What Are the Limitations of Action Research

This method is effective for meeting the needs of students, but there are some limitations to consider.

One limitation of action research is that it can be time-consuming . Researchers often have to collect and analyze data on their own, which can take a significant amount of time. Furthermore, taking action and then measuring the impact of those actions can also be lengthy.

Another limitation of action research is that it can be expensive . To measure the impact of changes made in the classroom, researchers often need to purchase or rent equipment and pay for software licenses or subscriptions (e.g. IBM SPSS Statistics , Microsoft Excel ).

Finally, action research can be challenging to implement . It requires a certain level of expertise and can be difficult to carry out without proper training.

How Do You Get Started In Action Research

If you are interested in using action research, there are a few things you need to know. 

First, it is essential to understand that action research is a process, not a product. It takes time and effort to complete a successful action research project.

Second, you must clearly understand the problem or question you want to investigate. This should be something you are passionate about and think can make a difference in the lives of your students.

Third, you need to be willing to take action. One of the key characteristics of action research is that it involves taking real-world actions to improve teaching and learning practices. This can be challenging, but it is also exciting and rewarding.

Finally, you must be prepared to collect data and measure the impact of your actions. This is essential for documenting the success of your project and sharing your findings with others.

If you are ready to start using action research in your classroom or school, many resources are available to help you get started. The best place to start is with your school’s division office . They can provide information on how to get started and connect you with other educators who are also interested in using action research.

DepEd Research Management Guidelines

DepEd Action Research Topics and Sample Titles

Teacher Quality as a Key Factor Influencing Student Learning Outcomes

DepEd Supplemental Research Guides and Tools

DepEd School Research Manager Duties and Responsibilities

In addition, several books and articles can help you learn more about action research. These resources will provide an overview of the process and give you some practical tips for getting started.

Action Research an Essential Writing Guide for Teacher and Would Be Teachers by Darwin D. Bargo, Ed.D., Ph.D.

With these things in mind, you can start your journey toward becoming an action researcher today.

As educators, we must constantly look for ways to improve our teaching and learning practices. Action research is a great way to do that, as it allows us to take steps to improve student outcomes and then collect data to measure the impact of those actions. 

It would be best if you considered using this approach in your work, as it is the best way to ensure that students get the most out of their education.

How to Cite this Article

Llego, M. A. (2022, August 28). Action Research in Education: What You Need to Know. TeacherPH. Retrieved August 28, 2022 from, https://www.teacherph.com/action-research-education/

Mark Anthony Llego

Mark Anthony Llego, a visionary from the Philippines, founded TeacherPH in October 2014 with a mission to transform the educational landscape. His platform has empowered thousands of Filipino teachers, providing them with crucial resources and a space for meaningful idea exchange, ultimately enhancing their instructional and supervisory capabilities. TeacherPH's influence extends far beyond its origins. Mark's insightful articles on education have garnered international attention, featuring on respected U.S. educational websites. Moreover, his work has become a valuable reference for researchers, contributing to the academic discourse on education.

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• Original article
• Open access
• Published: 24 August 2024

Expressions of gratitude in education: an analysis of the #ThankYourTeacher campaign

• Kelly-Ann Allen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6813-0034 1 , 2 ,
• Christine Grove 4 , 5 ,
• Fiona S. May 3 ,
• Nicholas Gamble 1 ,
• Rhoda Lai 1 &
• James M. Saunders 1  

International Journal for Educational Integrity volume  20 , Article number:  13 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

35 Accesses

Metrics details

Teachers play a significant societal role, yet many feel underappreciated, and commonly cite this as a reason for considering leaving the profession. This study investigated responses to the #ThankYourTeacher social media campaign, which was created to generate public expressions of gratitude towards teachers. Data were collected from Twitter, Instagram, a campaign website, and public events and thematically analysed. Orr’s (1992) Head, Heart, and Hands Model of Transformational Learning was used as a framework for understanding the qualities of teachers and their teaching that participants appreciated. Notably, more individuals expressed gratitude for teachers’ motivational and compassionate qualities (Heart) and their enthusiasm and leadership (Hands) than for their subject knowledge (Head). These findings underscore the importance of the teacher-student relationship and relational qualities over subject expertise. This study also highlights the potential for further research into the impacts of practicing gratitude towards teachers and increasing teachers’ sense of being valued and appreciated.

Introduction

According to global education research, a concerning proportion of teachers are leaving or intending to depart from their roles as educators (Allen et al. 2020 ; Carver-Thomas and Darling-Hammond 2017 ; Doherty 2020 ; Longmuir et al. 2022 ). In the global Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS), 15% of teachers reported contemplating leaving the profession within their initial five years (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD], 2020 ). In Australia, a recent study of more than 2,000 working teachers found that 58% intended to leave the profession (Heffernan et al. 2022 ). Furthermore, it is anticipated that global teacher attrition rates are likely to experience modest increases as the economy recovers after the pandemic (Goldhaber and Theobald 2022 ). Understanding the reasons behind teachers leaving the profession is a key step towards learning how teacher retainment may be improved.

Teachers in Australia have cited insufficient respect as one of the most significant challenges facing them in the profession, with approximately 71% reporting a lack of perceived appreciation, and 10% of those intending to quit teaching citing underappreciation as the reason behind this sentiment (Heffernan et al. 2022 ). However, the Australian public has not reflected the same underappreciation of teachers; in a survey of over 1,000 Australians, the majority of respondents expressed a sense of respect (82%) and trust (93%) in teachers (Heffernan et al. 2022 ). This suggests that while the public holds teachers in high regard, there is a disconnect in this appreciation being felt by teachers. Bridging this gap and ensuring that teachers feel recognised may be a step towards addressing teacher attrition.

Conceptual frameworks

The apparent gap between the level of appreciation individuals have for teachers and the actual respect that teachers feel can be understood by examining the role of gratitude. Gratitude, as a state emotion, involves recognising and feeling appreciation for positive events or entities (such as places, objects, people, or animals) in one’s life (Armenta et al. 2017 ; Emmons and McCullough 2003 ; Waters and Stokes 2015 ). Related to this, the outward communication and acknowledgement of gratitude is a primary feature of the practice of gratitude, which can lead to benefits for both the giver and recipient, such as increased prosocial behaviours (Emmons and Mishra 2011 ; Waters and Stokes 2015 ). That teachers feel undervalued, despite public appreciation, suggests that while the majority of people feel gratitude towards teachers, there may be a gap in how this gratitude is being expressed and received.

The advantages of expressing and receiving gratitude are widely reported and include a sense of connection (Boehm et al. 2011 ), more robust social ties (Fredrickson 2004 ), conflict management (Bartlett et al. 2012 ; Lambert and Fincham 2011 ), sleep quality improvement (Wood et al. 2010 ), and improved psychological wellbeing (Bale et al. 2020 ). Experiencing gratitude also serves as a protective factor against depression and anxiety (Wood et al. 2008 ), while receiving gratitude can increase motivation to perform actions for the good of others (Emmons and Mishra 2011 ; Waters and Stokes 2015 ). Given the extensive advantages linked to expressing and receiving gratitude for overall wellbeing, it is highly likely that it could improve teachers’ sense of value in their role. To gain a deeper understanding of these possibilities, we need to examine the application of gratitude and its benefits in the context of the teaching profession.

Gratitude interventions in schools primarily target student outcomes but can yield valuable insights into potential benefits for teachers as well. Students who engage with gratitude interventions, where gratitude is communicated and received between students and teachers, have experienced a wide range of positive outcomes, including increased academic motivation, performance, and overall school satisfaction (Bono et al. 2014 ; Chan 2010 ; Shankland and Rosset 2017 ). While no studies have explored gratitude’s influence on teachers’ perceptions of appreciation specifically, being the recipient of gratitude can significantly enhance teachers’ self-image and job satisfaction (Bentea and Anghelache 2012 ; Demirtas 2010 ; Spruyt et al. 2021 ). Consequently, job satisfaction can increase work engagement, performance (measured by student skill development), and intention to stay in the job (Arnup and Bowles 2016 ; Banerjee et al. 2016 ; Granziera and Perera 2019 ), and can have a protective effect against negative work aspects such as exhaustion, and workload (Zang et al. 2022 ). It is likely that teachers’ sense of appreciation may be enhanced in a similar way to self-image and job satisfaction with increased reception of gratitude from others.

