systematic review of research on fair play and sporting competition

• Open access
• Published: 18 March 2022

Fair play? Participation equity in organised sport and physical activity among children and adolescents in high income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis

• Katherine B. Owen 1 , 2 ,
• Tracy Nau 2 , 3 ,
• Lindsey J. Reece 1 , 2 ,
• William Bellew 1 , 2 , 3 ,
• Catriona Rose 1 , 2 ,
• Adrian Bauman 1 , 2 , 3 ,
• Nicole K. Halim 4 &
• Ben J. Smith 2 , 3  

International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity volume  19 , Article number:  27 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

8660 Accesses

27 Citations

50 Altmetric

Metrics details

This article has been updated

Physical activity and sport have numerous health benefits and participation is thought to be lower in disadvantaged children and adolescents. However, evidence for the disparity in physical activity is inconsistent, has not been reviewed recently, and for sport has never been synthesised. Our aim was to systematically review, and combine via meta-analyses, evidence of the socioeconomic disparities in physical activity and sport participation in children and adolescents in high income countries.

We conducted searches of five electronic databases using physical activity, sport, and socioeconomic disparity related terms. Two independent reviewers assessed 21,342 articles for peer-reviewed original research, published in English that assessed socioeconomic disparities in physical activity and sport participation in children and adolescents. We combined evidence from eligible studies using a structural equation modelling approach to multilevel meta-analysis.

From the 104 eligible studies, we meta-analysed 163 effect sizes. Overall, children and adolescents living in higher socioeconomic status households were more likely to participate in sport (OR: 1.87, 95% CIs 1.38, 2.36) and participated for a longer duration ( d  = 0.24, 95% CIs 0.12, 0.35). The socioeconomic disparity in the duration of sport participation was greater in children ( d  = 0.28, 95% CIs 0.15, 0.41) compared with adolescents ( d  = 0.13, 95% CIs − 0.03, 0.30).

Overall, children and adolescents living in higher socioeconomic status households were more likely to meet physical activity guidelines (OR: 1.21, 95% CIs 1.09, 1.33) and participated for a longer duration ( d  = 0.08, 95% CIs 0.02, 0.14). The socioeconomic disparity in the duration of total physical activity between low and high socioeconomic status households was greater in children ( d  = 0.13, 95% CIs 0.04, 0.21) compared with adolescents ( d  = 0.05, 95% CIs − 0.05, 0.15).

There was no significant disparity in leisure time physical activity ( d  = 0.13, 95% CIs − 0.06, 0.32).

Conclusions

There was evidence of socioeconomic disparities in sport participation and total physical activity participation among children and adolescents. Socioeconomic differences were greater in sport compared to total physical activity and greater in children compared with adolescents. These findings highlight the importance of targeting sport programs according to socio-economic gradients, to reduce inequities in access and opportunity to organised sport.

Physically active lifestyles during childhood and adolescence are associated with a wide range of physical, mental and social benefits; these include improved physical fitness, cardiometabolic health, bone health, cognitive outcomes (e.g., academic performance), mental health (e.g., reduced symptoms of depression); and social benefits (e.g., improved self-esteem) [ 1 ]. Current evidence suggests that many of these benefits carry forward into adulthood [ 1 , 2 ]. Despite the known benefits of physical activity, over 80% of adolescents do not meet the current recommendations for daily physical activity [ 3 ].

There is some evidence that socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with physical activity, in that people of high SES are more physically active than those of lower SES. Stalsberg and Pedersen [ 4 ] systematically combined evidence from 62 studies, published up to July 2009, that assessed the association between SES and physical activity in adolescents. The authors concluded that there was an association, and that adolescents with higher SES were more active than those of lower SES. However, results of individual studies were inconsistent, with 42% of studies reporting no or an opposite relation. Sallis, Prochaska [ 5 ] reviewed 54 studies on correlates of children’s physical activity and reported that parental SES and children’s physical activity were not associated in most studies. Similarly, Ferreira, Van Der Horst [ 6 ] conducted a large review on environmental correlates of physical activity, including socioeconomic status, among children and reported inconsistent findings. One possible explanation for these inconsistent findings is that these reviews combined studies assessing physical activity across all domains (i.e., total physical activity, leisure time physical activity, and sport).

To better understand the socioeconomic disparity in physical activity, we need to explore the disparity across different domains of physical activity. There is some evidence to suggest that children and adolescents from lower SES families participate in higher levels of leisure time activities, such as active play and walking, compared with children and adolescents from higher SES families (e.g., [ 7 , 8 ]). This could be due to different facilitators and barriers experienced across children and adolescents in different SES groups [ 9 ]. For example, children and adolescents from high SES families might experience parental encouragement or pressure to prioritise academic tasks, rather than leisure activities. There is also some evidence to suggest that children and adolescents from lower SES families are less likely to participate in organised sport, compared with children and adolescents from high SES families (e.g., [ 10 ]). Children and adolescents from low SES families may face additional barriers to structured sports, such as the associated financial costs (e.g., registration fees and uniforms), transportation issues, and limited or poor availability of quality facilities and activities in the local neighbourhood and at school [ 9 ]. Children and adolescents from high and low SES families experience different barriers across different domains of PA, which may contribute to differing socioeconomic disparities across different physical activity domains.

Equity across the life course is a fundamental guiding principle in the World Health Organization’s Global Action Plan on Physical Activity (GAPPA), requiring countries to prioritise addressing disparities and reducing inequalities in their implementation of the action plan to achieve the proposed 15% reduction in physical inactivity in adolescents (and adults) by 2030 [ 11 ]. To address these disparities, we need a comprehensive understanding of the disparities across physical activity domains. This review aims to provide an up-to-date synthesis of studies concerning socioeconomic differences in physical activity and organised sports participation among children and adolescents in high income countries. The rationale for this review, and the case for a value-adding contribution is as follows: (a) the need to examine and compare differentials in participation in organised sport as a distinct component of physical activity and (b) the equivocal or conflicting results of studies conducted since 2010.

This systematic review and meta-analysis was registered at the Research Registry (ID: reviewregistry1147) and guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Statement [ 12 ].

Eligibility criteria

To be included in this review, studies were required to:

Examine children or adolescents (i.e., age range or mean age between 4 and 17 or enrolled in school).

Not be limited to selected sub-groups (e.g., those with a medical condition, only overweight or obese, specific cultural or ethnic group).

Quantitively assess sport participation, leisure time physical activity or total physical activity. Sport was defined as a structured activity through an organisation such as a club or school and leisure time physical activity was defined as any unstructured physical activity outside of school hours.

In the case of leisure time and total physical activity, use population sampling at the first or second (depending on the country) subnational administrative level of the country. Due to the limited available data, this criterion was not applied to studies investigating organised sport participation.

Use a quantitative measure of socioeconomic status (i.e., composite measure such as the Family Affluence Scale, household or parental income, parental education, neighbourhood socioeconomic status).

Quantitatively assess socioeconomic differences in sport, leisure time physical activity or total physical activity.

Use a cross-sectional, cohort or experimental (randomised controlled trials and quasi-experimental study design.

Be conducted in one or more of the following countries: Australia, New Zealand, Canada, USA, UK, Switzerland, and member countries of the European Economic Area (EEA). Multi-country studies involving other countries, were eligible if they reported relevant data for the included countries. We recognise that there are also socioeconomic disparities in middle and low income countries [ 3 ], however there is evidence that physical inactivity is higher in high income countries and that the nature and scale of economic and social inequalities differ in high-, middle- and low-income countries [ 13 ]. For example, high-, middle- and low-income countries have different cultures of sport and non-organised physical activity and therefore, different barriers, correlates, and determinants, as well as a different distribution of SES. Further, there are limited data on sports participation available for low- and middle- income countries.

Provide the full-text version in the English language.

Be published between January 2010 and 15 July 2020.

Information sources

Searches were conducted within Scopus, SportDiscus, PubMed, Medline and APA Psych Info in July 2020. Combinations of keywords were used to identify eligible studies.

Search strategy

The search strategy combined terms relating to sport or physical activity, equity, and country limits. We developed the search strategy and validated it by testing whether it identified known relevant studies (e.g., [ 14 , 15 ]. The full search strategy is presented in Supplementary Table  1 .

Selection processes

First, two researchers independently screened titles and abstracts for eligibility. Next, relevant full texts were retrieved and independently screened by two researchers. All discrepancies regarding inclusion criteria fulfillment were resolved by a third researcher.

Data collection processes

Two researchers independently extracted data from eligible studies using a standardised extraction form. When the relevant data was not reported in the study, we contacted the corresponding author and requested the additional information.

Extracted data included study characteristics (authors, year of publication, year of data collection, country in which the study was conducted), methods (study design, sample size, gender of participants), measurement (measure of sport, leisure time physical activity or total physical activity) and results (unadjusted and adjusted statistical results that examined the socioeconomic differences in sport, leisure time physical activity or total physical activity). In experimental and longitudinal studies with multiple timepoints, data was extracted from the first timepoint.

Study risk of bias assessment

Risk of bias within studies was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) critical appraisal instruments for studies reporting prevalence data, analytical cross-sectional studies, and cohort studies [ 16 ]. Two reviewers independently assessed each study, and any discrepancies were resolved by discussion between the two researchers or the consultation of a third reviewer.

Effect measures

Commonly reported summary measures included means with standard deviations, standardised mean differences, regression coefficients, and odds ratios. All summary measures that assessed binary outcomes (i.e., participation in sport or meeting physical activity guidelines) were converted to odds ratios (comparing the lowest SES group with the highest). All summary measures that assessed continuous outcomes (i.e., duration of sport or physical activity participation) were converted to standardised mean differences (i.e., Cohen’s d; comparing the lowest SES group with the highest). Effect sizes were defined as small (OR = 1.68; d = 0.20), medium (OR = 3.47; d = 0.50), and large (OR = 6.71; d = 0.80) [ 17 , 18 ]. There were 8 studies that did not provide the required information to convert the summary measure to an odds ratio or Cohen’s d. We contacted the 8 corresponding authors of these studies and 4 authors provided the additional information and so these studies were included in the meta-analyses. The other 4 studies could not be included in the meta-analyses.

Synthesis methods

Typically, researchers have conducted meta-analyses using fixed-effects and random-effects models. However, these models are both limited by the assumption of independence, which means that only one effect size can be included per study [ 19 ]. To avoid violating the assumption of independence, researchers will a) average the effect sizes, b) “shift the unit of analysis” (i.e., retaining as many effect sizes as possible from each study while holding violations of the assumption of independence to a minimum), c) select one of the effect sizes or use a combination of the previously mentioned methods, or d) not report how the issue was handled [ 20 ]. These methods lose information and limit the research questions that can be answered and the ability to test moderators [ 21 ].

Two approaches to meta-analysis that are not limited by the assumption of independence are multilevel meta-analysis and structural equation modelling [ 22 , 23 ]. These two approaches can be integrated to provide further methodological advantages [ 21 ]. The structural equation modelling approach to multilevel meta-analysis enables flexible constraints on parameters, constructs more accurate likelihood-based confidence intervals, and handles missing covariate data using full information maximum likelihood [ 21 ]. We took a structural equation modelling approach to multilevel meta-analysis. Unconditional mixed-effects models using maximum likelihood estimation were conducted to calculate the overall pooled effect sizes (pooled odds ratios and Cohen’s d’s). For each pooled effect size, 95% likelihood-based confidence intervals were calculated. All analyses were conducted using the metaSEM package [ 24 ] in R Version 4.1.1.

The I 2 statistic was used to measure heterogeneity (i.e., variability in the effect sizes) [ 25 ]. An I 2 statistic between 0 and 40% might not be important, 30 to 60% might represent moderate heterogeneity, 50 to 90% might represent substantial heterogeneity, and 75 to 100% considerable heterogeneity. These intervals overlap and so interpretations should depend on the magnitude and direction of the effect and the strength of the evidence for heterogeneity [ 25 ]. Heterogeneity can be examined and explained using moderator analyses.

We tested whether age moderated the socioeconomic differences in sport, leisure time physical activity and total physical activity. As sport dropout is highest during adolescence [ 26 ] and physical activity has the steepest decline during adolescence [ 27 ], we compared the socioeconomic differences in children (under 13) and adolescents (age 13 and above) [ 28 , 29 ]. R 2 was used to examine the proportion of variance explained by including age as a moderating variable.

We conducted a sensitivity analysis excluding studies that did not adjust for confounders to assess the role and extent of confounding [ 30 ].

Reporting bias assessment

To examine reporting bias, we used funnel plots [ 31 ] and Egger’s regression asymmetry tests [ 32 ]. Funnel plots plotted the effect sizes on the x-axes and standard errors on the y-axes and resemble a symmetrical inverted funnel when there is no reporting bias. Egger’s regression asymmetry tests regress the normalized effect estimate (effect size divided by its standard error) against precision (reciprocal of the standard error of the effect size) and when the regression line runs through the origin, there is no reporting bias.

Certainty assessment

The certainty of evidence was assessed using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation approach [ 33 ]. Two researchers qualitatively assessed risk of bias, consistency, and precision and gave a summary rating – high, moderate, or low certainty of evidence.

Study selection

Study selection results are presented in Fig.  1 (flow diagram). Through searches of electronic databases, we identified 21,342 non-duplicate records. After reviewing titles and abstracts, we obtained and reviewed full-text versions for 424 potentially relevant records. Of these 424 full text articles, 104 met the inclusion criteria. However, four of these did not provide enough information to be included in the meta-analyses.

PRISMA flow diagram for study inclusion

We excluded 320 articles in the full-text review phase for the reasons identified in the PRISMA flow diagram (Fig. 1 ). These reasons included ineligible age (e.g. [ 34 ] was excluded because the mean age of the children in the analysis sample was 3.5 years); sample consisting of a ‘special population’ (e.g. [ 35 ] recruited student athletes); not reporting eligible physical activity or sport outcomes (e.g. the outcome reported in [ 36 ] was whether the person lived in a supportive neighbourhood for physical activity); not analysing the physical activity or sport outcome according to an eligible socioeconomic measure (e.g. [ 37 ] assessed physical activity according to weekly spending money). Any physical activity studies that did not use population sampling were excluded (or else only had their sport outcomes extracted) (e.g. [ 38 ] used convenience sampling to select high schools from Aveiro, a relatively small city and municipality in Portugal).

Study characteristics

Study characteristics are detailed in Additional file 3 . Of 104 included studies, 55% (k = 57) were published between 2010 and 2015 and 45% [ 39 ] were published between 2016 and 2020. Studies were conducted in Europe (k = 64 [Scandinavia k = 14; United Kingdom k = 12; other k = 38]), United States (k = 21), Australia or New Zealand (k = 12), and Canada (k = 7).

Across the 104 studies, there were 1,373,580 children and adolescents included. The number of study participants ranged from 200 [ 40 ] to 671,375 [ 41 ]. The mean age of study participants ranged from 4.7 years (SD = 0.9 [ 42 ];) to 17.0 years (SD = 0.9 [ 43 ];).

The majority of studies measured total weekly physical activity (k = 63), followed by sport (k = 40) and leisure time physical activity (k = 13; [12 studies assessed multiple outcomes]). Of the 63 studies that examined total physical activity, 18 studies used objective measures (accelerometers), and the remaining 45 used parent or self-report questionnaires. All studies assessing leisure time physical activity and sport used parent or self-report questionnaires.

Studies assessed socioeconomic status using income (k = 42), parental education (k = 26), a composite measure (e.g., Family Affluence Scale; k = 17), an area level indicator (e.g., Socioeconomic Indexes for Areas; k = 16) and eligibility for free lunch at school (k = 3).

Risk of bias in studies

Complete risk of bias assessments are displayed in Additional file 4 . The interrater agreement for risk of bias ratings was 76%, and all discrepancies were resolved by discussion between two researchers, or the consultation of a third reviewer where appropriate. Studies assessing sport participation met between 18 and 100% of risk of bias items (Mean = 66%). Studies assessing leisure time physical activity met between 62 and 91% of items (Mean = 73%) and studies assessing total physical activity met between 27 and 100% of items (Mean = 79%). Overall, the criteria that were least likely to be met were conducting the data analysis with sufficient coverage of the identified sample (k = 36 met this criteria) and measuring the outcome in a valid and reliable way (k = 57 met this criteria).

Results of syntheses

Overall, children and adolescents living in higher socioeconomic status households were 1.87 times more likely to participate in sport (OR: 1.87, 95% CIs 1.38, 2.36, moderate certainty evidence; Table 1 ). Similarly, children and adolescents living in higher socioeconomic status households spent more time participating in sport ( d  = 0.24, 95% CIs 0.12, 0.35, low certainty evidence). For these pooled effect sizes, there was considerable heterogeneity between studies ( I 2  = 0.84 and 0.90, respectively) and negligible heterogeneity within studies ( I 2  = 0.15 and 0.10, respectively).

Sport across age groups

Age explained a small portion of the heterogeneity found within studies that examined the socioeconomic differences in sport participation ( R 2  = 0.02). Children living in higher socioeconomic status households were 2.03 times more likely to participate in sport (OR: 2.03, 95% CIs 1.41, 2.65), and adolescents living in higher socioeconomic status households were 1.84 times more likely to participate in sport (OR: 1.84, 95% CIs 1.14, 2.55).

Duration of sport participation was also moderated by age ( R 2  = 0.05). There was a small to moderate difference in the duration of sport participation between children living in low and high socioeconomic status households ( d  = 0.28, 95% CIs 0.15, 0.41). Whereas there was a small non-significant difference in the duration of sport participation between adolescents living in low and high socioeconomic status households ( d  = 0.13, 95% CIs − 0.03, 0.30).

Total physical activity

Children and adolescents living in higher socioeconomic status households were 1.21 times more likely to meet physical activity guidelines (OR: 1.21, 95% CIs 1.09, 1.33, high certainty evidence). For this pooled effect, there was moderate heterogeneity between studies ( I 2  = 0.34) and within studies ( I 2  = 0.56). Children and adolescents living in higher socioeconomic status households spent more time participating in physical activity (d = 0.08, 95% CIs 0.02, 0.14, moderate certainty evidence). For this pooled effect, there was substantial heterogeneity between studies ( I 2  = 0.67) and negligible heterogeneity within studies ( I 2  = 0.26).

Total physical activity across age groups

Differences between children and adolescents living in low and high socioeconomic households meeting physical activity guidelines was not moderated by age ( R 2  = 0.00).

Age explained a small portion of the heterogeneity found within studies that examined the socioeconomic differences in duration of total physical activity ( R 2  = 0.02). There was a small difference in the duration of total physical activity between low and high socioeconomic status households in children ( d  = 0.13, 95% CIs 0.04, 0.21), but not adolescents ( d  = 0.05, 95% CIs − 0.05, 0.15).

Leisure time physical activity

Children and adolescents living in higher socioeconomic status households spent more time participating in leisure time physical activity ( d  = 0.13, 95% CIs − 0.06, 0.32, low certainty evidence); however, the confidence intervals crossed zero. For this pooled effect size, there was considerable heterogeneity between studies ( I 2  = 0.70) and negligible heterogeneity within studies ( I 2  = 0.30).

Sensitivity analyses

Supplementary Table  2 presents the pooled effects of studies examining socioeconomic differences in sport and physical activity, excluding studies that did not adjust for confounders. There were no appreciable differences when excluding these studies.

Reporting biases

Funnel plots for studies examining socioeconomic differences in sport participation and duration of sport participation revealed low asymmetry, representing a low risk of bias across studies (Figs.  2 , 3 , 4 , 5 and 6 ). This was confirmed by non-significant Egger’s test results (z = 1.34, p  = 0.18 and z = − 0.80, p  = 0.42, respectively). Similarly, funnel plots for studies examining socioeconomic differences in duration of leisure time physical activity participation revealed low asymmetry, representing a low risk of bias across studies, and this was confirmed by non-significant Egger’s test results (z = − 0.50, p  = 0.62).

Funnel plot for sport participation

Funnel plot for sport duration

Funnel plot for meeting physical activity guidelines

Funnel plot for total physical activity duration

Funnel plot for leisure time physical activity duration

There was some evidence of risk of bias across studies that examined socioeconomic differences in meeting physical activity guidelines and duration of total physical activity participation. Funnel plots for studies examining socioeconomic differences in meeting physical activity guidelines and duration of total physical activity participation revealed moderate asymmetry, representing some risk of bias across studies. This was confirmed by significant Egger’s test results (z = − 2.63, p  = 0.01 and z = − 2.67, p  = 0.01, respectively).

Certainty of evidence

The certainty of evidence for the socioeconomic differences in sport, leisure time physical activity and total physical activity are displayed in Table  2 .

Since the late 1970s, equity in the context of health has become a central objective for the World Health Organization (WHO), largely attributed to the Alma-Ata Declaration of 1978, which emphasised the unacceptable nature of gross global health inequality and called for health for all by the year 2000 [ 44 ]. A little over a decade after the declaration, the WHO commissioned a definition of inequity that has come to be widely cited globally: “differences which are unnecessary and avoidable, but in addition, are considered unfair and unjust” [ 45 , 46 ]. In 2021, WHO published an advocacy brief calling for stronger multisectoral action to address inequities in access and opportunities for physical activity [ 47 ]. Our systematic review and meta-analysis is the first to integrate evidence of the socioeconomic disparity in sport participation in children and adolescents. It is also the most recent and largest systematic review and meta-analysis of the socioeconomic disparity in physical activity. This included 104 studies and 126 effect sizes, with results showing small socioeconomic disparities (i.e., children and adolescents from high SES families are more active) in both sport (low- to moderate-certainty evidence) and total physical activity (moderate- to high-certainty evidence), but not leisure time physical activity (low-certainty evidence). Socioeconomic differences appear to be greater in sport compared to total physical activity or leisure time physical activity, and greater in children compared with adolescents.

While our overall pooled effects suggested inequities in sport and physical activity, there was no significant disparity in leisure time physical activity. It is important to note that only seven of the included studies assessed leisure time physical activity and these studies included a broad range of ages, introducing a high level of heterogeneity. Inconsistent findings of socioeconomic disparities were also found in a recent umbrella review of socioeconomic determinants of physical activity across the life course [ 39 ]. Some reviews identified socioeconomic disparities in physical activity (e.g., [ 48 ]), while others did not (e.g., [ 6 ]). One of the reasons could be that different types of physical activity and sport show unique and distinct socioeconomic disparities [ 15 ]. For example, the disparity tends to be greater in niche activities such as canoeing and rock climbing, compared to more mainstream activities such as cricket and netball, but may also depend on whether they occur in structured or unstructured settings. Children and adolescents from high and low SES families may also experience different barriers and facilitators across different domains of physical activity [ 9 ]. These inconsistencies could also be explained by unassessed confounders, such as culture, social organisation, geographic location, and factors beyond the scope of this review. For example, different activity preferences and participation patterns vary across different geographic regions. Hulteen [ 49 ] found that young people in the Americas (Canada, Jamaica, United States, Brazil) prefer team sports which may be associated with higher participation costs (e.g., Lacrosse), whereas those from the Western Pacific (Australia, China, Japan, Hong Kong) prefer physical activities including many that can be undertaken at little to no cost (e.g., running and walking). Further, each country has their own distinct school system with their own specific curriculum requirements and extracurricular sporting opportunities.

The socioeconomic disparities identified in this review were greatest in sports participation. This can be explained by a combination of individual (e.g., self-efficacy, negative outcome expectations), household (material or social deprivation) and neighbourhood (e.g., access and proximity to facilities) factors [ 14 , 15 ]. Cost is a barrier that is greater for sport participation. Sport has several additional costs such as registration, uniform, travel, and equipment, which can present greater barriers for children and adolescents from disadvantaged backgrounds. This cost barrier to sport has been addressed through financial incentive programs across the world [ 50 ] which have shown some promising findings (e.g., [ 51 ]). However, there are socioeconomic disparities in awareness and engagement in these programs and further targeted work is needed [ 52 ].

It is important that the socioeconomic disparities in sport be reduced. The United Nations has identified sport as an important contributor to sustainable development [ 53 , 54 ]. Sport has economic benefits, providing employment and local development. It can bring individuals and communities together, bridging cultural and ethnic divides. For young people, sport participation can be beneficial for holistic development, physical and emotional health and building valuable social connections [ 55 ]. Sport can also provide a healthy alternative to harmful behaviours such as drug use and crime [ 56 ]. In order to reduce the socioeconomic disparity in sport participation, a systems-based approach is needed that combines upstream policy actions to improve the social, cultural, economic and environmental factors for sport, with downstream actions that focus on the individual [ 11 , 47 ].

Our review found that the socioeconomic disparity was greater in sport compared to physical activity, but this finding is based on evidence that was of low- to moderate certainty. Fewer studies have examined socioeconomic disparities in sport participation and these studies tended to have a higher risk of bias. Of the 40 studies that examined socioeconomic disparities in sport participation, only 5 used a valid or reliable measure of sport and 20 had a representative population sample. We recommend the development of a standardised and validated measure of sport participation that assesses both the frequency and duration of participation. Further high-quality studies with large representative population samples are required that examine the socioeconomic disparity in sport participation.

The socioeconomic disparities in our review were greater for dichotomous variables (i.e., sport participation vs. no participation and meeting physical activity guidelines vs. not meeting guidelines) compared to the continuous variables (i.e., duration of sport and physical activity participation). This suggests that once initial engagement in sport is established, socioeconomic status has less influence on the duration or frequency of participation. This is consistent with a previous study that found that there was a socioeconomic disparity in overall sport participation, but the disparity in regular participation was small [ 15 ]. Population targeted work is needed to establish initial participation in sport for children and adolescents from disadvantaged backgrounds. In relation to physical activity guidelines, the small group of children and adolescents who do meet guidelines (approximately one in five [ 3 , 57 ];) are a select and distinct group. This group tends to have a higher level of advantage [ 58 ] and therefore, differentials could appear greater. Targeted work is needed to enable children and adolescents from disadvantaged backgrounds to meet physical activity guidelines.

The socioeconomic disparities in sport and physical activity were found to be greater in children compared with adolescents. This could be due to parental influence on physical activity and sport participation decreasing with age. As the child grows older, they gain autonomy and independence from their parents and are exposed to new environments and influences [ 39 ]. For example, as adolescents spend less time at home, and more time at school and with peers, the school environment and their peers become more influential in shaping health behaviours [ 39 ]. As such, parental SES (e.g., income or education) have reduced effect upon adolescents physical activity participation. There is evidence to suggest that alternate measures of socioeconomic status such as adolescent’s perception of social status relative to others in their peer group may be a better predictor of their health behaviours compared to the traditional measures [ 59 ]. Future studies should employ alternate measures of social status to further clarify the SES patterns for adolescents’ physical activity and sport participation. Disparities may also be lessened by the trends towards dropout in sport among adolescents [ 26 ] and the steep decline in physical activity across all socioeconomic groups in this age group [ 27 ]. Competing priorities (e.g., academic achievement), and increased responsibilities including schoolwork and employment begin to influence adolescents at this stage and will affect this age group differently across diverse social and cultural contexts internationally.

The differences in participation discussed here surely meet the WHO definition of inequity as “differences which are unnecessary and avoidable, but in addition, are considered unfair and unjust”; these inequities could be reduced by the right mix of government policies [ 60 ]. Progress requires a coordinated and strategic systems approach as outlined in the WHO Global Action Plan on Physical Activity 2018–2030 [ 11 ] and in the 2021 WHO advocacy brief Fair Play [ 47 ] which places particular emphasis on three areas of action (i) innovative and diverse financing mechanisms; (ii) coherent policy, laws, regulatory frameworks, and standards; and (iii) more integrated delivery of physical activity. These three domains indicate the need for progressing a research agenda that can determine whether the state and non-state actors engaged in the delivery of GAPPA have risen to these challenges.

Limitations

A limitation of this study is that there was considerable heterogeneity in the pooled effect sizes. Some of this heterogeneity could be attributed to the variety of socioeconomic status measures (e.g., household income, parental education, area level socioeconomic status) [ 61 ]. Second, there was some publication bias in the meta-analysis of evidence pertaining to the socioeconomic disparity in physical activity. This is expected when conducting searches of published literature [ 62 ]. However, the meta-analysis also included null findings, suggesting that publication bias is likely not severe. Third, our searches may have missed relevant studies as they were limited to full text, conducted in high income and generally Western countries, in the English language between January 2010 and 15 July 2020. Further, the findings of our systematic review and meta-analysis are only relevant to high income Western countries. Further research is needed to investigate the socioeconomic disparities in sport and physical activity in children and adolescents living in low- and middle-income countries. Fourth, when we examined age as a moderator, we divided studies into two categories (children and adolescents). While we used a mean age of 13 as a basis for classification (i.e., younger than 13 years for children, and 13 or older for adolescents), it is likely that studies had participants in both categories. Although this method is limited, it does provide some understanding of how the socioeconomic disparity is different in children and adolescents.

This systematic review and meta-analysis found evidence of small socioeconomic disparities in sport participation and total physical activity participation among children and adolescents in high income countries. Socioeconomic differences were greater in sport compared to total physical activity and greater in children compared with adolescents. These findings highlight the need to integrate an equity focus into programs and policies that are designed to increase sport participation, whilst also addressing inequities in access and opportunities for all children and adolescents to be physically active. Strategies to increase the equitable provision of positive and good quality physical activity and sport opportunities in childhood and adolescence, will help develop and strengthen the health and physical literacy skills needed to promote lifelong participation in sport and physical activity.