In addressing teacher attrition, problems such as unreasonable workloads and high stress levels will be important to address (Heffernan et al. 2022 ). Increasing expressions of gratitude towards teachers may not shift systemic issues within schools that are affecting teachers’ choices to quit the profession. However, boosting job satisfaction, a protective factor, can also have a significant impact on reducing attrition (Madigan and Kim 2021 ). With teachers citing underappreciation from both those within school communities and the public as a major source of dissatisfaction (Heffernan et al. 2022 ), increasing opportunities for the expression of gratitude towards teachers may offer a cost-effective way to address these issues.

Head, heart, and hands model for transformational learning

Various approaches to learning and teaching have evolved over time, with recent models emphasising constructivist learning, student-centredness, competency-based education, and blended learning (Hattie and Donoghue 2016 ). The Head, Heart, and Hands Model for Transformational Learning, originally proposed by Orr in 1992 and further developed by Sipos and colleagues in 2008, is a contemporary model that has been applicable for a wide range of educational perspectives, including inclusive education (Ahsan 2012 ; Florian and Rouse 2009 ; Sharma et al. 2019 ) and sustainability education (Orr 1992 ; Sipos et al. 2008 ). Tröhler ( 2013 ) argued that the Head, Heart, and Hands Model draws inspiration from the work of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, an 18th-century educational reformer who viewed teaching and learning as the integration of the head, heart, and hands, being distinctive areas of the educational experience. The ‘Head’ component of the model represents cognitive learning processes and the attainment of knowledge; the ‘Heart’ represents the affective features supporting teaching and learning, such as social and emotional support, a sense of connectedness, and a love for learning; and the ‘Hands’ represent the practicing, ‘doing,’ hands-on processes involved in teaching and learning. This model embraces a holistic approach to education, asserting that it should foster personal growth alongside knowledge. Moreover, it should prepare students for adulthood and cultivate their capacity to contribute meaningfully to society (Widdowson et al. 2015 ).

While there is limited research into the effectiveness of using the Head, Heart, and Hands model in teaching practice, research into the characteristics of effective and impactful teachers have consistently revealed qualities that align with the head, heart, and hands domains. This suggests that the model is helpful for understanding the reasons that people may be grateful for their teachers. When asked open-endedly what a ‘good’ teacher looks like, elementary school students reported that having good content knowledge (head), being kind and understanding towards them (heart), and using interactive tools such as games and Smart Boards to facilitate learning (hands) were important (Bullock 2015 ). Interviews and focus groups with secondary school students revealed similar results (Almonacid-Fierro et al. 2021 ). Teachers’ subject-based training (knowledge; head) has been found to have a measurable effect on students’ academic outcomes (Coenen et al. 2018 ), while experiential learning and real-world experiences (hands) has been found to have long-term effects on students’ knowledge (Handler and Duncan 2006 ) and has the potential to inspire and model future action (Cottafava et al. 2019 ). Emotional support from teachers (heart) have also been shown to contribute to students’ motivation levels, which may, in turn, affect student outcomes (Ruzek et al. 2016 ). The head, heart, and hands model effectively captures a wide range of teaching practices considered important to students. However, characteristics that the public (rather than students specifically) are grateful for in teachers, and which of the domains they tend to fall under, is more unknown.

On World Teachers’ Day 2019, a university in Melbourne, Australia launched a public social media campaign called #ThankYourTeacher, which provided a public platform for people to express gratitude toward their teachers, past and present. The aim of the current study was to identify the qualities and/or factors that people are most grateful for in their teachers by examining responses to #ThankYourTeacher, using the Head, Heart, and Hands Model for Transformational Learning as a framework. These findings may inform teachers’ practice and teacher training curricula, enabling them to focus on the qualities and types of learning support that connect best with students. The findings could also inform interventions for increasing teachers’ perceived level of appreciation, by demonstrating how well-received they can be by the public and how social media can provide an effective means of collecting messages of gratitude and positive experiences.

Research design

A thematic qualitative analysis was conducted on public social media responses to the #ThankYourTeacher social media campaign administered by Monash University.

#ThankYourTeacher campaign

The #ThankYourTeacher campaign ran from 24th October to 10th November 2019, by Monash University. The Australian public were encouraged to share what they appreciated about past or present teachers openly on social media platforms including Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and LinkedIn, using the hashtag #ThankYourTeacher. Additionally, a campaign website was created to display examples of social media postings containing #ThankYourTeacher, provide further information on related campaign events, and enable users to share feedback about their experiences and interactions with the campaign (Table 1 ).

Data Collection

Data extraction.

Raw data (publicly available social media posts published between 24th October 2019 and 30th May 2020 containing the hashtag #ThankYourTeacher) were manually identified and collected over four days by three researchers. In addition, written feedback shared on the campaign website and at two public events organised as part of the #ThankYourTeacher campaign was included as study data.

The following inclusion criteria were used for posts or reposts to be included in the final dataset:

contained the hashtag #ThankYourTeacher;

contained original content displaying expressions of gratitude or thanks to any teacher or teachers more generally;

were publicly accessible for download (i.e., not limited in visibility due to privacy settings); and.

were written in English.

Posts not relating to the campaign’s sentiments or forming part of an advertisement were excluded.

Inter-rater reliability

A unique coder with postgraduate qualifications reviewed a blind sample of 10 social media posts from each social media platform (i.e., 40 posts out of 586; 6.83%) to ensure that posts meeting inclusion criteria were reliably extracted from social media sites. Posts from the website of Monash University and the two #ThankYourTeacher events were excluded from this inter-rater reliability analysis as they were all directly related to the campaign.

The inter-rater review revealed discrepancies between the total number of identified posts and the number of posts meeting the inclusion criteria for LinkedIn and Facebook. Further investigation of these sites’ search algorithms revealed that the user’s previous searches, their networks, and their activity on the platforms affected the search results on both sites, with researchers consistently identifying different posts across multiple searches. To eliminate such confounding variables, Facebook and LinkedIn posts were excluded from the data analysis.

Inter-rater reliability was measured using Cohen’s Kappa, using the sample of posts taken from Twitter and Instagram (20 posts out of a total of 534, 3.75%). The coefficient of Cohen’s Kappa (κ = 0.86) was determined by comparing two ratings of the posts from the present sample and indicated strong inter-rater reliability (McHugh 2012 ).

Data filtering

After filtering out the Facebook ( n  = 2) and LinkedIn ( n  = 16) data, a total of 343 posts met the inclusion criteria. Duplicate screening was then conducted – only the original post was retained from each platform, determined based on time of post. Fifteen duplicate posts were removed from the analysis (Table 2 ).

Ethical considerations

This study ensured the confidentiality of data, the privacy of users, and their anonymity by adhering to the highest ethical standards for social media research (Ayers et al. 2018 ; Gruzd al., 2016 ). Users’ personal information, such as their usernames, biodata, and social media handles, was not extracted. The data collected was stored electronically using encrypted passwords to ensure accessibility to the data was only given to the research team.

Data Analysis

The researchers used both inductive and deductive thematic analysis, systematically using Braun and Clarke’s ( 2006 ) six stages (data familiarisation, development of initial codes, identification of themes, reviewing and refining initial codes and themes, defining themes, and summary/interpretation), to conceptualise the data in themes and subthemes. These themes and subthemes were deductively organised within the a priori categories provided by the Head, Heart, & Hands Model of Transformational Learning. Models of sentiment analysis guided the analysis, enabling the coding of emotions that lay behind the posts (Bogen et al. 2021 ). Data analysis, including reviewing and refining themes and subthemes, was conducted by authors KA, CG, FM, and NG.

Overview of themes

Thematic analysis of 328 social media posts yielded various themes and subthemes that were arranged into the three broad categories provided by the Head, Heart, & Hands Model of Transformational Learning. This model’s framework assisted in identifying and comprehending the learning and teaching processes that participants valued most (Table 3 ).

The Head category comprised of social media posts containing expressions of gratitude for instructional elements, general knowledge, or subject-focused learning experienced by participants with their respective teachers. From a total of 328 social media posts, 31 (9.45%) were identified as relevant to this category under the theme of General and Subject Area Knowledge.

General and subject area knowledge

Posts under this theme expressed gratitude for a teacher’s competence in imparting knowledge to the participants. Some posts thanked teachers for general knowledge imparted:

[Thank you to my teachers]because they helped me extend my knowledge.

Other posts within this theme expressed gratitude for specific-subject teaching and knowledge:

Teacher O was my Year 12 English teacher. She encouraged us to see every character we studied as real and authentic individuals.!

Participant appreciation for both general and subject-specific knowledge learned from a teacher could be seen across many posts, with many also linking this knowledge to impactful change in their lives and careers:

Thank you to my former English and literature teacher, Teacher P. Teacher P instilled my love of writing and reading which led to a communications degree and the past ten years working in roles that require high levels of written and oral communications.

A total of 137 (41.77%) social media posts in the Heart category expressed gratitude for the emotional and social support, motivation, connection, and compassion provided by teachers. Four themes were identified within this category: Passion/Inspiration (15.55%, n  = 51), Belief/Encouragement (10.98%, n  = 36), Kindness/Empathy/Support (12.20%, n  = 40), and Connection/Belonging (3.05%, n  = 10).

Passion/Inspiration

This theme, in which participants described being impacted by their teachers’ passion, was the largest theme within the ‘Heart’ category:

My politics teacher Teacher Q because she is so passionate and smart.

Many participants described a sense of inspiration arising from their teachers’ passion, which had influenced their future decisions:

My Year 12 English teacher was the reason that I chose to become a teacher. Thank you Teacher B.

Belief/Encouragement

This theme included posts expressing gratitude for a teacher’s ability to support participants to feel a sense of confidence in themselves, encouraging a belief in their abilities that appeared to extend beyond the subject itself:

Thank you to Teacher R who has always believed in me and my potential when I didn’t myself. You’ve done more for me than you could ever imagine.

Kindness/Empathy/Support

This was another large theme in the ‘Heart’ category, including posts expressing gratitude for the teachers providing emotional support to the participants:

Dear Teacher S, thank you for making such a difference in my life. I was in the hospital for a full term…so I missed a lot of schools. Once I was well enough to return to school, Teacher Q spent every lunchtime with me, helping me catch up. I will never forget her kindness….

Participants described enduring positive outcomes of their interactions with teachers beyond the classroom:

I have seen colleagues do the most incredible work to support vulnerable young people: taking them to doctors’ appointments, advocating, helping them find jobs, and guiding them through traumatic family events. That’s all before they even step into the classroom. #ThankYourTeacher.

Connection/Belonging

This theme highlighted the role that teachers played in helping their students to develop a sense of belonging and social connection to others, which had far-reaching impacts:

In grade 5, Teacher F helped Participant A feel like he belonged. He says that experience is a big part of why he became a teacher.

The Hands category contains posts that emphasised the significance of teaching activities, leadership, and practices of teachers. In all, 120 posts (36.59%) were aligned with this category, comprising 3 themes: Teaching Practices (13.11%, n  = 43); Mentoring/Leadership (11.59%, n  = 38); and Dedication/Commitment/Hard Work (11.89%, n  = 39).

The theme of Teacher Practices further branched into 6 subthemes: Engagement (1.52%, n  = 5); High Expectations (1.52%, n  = 5); Critical/Independent Thinking (1.52%, n  = 5); Humour/Fun (3.35%; n  = 11); Individualised Learning (1.83%, n  = 6); and Making Connections beyond the Classroom (3.35%, n  = 11).

Teaching practices

This theme included posts expressing gratitude for a teacher’s style and modality of education that was received well and appreciated by participants.

Teachers who elevated the participant’s motivation to engage with educational experiences were appreciated in this subtheme:

#thankyourteacher goes to Teacher F, Teacher G and Teacher H. They ran and taught such interesting & engaging #immunology units. I had so many great teachers in my time, but special thx to Teacher R for showing that passion goes a long way. Your engaging lessons helped to build my confidence and interest in English. Never a dull moment in your classroom #ThankYourTeacher.

High expectations

Gratitude was expressed for teachers who held high educational standards for their students and communicated this to them:

Teacher I was my science teacher who praised the virtue of consistency over sporadic excellence.

Critical/Independent thinking

Participants expressed gratitude for their teachers’ encouragement of the development of their analytical thinking skills:

Another teacher I have to thank is Teacher T my Year 11&12 Biology teacher. She would always welcome my never-ending list of questions and go the extra mile to spark my interest.

Gratitude was expressed for teachers’ abilities to enhance the participants’ educational experiences through incorporating elements of humour and fun into the classroom:

Teacher U because he brings fun to the classroom.

Individualised learning

Participants expressed gratitude towards teachers who provided them with opportunities for personalised learning tasks and experiences:

Teacher V creates a really positive teaching environment for all students. For different groups of students, he will use different ways to communicate with them.

Making connections beyond the classroom

Gratitude was expressed for teachers who had encouraged meaningful connections between what was taught in the classroom and wider society:

Teacher L taught me to look to the past to understand the present and to search for those voices missing in history.

Mentoring/Leadership

This theme included posts that conveyed gratitude for teachers who role-modelled and inspired positive qualities in the participant:

My mentor teacher V helped me become a better teacher by encouraging me to find my own identity and allowed me to establish her classroom as my own.

Dedication/Commitment/Hard work

In this theme, gratitude was expressed for a teacher’s time, energy, and effort towards enhancing participants’ educational experiences:

Not my own teacher but a teacher who tutored me in year 12. She showed ongoing patience and dedication to make sure I achieved what I set out to do. She’s an absolute legend. #ThankYourTeacher.

In-person learning was closed by many schools in March 2020 in Australia due to COVID-19 restrictions, with some variations in the time of these restrictions across the different states and sectors of schooling. Many posts acknowledged how a teacher enhanced their learning-from-home experiences:

Dear teachers, you are helping change the world every day. Even in these difficult times, you’ve updated to distance learning, stayed strong, and continued inspiring students. Happy Teacher Appreciation Week, you all.

The current study aimed to explore the teaching and learning approaches that people were most grateful for in their teachers by examining public responses to the #ThankYourTeacher campaign by Monash University. Expressions of gratitude were thematically analysed within the framework of the Head, Heart, and Hands Transformational Learning Model, revealing a substantially higher number of posts falling under the Heart and Hands categories of learning compared to the Head category. Additionally, there were many examples of participants expressing gratitude for the lifelong transformative effects of teachers whose learning practices primarily aligned with the Heart and Hands categories of learning. Although Head learning has traditionally been given priority in schools (Allen et al. 2017 ), the results of the present study suggest that people are more impacted by and appreciative of Heart and Hands learning.

This study adds to the literature on qualities that are most appreciated by students by asking the public to reflect on experiences with past teachers that were impactful for them, rather than surveying current students, as other studies (e.g. Almonacid-Fierro et al. 2021 ; Bullock 2015 ) have tended to do. By approaching the question of what qualities in teachers are most appreciated from a gratitude lens, this study also opened up the possibility for the public to reflect on the lasting impacts teachers have had on them without focussing on specific outcomes such as academic achievement. The results support holistic models of learning such as the Head, Heart, and Hands Model, which posit that learning should not only focus on the acquisition of knowledge, but the development of a broad range of skills that can support learning and function beyond the classroom (Jarvis and Parker 2006 ). They do this by demonstrating that the lifelong learnings from and impacts of teachers may be driven by social and emotional support, fostering connectedness and passion for learning, and practical experiences more than the impartation of new and specific knowledge alone. Previous studies that surveyed or interviewed current students demonstrated more even distributions of responses between the head, heart, and hands components (Almonacid-Fierro et al. 2021 ; Bullock 2015 ), which suggests that subject expertise and information impartation may be more important for shorter-term educational goals and less important beyond leaving school.

These findings also support research that highlights the link between social-emotional wellbeing (the Heart component), and the capacity and ability to learn (Grove and Laletas 2020 ; Jarvis and Parker 2006 ; Ruzek et al. 2016 ), as well as the importance of practical learning in extending and imparting skills and values beyond the classroom (the Hands component) (Allen et al. 2020 ; Harris and Bruin 2017 ; Kavenagh et al. 2012 ). Participants in this study often alluded to values or learnings that they had taken into future experiences, such as the importance of consistency, confidence in their abilities, guidance in developing their identity, and a sense that they belonged. This was also present in responses that fell into the Head category, with participants describing skills learned such as writing and communication as useful in future work, but appeared more dependent on those students pursuing further studies in similar areas to the teachers they were grateful for.

The current study’s findings demonstrate that many people appreciate teachers for a range of reasons, consistent with the global literature, which suggests that most individuals hold teaching as a valued and trusted profession that is critical to society’s progress (Roy Morgan, 2017 ; Sim et al. 2019 ). As teachers currently feel unappreciated and undervalued (Heffernan et al. 2022 ; Roffey 2012 ; OECD, 2020), there may be an issue with how effectively this common sentiment is communicated and received. The number of posts included in the current study demonstrates that social media campaigns can be a successful way to generate messages of gratitude that may otherwise not have been shared. Not included in the current study’s analysis is the additional sharing of posts that occurred, as well as missed posts due to posters’ profiles being private or posts not using the campaign’s hashtag, which suggests that the campaign’s spread was even more widespread.