Availability of data and materials

The data are available from the corresponding author on request.

Change history

29 april 2022.

In the original publication, the sentence in the Conclusions section of the Abstract consisted of a typo. The article has been updated to rectify the error.

Abbreviations

European Economic Area

Global Action Plan on Physical Activity

Joanna Briggs Institution

Socioeconomic status

World Health Organisation

Bull FC, Al-Ansari SS, Biddle S, Borodulin K, Buman MP, Cardon G, et al. World Health Organization 2020 guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. Br J Sports Med. 2020;54(24):1451–62.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Hayes G, Dowd KP, MacDonncha C, Donnelly AE. Tracking of physical activity and sedentary behavior from adolescence to young adulthood: a systematic literature review. J Adolesc Health. 2019;65(4):446–54.

Guthold R, Stevens GA, Riley LM, Bull FC. Global trends in insufficient physical activity among adolescents: a pooled analysis of 298 population-based surveys with 1· 6 million participants. Lancet Child Adolescent Health. 2020;4(1):23–35.

Stalsberg R, Pedersen AV. Effects of socioeconomic status on the physical activity in adolescents: a systematic review of the evidence. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2010;20(3):368–83.

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Sallis JF, Prochaska JJ, Taylor WC. A review of correlates of physical activity of children and adolescents. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;32(5):963–75.

Ferreira I, Van Der Horst K, Wendel-Vos W, Kremers S, Van Lenthe FJ, Brug J. Environmental correlates of physical activity in youth–a review and update. Obes Rev. 2007;8(2):129–54.

Macintyre S, Mutrie N. Socio-economic differences in cardiovascular disease and physical activity: stereotypes and reality. J R Soc Promot Heal. 2004;124(2):66–9.

Article   Google Scholar  

Vale S, Ricardo N, Soares-Miranda L, Santos R, Moreira C, Mota J. Parental education and physical activity in pre-school children. Child Care Health Dev. 2014;40(3):446–52.

Alliott O, Ryan M, Fairbrother H, Van Sluijs E. Do adolescents' experiences of the barriers to and facilitators of physical activity differ by socioeconomic position? Obesity Reviews: A systematic review of qualitative evidence; 2021.

Google Scholar  

Kantomaa MT, Tammelin TH, Näyhä S, Taanila AM. Adolescents' physical activity in relation to family income and parents' education. Prev Med. 2007;44(5):410–5.

World Health Organization. Global action plan on physical activity 2018–2030: more active people for a healthier world. In: Organization WH, editor. Geneva 2018.

Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. 2021;372. https://doi.org/10.31222/osf.io/v7gm2 .

Chastin S, Van Cauwenberg J, Maenhout L, Cardon G, Lambert E, Van Dyck D. Inequality in physical activity, global trends by income inequality and gender in adults. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2020;17(1):1–8.

Dollman J, Lewis NR. The impact of socioeconomic position on sport participation among south Australian youth. J Sci Med Sport. 2010;13(3):318–22.

Eime R, Charity M, Harvey J, Payne W. Participation in sport and physical activity: associations with socio-economic status and geographical remoteness. BMC Public Health. 2015;15(1):1–12.

Moola S, Munn Z, Tufanaru C, Aromataris E, Sears K, Sfetcu R, et al. Chapter 7: systematic reviews of etiology and risk. In: Aromataris E, Munn Z, editors. JBI Manual for Evidence Synthesis 2020.

Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. 2nd ed. Hillsdale: Erlbaum; 1988.

Chen H, Cohen P, Chen S. How big is a big odds ratio? Interpreting the magnitudes of odds ratios in epidemiological studies. Communications in Statistics—simulation and Computation®. 2010;39(4):860–4.

Field AP. The problems in using fixed-effects models of meta-analysis on real-world data. Understanding Statistics: Statistical Issues in Psychology, Education, and the Social Sciences. 2003;2(2):105–24.

Ahn S, Ames AJ, Myers ND. A review of meta-analyses in education: methodological strengths and weaknesses. Rev Educ Res. 2012;82(4):436–76.

Cheung MW-L. Modeling dependent effect sizes with three-level meta-analyses: a structural equation modeling approach. Psychol Methods. 2014;19(2):211.

Van Den Noortgate W, Onghena P. Multilevel meta-analysis: a comparison with traditional meta-analytical procedures. Educ Psychol Meas. 2003;63(5):765–90.

Marsh HW, Bornmann L, Mutz R, Daniel H-D, O’Mara A. Gender effects in the peer reviews of grant proposals: a comprehensive meta-analysis comparing traditional and multilevel approaches. Rev Educ Res. 2009;79(3):1290–326.

Cheung MW-L. metaSEM: An R package for meta-analysis using structural equation modeling. Front Psychol. 2015;5:1521.

Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.handbook.cochrane.org . [Internet]. 2011.

Eime R, Harvey J, Charity M. Sport drop-out during adolescence: is it real, or an artefact of sampling behaviour? International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics. 2019;11(4):715–26.

Blaes A, Baquet G, Van Praagh E, Berthoin S. Physical activity patterns in French youth—from childhood to adolescence—monitored with high-frequency accelerometry. Am J Hum Biol. 2011;23(3):353–8.

Sallis JF. Age-related decline in physical activity: a synthesis of human and animal studies. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;32(9):1598–600.

Esposito L, Fisher JO, Mennella JA, Hoelscher DM, Huang TT. Developmental perspectives on nutrition and obesity from gestation to adolescence. Prev Chronic Dis. 2009;6(3). http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2009/jul/09_0014.htm .

Owen KB, Bauman A, Torske MO. Letter by Owen et al Regarding Article,“Dog Ownership and Survival: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis”. Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes 2020;13(10):e006906.

Sterne J, Egger M, Moher D. Chapter 10: Addressing reporting biases. In: Higgins J, Green S, editors. Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of intervention Version 510 (updated March 2011) The Cochrane. Collaboration Available from http://www.cochrane-handbookorg .2011

Egger M, Smith GD, Schneider M, Minder C. Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. Bmj. 1997;315(7109):629–34.

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Hultcrantz M, Rind D, Akl EA, Treweek S, Mustafa RA, Iorio A, et al. The GRADE working group clarifies the construct of certainty of evidence. J Clin Epidemiol. 2017;87:4–13.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Dolinsky DH, Brouwer RJ, Evenson KR, Siega-Riz AM, Østbye T. Correlates of sedentary time and physical activity among preschoolaged children. Prev Chronic Dis. 2011;8(6):A131. http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2011/nov/11_0006.htm .

Zuckerman SL, Zalneraitis BH, Totten DJ, Rubel KE, Kuhn AW, Yengo-Kahn AM, et al. Socioeconomic status and outcomes after sport-related concussion: a preliminary investigation. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2017;19(6):652–61.

Watson KB, Harris CD, Carlson SA, Dorn JM, Fulton JE. Disparities in adolescents’ residence in neighborhoods supportive of physical activity—United States, 2011–2012. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65(23):598–601.

Harvey A, Faulkner G, Giangregorio L, Leatherdale ST. An examination of school-and student-level characteristics associated with the likelihood of students’ meeting the Canadian physical activity guidelines in the COMPASS study. Can J Public Health. 2017;108(4):348–54.

Article   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Mota J, Santos R, Pereira M, Teixeira L, Santos MP. Perceived neighbourhood environmental characteristics and physical activity according to socioeconomic status in adolescent girls. Ann Hum Biol. 2011;38(1):1–6.

O’Donoghue G, Kennedy A, Puggina A, Aleksovska K, Buck C, Burns C, et al. Socio-economic determinants of physical activity across the life course: a" DEterminants of DIet and physical ACtivity"(DEDIPAC) umbrella literature review. PLoS One. 2018;13(1):e0190737.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   CAS   Google Scholar  

Miklánková L, Górny M, Klimešová I. The relationship between the family’s socio-economic status and physical activity level of pre-school children; 2016.

Macniven R, Foley BC, Owen KB, Evans JR, Bauman AE, Reece LJ. Physical activity and sport participation characteristics of indigenous children registered in the active kids voucher program in New South Wales. J Sci Med Sport. 2020;23(12):1178–84.

Lehto E, Ray C, Vepsäläinen H, Korkalo L, Lehto R, Kaukonen R, et al. Increased health and wellbeing in preschools (DAGIS) study—differences in children’s energy balance-related behaviors (EBRBs) and in long-term stress by parental educational level. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018;15(10):2313.

Andersen PL, Bakken A. Social class differences in youths’ participation in organized sports: what are the mechanisms? Int Rev Sociol Sport. 2019;54(8):921–37.

World Health Organization. Declaration of Alma-Ata. Paper presented at the International Conference on Primary Health Care, Alma-Ata, USSR. https://www.who.int/publications/almaata_declaration_en.pdf . 1978.

Whitehead M. The concepts and principles of equity and health. Health Promot Int. 1991;6(3):217–28.

Amri MM, Jessiman-Perreault G, Siddiqi A, O’Campo P, Enright T, Di Ruggiero E. Scoping review of the World Health Organization’s underlying equity discourses: apparent ambiguities, inadequacy, and contradictions. Int J Equity Health. 2021;20(1):1–16.

World Health Organization. Fair Play: Building a strong physical activity system for more active people. Geneva. WHO-HEP-HPR-RUN-2021.1 https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-HEP-HPR-RUN-2021.1 2021.

Van Der Horst K, Paw MJCA, Twisk JW, Van Mechelen W. A brief review on correlates of physical activity and sedentariness in youth. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39(8):1241–50.

Hulteen RM, Smith JJ, Morgan PJ, Barnett LM, Hallal PC, Colyvas K, et al. Global participation in sport and leisure-time physical activities: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Prev Med. 2017;95:14–25.

Reece L, McInerney C, Blazek K, Foley B, Schmutz L, Bellew B, et al. Reducing financial barriers through the implementation of voucher incentives to promote children’s participation in community sport in Australia. BMC Public Health. 2020;20(1):1–7.

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Foley BC, Owen KB, Bauman AE, Bellew W, Reece LJ. Effects of the active kids voucher program on children and adolescents’ physical activity: a natural experiment evaluating a state-wide intervention. BMC Public Health. 2021;21(1):1–16.

Owen KB, Foley BC, Bauman A, Bellew B, Reece LJ. Parental awareness and engagement in the active kids program across socioeconomic groups. J Sci Med Sport. 2020;23(8):753–7.

Cf O. Transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. New York: United Nations; 2015.

UNESCO. Kazan Action Plan, available from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0025/002527/252725e.pdf . 2017.

Eime RM, Young JA, Harvey JT, Charity MJ, Payne WR. A systematic review of the psychological and social benefits of participation in sport for children and adolescents: informing development of a conceptual model of health through sport. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2013;10(1):1–21.

Sandford RA, Duncombe R, Armour KM. The role of physical activity/sport in tackling youth disaffection and anti-social behaviour. Educ Rev. 2008;60(4):419–35.

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Australia’s children. Cat. no. CWS 69. Canberra: AIHW. 2020.

Chzhen Y, Moor I, Pickett W, Toczydlowska E, Stevens GW. International trends in ‘bottom-end’inequality in adolescent physical activity and nutrition: HBSC study 2002–2014. Eur J Public Health. 2018;28(4):624–30.

Goodman E, Adler NE, Kawachi I, Frazier AL, Huang B, Colditz GA. Adolescents' perceptions of social status: development and evaluation of a new indicator. Pediatrics. 2001;108(2):e31-e.

World Health Organization. Health inequities and their causes. 2018.

Geyer S, Hemström Ö, Peter R, Vågerö D. Education, income, and occupational class cannot be used interchangeably in social epidemiology. Empirical evidence against a common practice. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2006;60(9):804–10.

Dickersin K. Publication bias. The most advanced technology has been used to photo graph and reproduce this manuscript from the microfilm master UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type. 1994;1001:12.

Download references

Acknowledgements

Not applicable.

No funding was used.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

SPRINTER, Prevention Research Collaboration, Level 6, Charles Perkins Centre, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia

Katherine B. Owen, Lindsey J. Reece, William Bellew, Catriona Rose & Adrian Bauman

Prevention Research Collaboration, Sydney School of Public Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Katherine B. Owen, Tracy Nau, Lindsey J. Reece, William Bellew, Catriona Rose, Adrian Bauman & Ben J. Smith

The Australian Prevention Partnership Centre, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Tracy Nau, William Bellew, Adrian Bauman & Ben J. Smith

Centre for Healthcare Resilience and Implementation Science and the NHMRC Partnership Centre for Health System Sustainability, Australian Institute of Health Innovation, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Nicole K. Halim

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors formulated the idea for the review article; TN performed the literature search; all authors conducted the article screening; KBO performed the data analysis; KBO, TN, and WB drafted the manuscript; all authors critically revised and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Katherine B. Owen .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate, consent for publication, competing interests.

All authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest relevant to the content of this review.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Additional file 1., additional file 2., additional file 3., additional file 4., rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Owen, K.B., Nau, T., Reece, L.J. et al. Fair play? Participation equity in organised sport and physical activity among children and adolescents in high income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 19 , 27 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-022-01263-7

Download citation

Received : 05 November 2021

Accepted : 24 February 2022

Published : 18 March 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-022-01263-7

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Socioeconomic position
• Socioeconomic inequalities
• Socioeconomic disparities
• Physical activity
• Adolescents
• Systematic review
• meta-analysis

International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity

ISSN: 1479-5868

• Submission enquiries: Access here and click Contact Us
• General enquiries: [email protected]

Systematic Review of Research on Fair Play and Sporting Competition.

Chat with Paper: Save time, read 10X faster with AI

Citation Count

Fair play in sport: a moral norm system.

The competitive balance, citius, altius, fortius, moral identity and attitudes towards doping in sport: whether perception of fair play matters., perceived motivational climates and doping intention in adolescent athletes: the mediating role of moral disengagement and sportspersonship., preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the prisma statement, the preventable causes of death in the united states: comparative risk assessment of dietary, lifestyle, and metabolic risk factors, no contest: the case against competition, cost-effectiveness of interventions to promote physical activity: a modelling study, an integrative analysis of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in sport., related papers (5).

(Stanford users can avoid this Captcha by logging in.)

Stanford Libraries will be undergoing a system upgrade beginning Friday, June 21 at 5pm through Sunday, June 23.

During the upgrade, libraries will be open regular hours and eligible materials may be checked out. Item status and availability information may not be up to date. Requests cannot be submitted and My Library Account will not be available during the upgrade.

• Send to text email RefWorks RIS download printer

Systematic Review of Research on Fair Play and Sporting Competition

About this article.

• Stanford Home
• Maps & Directions
• Search Stanford
• Emergency Info
• Terms of Use
• Non-Discrimination
• Accessibility

© Stanford University , Stanford , California 94305 .