It is essential to consider the current findings within the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Although most retrieved posts were from before COVID-19, several were from the months during the pandemic, when many Australian schools switched to remote education. Several comments praised teachers’ dedication and perseverance and how quickly they adapted to remote learning procedures. According to Hargreaves ( 2020 ), this shift could have provided an opportunity for students and parents to gain a better understanding of and increased respect for teachers’ work. In the current study, appreciative comments centred on teachers’ support of students during this time support this claim.

Limitations

In order to maintain campaign participants’ confidentiality, the geographic location of the posts was not accessed. As such, the impact of demographic and cultural differences on engagement with the campaign and which category of factors they were most thankful for in teachers. Participants from certain cultures may have experienced more frequent and intensified response barriers. For example, in some cultures (e.g., in Southeast Asia), expressing gratitude can be associated with higher degrees of associated awkwardness, guilt, and indebtedness (Layous et al. 2017 ; Watkins et al. 2006 ). Several studies also suggest that expressing gratitude may yield fewer benefits for participants within some Eastern collectivist cultures compared to individualistic Western participants (Armenta et al. 2017 ; Boehm et al. 2011 ; Layous et al. 2013 ), suggesting that its positive outcomes cannot be guaranteed.

Another restriction related to the use of anonymous data is the inability to identity the presence of mental health difficulties, which could also have affected engagement with the campaign or response patterns. Individuals suffering from depression have been observed to more frequently struggle to identify what they are grateful for, and even when they do, positive feelings do not always follow (Armenta et al. 2017 ; Sin et al. 2011 ; Watkins and Donnelly 2014 ).

Finally, the current study gathered data from the hashtag #ThankYourTeacher social media campaign, which aimed to generate as many expressions of gratitude as possible for teachers. Due to the highly focused and promotional objective behind the campaign, the results should be interpreted with some caution. While negative comments were not excluded from analysis, it is likely that those with more negative experiences chose not to respond to the campaign and, therefore, the full range of views on teachers is not likely to have been captured in this study. Being a public campaign, it is also possible that some participants were influenced by a sense of social pressure, resulting in some insincere gratitude being posted (Armenta et al. 2017 ; Layous and Lyubomirsky 2014 ). Those with more private social media profiles or who did not wish to make a public post could also not be captured in this study.

Practical implications

These findings have practical implications for current and future teachers. Professional development opportunities and teacher training programs should highlight the potential of Heart and Hands learning for supporting Head learning. The practical teaching practices (e.g. setting high expectations, incorporating humour, individualising learning, and teaching real-world applications of things being learned in the classroom) that participants highlighted as being impactful can be incorporated into training opportunities as tangible ways of connecting with and imparting lasting learnings on students. Training that is focussed on developing teachers’ social and emotional competencies, including self-awareness, management of their own emotions, and relationship-building skills, will also be important in light of the findings that empathy and fostering a sense of belonging, connection, and passion. The ability for teachers to provide social and emotional support and foster positive relationships with students not only leaves the most lasting impact on students, but has also been shown to support academic outcomes (Cornelius-White 2007 ). Developing teachers’ social-emotional competence enables them to deliver this support to students, but can also have direct impacts on teachers’ own wellbeing, included lowered stress (Collie 2017 ).

With research suggesting that communicating gratitude towards teachers can reduce their levels of burnout and increase their sense of accomplishment (Chan 2011 ), creating more opportunities and prompts to do so, such as in campaigns like #ThankYourTeacher, is important to bridge the gap in public sentiments and teachers’ perceived levels of appreciation. The number of duplicate posts or shares captured in the initial data extraction also suggests that future campaigns may consider creating posts about common experiences that can be easily shared as another way of spreading awareness about the impact teachers can have on individuals. The post extraction data also suggests that social media users are dramatically moving towards newer social media sites or applications to share posts on. Future campaigns will need to consider future-forward ways of spreading gratitude messages such as encouraging posters to use short-form videos.

The posts generated in the #ThankYourTeacher campaign largely named or referred to specific teachers from the poster’s past, which suggests that people tend to think of individuals rather than teachers as a whole when communicating gratitude. There is room for future campaigns to experiment with ways to generate more general and less personalised messages of gratitude towards teachers to communicate appreciation for their role in society. Making sure teachers are receiving messages shared on social media platforms and determining whether such personalised messages are effective for communicating gratitude towards teachers as a whole will also be important considerations for future campaigns.

Future research

The current study focussed on the reasons that members of the public appreciate teachers and how well a social media campaign could generate messages of gratitude towards them. A key next step would be to investigate how such campaigns, as well as messages of gratitude in general, are received by teachers and whether they have an impact on their perceived levels of appreciation. Given the well-researched benefits of gratitude for wellbeing across various populations (Emmons and Mishra 2011 ; Wood et al. 2010 ), it is plausible that increased communications of gratitude to teachers could help them to see their role in society more positively and reduce stress and burnout. Implementation research looking at how opportunities for expressing gratitude towards teachers can be increased and embedded in the current education system would also be warranted, to encourage the practice of gratitude beyond isolated campaign periods.

Observing others performing good deeds has been demonstrated to elicit positive emotions (Haidt 2003 ). The large amount of public posts generated by the #ThankYourTeacher campaign introduces an opportunity for further research into the potential for positive social media to be used for communicating gratitude. This could include research into whether public communications of appreciation can affect public perceptions of teachers (positively or negatively) and lead to more gratitude communication, and whether receiving gratitude on social media leads to the same positive effects seen by other means.

Conclusions

This study sought to explore what people were grateful for in their teachers, using a social media analysis of responses to the #ThankYourTeacher campaign. Using the Head, Heart, and Hands Model of Transformational Learning as a framework, it was found that Heart and Hands aspects of teaching were most appreciated. That is, people were more likely to appreciate their teachers’ kindness, empathy, social and emotional support, and impartment of values than their subject-specific knowledge. These findings have implications for teacher training and development, suggesting that a greater emphasis should be placed on developing competencies in providing social, emotional, and practical support and developing positive relationships, rather than solely on Head-based teaching strategies. Findings from this study echoed current literature suggesting that high levels of appreciation are felt for teachers by the general public, and showed that social media campaigns can be effective ways of generating messages of gratitude.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, Monash, upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The research team would like to acknowledge the support of the Faculty of Education at Monash University that enabled this study to be undertaken. A special thanks to the marketing and communications team, specifically: Seshna Maharaj, Lara McKinley, Megan Lowe, Hannah Machin, Shantal Braganza, Rebecca Fitzgerald, Jennifer Li, Grace Thomson, Melissa Haslam, Tania Webster.

This work was supported by the Faculty of Education, Monash University.

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Allen, KA., Grove, C., May, F.S. et al. Expressions of gratitude in education: an analysis of the #ThankYourTeacher campaign. Int J Educ Integr 20 , 13 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-024-00159-2

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Undergraduate Research Experiences for STEM Students: Successes, Challenges, and Opportunities (2017)

Chapter: 9 conclusions and recommendations, 9 conclusions and recommendations.

Practitioners designing or improving undergraduate research experiences (UREs) can build on the experiences of colleagues and learn from the increasingly robust literature about UREs and the considerable body of evidence about how students learn. The questions practitioners ask themselves during the design process should include questions about the goals of the campus, program, faculty, and students. Other factors to consider when designing a URE include the issues raised in the conceptual framework for learning and instruction, the available resources, how the program or experience will be evaluated or studied, and how to design the program from the outset to incorporate these considerations, as well as how to build in opportunities to improve the experience over time in light of new evidence. (Some of these topics are addressed in Chapter 8 .)

Colleges and universities that offer or wish to offer UREs to their students should undertake baseline evaluations of their current offerings and create plans to develop a culture of improvement in which faculty are supported in their efforts to continuously refine UREs based on the evidence currently available and evidence that they and others generate in the future. While much of the evidence to date is descriptive, it forms a body of knowledge that can be used to identify research questions about UREs, both those designed around the apprenticeship model and those designed using the more recent course-based undergraduate research experience (CURE) model. Internships and other avenues by which undergraduates do research provide many of the same sorts of experiences but are not well studied. In any case, it is clear that students value these experiences; that many faculty do as well; and that they contribute to broadening participation in science,

technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education and careers. The findings from the research literature reported in Chapter 4 provide guidance to those designing both opportunities to improve practical and academic skills and opportunities for students to “try out” a professional role of interest.

Little research has been done that provides answers to mechanistic questions about how UREs work. Additional studies are needed to know which features of UREs are most important for positive outcomes with which students and to gain information about other questions of this type. This additional research is needed to better understand and compare different strategies for UREs designed for a diversity of students, mentors, and institutions. Therefore, the committee recommends steps that could increase the quantity and quality of evidence available in the future and makes recommendations for how faculty, departments, and institutions might approach decisions about UREs using currently available information. Multiple detailed recommendations about the kinds of research that might be useful are provided in the research agenda in Chapter 7 .

In addition to the specific research recommended in Chapter 7 , in this chapter the committee provides a series of interrelated conclusions and recommendations related to UREs for the STEM disciplines and intended to highlight the issues of primary importance to administrators, URE program designers, mentors to URE students, funders of UREs, those leading the departments and institutions offering UREs, and those conducting research about UREs. These conclusions and recommendations are based on the expert views of the committee and informed by their review of the available research, the papers commissioned for this report, and input from presenters during committee meetings. Table 9-1 defines categories of these URE “actors,” gives examples of specific roles included in each category, specifies key URE actions for which that category is responsible, and lists the conclusions and recommendations the committee views as most relevant to that actor category.

RESEARCH ON URES

Conclusion 1: The current and emerging landscape of what constitutes UREs is diverse and complex. Students can engage in STEM-based undergraduate research in many different ways, across a variety of settings, and along a continuum that extends and expands upon learning opportunities in other educational settings. The following characteristics define UREs. Due to the variation in the types of UREs, not all experiences include all of the following characteristics in the same way; experiences vary in how much a particular characteristic is emphasized.

TABLE 9-1 Audiences for Committee’s Conclusions and Recommendations

• They engage students in research practices including the ability to argue from evidence.
• They aim to generate novel information with an emphasis on discovery and innovation or to determine whether recent preliminary results can be replicated.
• They focus on significant, relevant problems of interest to STEM researchers and, in some cases, a broader community (e.g., civic engagement).
• They emphasize and expect collaboration and teamwork.
• They involve iterative refinement of experimental design, experimental questions, or data obtained.
• They allow students to master specific research techniques.
• They help students engage in reflection about the problems being investigated and the work being undertaken to address those problems.
• They require communication of results, either through publication or presentations in various STEM venues.
• They are structured and guided by a mentor, with students assuming increasing ownership of some aspects of the project over time.

UREs are generally designed to add value to STEM offerings by promoting an understanding of the ways that knowledge is generated in STEM fields and to extend student learning beyond what happens in the small group work of an inquiry-based course. UREs add value by enabling students to understand and contribute to the research questions that are driving the field for one or more STEM topics or to grapple with design challenges of interest to professionals. They help students understand what it means to be a STEM researcher in a way that would be difficult to convey in a lecture course or even in an inquiry-based learning setting. As participants in a URE, students can learn by engaging in planning, experimentation, evaluation, interpretation, and communication of data and other results in light of what is already known about the question of interest. They can pose relevant questions that can be solved only through investigative or design efforts—individually or in teams—and attempt to answer these questions despite the challenges, setbacks, and ambiguity of the process and the results obtained.

The diversity of UREs reflects the reality that different STEM disciplines operate from varying traditions, expectations, and constraints (e.g., lab safety issues) in providing opportunities for undergraduates to engage in research. In addition, individual institutions and departments have cultures that promote research participation to various degrees and at different stages in students’ academic careers. Some programs emphasize design and problem solving in addition to discovery. UREs in different disciplines can

take many forms (e.g., apprentice-style, course-based, internships, project-based), but the definitional characteristics described above are similar across different STEM fields.

Furthermore, students in today’s university landscape may have opportunities to engage with many different types of UREs throughout their education, including involvement in a formal program (which could include mentoring, tutoring, research, and seminars about research), an apprentice-style URE under the guidance of an individual or team of faculty members, an internship, or enrolling in one or more CUREs or in a consortium- or project-based program.

Conclusion 2: Research on the efficacy of UREs is still in the early stages of development compared with other interventions to improve undergraduate STEM education.

• The types of UREs are diverse, and their goals are even more diverse. Questions and methodologies used to investigate the roles and effectiveness of UREs in achieving those goals are similarly diverse.
• Most of the studies of UREs to date are descriptive case studies or use correlational designs. Many of these studies report positive outcomes from engagement in a URE.
• Only a small number of studies have employed research designs that can support inferences about causation. Most of these studies find evidence for a causal relationship between URE participation and subsequent persistence in STEM. More studies are needed to provide evidence that participation in UREs is a causal factor in a range of desired student outcomes.

Taking the entire body of evidence into account, the committee concludes that the published peer-reviewed literature to date suggests that participation in a URE is beneficial for students .

As discussed in the report’s Introduction (see Chapter 1 ) and in the research agenda (see Chapter 7 ), the committee considered descriptive, causal, and mechanistic questions in our reading of the literature on UREs. Scientific approaches to answering descriptive, causal, and mechanistic questions require deciding what to look for, determining how to examine it, and knowing appropriate ways to score or quantify the effect.

Descriptive questions ask what is happening without making claims as to why it is happening—that is, without making claims as to whether the research experience caused these changes. A descriptive statement about UREs only claims that certain changes occurred during or after the time the students were engaged in undergraduate research. Descriptive studies

cannot determine whether any benefits observed were caused by participation in the URE.

Causal questions seek to discover whether a specific intervention leads to a specific outcome, other things being equal. To address such questions, causal evidence can be generated from a comparison of carefully selected groups that do and do not experience UREs. The groups can be made roughly equivalent by random assignment (ensuring that URE and non-URE groups are the same on average as the sample size increases) or by controlling for an exhaustive set of characteristics and experiences that might render the groups different prior to the URE. Other quasi-experimental strategies can also be used. Simply comparing students who enroll in a URE with students who do not is not adequate for determining causality because there may be selection bias. For example, students already interested in STEM are more likely to seek out such opportunities and more likely to be selected for such programs. Instead the investigator would have to compare future enrollment patterns (or other measures) between closely matched students, some of whom enrolled in a URE and some of whom did not. Controlling for selection bias to enable an inference about causation can pose significant challenges.

Questions of mechanism or of process also can be explored to understand why a causal intervention leads to the observed effect. Perhaps the URE enhances a student’s confidence in her ability to succeed in her chosen field or deepens her commitment to the field by exposing her to the joy of discovery. Through these pathways that act on the participant’s purposive behavior, the URE enhances the likelihood that she persists in STEM. The question for the researcher then becomes what research design would provide support for this hypothesis of mechanism over other candidate explanations for why the URE is a causal factor in STEM persistence.

The committee has examined the literature and finds a rich descriptive foundation for testable hypotheses about the effects of UREs on student outcomes. These studies are encouraging; a few of them have generated evidence that a URE can be a positive causal factor in the progression and persistence of STEM students. The weight of the evidence has been descriptive; it relies primarily on self-reports of short-term gains by students who chose to participate in UREs and does not include direct measures of changes in the students’ knowledge, skills, or other measures of success across comparable groups of students who did and did not participate in UREs.

While acknowledging the scarcity of strong causal evidence on the benefits of UREs, the committee takes seriously the weight of the descriptive evidence. Many of the published studies of UREs show that students who participate report a range of benefits, such as increased understanding of the research process, encouragement to persist in STEM, and support that helps them sustain their identity as researchers and continue with their

plans to enroll in a graduate program in STEM (see Chapter 4 ). These are effective starting points for causal studies.

Conclusion 3: Studies focused on students from historically underrepresented groups indicate that participation in UREs improves their persistence in STEM and helps to validate their disciplinary identity.

Various UREs have been specifically designed to increase the number of historically underrepresented students who go on to become STEM majors and ultimately STEM professionals. While many UREs offer one or more supplemental opportunities to support students’ academic or social success, such as mentoring, tutoring, summer bridge programs, career or graduate school workshops, and research-oriented seminars, those designed for underrepresented students appear to emphasize such features as integral and integrated components of the program. In particular, studies of undergraduate research programs targeting underrepresented minority students have begun to document positive outcomes such as degree completion and persistence in interest in STEM careers ( Byars-Winston et al., 2015 ; Chemers et al., 2011 ; Jones et al., 2010 ; Nagda et al., 1998 ; Schultz et al., 2011 ). Most of these studies collected data on apprentice-style UREs, in which the undergraduate becomes a functioning member of a research group along with the graduate students, postdoctoral fellows, and mentor.

Recommendation 1: Researchers with expertise in education research should conduct well-designed studies in collaboration with URE program directors to improve the evidence base about the processes and effects of UREs. This research should address how the various components of UREs may benefit students. It should also include additional causal evidence for the individual and additive effects of outcomes from student participation in different types of UREs. Not all UREs need be designed to undertake this type of research, but it would be very useful to have some UREs that are designed to facilitate these efforts to improve the evidence base .