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• PubMed/Medline
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Fair play in a context of physical education and sports behaviours.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. participants and procedure, 2.2. fair play moral dimensions concept scale (fpmdcs), 2.3. my physical education class (mpec), 2.4. ethics, 2.5. statistic, 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

• Lancy, D.F.; Grove, M.A. Marbles and Machiavelli: The role of game play in children’s social development. Am. J. Play 2017 , 3 , 489–499. [ Google Scholar ]
• Buchs, C.; Filippou, D.; Pulfrey, C.; Volpé, Y. Challenges for cooperative learning implementation: Reports from elementary school teachers. J. Educ. Teach. 2017 , 43 , 296–306. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Council of Europe. Declaration on Sport, Tolerance and Fair Play. Available online: http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/sport/resources/texts/spdecl_en.asp (accessed on 21 November 2021).
• Izquierdo, C.; Anguera, M.T. The Analysis of Interpersonal Communication in Sport From Mixed Methods Strategy: The Integration of Qualitative-Quantitative Elements Using Systematic Observation. Front. Psychol. 2021 , 12 , 637304. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Cronin, L.D.; Allen, J. Examining the relationships among the coaching climate, life skills development and well-being in sport. Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach. 2018 , 13 , 815–827. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Graupensperger, S.A.; Jensen, C.J.; Evans, M.B. A meta-analytic review of studies using the Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior in Sport Scale: Associations among intergroup moral behaviors. Sport Exerc. Perform. Psychol. 2018 , 7 , 186–204. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Serrano-Durá, J.; Molina, P.; Martínez-Baena, A. Systematic review of research on fair play and sporting competition. Sport Educ. Soc. 2021 , 26 , 648–662. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Simon, R.L.; Torres, C.R.; Hager, P.H. Fair Play. The Ethics of Sports , 4th ed.; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2018. [ Google Scholar ]
• Boixados, M.A.; Cruz, J.; Torregrossa, M.; Valiente, L. Relationships among Motivational Climate, Satisfaction, Perceived Ability, and Fair Play Attitudes in Young Soccer Players. J. Appl. Sport Psychol. 2004 , 16 , 301–317. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lipoński, W. Landmarks in British History and Culture. A Monograph of Selected Issues , 1st ed.; Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM: Poznań, Poland, 2016. [ Google Scholar ]
• Olympic Charter. Available online: https://stillmed.olympic.org/media/Document%20Library/OlympicOrg/General/EN-Olympic-Charter.pdf (accessed on 12 October 2020).
• Parry, J. The Moral and Cultural Dimensions of Olympism and their Educational Application. In 100 Years as from the Foundation of the IOC: Commitments of the International Olympic Movement Towards the Modern Society of the 21st Century ; Georgiadis, K., Ed.; International Olympic Academy: Olympia, Greece, 1995; pp. 181–195. [ Google Scholar ]
• Culpan, I. Olympism, physical education, and critical pedagogy. Eur. Phys. Educ. Rev. 2019 , 5 , 847–858. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kohlberg, L. Moral stages and moralization: The cognitive-development approach. In Moral Development and Behavior: Theory Research and Social Issues , 1st ed.; Lickona, T., Ed.; Holt, Rinehart and Winston: New York, NY, USA, 1976; pp. 31–53. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gavaghan, M.P.; Arnold, K.D.; Gibbs, J.C. Moral judgment in delinquents and nondelinquents: Recognition versus production measures. J. Psychol. 1983 , 114 , 267–274. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gibbs, J.C.; Basinger, K.S.; Fuller, D. Moral Maturity: Measuring the Development of Sociomoral Reflection ; Erlbaum: Hillsdale, NJ, USA, 1992. [ Google Scholar ]
• Rest, J. Moral Development: Advances in Research and Theory ; Paeger: New York, NY, USA, 1986. [ Google Scholar ]
• Cheung, C.K.; Chan, W.T.; Lee, T.Y.; Liu, S.C.; Leung, K.K. Structure of moral consciousness and moral intentions among youth in Hong Kong. Int. J. Adolesc. Youth 2001 , 9 , 83–116. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kohlberg, L. The Philosophy of Moral Development Moral Stages and the Idea of Justice , 1st ed.; Harper & Row: San Francisco, CA, USA, 1981. [ Google Scholar ]
• Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. Moral Reasoning. Available online: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reasoning-moral/#DefiMoraReas (accessed on 15 September 2021).
• Doehne, M.; von Grundherr, M.; Schäfer, M. Peer influence in bullying: The autonomy-enhancing effect of moral competence. Aggress. Behav. 2018 , 44 , 591–600. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Bronikowska, M.; Korcz, A.; Krzysztoszek, J.; Bronikowski, M. How Years of Sport Training Influence the Level of Moral Competences of Physical Education and Sport Students. Biomed. Res. Int. 2019 , 4 , 1–10. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Bandura, A. Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process 1991 , 50 , 248–287. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Candee, D.; Kohlberg, L. Moral judgment and moral action: A reanalysis of Haan, Smith, and Block’s (1968) Free Speech Movement data. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 1987 , 52 , 554–564. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gibbons, S.L.; Ebbeck, V. The effect of different teaching strategies on the moral development of physical education students. J. Teach. Phys. Educ. 1997 , 17 , 85–98. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bond, M.H.; Chi, V.M.Y. Values and moral behavior in mainland China. Psychol. Int. J. Psychol. Orient 1997 , 40 , 251–264. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gibbons, S.; Ebbeck, V.; Weiss, M. Fair Play for Kids: Effects on the Moral Development of Children in Physical Education. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport. 1995 , 66 , 247–255. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Shields, D.L.; Bredemeier, B.J. Character Development and Physical Activity , 1st ed.; Human Kinetics: Champaign, IL, USA, 1995. [ Google Scholar ]
• Grammatikopoulos, V.; Hassandra, M.; Koustelios, A.; Theodoriakis, Y. Evaluating the Olympic education program: A qualitative approach. Stud. Educ. Eval. 2005 , 31 , 347–357. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Podstawa Programowa. Podstawa Programowa Kształcenia Ogólnego dla Czteroletniego Liceum Ogólnokształcącego i Pięcioletniego Technikum z Przedmiotu Wychowanie Fizyczne. Available online: https://podstawaprogramowa.pl/Liceum-technikum/Wychowanie-fizyczne (accessed on 30 July 2021).
• IOC Young Leaders. Be the Change through Sport. Available online: https://stillmed.olympics.com/media/Document%20Library/OlympicOrg/IOC/What-We-Do/Promote-Olympism/Young-Leaders/Young-Leaders.pdf (accessed on 14 January 2022).
• Parry, J. Physical Education as Olympic Education. Eur. Phy. Educ. 1998 , 4 , 56–69. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Binder, D. Teaching Olympism in Schools: Olympic Education as a Focus on Values Education. Bello Tera: Centre d’Estudis Olimpics (UAB). International Chair in Olympism (IOC-UAB). 2005. Available online: http://olympicstudies.uab.es/lec/pdf/binder.pdf (accessed on 14 May 2021).
• Naul, R. Olympic Education , 2nd ed.; Meyer & Meyer Sport: Oxford, UK, 2008. [ Google Scholar ]
• Weiss, M.R.; Smith, A.L.; Stuntz, C.P. Moral Development in Sport and Physical Activity: Theory, Research, and Intervention , 3rd ed.; T.S. Horn: Champaign, IL, USA, 2008; pp. 187–210. [ Google Scholar ]
• Power, F.C.; Higgins-D’Alessandro, A. The just community approach to moral education and the moral atmosphere of the school. In Moral and Character Education , 1st ed.; Nucci, L., Narvaez, D., Eds.; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2008; pp. 230–247. [ Google Scholar ]
• Opstoel, K.; Chapelle, L.; Prins, F.J.; De Meester, A.; Haerens, L.; van Tartwijk, J.; De Martelaer, K. Personal and social development in physical education and sports: A review study. Eur. Phy. Educ. 2020 , 26 , 797–813. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Pennington, C. Moral development and sportsmanship in interscholastic sports and physical education. J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Danc. 2017 , 88 , 36–42. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Olympic Agenda 2020+5, 15 Recommendations. Available online: https://stillmed.olympics.com/media/Document%20Library/OlympicOrg/IOC/What-We-Do/Olympic-agenda/Olympic-Agenda-2020-5-15-recommendations.pdf (accessed on 14 January 2022).
• Culpan, I.; Wigmore, S. The Delivery of Olympism Education within a Physical Education Context Drawing on Critical Pedagogy. Int. J. Sport Health Sci. 2010 , 8 , 67–76. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Naul, R.; Binder, D.; Rychtecký, A.; Culpan, I. Olympic education as an academic study. In Olympic Education: An international review , 1st ed.; Naul, R., Binder, D., Rychtecký, A., Culpan, I., Eds.; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2017; pp. 344–350. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bronikowska, M.; Korcz, A.; Pluta, B.; Krzysztoszek, J.; Ludwiczak, M.; Łopatka, M.; Wawrzyniak, S.; Kowalska, J.E.; Bronikowski, M. Fair play in physical education and beyond. Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 7064. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Bronikowski, M. Etyczne aspekty wychowawczego programu edukacji olimpijskiej. Wnioski z badań. Rocz. Nauk. AWF Gdan. 2001 , 10 , 141–173. [ Google Scholar ]
• Glapa, A.; Bronikowski, M.; Laudańska-Krzemińska, I. Do students really need Olympic education at school? Stud. Sport Hum. 2016 , 19 , 30–36. [ Google Scholar ]
• Siedentop, D. Sport Education: Quality Physical Education through Positive Sport Experiences , 1st ed.; Human Kinetics: Champaign, IL, USA, 1994. [ Google Scholar ]
• Navarro Domínguez, B.; Cerrada Nogales, J.A.; Abad Robles, M.T.; Giménez Fuentes-Guerra, F.J. The Development of Fair Play in Physical Education and School Sports: A Systematic Review. Eur. J. Contemp. Educ. 2021 , 10 , 308–323. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kowalska, J.E. Fair play i faul play w swiadomosci uczniow Greig City Academy w Londynie. Awareness of fair play and foul play among the students of Greig City Academy in London. J. Educ. Health Sport 2015 , 5 , 457–473. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bronikowska, M.; Korcz, A.; Bronikowski, M. The role of sports practice in young adolescent development of moral competence. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020 , 17 , 5324. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Collins English Dictionary. Definition if “Amateurism”. Available online: https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/amateurism (accessed on 12 January 2022).
• Setia, M.S. Methodology series module 3: Cross-sectional studies. Indian J. Dermatol. 2016 , 61 , 261–264. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Horrocks, R.N. Sportsmanship: Moral reasoning. Phys. Educ. 1980 , 37 , 208–212. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bloom, G.A.; Smith, M.D. Hockey violence: A test of cultural spillover theory. Sociol. Sport J. 1996 , 13 , 65–77. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rutten, E.A.; Schuengel, C.; Dirks, E.; Stams, G.J.J.; Biesta, G.J.; Hoeksma, J.B. Predictors of antisocial and prosocial behavior in an adolescent sports context. Soc. Dev. 2011 , 20 , 294–315. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Rutten, E.A.; Deković, M.; Stams, G.J.J.; Schuengel, C.; Hoeksma, J.B.; Biesta, G.J. On-and off-field antisocial and prosocial behavior in adolescent soccer players: A multilevel study. J. Adolesc. 2008 , 31 , 371–387. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Vidoni, C.; Ward, P. Effects of a dependent group-oriented contingency on middle school physical education students’ fair play behaviors. J. Behav. Educ. 2006 , 15 , 80–91. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Palou, P.; Ponseti, F.X.; Cruz, J.; Vidal, J.; Cantallops, J.; Borras, P.A.; Garcia-Mas, A. Acceptance of gamesmanship and cheating in young competitive athletes in relation to the motivational climate generated by parents and coaches. Percept. Mot. Skill. 2013 , 117 , 290–303. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cruz, J.; Ponseti, F.X.; Sampaio, M.; Gamito, J.M.; Marques, A.; Vinas, H.; Borrueco, M.; Carvalho, L.; Garcia-Mas, A. Effects of a Psychology–Based training programme on football grassroots coaches upon young player’s sportspersonship and disposition to cheat. J. Sport Psychol. 2018 , 27 , 23–27. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hodge, K.; Lonsdale, C. Prosocial and antisocial behavior in sport: The role of coaching style, autonomous vs controlled motivation, and moral disengagement. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 2011 , 33 , 527–547. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sheridan, S. Building social skills in the classroom. In Understanding and Managing Children’s Classroom Behavior , 1st ed.; Goldstein, S., Ed.; Wiley Interscience Press: Indianapolis, IN, USA, 1995; pp. 375–396. [ Google Scholar ]
• Koszałka-Silska, A.; Korcz, A.; Wiza, A. The Impact of Physical Education Based on the Adventure Education Programme on Self-esteem and Social Competences of Adolescent Boys. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021 , 18 , 3021. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kowalska, J.E. The principle of fair play in the aspect of responsibility in the opinion of junior high schools students-Supporting sport clubs in Lodz. J. Educ. Health Sport 2018 , 8 , 836–848. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Saenz Ibanez, A.; Gimeno Marco, F.; Gutierrez Pablo, H.; Lacambra Correas, D. Evaluation of the Sportsmanship-Aggression Continuum in Youth Football. Rev. Psicol. Deporte 2019 , 28 , 33–40. [ Google Scholar ]
• Milovanović, I.; Roklicer, R.; Drid, P. The relation between youth sport and the reduction of peer violence. FU. Phys. Ed. Sport. 2019 , 17 , 479–490. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bowker, A.; Boekhoven, B.; Nolan, A.; Bauhaus, S.; Glover, P.; Powell, T.; Taylor, S. Naturalistic observations of spectator behavior at youth hockey games. Sport Psychol. 2009 , 23 , 301–316. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Dolan, P.; Connolly, J. Emotions, Violence and Social Belonging: An Elysian Analysis of Sports Spectatorship. Br. J. Sociol. 2014 , 48 , 284–299. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Krebs, D.L.; Denton, K. Toward a More Pragmatic Approach to Morality: A Critical Evaluation of Kohlberg’s Model. Psychol. Rev. 2005 , 112 , 629–649. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Gibbs, J.C. Moral Development and Reality: Beyond the Theories of Kohlberg, Hoffman, and Haidt , 4th ed.; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA, 2019. [ Google Scholar ]
• Pizarro, D.A.; Bloom, P. The intelligence of the moral intuitions: A comment on Haidt. Psychol. Rev. 2003 , 110 , 193–196. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Steinberg, L. Risk taking in adolescence: New perspectives from brain and behavioral science. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 2007 , 16 , 55–59. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Koh, K.T.; Ong, S.W.; Camiré, M. Implementation of a values training program in physical education and sport: Perspectives from teachers, coaches, students, and athletes. Phys. Educ. Sport. Pedagog. 2016 , 21 , 295–312. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Vella, S.A.; Oades, L.G.; Crowe, T.P. A pilot test of transformational leadership training for sports coaches: Impact on the developmental experiences of adolescent athletes. Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach. 2013 , 8 , 513–530. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Lee, M. Values and responsibilities in childrens sports. Phys. Act. Rev. 1988 , 11 , 19–27. [ Google Scholar ]

Share and Cite

Ludwiczak, M.; Bronikowska, M. Fair Play in a Context of Physical Education and Sports Behaviours. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022 , 19 , 2452. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042452

Ludwiczak M, Bronikowska M. Fair Play in a Context of Physical Education and Sports Behaviours. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health . 2022; 19(4):2452. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042452

Ludwiczak, Mateusz, and Małgorzata Bronikowska. 2022. "Fair Play in a Context of Physical Education and Sports Behaviours" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 4: 2452. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042452

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Int J Environ Res Public Health

Moral Identity and Attitudes towards Doping in Sport: Whether Perception of Fair Play Matters

Associated data.