As the focus on UREs has grown, so have questions about their implementation. Many articles have been published describing specific UREs (see Chapter 2 ). Large amounts of research have also been undertaken to explore more generally how students learn, and the resulting body of evidence has led to the development and adoption of “active learning” strategies and experiences. If a student in a URE has an opportunity to, for example, analyze new data or to reformulate a hypothesis in light of the student’s analysis, this activity fits into the category that is described as active learning. Surveys of student participants and unpublished evaluations pro-

vide additional information about UREs but do not establish causation or determine the mechanism(s). Consequently, little is currently known about the mechanisms of precisely how UREs work and which aspects of UREs are most powerful. Important components that have been reported include student ownership of the URE project, time to tackle a question iteratively, and opportunities to report and defend one’s conclusions ( Hanauer and Dolan, 2014 ; Thiry et al., 2011 ).

There are many unanswered questions and opportunities for further research into the role and mechanism of UREs. Attention to research design as UREs are planned is important; more carefully designed studies are needed to understand the ways that UREs influence a student’s education and to evaluate the outcomes that have been reported for URE participants. Appropriate studies, which include matched samples or similar controls, would facilitate research on the ways that UREs benefit students, enabling both education researchers and implementers of UREs to determine optimal features for program design and giving the community a more robust understanding of how UREs work.

See the research agenda ( Chapter 7 ) for specific recommendations about research topics and approaches.

Recommendation 2: Funders should provide appropriate resources to support the design, implementation, and analysis of some URE programs that are specifically designed to enable detailed research establishing the effects on participant outcomes and on other variables of interest such as the consequences for mentors or institutions.

Not all UREs need to be the subject of extensive study. In many cases, a straightforward evaluation is adequate to determine whether the URE is meeting its goals. However, to achieve more widespread improvement in both the types and quality of the UREs offered in the future, additional evidence about the possible causal effects and mechanisms of action of UREs needs to be systematically collected and disseminated. This includes a better understanding of the implementation differences for a variety of institutions (e.g., community colleges, primarily undergraduate institutions, research universities) to ensure that the desired outcomes can translate across settings. Increasing the evidence about precisely how UREs work and which aspects of UREs are most powerful will require careful attention to study design during planning for the UREs.

Not all UREs need to be designed to achieve this goal; many can provide opportunities to students by relying on pre-existing knowledge and iterative improvement as that knowledge base grows. However, for the knowledge base to grow, funders must provide resources for some URE designers and social science researchers to undertake thoughtful and well-planned studies

on causal and mechanistic issues. This will maximize the chances for the creation and dissemination of information that can lead to the development of sustainable and effective UREs. These studies can result from a partnership formed as the URE is designed and funded, or evaluators and social scientists could identify promising and/or effective existing programs and then raise funds on their own to support the study of those programs to answer the questions of interest. In deciding upon the UREs that are chosen for these extensive studies, it will be important to consider whether, collectively, they are representative of UREs in general. For example, large and small UREs at large and small schools targeted at both introductory and advanced students and topics should be studied.

CONSTRUCTION OF URES

Conclusion 4: The committee was unable to find evidence that URE designers are taking full advantage of the information available in the education literature on strategies for designing, implementing, and evaluating learning experiences. STEM faculty members do not generally receive training in interpreting or conducting education research. Partnerships between those with expertise in education research and those with expertise in implementing UREs are one way to strengthen the application of evidence on what works in planning and implementing UREs.

As discussed in Chapters 3 and 4 , there is an extensive body of literature on pedagogy and how people learn; helping STEM faculty to access the existing literature and incorporate those concepts as they design UREs could improve student experiences. New studies that specifically focus on UREs may provide more targeted information that could be used to design, implement, sustain, or scale up UREs and facilitate iterative improvements. Information about the features of UREs that elicit particular outcomes or best serve certain populations of students should be considered when implementing a new instantiation of an existing model of a URE or improving upon an existing URE model.

Conclusion 5: Evaluations of UREs are often conducted to inform program providers and funders; however, they may not be accessible to others. While these evaluations are not designed to be research studies and often have small sample sizes, they may contain information that could be useful to those initiating new URE programs and those refining UREs. Increasing access to these evaluations and to the accumulated experience of the program providers may enable URE designers and implementers to build upon knowledge gained from earlier UREs.

As discussed in Chapter 1 , the committee searched for evaluations of URE programs in several different ways but was not able to locate many published evaluations to study. Although some evaluations were found in the literature, the committee could not determine a way to systematically examine the program evaluations that have been prepared. The National Science Foundation and other funders generally require grant recipients to submit evaluation data, but that information is not currently aggregated and shared publicly, even for programs that are using a common evaluation tool. 1

Therefore, while program evaluation likely serves a useful role in providing descriptive data about a program for the institutions and funders supporting the program, much of the summative evaluation work that has been done to date adds relatively little to the broader knowledge base and overall conversations around undergraduate research. Some of the challenges of evaluation include budget and sample size constraints.

Similarly, it is difficult for designers of UREs to benefit systematically from the work of others who have designed and run UREs in the past because of the lack of an easy and consistent mechanism for collecting, analyzing, and sharing data. If these evaluations were more accessible they might be beneficial to others designing and evaluating UREs by helping them to gather ideas and inspiration from the experiences of others. A few such stories are provided in this report, and others can be found among the many resources offered by the Council on Undergraduate Research 2 and on other websites such as CUREnet. 3

Recommendation 3: Designers of UREs should base their design decisions on sound evidence. Consultations with education and social science researchers may be helpful as designers analyze the literature and make decisions on the creation or improvement of UREs. Professional development materials should be created and made available to faculty. Educational and disciplinary societies should consider how they can provide resources and connections to those working on UREs.

Faculty and other organizers of UREs can use the expanding body of scholarship as they design or improve the programs and experiences offered to their students. URE designers will need to make decisions about how to adapt approaches reported in the literature to make the programs they develop more suitable to their own expertise, student population(s), and available resources. Disciplinary societies and other national groups, such as those focused on improving pedagogy, can play important roles in

___________________

1 Personal knowledge of Janet Branchaw, member of the Committee on Strengthening Research Experiences for Undergraduate STEM Students.

2 See www.cur.org [November 2016].

3 See ( curenet.cns.utexas.edu ) [November 2016].

bringing these issues to the forefront through events at their national and regional meetings and through publications in their journals and newsletters. They can develop repositories for various kinds of resources appropriate for their members who are designing and implementing UREs. The ability to travel to conferences and to access and discuss resources created by other individuals and groups is a crucial aspect of support (see Recommendations 7 and 8 for further discussion).

See Chapter 8 for specific questions to consider when one is designing or implementing UREs.

CURRENT OFFERINGS

Conclusion 6: Data at the institutional, state, or national levels on the number and type of UREs offered, or who participates in UREs overall or at specific types of institutions, have not been collected systematically. Although the committee found that some individual institutions track at least some of this type of information, we were unable to determine how common it is to do so or what specific information is most often gathered.

There is no one central database or repository that catalogs UREs at institutions of higher education, the nature of the research experiences they provide, or the relevant demographics (student, departmental, and institutional). The lack of comprehensive data makes it difficult to know how many students participate in UREs; where UREs are offered; and if there are gaps in access to UREs across different institutional types, disciplines, or groups of students. One of the challenges of describing the undergraduate research landscape is that students do not have to be enrolled in a formal program to have a research experience. Informal experiences, for example a work-study job, are typically not well documented. Another challenge is that some students participate in CUREs or other research experiences (such as internships) that are not necessarily labeled as such. Institutional administrators may be unaware of CUREs that are already part of their curriculum. (For example, establishment of CUREs may be under the purview of a faculty curriculum committee and may not be recognized as a distinct program.) Student participation in UREs may occur at their home institution or elsewhere during the summer. Therefore, it is very difficult for a science department, and likely any other STEM department, to know what percentage of their graduating majors have had a research experience, let alone to gather such information on students who left the major. 4

4 This point was made by Marco Molinaro, University of California, Davis, in a presentation to the Committee on Strengthening Research Experience for Undergraduate STEM Students, September 16, 2015.

Conclusion 7: While data are lacking on the precise number of students engaged in UREs, there is some evidence of a recent growth in course-based undergraduate research experiences (CUREs), which engage a cohort of students in a research project as part of a formal academic experience.

There has been an increase in the number of grants and the dollar amount spent on CUREs over the past decade (see Chapter 3 ). CUREs can be particularly useful in scaling UREs to reach a much larger population of students ( Bangera and Brownell, 2014 ). By using a familiar mechanism—enrollment in a course—a CURE can provide a more comfortable route for students unfamiliar with research to gain their first experience. CUREs also can provide such experiences to students with diverse backgrounds, especially if an institution or department mandates participation sometime during a student’s matriculation. Establishing CUREs may be more cost-effective at schools with little on-site research activity. However, designing a CURE is a new and time-consuming challenge for many faculty members. Connecting to nationally organized research networks can provide faculty with helpful resources for the development of a CURE based around their own research or a local community need, or these networks can link interested faculty to an ongoing collaborative project. Collaborative projects can provide shared curriculum, faculty professional development and community, and other advantages when starting or expanding a URE program. See the discussion in the report from a convocation on Integrating Discovery-based Research into the Undergraduate Curriculum ( National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2015 ).

Recommendation 4: Institutions should collect data on student participation in UREs to inform their planning and to look for opportunities to improve quality and access.

Better tracking of student participation could lead to better assessment of outcomes and improved quality of experience. Such metrics could be useful for both prospective students and campus planners. An integrated institutional system for research opportunities could facilitate the creation of tiered research experiences that allow students to progress in skills and responsibility and create support structures for students, providing, for example, seminars in communications, safety, and ethics for undergraduate researchers. Institutions could also use these data to measure the impact of UREs on student outcomes, such as student success rates in introductory courses, retention in STEM degree programs, and completion of STEM degrees.

While individual institutions may choose to collect additional information depending on their goals and resources, relevant student demographics

and the following design elements would provide baseline data. At a minimum, such data should include

• Type of URE;
• Each student’s discipline;
• Duration of the experience;
• Hours spent per week;
• When the student began the URE (e.g., first year, capstone);
• Compensation status (e.g., paid, unpaid, credit); and
• Location and format (e.g., on home campus, on another campus, internship, co-op).

National aggregation of some of the student participation variables collected by various campuses might be considered by funders. The existing Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System database, organized by the National Center for Education Statistics at the U.S. Department of Education, may be a suitable repository for certain aspects of this information.

Recommendation 5: Administrators and faculty at all types of colleges and universities should continually and holistically evaluate the range of UREs that they offer. As part of this process, institutions should:

• Consider how best to leverage available resources (including off-campus experiences available to students and current or potential networks or partnerships that the institution may form) when offering UREs so that they align with their institution’s mission and priorities;
• Consider whether current UREs are both accessible and welcoming to students from various subpopulations across campus (e.g., historically underrepresented students, first generation college students, those with disabilities, non-STEM majors, prospective kindergarten-through-12th-grade teachers); and
• Gather and analyze data on the types of UREs offered and the students who participate, making this information widely available to the campus community and using it to make evidence-based decisions about improving opportunities for URE participation. This may entail devising or implementing systems for tracking relevant data (see Conclusion 4 ).

Resources available for starting, maintaining, and expanding UREs vary from campus to campus. At some campuses, UREs are a central focus and many resources are devoted to them. At other institutions—for example, many community colleges—UREs are seen as extra, and new resources may be required to ensure availability of courses and facilities. Resource-

constrained institutions may need to focus more on ensuring that students are aware of potential UREs that already exist on campus and elsewhere in near proximity to campus. All institutional discussions about UREs must consider both the financial resources and physical resources (e.g., laboratories, field stations, engineering design studios) required, while remembering that faculty time is a crucial resource. The incentives and disincentives for faculty to spend time on UREs are significant. Those institutions with an explicit mission to promote undergraduate research may provide more recognition and rewards to departments and faculty than those with another focus. The culture of the institution with respect to innovation in pedagogy and support for faculty development also can have a major influence on the extent to which UREs are introduced or improved.

Access to UREs may vary across campus and by department, and participation in UREs may vary across student groups. It is important for campuses to consider the factors that may facilitate or discourage students from participation in UREs. Inconsistent procedures or a faculty preference for students with high grades or previous research experience may limit options for some student populations.

UREs often grow based on the initiative of individual faculty members and other personnel, and an institution may not have complete or even rudimentary knowledge of all of the opportunities available or whether there are gaps or inconsistencies in its offerings. A uniform method for tracking the UREs available on a given campus would be useful to students and would provide a starting point for analyzing the options. Tracking might consist of notations in course listings and, where feasible, on student transcripts. Analysis might consider the types of UREs offered, the resources available to each type of URE, and variations within or between various disciplines and programs. Attention to whether all students or groups of students have appropriate access to UREs would foster consideration of how to best allocate resources and programming on individual campuses, in order to focus resources and opportunities where they are most needed.

Conclusion 8: The quality of mentoring can make a substantial difference in a student’s experiences with research. However, professional development in how to be a good mentor is not available to many faculty or other prospective mentors (e.g., graduate students, postdoctoral fellows).

Engagement in quality mentored research experiences has been linked to self-reported gains in research skills and productivity as well as retention in STEM (see Chapter 5 ). Quality mentoring in UREs has been shown

to increase persistence in STEM for historically underrepresented students ( Hernandez et al., 2016 ). In addition, poor mentoring during UREs has been shown to decrease retention of students ( Hernandez et al., 2016 ).

More general research on good mentoring in the STEM environment has been positively associated with self-reported gains in identity as a STEM researcher, a sense of belonging, and confidence to function as a STEM researcher ( Byars-Winston et al., 2015 ; Chemers et al., 2011 ; Pfund et al., 2016 ; Thiry et al., 2011 ). The frequency and quality of mentee-mentor interactions has been associated with students’ reports of persistence in STEM, with mentoring directly or indirectly improving both grades and persistence in college. For students from historically underrepresented ethnic/racial groups, quality mentoring has been associated with self-reported enhanced recruitment into graduate school and research-related career pathways ( Byars-Winston et al., 2015 ). Therefore, it is important to ensure that faculty and mentors receive the proper development of mentoring skills.

Recommendation 6: Administrators and faculty at colleges and universities should ensure that all who mentor undergraduates in research experiences (this includes faculty, instructors, postdoctoral fellows, graduate students, and undergraduates serving as peer mentors) have access to appropriate professional development opportunities to help them grow and succeed in this role.

Although many organizations recognize effective mentors (e.g., the National Science Foundation’s Presidential Awards for Excellence in Science, Mathematics, and Engineering Mentoring), there currently are no standard criteria for selecting, evaluating, or recognizing mentors specifically for UREs. In addition, there are no requirements that mentors meet some minimum level of competency before engaging in mentoring or participate in professional development to obtain a baseline of knowledge and skills in mentoring, including cultural competence in mentoring diverse groups of students. Traditionally, the only experience required for being a mentor is having been mentored, regardless of whether the experience was negative or positive ( Handelsman et al., 2005 ; Pfund et al., 2015 ). Explicit consideration of how the relationships are formed, supported, and evaluated can improve mentor-mentee relationships. To ensure that the mentors associated with a URE are prepared appropriately, thereby increasing the chances of a positive experience for both mentors and mentees, all prospective mentors should prepare for their role. Available resources include the Entering Mentoring course (see Pfund et al., 2015 ) and the book Successful STEM Mentoring Initiative for Underrepresented Students ( Packard, 2016 ).

A person who is an ineffective mentor for one student might be inspiring for another, and the setting in which the mentoring takes place (e.g., a CURE or apprentice-style URE, a laboratory or field-research environment) may also influence mentor effectiveness. Thus, there should be some mechanism for monitoring such relationships during the URE, or there should be opportunity for a student who is unhappy with the relationship to seek other mentors. Indeed, cultivating a team of mentors with different experiences and expertise may be the best strategy for any student. A parallel volume to the Entering Mentoring curriculum mentioned above, Entering Research Facilitator’s Manual ( Branchaw et al., 2010 ), is designed to help students with their research mentor-mentee relationships and to coach them on building teams of mentors to guide them. As mentioned in Chapter 5 , the Entering Research curriculum also contains information designed to support a group of students as they go through their first apprentice-style research experience, each working in separate research groups and also meeting together as a cohort focused on learning about research.

PRIORITIES FOR THE FUTURE

Conclusion 9: The unique assets, resources, priorities, and constraints of the department and institution, in addition to those of individual mentors, impact the goals and structures of UREs. Schools across the country are showing considerable creativity in using unique resources, repurposing current assets, and leveraging student enthusiasm to increase research opportunities for their students.

Given current calls for UREs and the growing conversation about their benefits, an increasing number of two- and four-year colleges and universities are increasing their efforts to support undergraduate research. Departments, institutions, and individual faculty members influence the precise nature of UREs in multiple ways and at multiple levels. The physical resources available, including laboratories, field stations, and engineering design studios and testing facilities, make a difference, as does the ability to access resources in the surrounding community (including other parts of the campus). Institutions with an explicit mission to promote undergraduate research may provide more time, resources (e.g., financial, support personnel, space, equipment), and recognition and rewards to departments and faculty in support of UREs than do institutions without that mission. The culture of the institution with respect to innovation in pedagogy and support for faculty development also affects the extent to which UREs are introduced or improved.