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Research evidence suggests that athletes’ attitudes towards banned substances are among the strongest predictors of intention to use or actual practice of doping. Previous research has found that personal morality was negatively related to doping attitudes. However, less is known about the role of athletes’ perceptions of fair play on their attitudes towards doping. First, we examined whether moral identity was associated with athletes’ attitudes towards doping and whether their perceptions of fair play mediated this relationship. The second purpose was to determine whether these associations differed among non-athletes. Overall, 365 university students (49.9% males, 55.3% athletes) participated in this study (mean age 22.02, SD = 6.58). They completed questionnaires measuring the aforementioned variables. The results showed that athletes’ moral identity and endorsement of fair play were negatively associated with their attitudes towards doping. The mediation analyses showed that the effect of moral identity on attitudes towards doping was partially mediated by perceptions of fair play (indirect effect, β = −0.10, p < 0.05). Unlike student athletes, non-athletes’ moral identity negatively predicted attitudes towards doping only indirectly, via fair play perception (indirect effect, β = −0.08, p < 0.05). The study provides insights into how a person’s morality and perception of moral values in sport may act as factors related to doping in sport. The practical implications for the promotion of anti-doping attitudes for athletes and separately for student non-athletes were provided together with future research perspectives.

1. Introduction

Sport has to provide opportunities for athletes to compete and thus demonstrate their skills in fair play [ 1 , 2 ]. However, in contemporary highly competitive sport, moral norms are often overlooked for other more selfish interests, such as winning at any cost [ 3 ]. Therefore, some athletes not only try to put effort into improving their mastery in order to succeed, but at the same time take risks by using banned performance-enhancing drugs or methods referred to as doping. Some studies have revealed that up to 57% of elite athletes use doping for performance improvement [ 4 ]. World Anti-Doping Agency doping control tests showed that different groups of banned substances are disproportionately spread in different sports disciplines but doping itself is used in both individual and team sports [ 5 ]. Although efforts are being made to test athletes more, this has not yet yielded significant results [ 6 ]. Therefore, in order to develop and improve doping prevention programs, it is important to have a good understanding of the factors that influence athletes’ choices to use doping in sport [ 7 , 8 ].

Research suggests that various personal and psychosocial factors influence athletes’ choices to use doping [ 9 , 10 ], but the attitudes of athletes play a special role. The evidence suggests that attitudes are reliable predictors of behavior [ 11 ]. A meta-analysis of Ntoumanis et al. [ 10 ] and Blank et al. [ 9 ] found that athletes’ attitudes towards banned substances were among the strongest predictors of intention to use or actual practice of doping. Besides, a recent study by Nicholls et al. [ 12 ] also suggested that athletes’ more positive attitudes towards doping were related to cheating behaviors. Therefore, understanding the factors that influence a person’s attitudes towards doping is important.

To date, much is already known about personal and social contextual and personal factors influencing athletes’ attitudes towards doping. Considering the social context, evidence suggests that the people surrounding the athlete (especially the coach) are important in shaping athletes’ attitudes towards doping. Trust, a respect-based relationship between the coach and athletes [ 13 , 14 ], the coach endorsing anti-doping attitudes [ 14 ] as well as a secure attachment to the coach and teammates influence anti-doping attitudes [ 15 ]. Greater perceived social pressure to engage in doping [ 16 ], athletes’ contacts with doping users also related to more positive attitude towards doping [ 17 ]. Thus, the environments in the team and its standards are of vital importance [ 18 ] likewise sports culture [ 9 ].

However, personal factors are also important. Several studies have revealed positive associations between extrinsic motivation and athletes’ attitudes towards doping [ 17 , 19 , 20 ]. Attitudes towards doping are also related to personality traits. Previous studies found that athletes with extremely high perfectionism levels were more inclined towards doping [ 17 , 21 ]. In addition, it was found that striving for perfectionism negatively predicted, while perfectionism concerns positively predicted athletes’ attitudes towards doping [ 20 , 22 ]. Athletes’ perceptions of competence and success also are important variables. As evidence suggests, task orientation was negatively related, and ego orientation was positively related, to attitudes towards the use of doping [ 18 , 22 ]. It is also important to understand how the essential moral principles or moral values in sport are perceived. How athletes understand and respect the rules, rituals, and traditions of sport and are able to distinguish what is good and bad is associated with the concept of sportsmanship [ 23 ], which is very close to the definition of fair play that represents what is morally right and characterizes good sporting competition [ 24 ]. Some studies showed that sportsmanship orientation is negatively related to the intention to use doping [ 16 ]. So, how a person perceives what is morally right in a sport may reflect certain personal values, and in turn, personal attitudes may reflect the expression of certain values. As previous research has revealed, moral values of athletes in sport activities may be negatively related to their attitudes to deception [ 25 ]. Therefore, the perception of fair play as an expression of what is morally right in sport is an important variable and might affect attitudes to doping in sport, which has so far received insufficient attention in research.

The use of banned performance-enhancing substances in sport is associated with a moral choice, a choice based on principles of right and wrong [ 26 ]. Thus, personal morality, among other factors, is important [ 26 ]. Some scholars indicate that personal morality might be the most important influencing variable in doping attitudes [ 27 , 28 ]. Based on a social cognitive theory [ 29 ], individuals develop moral standards that govern their behaviors. People’s actions depend on their moral standards and therefore we are personally responsible for our actions. Emotions are also a very important factor in regulating moral actions. It has been found that unpleasant emotional consequences such as self-condemnation and guilt can help an athlete refrain from using prohibited substances [ 30 , 31 ]. However, sometimes people behave immorally, violating their personal moral standards without self-sanction via the use of moral disengagement [ 29 ]. It is noteworthy that many studies have been conducted recently that have revealed that moral disengagement is directly or indirectly related to doping attitudes [ 32 , 33 ] and is especially related to the likelihood or intention to use doping [ 34 , 35 , 36 ].

Another important factor related to moral behavior is moral identity. Aquino and Reed [ 37 ] defined moral identity as a self-regulatory mechanism. Specifically, this construct refers to a cognitive schema that people hold about their moral character and reflects the importance that one places on being a moral person [ 37 ]. Moral identity can help to maintain a balance between how we perceive ourselves as a moral self and our actions [ 38 ]. Therefore, a strong moral identity can motivate people to act morally [ 38 ]. In addition, they do not have to activate moral disengagement mechanisms to suppress the effects of negative emotions associated with unethical behavior [ 34 ]. We suppose this construct is also very important as it is beyond sport, i.e., moral identity describes the degree to which being a moral person is central to one’s self-concept, not just a moral person as an athlete [ 37 , 39 ]. However, the ways that the moral identity of athletes is related to doping behavior have been more actively addressed only in recent years. A qualitative study by Erickson et al. [ 13 ] showed that a strong moral stance was important as a protective factor against doping in sport. Other quantitative studies confirmed that moral identity negatively predicted athletes’ doping likelihood [ 34 , 35 , 40 ]. Stanger and Backhouse’s [ 36 ] results also showed that athletes with a stronger moral identity were less likely to use a banned substance even if they were more susceptible to justify doping. These significant studies provided evidence that moral identity was an important factor in analyzing doping issues. Therefore, based on the findings of these studies, it is possible to suppose that athletes with a stronger moral identity may have less-positive attitudes towards doping. However, research has not yet addressed this possibility.

The Present Study

Research evidence suggests that various contextual and personal factors are related to athletes’ attitudes towards doping [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 ]. In this study, we focus more on personal factors, the role of which in doping attitudes is less clear. Specifically, less attention has been paid to the role of moral identity in predicting athletes’ attitudes towards doping. Furthermore, so far, there are contradictory data regarding the perceptions of moral principles in sport as well as values related to the attitudes of athletes towards doping, especially among adult athletes. This is important as it will complement existing data on the importance of moral identity in understanding doping-related behaviors, thus it will also help to better understand the importance of athletes ’perceptions of moral principles in our study—the perception of fair play. Therefore, the purpose of our study was to examine whether moral identity was associated with athletes’ attitudes toward doping and whether perceptions of fair play mediated this relationship. Based on previous findings on the likelihood to use doping [ 34 , 35 , 40 ], we hypothesized that moral identity would be inversely associated with attitudes towards doping. As perceived moral values in sport can negatively predict attitudes on cheating behavior [ 25 ], we also expected that an endorsement of fair play, as an expression of moral principles in sport, would be negatively associated with doping attitudes. Finally, we hypothesized that the perception of fair play would mediate the relationship between moral identity and attitudes towards doping.

Researchers [ 34 ] note that most studies examining the association between moral identity and doping were conducted with British athletes, thus it is relevant to continue such research with participants from other countries. In this sense, our study contributes to this call. However, in our study, we also want to point out that researchers have not examined how moral identity is related to attitudes towards doping in sport among non-athletes, thus whether our hypotheses will also be supported. A better understanding of how doping is perceived and valued not only by athletes but also by people not participating in sport is important for an effective anti-doping strategy [ 41 ]. Not only modern testing tools and financial resources for athletes, but also public support, are important in the fight against doping. Research with adults shows that most of them are against doping in sport [ 41 , 42 ]. Longitudinal observations have also shown that people, like athletes, tend to see doping in sport as a more serious problem [ 41 ]. However, observing the change in students’ attitudes during the study year, it was observed that there was a tendency to support the internationally promoted “zero tolerance” policy less, and students became more tolerant of using doping [ 43 ]. In addition, in the evaluations of doping, there may be a conflict of values where the sports achievements of athletes of a favorite team or country are seen as more important than how fairly they achieved it. People who are very interested in sport have been found to have more liberal attitudes towards doping and related scandals [ 44 ]. In conclusion, research on non-athletes’ attitudes towards doping in sport is also relevant, especially if it is population-based. Our study covers only students and will not be a population-based study of youth attitudes. However, it will provide an answer to the second aim of the study—to establish whether the moral identity of students who do not participate in sports and endorse fair play is associated with attitudes towards doping as they are among student athletes.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. participants.

Participants in this study were 365 university students (49.9% male) recruited from Universities in Lithuania. At the time of data collection, participants ranged in age from 18 to 30 years (mean age 22.02, SD = 6.58). In the sample, 55.3% (n = 202, 65.3% male) were athletes who competed in individual (n = 118, 50.0% male) and team sports (n = 84). The individual sports included swimming, tennis, table tennis, cycling, athletics, boxing, wrestling, and judo. The team sports included basketball, football, handball, and volleyball. At the time of data collection, participants had competed in their sport for an average of 8.70 (SD = 4.32) years. Among athletes, 32.2% (n = 65) were currently competing or had recently competed at the international level, 46.0% (n = 93) at the national, and 21.8% (n = 44) at the regional or university level.

2.2. Measures

2.2.1. doping attitudes.

The 8-item version of the Performance Enhancement Attitude Scale [ 45 ] was used in this study. The original scale consisted of 17 items [ 8 ], but Nicholls et al. [ 45 ] found a better fit of an 8-item scale within a sample of adult athletes. The Lithuanian version of this scale also resulted in a better fit of an 8-item PEAS [ 46 ]. Therefore, participants were asked to indicate their level of agreement with eight statements (e.g., “Legalizing performance enhancements would be beneficial for sports”, “Athletes should not feel guilty about breaking the rules and taking performance-enhancing drugs”, “Doping is necessary to be competitive”) using a Likert scale, ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (6). The mean of the eight item ratings was computed and used as a measure of attitudes to doping. The internal consistency of the scale scores in this study was good (α = 0.81).

2.2.2. Moral Identity

In this study, we used the internalization dimension of the moral identity scale [ 37 ] to measure moral identity. Participants were presented with nine traits (fair, honest, helpful, kind, generous, compassionate, caring, fair, friendly, and hardworking) related to common characteristics of moral individuals and asked to imagine how a person with the given traits would feel, act, and think, and to respond to five statements (e.g., “It would make me feel good to be a person who has these characteristics”, “Being someone who has these characteristics is an important part of who I am”, “I strongly desire to have these characteristics”) on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7). The mean of the five item ratings was used as a measure of moral identity. The internal consistency of the scale scores in this study was good (α = 0.73).

2.2.3. Perception of Fair Play

The perception of fair play was measured using the Fair Play scale [ 47 ]. Participants were given 10 items (e.g., “It is impossible to do well in sports if you play fair”, “You can win playing fair”, “In sports it is acceptable that one tries to bend the rules”). They had to rate each item on a 4-point Likert scale, ranging from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”. Some items were rated in reverse scores. Based on Majauskiene’s [ 48 ] study, we used this scale as a unidimensional scale. A higher overall score demonstrated a higher endorsement of fair play. The Internal consistency of the scale scores in this study was good (α = 0.77).

2.3. Procedure

Before the study, approval from the university social research ethics committee was obtained. Oral informed consent was obtained from all research participants. All participants were informed about the research aim, study duration, risk and benefits, and the right to refuse to participate or withdraw from the survey. Students did not have to disclose any personal information (e.g., names, dates of birth, study program, contact details) and were told that all data would be kept anonymous and the information they provided would be used only for research purposes. Those who volunteered to participate were instructed how to complete the measures described above. This whole procedure was performed in a university auditorium at the end of a lecture or a seminar.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

The data obtained through the survey were exported into an SPSS data file and analyzed using the IBM SPSS version 26 package. Before the main statistical analyses, preliminary data screening was conducted in order to check for data normality, missing values, and outliers for each variable. It was found that 0.3% of the data points were missing and were replaced with the mean of the respective variable. Analyses indicated that that skewness and kurtosis for all variables were low (i.e., ≤1). Descriptive statistics (i.e., mean, standard deviation, and Pearson’s correlations) were calculated for all variables. Reliability estimates were calculated for all variables using alpha coefficients. Scores of all variables showed acceptable internal consistency values. Comparisons of study variables between athletes and non-athletes were conducted using one-way ANOVA. Mediation analyses were performed using the PROCESS 2.16 [ 49 ] SPSS macro (model 4) aiming to test direct and indirect effects. Direct effects are the effects of the predictor on the outcome variable that occur separately to the mediator, while indirect effects are the effects of the predictor on the outcome variable via the mediator. Bootstrapping was set at 10,000 samples, and bias-corrected 95% confidence intervals were calculated for all effects. An effect is significant when the CI does not contain zero. The completely standardized indirect effect (CSIE) was reported as the effect size metric and interpreted as 0.01 = small effect, 0.09 = medium effect, and 0.25 = large effect [ 50 ].

3.1. Descriptive Statistics and Correlations

Study results showed that participants could be characterized by a relatively high moral identity, they relatively endorsed fair play, and had negative attitudes to doping in sport ( Table 1 ). Correlations indicated that moral identity was negatively associated with positive attitudes to doping and positively associated with an endorsement of fair play. The fair play variable was also negatively associated with positive attitudes towards doping.

Descriptive statistics and correlations.

Note. ** p < 0.01.

3.2. Comparison between Athletes and Non-Athletes

A one-way ANOVA showed that athletes ( M = 1.53, SD = 0.60), compared to non-athletes ( M = 1.40, SD = 0.46), had significantly more positive attitudes towards doping ( F (1, 363) = 5.32, p < 0.05, partial η 2 = 0.01). However, non-athletes ( M = 3.13, SD = 0.42), compared to athletes ( M = 3.02, SD = 0.38), demonstrated more positive perceptions of fair play ( F (1, 363) = 7,26, p < 0.01, partial η 2 = 0.02). When comparing moral identity, a statistically significant difference was not found ( F (1, 363) = 3,48, p > 0.05).

3.3. Main Analysis

First, we investigated whether moral identity was associated with athletes’ perception of fair play and attitudes towards doping in sport, and whether the effect of moral identity on attitudes to doping was mediated by perception of fair play. It was found that moral identity had significant direct effects on attitudes towards doping (β = −0.14, p < 0.001) and a significant indirect effect via endorsement of fair play on attitudes to doping (β = −0.10, p < 0.05) ( Table 2 and Figure 1 ). The more positive perceptions for fair play that were demonstrated were also significantly related to attitudes to doping (β = −0.51, p < 0.001. These findings provide support for the mediating role of endorsement of fair play on the relationship between moral identity and attitudes to doping ( F = 25.12, p < 0.001, R = 0.45).

The effects of moral identity on attitudes to doping and the mediating role of perception of fair play among athletes. Note: The values presented are the unstandardized regression coefficients. A solid line represents a significant relationship. *** p < 0.001.

Direct and indirect effects of moral identity on attitudes to doping among athletes.

Note: Unstandardized coefficients for the paths are shown. CSIE: completely standardized indirect effect, where 0.01 = small, 0.09 = medium and 0.25 = large. * p < 0.05; *** p < 0.001.

Next, we investigated whether the moral identity of non-athletes was associated with their perception of fair play and attitudes towards doping in sport, and whether the effect of moral identity on attitudes to doping was mediated by the perception of fair play. Analyses showed that the moral identity of non-athlete students was not directly related to attitudes towards doping ( Table 3 and Figure 2 ). Results of the analysis show that moral identity was directly positively related to participants’ endorsement of fair play (β = 0.08, p < 0.05). Importantly, moral identity had a significant indirect effect on attitudes towards doping via the perception of fair play (β = −0.08, p < 0.05) ( F = 18.16, p < 0.001, R = 0.43).

The effects of moral identity on attitudes to doping and the mediating role of perception of fair play among non-athletes. Note: The values presented are the unstandardized regression coefficients. A solid line represents a significant relationship. * p < 0.05; *** p < 0.001.

Direct and indirect effects of moral identity on attitudes to doping among non-athletes.

4. Discussion

It has been proposed that personal morality might be the most influencing variable on doping attitudes [ 27 , 28 ]. Building on research conducted on the role of moral identity on doping likelihood [ 34 , 35 , 40 ], we examined the association between student athletes’ moral identity and attitudes towards doping, and whether their perception of fair play mediated this association. Next, we analyzed the same relationship among non-athlete students. The study provided evidence on these relationships and at the same time allowed for practical guidance to be provided separately for athletes and non-athlete students.

4.1. Athletes’ Moral Identity, Perception of Fair Play and Attitudes towards Doping

In support of our hypothesis, we found that moral identity was negatively associated with athletes’ attitudes towards doping. This result is in line with existing cross-sectional studies [ 28 ] reporting that elite Australian athletes with a weaker moral stance against the use of performance-enhancing substances had more favorable attitudes towards doping. However, it should be noted that in these previous studies, morality was measured as a judgment of cheating or as a moral judgment of doping. In our study, we assessed morality not as a specific action precisely in the context of sport. Rather, our focus was on moral identity, which reveals how morality is important in personal self-perception. Therefore, our finding extends past works by revealing that using doping is viewed as unethical behavior, which is not compatible with the perception of the athlete as a moral person.

Emphasizing the importance of moral values in sport, this study also examined the relationship of the mediating role of the perception of fair play in moral identity and attitudes towards doping. The study data confirmed that endorsement of fair play mediated the relationship between athletes’ moral identity and attitudes towards doping. Thus, athletes with a stronger moral identity may perceive fair play in sport as more important and, as a result, have more negative attitudes towards doping. On the other hand, those athletes showing less respect to fair play may have lower moral standards and thus demonstrate more positive doping attitudes. The current finding is also important because the perception of fair play reveals the individual’s value orientations in sports-related behavior. It is values that shape personal attitudes; in other words, attitudes are characterized by the function of expressing values [ 51 ]. Therefore, when assessing the impact of attitudes on behavioral decisions and behavior, the orientation of the athlete to moral values in sport is also important. Previous studies with adolescents and adult athletes [ 16 , 52 ] revealed not only a correlation between perceived moral values and attitudes to doping, but also that attitudes fully mediated the effect of sportspersonship orientation on doping intention.

The athletes’ study results provide rationale that strengthening the moral identity of athletes and, at the same time, promoting their anti-doping attitudes and internalization of moral values is important, which is in line with other research. A recent randomized control trial provides support that intervention not only involves knowledge about doping, but that moral values in sport also affect the moral identity of athletes [ 53 ]. On the other hand, it is not enough to limit oneself to sport-related values or to emphasize their importance in sport alone, especially in strengthening moral identity. Ring et al. [ 54 ] examined the relationships between Schwartz’s basic values and doping likelihood among university athletes and found that self-enhancement values were positively related, whereas self-transcendence and conservation values were negatively related, to doping likelihood. Therefore, in order to strengthen the moral identity of athletes and promote more negative attitudes to doping in sport, coaches need to not only encourage athletes to analyze situations related to both doping specifically and anti-social behavior in general. In this debate, it is also important to promote personal responsibility in situations that raise ethical dilemmas. Strengthening athletes’ moral identity requires the integration of the moral values of sport with personal values. In other words, the analysis of the compatibility of personal values with those that are important in sport, or the existence of certain contradictions in values, should be encouraged. It also requires the knowledge of the values of athletes that are the most important for them as moral persons and as athletes. Often, various doping prevention recommendations emphasize the role of the coach as a key person in the team. However, in implementing the recommendations made in the context of adult sport, a sports psychologist, if available, can also significantly help.

4.2. Non-Athletes’ Moral Identity, Perception of Fair Play, and Attitudes towards Doping

In this study, we also aimed to measure the relationship between moral identity, perception of fair play, and attitudes among non-athlete students. In other words, we sought to determine if the established relationship between the study variables among athletes would differ, and if it differed, to what extent. To our knowledge, this is the first study examining such relationships among non-athletes, except for studies comparing athletes and non-athletes’ attitudes towards doping [ 41 , 55 ]. Before discussing the main findings it should be noted that our study found athletes’ attitudes towards doping to be more positive compared to those of non-athletes. This is not consistent with other studies, which have demonstrated that athletes hold more negative attitudes than the general population [ 41 , 55 ]. However, research participants’ age and time of the study as well as the cultural context need to be considered when comparing the data. Therefore, we will not further analyze these differences and rather focus on the main results. It should be acknowledged that moral identity was not directly associated with non-athletes’ attitudes towards doping. However, higher endorsement of fair play was negatively related to doping attitudes. Furthermore, we found that the perception of fair play mediated the relationship between moral identity and doping attitudes, suggesting that if people with a stronger moral identity are also more likely to endorse fair play, they would demonstrate more negative attitudes towards doping. It should be acknowledged that the main difference between non-athletes and athletes in our study lies in the direct effect of moral identity on attitudes. Interestingly, the effect of the perception of fair play on doping attitudes is the same among both athletes and non-athletes. These findings highlighted that in people’s moral schema, there may be certain behavior that would be morally wrong in everyday life but perceived as not so wrong in the sports context, as something separate from everyday life. In other words, people may view doping as a minor problem as it is related to a limited number of athletes [ 41 ], and such behavior is related to athletes’ morality [ 56 ]. However, we would still assume that how a person values moral values and moral behavior in sports is important. As our data revealed, if fair play is perceived as important in sport, people with a stronger moral identity tend to evaluate morally wrong behavior in sport more negatively. Thus, our data partially extend previous research suggesting that non-athletes may experience a potential conflict of values when evaluating what is good and bad behavior in sport [ 41 , 56 ], especially regarding their interest in sport [ 44 ].

Our findings on the relationship between non-athletes’ moral identity, the perception of fair play, and attitudes towards doping have some practical implications. As university students were involved in our study, in their study modules, it would be useful to include topics on the use of banned drugs in sport or on cheating in sport in general as morally inadequate behaviors. Moreover, it is necessary to communicate and discuss that such behavior is morally wrong not only in the sports context. In this way, their attitudes towards doping as an essentially moral problem could be encouraged. Students’ negative attitudes towards this are important as some of these students will occupy various sport-related decision-making positions in their future professional lives. If their professional activities are not related to sports, their moral position as citizens would remain important.

4.3. Limitations and Future Research

This study is not without limitation. The study analyzed the attitudes towards doping only and did not include actual behaviors. However, this was partly due to the inclusion of non-athlete subjects in the study whose actual doping behavior could not be investigated. It would be worthwhile to include a variable of intent to use banned drugs in further research. Another limitation of the study is related to the relatively small sample size. A larger sample of athletes, especially involving those in a wider variety of sports branches, would allow one to examine the extent to which the interrelationships between moral identities, perception of fair play, and doping attitudes occur depending on the sport. This claim corresponds with recent research that attempted to analyze attitudes and views on doping in particular sports such as track and field [ 57 ] or, more specifically, elite distance running [ 58 ]. Such analyses are also encouraged by doping control test findings showing that detected banned substances in anti-doping control tests differ depending on the sports discipline [ 5 ].

As this study exclusively examines athletes who are studying at university, it would be worthwhile to examine non-students in sport or those athletes who have already completed their studies. It should also be mentioned that there is still a great lack of longitudinal studies to better understand how athletes’ perceptions of moral values and attitudes towards them, as well as their real behaviors, change. In the study of non-athletes, population surveys remain relevant to reveal how people evaluate the doping problem in sport. Research that allows comparisons to be made of how doping evaluations vary depending on different cultural contexts should also be encouraged.

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, the current study reinforces the assertion that both moral identity and perception of fair play are important constructs affecting athletes’ attitudes towards doping. Our findings suggest that those with a stronger moral identity and higher endorsement of fair play demonstrate more negative attitudes towards doping. The study revealed that the evaluation of fair play is a factor directly related to non-athletes’ attitudes, and moral identity as a single factor is not related to students’ attitudes. This suggests that non-athletes perceive moral issues in sport as possibly more related to the context of sport and less as generally morally wrong behaviors.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank all the students who participated in this study.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.S.; methodology, S.S. and D.M.; investigation, S.S., D.M., D.K., and I.T.; formal analysis, S.S. and D.M., D.K.; writing—original draft preparation, S.S.; writing—review and editing, S.S., D.M., D.K., and I.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Lithuanian Sports University (approval number SMTEK-47, released on 29 October 2019).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare that there are no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this article.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

• DOI: 10.1177/1356336X03009002003
• Corpus ID: 144141858

Conceptualizing `Fair Play': A Review of the Literature

• Heather Sheridan
• Published 1 June 2003
• European Physical Education Review

29 Citations

'up the slope without a pole:' an examination of the relationship between fair play and gender norms at the 2006 winter olympics, conceptualizations of fair play: a factorial survey study of moral judgments by badminton players.

• Highly Influenced
• 13 Excerpts

‘This must be the only sport in the world where most of the players don't know the rules’: operationalizing self-refereeing and the spirit of the game in UK Ultimate Frisbee

The “science” of fair play in sport: gender and the politics of testing, an analysis of the ideological work of the discourses of ‘fair play’ and moral education in perpetuating inequitable gender practices in pete, evaluating technical and technological innovations in sport, whether to win at all costs - the athletes’ attitudes towards fair play, fair play in sports organizations : effectiveness of ethical codes.

• 17 Excerpts

Systematic review of research on fair play and sporting competition

Winning with morals: a qualitative study of the impact that college coaches have on the character of their athletes, 77 references, a consideration of the concept of fair play, ethics and sport, moral reasoning, moral action, and the moral atmosphere of sport.

• Highly Influential

Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education

Groundwork for the metaphysics of morals, philosophic inquiry in sport, realizing ludic rationality in sport competitions1, sport ethics: applications for fair play, ethics and top-level sport - a paradox, sportsmanship as a moral category, related papers.

Showing 1 through 3 of 0 Related Papers

Ethics, Integrity and Well-Being in Elite Sport: A Systematic Review

Authors: Deborah Agnew, Philippa Henderson and Carl Woods

Corresponding Author: Deb Agnew, PhD GPO Box 2100 Adelaide, South Australia, Australia 5001 [email protected] +61 8 8201 3456

Dr. Deborah Agnew: is a lecturer in the School of Education at Flinders University in South Australia. Her research interests include Australian football, masculinity, sports retirement and men’s health. She is a member of the Flinders SHAPE (Sport, Health and Physical Education) Research Centre and teaches in the Bachelor of Sport, Health and Physical Activity.

Ms. Philippa Henderson: has a Masters degree in public health and teaches across a wide variety of health topics in the School of Education and the School of Health Sciences at Flinders University in South Australia. Her research interests include sport, physical activity and well-being as well as the health and well-being of children.