Development of UREs requires significant time and effort. Whether or not faculty attempt to implement UREs can depend on whether departmental

or institutional reward and recognition systems compensate for or even recognize the time required to initiate and implement them. The availability of national consortia can help to alleviate many of the time and logistical problems but not those obstacles associated with recognition and resources.

It will be harder for faculty to find the time to develop UREs at institutions where they are required to teach many courses per semester, although in some circumstances faculty can teach CUREs that also advance their own research ( Shortlidge et al., 2016 ). Faculty at community colleges generally have the heaviest teaching expectations, little or no expectations or incentives to maintain a research program, limited access to lab or design space or to scientific and engineering journals, and few resources to undertake any kind of a research program. These constraints may limit the extent to which UREs can be offered to the approximately 40 percent of U.S. undergraduates who are enrolled in the nation’s community colleges (which collectively also serve the highest percentage of the nation’s underrepresented students). 5

Recommendation 7: Administrators and faculty at all types of colleges and universities should work together within and, where feasible, across institutions to create a culture that supports the development of evidence-based, iterative, and continuous refinement of UREs, in an effort to improve student learning outcomes and overall academic success. This should include the development, evaluation, and revision of policies and practices designed to create a culture supportive of the participation of faculty and other mentors in effective UREs. Policies should consider pedagogy, professional development, cross-cultural awareness, hiring practices, compensation, promotion (incentives, rewards), and the tenure process.

Colleges and universities that would like to expand or improve the UREs offered to their students should consider the campus culture and climate and the incentives that affect faculty choices. Those campuses that cultivate an environment supportive of the iterative and continuous refinement of UREs and that offer incentives for evaluation and evidence-based improvement of UREs seem more likely to sustain successful programs. Faculty and others who develop and implement UREs need support to be able to evaluate their courses or programs and to analyze evidence to make decisions about URE design. This kind of support may be fostered by expanding the mission of on-campus centers for learning and teaching to focus more on UREs or by providing incentives for URE developers from the natural sciences and engineering to collaborate with colleagues in the social sciences or colleges of education with expertise in designing studies

5 See http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_cha.asp [November 2016].

involving human subjects. Supporting closer communication between URE developers and the members of the campus Institutional Review Board may help projects to move forward more seamlessly. Interdepartmental and intercampus connections (especially those between two- and four-year institutions) can be valuable for linking faculty with the appropriate resources, colleagues, and diverse student populations. Faculty who have been active in professional development on how students learn in the classroom may have valuable experiences and expertise to share.

The refinement or expansion of UREs should build on evidence from data on student participation, pedagogy, and outcomes, which are integral components of the original design. As UREs are validated and refined, institutions should make efforts to facilitate connections among different departments and disciplines, including the creation of multidisciplinary UREs. Student engagement in learning in general, and with UREs more specifically, depends largely on the culture of the department and the institution and on whether students see their surroundings as inclusive and energetic places to learn and thrive. A study that examined the relationship between campus missions and the five benchmarks for effective educational practice (measured by the National Survey of Student Engagement) showed that different programs, policies, and approaches may work better, depending on the institution’s mission ( Kezar and Kinzie, 2006 ).

The Council on Undergraduate Research (2012) document Characteristics of Excellence in Undergraduate Research outlines several best practices for UREs based on the apprenticeship model (see Chapter 8 ). That document is not the result of a detailed analysis of the evidence but is based on the extensive experiences and expertise of the council’s members. It suggests that undergraduate research should be a normal part of the undergraduate experience regardless of the type of institution. It also identifies changes necessary to include UREs as part of the curriculum and culture changes necessary to support curricular reform, co-curricular activities, and modifications to the incentives and rewards for faculty to engage with undergraduate research. In addition, professional development opportunities specifically designed to help improve the pedagogical and mentoring skills of instructional staff in using evidence-based practices can be important for a supportive learning culture.

Recommendation 8: Administrators and faculty at all types of colleges and universities should work to develop strong and sustainable partnerships within and between institutions and with educational and professional societies for the purpose of sharing resources to facilitate the creation of sustainable URE programs.

Networks of faculty, institutions, regionally and nationally coordinated URE initiatives, professional societies, and funders should be strengthened

to facilitate the exchange of evidence and experience related to UREs. These networks could build on the existing work of professional societies that assist faculty with pedagogy. They can help provide a venue for considering the policy context and larger implications of increasing the number, size, and scope of UREs. Such networks also can provide a more robust infrastructure, to improve the sustainability and expansion of URE opportunities. The sharing of human, financial, scientific, and technical resources can strengthen the broad implementation of effective, high-quality, and more cost-efficient UREs. It may be especially important for community colleges and minority-serving institutions to engage in partnerships in order to expand the opportunities for undergraduates (both transfer and technical students) to participate in diverse UREs (see discussion in National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2015 , and Elgin et al., 2016 ). Consortia can facilitate the sharing of resources across disciplines and departments within the same institution or at different institutions, organizations, and agencies. Consortia that employ research methodologies in common can share curriculum, research data collected, and common assessment tools, lessening the time burden for individual faculty and providing a large pool of students from which to assess the efficacy of individual programs.

Changes in the funding climate can have substantial impacts on the types of programs that exist, iterative refinement of programs, and whether and how programs might be expanded to broaden participation by more undergraduates. For those institutions that have not yet established URE programs or are at the beginning phases of establishing one, mechanisms for achieving success and sustainability may include increased institutional ownership of programs of undergraduate research, development of a broad range of programs of different types and funding structures, formation of undergraduate research offices or repurposing some of the responsibilities and activities of those which already exist, and engagement in community promotion and dissemination of student accomplishments (e.g., student symposia, support for undergraduate student travel to give presentations at professional meetings).

Over time, institutions must develop robust plans for ensuring the long-term sustained funding of high-quality UREs. Those plans should include assuming that more fiscal responsibility for sustaining such efforts will be borne by the home institution as external support for such efforts decreases and ultimately ends. Building UREs into the curriculum and structure of a department’s courses and other programs, and thus its funding model, can help with sustainability. Partnerships with nonprofit organizations and industry, as well as seeking funding from diverse agencies, can also facilitate programmatic sustainability, especially if the UREs they fund can also support the mission and programs of the funders (e.g., through research internships or through CUREs that focus on community-

based research questions and challenges). Partnerships among institutions also may have greater potential to study and evaluate student outcomes from URE participation across broader demographic groups and to reduce overall costs through the sharing of administrative or other resources (such as libraries, microscopes, etc.).

Bangera, G., and Brownell, S.E. (2014). Course-based undergraduate research experiences can make scientific research more inclusive. CBE–Life Sciences Education , 13 (4), 602-606.

Branchaw, J.L., Pfund, C., and Rediske, R. (2010) Entering Research Facilitator’s Manual: Workshops for Students Beginning Research in Science . New York: Freeman & Company.

Byars-Winston, A.M., Branchaw, J., Pfund, C., Leverett, P., and Newton, J. (2015). Culturally diverse undergraduate researchers’ academic outcomes and perceptions of their research mentoring relationships. International Journal of Science Education , 37 (15), 2,533-2,554.

Chemers, M.M., Zurbriggen, E.L., Syed, M., Goza, B.K., and Bearman, S. (2011). The role of efficacy and identity in science career commitment among underrepresented minority students. Journal of Social Issues , 67 (3), 469-491.

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Undergraduate research has a rich history, and many practicing researchers point to undergraduate research experiences (UREs) as crucial to their own career success. There are many ongoing efforts to improve undergraduate science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education that focus on increasing the active engagement of students and decreasing traditional lecture-based teaching, and UREs have been proposed as a solution to these efforts and may be a key strategy for broadening participation in STEM. In light of the proposals questions have been asked about what is known about student participation in UREs, best practices in UREs design, and evidence of beneficial outcomes from UREs.

Undergraduate Research Experiences for STEM Students provides a comprehensive overview of and insights about the current and rapidly evolving types of UREs, in an effort to improve understanding of the complexity of UREs in terms of their content, their surrounding context, the diversity of the student participants, and the opportunities for learning provided by a research experience. This study analyzes UREs by considering them as part of a learning system that is shaped by forces related to national policy, institutional leadership, and departmental culture, as well as by the interactions among faculty, other mentors, and students. The report provides a set of questions to be considered by those implementing UREs as well as an agenda for future research that can help answer questions about how UREs work and which aspects of the experiences are most powerful.

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