Dr. Carl Woods: is a lecturer of Skill Acquisition and Motor Learning in the Discipline of Sport and Exercise Science at James Cook University. His research primarily focuses on talent identification, talent development and coaching in junior team sports; with a particular interest in Australian football. He currently provides research support to Australian football State Academy programs; with this being oriented around different aspects of performance analysis, skill acquisition and coach education.   Ethics, integrity and well-being in elite sport: A systematic review   ABSTRACT Background: Athletes are expected to be good role models, compete fairly and allow the public insight into their personal lives away from sport. Objective: The purpose of this paper was to conduct a systematic review on integrity, ethics and well-being in elite level sport. Methods: A systematic search of SPORTDiscus, ScienceDirect, Taylor & Francis and Informit was conducted. The selection criteria were; published between 2006-2016, full-text availability, peer reviewed and English language. Twenty-three articles met the criteria for inclusion in this review and were analysed through an inductive thematic synthesis approach. Results: Three themes emerged through the inductive thematic synthesis approach; sportspersonship and ethics, scandal and well-being. The concept of sportspersonship extends beyond the rules of sport and is strongly linked to the character of athletes. Sports environments are a key factor in the well-being of athletes and contribute to the expectations placed on athletes, particularly with regard to winning. Conclusions: Ethics, integrity, sportspersonship and well-being are interrelated concepts in elite sport. Expectations placed on athletes may be unrealistic and may have negative consequences on well-being. It is important to understand the factors contributing to athlete well-being in order to develop strategies to minimize the adversities faced by athletes.

Keywords: Ethics, Integrity, Elite Sport, Systematic Review, Well-being

INTRODUCTION Sports integrity can be defined as “manifestations of the ethics and values which promote community confidence in sports” (Australian Government, 2016). It includes the positive conduct of athletes, coaches, administrators, officials and stakeholders both on and off the field as well as sports performances that are fair and honest (Australian Government, 2016). The integrity of sport may be questioned by those involved in sport, or the general public, when the rules of sport are broken, athletes are not perceived to be playing ‘in the spirit’ of the game, the image of a particular sport is compromised by commercialism, or when cheating occurs either before or during a game (Crocker, 2014).

Integrity is also often linked to the concept of ‘sportspersonship’ (Tregas, Cover & Beasley, 2011). Sportspersonship is argued to have four components; equity; fairness; good form of honour and in the sporting context, the will to win (Abad, 2010). It has also been described as a moral concept given it necessitates the conduct of certain behaviour by sportspeople towards others. Thus, one of its key constituents is that it requires more than one person to be involved, as it is difficult to be unsportpersonlike to oneself (Abad, 2010). Being unsporting includes breaking the rules of sport to gain an unacceptable advantage, as well as displaying behaviours that are perceived as being dishonourable. Summers (2007) states that one of the most unsportsmanlike behaviours is “trash-talking” (negatively taunting comments directed towards ones opponent), as sportspersonship is about fair play and conducting one’s behaviours in a way that is considered within the acceptable bounds of the spirit of the game. Therefore, sportspersonship is not just how an athlete conducts themselves during the competition, but also includes their attitude towards sport (Abad, 2010). For example, not shaking hands after the competition, criticising the sport, being a poor winner or loser and not giving one’s all during the competition are examples of behaviours that would be considered dishonourable, therefore unsporting (Abad 2010).

Sportpersonship, and indeed integrity in sport, are complex concepts in that the four suggested components (equity, fairness, good form of honour and in the sporting context, the will to win) can each be at odds with the other components (Abad, 2010). Connor (2009) contends that sport itself is not fair or equitable because the broader social context in which sport exists creates disparities that affect the ability of prospective athletes to be successful. The will to win requires giving one’s all in the competitive environment, however, this can lead to an athlete going to extreme performance enhancement measures to gain a competitive advantage. Connor (2009) argues that modern sport is not natural, and is a ‘cultural activity within a social context’ (p. 331). Further, he argues that the will to win is influenced by the profitability of being successful which can lead to an athlete engaging in unsporting behaviours. In order to be continually offered contracts and sponsorships, an athlete must win, or there are a plethora of other athletes who will take their place (Connor, 2009). The pressure this puts on athletes can lead towards doing anything to keep winning. Martens (2013) suggests that due to many athletes scoring highly on measures of sensation seeking, they may be predisposed to engaging in risky behaviours. One of the fundamental characteristics of sportspersonship is fair play (Abad, 2010), therefore the use of performance enhancing substances by athletes incurs ethical considerations regarding fairness (Martens, 2013). Connor (2009) argues that the use of performance enhancing substances should not be perceived as an individual act by an athlete but must be considered within the broader social context which has a significant influence. The use of performance enhancing substances by an individual therefore occurs as a result of the social forces placed upon the athlete and is not necessarily purely a result of the athlete having questionable ethical attitudes (Connor, 2009).

Doty (2006) argues that traits associated with having a ‘good character’ include showing respect and integrity, which suggests that a person’s character can be demonstrated through actions and behaviours. In the highly variable sporting context, athletes’ actions are often immediate and instinctive and may not be a reflection of the person’s beliefs, rather a product of the stressful and emotional environment in which they are participating. How they act, however, regardless of whether it is perceived to be positively or negatively, becomes a reflection of their overall character (Doty, 2006). Lines (2001) states that sports stars are often portrayed as being the epitome of social values and are therefore constructed in a heroic manner. However, alternative constructions through the media see sports ‘heroes’ being perceived as damaged if they are caught engaging in behaviours that are considered reflections of the problems in society such as adultery, gambling, drugs, drunken exploits and intimate partner violence (Lines, 2001). An analysis of Australian media highlighted that there is a high amount of attention attributed to athlete off-field transgressions (Osborne, Sherry & Nicholson, 2016). The transgressions that were most frequently reported included recreational drug use, assault, and professional misconduct. Other transgressions included gambling, racism, criminal damage and possession of illegal goods (Osborne et al., 2016). The relationship between an athlete’s behaviours, both on and off the field, and the perception of their ‘character’ and therefore overall sporting profile is complex. It is not just their performance in the sporting context that leads to a determination of their character, but their behaviours off the field as well. Athletic performance includes competition style, sportspersonship and rivalry, however the overall ‘character’ of an athlete can have implications for their perceived suitability to advertise products and market their own athlete brand (Arai, Ko, & Ross, 2014). Poor performances in the sporting arena further magnify the perceived severity of the off-field transgression, therefore have the potential to increase the scandal risk and damage the athlete’s reputation (Osborne et al., 2016).

Athlete well-being is recognised as an important component of sports performance (Dunn, 2014). Reinboth and Duda (2006) state that well-being is generally defined in terms of the presence of positive feelings and the absence of negative feelings. The concept of athlete well-being encompasses all aspects of an athlete’s life, including those that are not sport related (Dunn, 2014). Over the life course of elite sports careers, athletes face multiple pressures. Dubuc-Charbonneau and Durand-Bush (2015) found that student athletes experience high levels of burnout and stress which can impact on subjective well-being. This same study argued that in order to manage the challenges they face, athletes adopt various task and social behaviours so they can achieve a more balanced situation. Well-being is highlighted as a key determinant in enabling individuals to cope with daily stressors (World Health Organization 2004). Given that athletes may face additional daily challenges such as poor coach-athlete relationships, injury, poor performance, and stress, it is worthwhile to investigate athlete well-being in the context of elite sport.

Participation in sport is recognised as being an avenue through which to develop “self-esteem, promote sportspersonship, encourage a valuing of physical activity and provide a sense of enjoyment and well-being” (Amorose, Anderson-Butcher & Cooper, 2009, p. 386). Autonomy, competence and relatedness can also be encouraged through sport and can lead to increased well-being (Reinboth & Duda, 2006). In addition, hope and social support appear to be protective factors specifically with regard to injured athletes’ subjective well-being Lu and Hsu, 2013). However, participation in sport alone does not guarantee well-being and the adverse effects of elite sport in particular are also well documented (Bartholomew, Ntoumanis, Ryan & Thøgersen-Ntoumani, 2011; Gould & Carson, 2008; Hellison & Cutforth, 1997). It is important to understand how well-being may change over the course of an athlete’s season and overall career as this may have an impact on their needs, satisfaction with sport and overall experience which may be either positive or negative (Amorose et al., 2009).

The commercialisation of sport has led to a need for athletes to protect their brand image. Athletes are also requires to demonstrate integrity, sportspersonship and ‘good’ character. Further, inherent in the role of the sportsperson is to be an appropriate role model in society (Smith & Stewart, 2008). Therefore, the complex environment in which sport operates requires athletes to consider more than just their sports performance. Increasingly, off-field events are being recognised as a key factor in on-field performance (Dunn, 2014). However, ultimately the focus of athlete well-being programs is on getting the athlete to peak sports performance. Therefore, this shapes the well-being initiatives sports organisations put in place for athletes. Dunn (2014) argues that in some sports, well-being programs are engrained but for others this is still an emerging area. In order to continue the advancement of well-being programs in sport, it is important to first understand what the well-being issues for athletes are.

The aim of this review was to investigate ethics, integrity and well-being in elite level sport. The research questions for this review were:

• How are issues of ethics and integrity manifested in the sporting context?
• What are the factors that impact on the well-being of elite athletes?

METHODS Search Strategy This systematic review utilised an electronic search in the following four databases: (i) SPORTDiscus; (ii) ScienceDirect; (iii) Taylor & Francis; and (iv) Informit. The Boolean logic was adopted within the databases. The following combinations were used to search for articles: athlete* AND “well-being;” athlete* AND “wellbeing;” athlete* AND “well being;” athlete* AND integrity; athlete* AND scandal;* athlete* AND ethics; athlete* AND sportspersonship OR sportsmanship. Phrase searching was utilised through the use of inverted commas around the terms “well-being,” “wellbeing,” and “well being” to ensure that articles were found on well-being as opposed to all articles that included the terms “well” and “being.” The references lists of retrieved articles were also scanned for suitable articles. The search was undertaken in July and August 2016. Two of the research team (DA and PH) independently conducted the search according to the above search strategy.

Eligibility Criteria Articles were screened independently by two authors (DA, PH). The inclusion criteria required articles to be focussed on elite athletes, published between 2006-2016, full text availability, peer reviewed and the English language. Elite was considered to be division one or higher, professional sports and competing at the national, international, Olympic or Paralympic level. Articles which focussed on junior or amateur athletes, coaches, fitness and not sport, were a clinical trial, exercise trial or included medical, psychometric tests and literature reviews were excluded. Articles with a nutrition, tourism, or school focus were also excluded. Specifically with regard to the athlete* and ethics search, articles which did not focus on the personal ethical values of elite athletes were excluded. A consensus meeting was held to discuss differences in article selection and where necessary the third author (CW) was consulted to make the final decision.

Data Extraction Two authors (DA, PH) independently extracted data from all selected articles. Both authors used a standardised data extraction form which included the following components: authors; year; title; study design; study aims; study participants; main findings (Table 1).

Data Analysis Data were analysed according to the method outlined by Thomas and Harden (2008). A thematic synthesis approach was undertaken to not only inductively analyse the results of the review into themes but also synthesise the results in order to ‘go beyond’ the findings of the primary studies so that further understanding can be gained (Thomas & Harden, 2008, p. 54). According to Thomas and Harden (2008), thematic synthesis has three stages; the coding of text line by line; the development of descriptive themes and; the generation of analytical themes. Two of the authors (DA, PH) manually analysed the included primary studies individually line-by-line to generate the initial codes. The two sets of codes were then compared and merged to form one set of codes. The third author (CW) was consulted to make the final decision on the names of codes where necessary. Conducting line-by-line coding allowed the authors to translate the concepts from one study to another, which is considered to be a key component of qualitative thematic synthesis (Thomas & Harden, 2008; Britten, et al., 2002). Following the line-by-line coding of the primary studies, the codes were then analysed to search for similarities and difference in order to generate descriptive themes (Thomas & Harden, 2008). This process generated four themes. A draft summary of themes was written by the first author (DA) with the other two authors (PH, CW) commenting on the draft until a final version was agreed. In order to complete the thematic synthesis of the data, the themes were analysed in accordance with the review research questions (Thomas & Harden, 2008). This process enabled the analysis to go beyond a description of the themes and create a more in depth understanding of ethics, integrity and well-being in elite sport. Two of the original four themes were merged, which provided a more complete overview and resulted in a final data set of three themes to be compiled.

RESULTS Search results The search criteria resulted in a total of 1276 articles. Of these articles, 73 were excluded as duplicates, and a further 940 were excluded after two authors (DA, PH) screened the titles and abstracts for suitability. Thirty-three articles were excluded as the authors were unable to access the full text. The remaining 230 full-text articles were examined independently by two authors (DA, PH) according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria outlined in section 2.2. In total, 23 articles met the inclusion criteria. Figure 1 presents the study selection flow chart.

Types of articles Of the 23 articles, nine were quantitative studies, six were qualitative studies utilising interviews as the data collection method, three were qualitative case studies, four were commentaries, and one was a mixed method design (table 1). The inductive thematic analysis generated three themes; 1) Sportspersonship and Ethics; 2) Scandal, and 3) Well-Being. Each of these themes had at least two sub-themes, being elaborated upon in the following sections.

Sportspersonship and Ethics The findings of this review confirm the strong link between sportspersonship and ethics, with ten articles relating to sportspersonship and ethics of elite athletes. Through the thematic analysis three key sub-themes emerged; ‘spirit of the game’; ‘expectations’ and; ‘will to win’.

Spirit of the Game The spirit of the game component of sportspersonship was evident in four articles (Sezen-Balcikanli & Yildiran, 2012; Jonson, Lynch & Adair, 2013; Martínková & Parry, 2015; McNamee, 2009). A ‘good’ sportsperson is perceived as adhering to the spirit of the game and does not deviate from the appropriate virtues (Sezen-Balcikanli & Yildiran, 2012). One article (Jonson et al., 2013) questioned what is meant by ‘responsible conduct’ or ‘inappropriate behaviour’ and argued that elite athletes are required to operate within a system that violates their civil and human rights through the ability of the sports organisation to discipline players for ‘bringing the game into disrepute’ (p. 61). Two articles (Martínková & Parry, 2015; McNamee, 2009) considered actions by sportspeople that were not necessarily against the rules, but resulted in sanctions because the acts were considered to be against the spirit of the game. Martínková and Parry (2015) contended that in contact sports in particular the rules specifically outline what forms of contact would be considered against the rules but that for many sports this does not include biting. The authors suggest this is because biting is not a likely strategy in most sports, therefore negating the need to prohibit it. However, this does not mean that biting is permissible and athletes who employ this strategy may be sanctioned, despite it not being formally against the rules. Similarly, McNamee (2009) highlighted that crashing one’s car during a Formula 1 race to allow a teammate to win is not technically against the rules but has been described as being ‘probably on the wrong side of cheating’ (p. 284). Sezen-Balcikanli and Yildiran’s (2012) used the sportspersonship orientation scale to determine what characteristics elite athletes should have in order to act in a manner consistent with the acceptable parameters of fair play. They found that athletes who are more empathetic are more likely to have respect for social conventions such as shaking the opponents’ hands at the completion of a game and respect for the losing side because they tried their best. Thus, being more empathetic appears to strongly coincide with performances in sport which are perceived as being in the ‘spirit of the game’.

Expectations Jonson et al. (2013) question the expectations placed on elite athletes to be appropriate role models, suggesting that the standards to which athletes are held accountable go far beyond those of employees in other professions. It was acknowledged through two articles that athletes are representing themselves, their sport, organisation, key stakeholders and even the fans (Jonson et al., 2013; Meng & Pan, 2013). However, one article (Scarf, 2008) questioned the use of athletes as role models given they have not been asked whether they want to be or not. Scarf (2008) argued that the assumption they should be is made on their behalf due to the popularity of sport in society. The assigning of role model status for elite athletes is furthered by Jonson et al., (2013) who suggest the role of the sportsperson has evolved to include entertaining and celebrity components. Central to the role model status are the expectations of the sports organisation who may include certain contractual requirements regarding this area, and the influence of the media and public expectations (Jonson et al., 2013). Questions were also raised through two articles (Jonson et al., 2013; Scarf, 2008) as to whether athletes fully understand the consequences of the role model status with regard to player contracts since the obligations are likely to include both on and off field behaviours.

Will to win Seven articles focussed on the implications of athletes’ will to win (Scarf, 2008; Donahue et al., 2006; Barkoukis, Lazuras, Tsorbatzoudis & Rodafinos, 2011; 2013; Hauw & Mohamed, 2015; Whitaker, Backhouse & Long, 2014; Dunn & Thomas, 2012). While the authors acknowledge unsportspersonlike behaviours include more than doping, much of the literature gained from this search focussed on performance enhancing substances. Donahue et al. (2006) suggests that athletes who display unsportsmanlike behaviours may be more likely to engage in other unethical behaviours such as using performance enhancing substances. However, Barkoukis et al.(2011) found that success can be a significant influence on the decision to use performance enhancing substances because the athlete perceives doping as being an inevitable consequence to avoid failure. Further, Barkoukis et al. (2013) suggested that external pressures from coaching staff or expectations to win may heighten the intention of athletes to dope. Therefore, the decision to dope is not made in isolation (Dunn & Thomas 2012). Male athletes who are older and know other athletes who dope have been found to be at a higher risk of doping (Dunn & Thomas, 2011). In addition, Whitaker et al., (2014) suggested there is a “community of silence” (p. e518) with regard to reporting doping in other athletes, therefore the culture of sport may be an implicit part of individual doping acts. It is important to note that due to the controversial nature of this topic, there are possible limitations to the studies meaning that there might be missing detail regarding the likelihood to dope reasons. Athletes in Whitaker et al.’s research (2014) revealed the tension between wanting to participate in a ‘clean’ sport, and the consequences for the sport if they did report any knowledge of athletes doping. A community of silence may result from the perceived negative consequences for both the athletes who are doping and those who are not as the sport could lose vital sponsorship and the reputation of the sport tarnished if doping in the sport is revealed. However, this same research noted that the willingness to report doping may be influenced by the nature of the sport with individual athletes possibly being more willing to be a whistle blower than those involved in a team sport.

Scandal When athletes are reported to deviate from the behaviours expected of them there is potential for a scandal to emerge. Four articles addressed scandals in elite sport. Two sub-themes emerged in relation to scandals: ‘the parameters of transgressions’ and; ‘the cost of transgressions’.

Parameters of transgressions The popularity of sports in society leads to athletes being exemplified in the media, by sports administrators and general society, therefore their behaviour is constantly being scrutinised (Scarf, 2008). Sports scandals occur as a result of athletes transgressing from the expectations placed upon them (Storm & Wagner, 2015). With the increase in media for sports, and the increased availability of information through social media, sports fans are engrossed in more than the sports performance and are increasingly seeking information on athlete’s off-field life (Meng & Pan, 2013). It is arguable with the increased intrusion into the personal lives of athletes, the potential for scandals to result has also increased. Scandals generally have four phases; the prescandal phase, the phase of the scandal proper, the phase of culmination, and the aftermath (Storm & Wagner, 2015, p. 296). One of the key factors in an incident being labelled a scandal is the involvement of the media as this is where scandals are usually exposed and commented on (Burroughs & Vogan, 2015). Athletes are judged for the performance both on and off the sporting field. Burroughs and Vogan (2015) state that athletes are judged according to sporting norms and the sport environment in which these norms are constructed. Athletes who deviate from the norms and societal expectations can be both judged and punished (Burroughs and Vogan, 2015). Three articles (Meng & Pan, 2013; Storm & Wagner, 2015; Burroughs & Vogan, 2015) discussed the behaviours by athletes that are likely to be perceived as transgressions. Behaviours that are likely to be perceived by society as deviant and therefore scandalous can be linked to those that are also seen as being immoral or unethical. Extramarital affairs, doping violations and being untruthful about an event emerged as behaviours resulting in scandals (Meng & Pan, 2013; Storm & Wagner, 2015; Burroughs & Vogan, 2015).

Cost of transgressions Three articles (Meng & Pan, 2013; Storm & Wagner, 2015; Burroughs & Vogan, 2015), highlighted the issues pertaining to the cost of athlete transgressions for sporting codes. Given that athletes may represent more than their own individual brand, involvement in a scandal has the potential to impact on more than just the individual athlete (Meng & Pan, 2013). The transgression by the athlete may not be related to the rules of the sport, however the expectations of the sport environment can influence the impact of the act. For example, Storm and Wagner (2015) argue that golf is a gentleman’s game, thus an extramarital affair could be very costly for the individual athlete’s own brand in terms of sponsorship, and the sport through being associated with an athlete who has deviated from the ‘norms’ of the sport, despite an affair not being related to the rules of golf. Similarly, the cost of alleged transgressions can be equally as high, regardless of whether the incident actually occurred. Two articles (Storm & Wagner, 2015; Burroughs & Vogan, 2015) detailed scandals which resulted in the athletes being involved in alleged transgressions and regardless of the alleged involvement in the act being proven, the athletes still suffered financially through loss of sponsorship and their reputations being tarnished. Athletes can also be suspended for not adhering to the sport’s policy on personal conduct, despite no criminal charges ever being filed. Therefore this study concludes that both committing a transgression and being linked to a transgression are equally as damaging to athletes.

The cost of transgressions can extend beyond the athlete to sponsors and sport governing bodies. Meng and Pan (2013) argue that sponsors are key influences in the brand image athletes are able to build. Popular athletes can also be profitable for the sponsors as fans may be more influenced to purchase certain products depending on the athletes who are used to market them. However, when athletes transgress from the expected behaviours fans may be deterred from purchasing products advertised by the deviant athlete and from watching or attending sport. Therefore the cost of the transgression to the brand image of sponsors and the overall sport could be substantial (Meng & Pan, 2013; Storm & Wagner, 2015). The pressure that extends to sponsors and sports organisations to deal with the incident culminates in an institutional solution which can see overall sports as well as individual athletes losing sponsorship, or in athlete contract changes to minimise the chance of the transgression occurring again (Storm & Wagner, 2015; Burroughs & Vogan, 2015). However, should the solution not be adequate the potential for scandals to continually reoccur is significant (Storm & Wagner, 2015).

Well-being The search criteria resulted in nine articles relating to the well-being of elite athletes. Sport can positively affect well-being, however there are elements of the sport culture that can have negative consequences for athletes (Bačanac, Milićević-Marinković, Kasum, & Marinković, 2014). Two sub-themes emerged from the literature regarding well-being; ‘sports environment’ and; ‘adversity’.

Sports environment The sports environment can be both beneficial and detrimental to the well-being of athletes. Participating in sport appears to provide athletes with a means to engage in culture as well as providing a meaningful experience. However, total immersion in the sport environment can lead to lower reported levels of well-being (Verkooijen, Van Hoye & Dik, 2012). Interestingly, Verkooijen et al. (2012) found that athletes who live in a sports institute had lower psychological well-being than those who did not. In addition, the higher athletes scored on the sense of accomplishment scale the lower their psychological well-being. It is plausible that athletes living in a sports institute experience higher expectations that those who do not and so may perceive the level of pressure to succeed to also be higher. Smith et al. (2015) determined athletes with high scores of neurotic traits have higher levels of homesickness when moving to live at a sports institute. Further, higher levels of homesickness were predicted in athletes who had low self-esteem. It is arguable that higher levels of neurotic traits may also results in higher expectations, therefore higher levels of psychological distress. While the need for sport life balance it apparent (Verkooijen, et al., 2012; Macdougall, O’Halloran, Sherry & Shields, 2016) athletic identity and measures of subjective well-being do not seem to be strongly linked (Verkooijen et al., 2012).

Being immersed in a sports institute environment emerged as a key area through which the well-being of athletes is influenced. In one sense, living at a sports institute can provide a higher level of support for athletes are they are living with others who are going through the same experiences. However, athletes may also be competing with each other for positions on the team and for sponsorship contracts therefore this could lead to higher levels of perceived stress (Smith, Hanrahan, Anderson & Abbott, 2015). The work ethic of athletes can also have an impact on well-being, particularly those living in a sports institute as it can divide athletes and hinder the prospect to develop close friendships (Schinke, Blodgett, McGannon & Ge, 2016).

Adversity Elite athletes face different types of adversity in order to compete at the highest level (Tamminen, Holt, & Neely, 2013). Some of the negative aspects of participating in elite sport include burnout, external and internal pressures, lack of support, not being able to find balance, isolation, withdrawal, lack of confidence, poor performances and injury (Verkooijen et al., 2012; Smith et al., 2015; Macdougall et al., 2016; Schinke et al., 2016; Tamminen et al., 2013; Theberge, 2008; Gulliver, Griffiths, Mackinnon, Batterham & Stanimirovic, 2015). In addition, Gulliver et al. (2015) found that approximately one in five elite Australian athletes experience depression. The well-being of athletes can be affected based on the level of perceived control the athlete has. Athletes who perceive their level of control over their situation to be low are more likely to experience negative consequences with regard to well-being (Macdougall et al., 2016; Schinke et al., 2016).

Three articles discussed the importance of self-confidence to overall well-being (Bačanac et al., 2014; Tamminen et al., 2013; Sar and Isiklar, 2012). Interestingly facing adversity can be a means through which self-confidence is gained as when facing challenges athletes are able to determine what they are capable of (Tamminen et al., 2013). Further, facing adversity can provide opportunities for personal growth which can include a period of self-reflection on the meaning of sport in the athlete’s lives (Tamminen et al., 2013). High levels of self-esteem and self-confidence are deemed to be significant factors in athletic success (Bačanac et al., 2014; Sar & Isilkar 2012). In addition, Sar and Isilkar (2012) determined that there is a significant correlation between sport confidence and subjective well-being. A key factor in predicting sport confidence is the locus of control. An internal locus of control correlates with sport confidence because athletes’ belief in their ability to be successful and their overall confidence in their own psychological resilience is high (Bačanac et al., 2014; Sar & Isilkar, 2012).

Three articles focussed on athletic burnout which can negatively affect well-being (Verkooijen et al., 2012; Macdougall et al., 2016; Schinke et al., 2016). External pressures to succeed along with not being able to find a balance between on field and off field interests can lead to athlete burnout (Schinke et al., 2016). A reduced sense of accomplishment is also linked to athlete burnout and is related to the sports environment. Athletes living in an elite sport centre have been found to have higher reduced sense of accomplishment and lower psychological well-being (Verkooijen et al., 2012). This may be due to higher expectations being placed on athletes living in an elite sports centre. Living location can also lead to feelings of isolation, uncertainty and perceived low levels of control over their situation (Macdougall et al., 2016; Schinke et al., 2016). Not being able to switch off from sport can also contribute to negative consequences such as a lack of life balance, burnout and lack of direction Macdougall et al., 2016; Schinke et al., 2016) .

Elite athletes compete in an environment where they are exposed to social experiences (Sar and Isiklar, 2012). However, participating in elite sport can be a potentially isolating experience (Smith et al., 2015; Schinke et al., 2016; Tamminen et al., 2013). Isolation can be particularly significance for those who have moved locations to further their sports careers (Smith et al., 2015; Schinke et al., 2016). Under-performing in sport can further lead to isolation as athletes self-withdraw from teammates (Tamminen et al., 2013). More positively, Gulliver et al. (2015) found that moving away from home for sport is not necessarily correlated with depressive symptoms in elite athletes. Elevated levels of social anxiety are also common in elite athletes (Gulliver et al., 2015). However, this same study found that the levels of symptoms for mental health in elite athletes were similar to those observed in the general community (Gulliver et al., 2015).

Despite the many challenges elite athletes face which can significantly affect overall well-being, adversity exists alongside the positive aspects of sport which can promote well-being (Theberge, 2008). Therefore, while sport contains risk factors with regard to well-being, it also provides protective factors for athletes. The protective factors sport can provide for well-being include mental strength, increased health knowledge, providing athletes with an overall philosophy for life and the opportunity for personal growth (Tamminen et al., 2013; Theberge, 2008).

DISCUSSION The aim of this study was to investigate ethics, integrity and well-being in the context of elite sport. While the search criteria did not elicit any articles which considered all three of these aspects together, through the process of data synthesis, this discussion brings together the results of the combined articles to draw some logical conclusions.

This review confirmed that sportspersonship, integrity and ethics are interrelated. Primarily with regard to athletes, ethics and integrity in elite sport are manifested through how an athlete adheres to the four components of sportspersonship; equity, fairness, good form of honour and the will to win. Athletes are expected to conduct themselves on and off the sporting arena in a manner which ensures fair play for all athletes. However, this study raises questions as to whether athletes are performing in a fair environment to begin with. Athletes are continually seeking to improve their performance and will manipulate diet, training regimes, have pain-killing injections and even surgery to achieve maximal sports performance (Scarf, 2008). However, they also face harsh sanctions and loss of reputation if they are found to be using performance enhancing substances that are banned by the World Doping Authority (Scarf, 2008). In addition, there is an implied consent on behalf of athletes that they are willing to be role models in society (Scarf, 2008). Therefore, it is not only their sports performance that is consistently under review. Growing social media technologies provides even more intrusion into the off-field lives of athletes and any behaviour which is perceived as not being appropriate has the potential to escalate to a scandal, regardless of whether it is related to sports performance or not (Meng & Pan, 2013; Storm & Wagner, 2015; Burroughs & Vogan, 2015). Whether an act is perceived as being scandalous is largely determined by the media and the expectations society places on elite athletes to be role models. This review found that sports organisations are able to sanction athletes for non-sports performance related behaviours such as extramarital affairs under policies of personal conduct. These penalties can be enforced even if the athlete is not charged with an offence. Therefore both committing a transgression and being alleged to have committed a transgression are equally as damaging for elite athletes. This review confirms Scarf’s assertion (2008) that the expectations placed on elite athletes are far beyond those of employees in other professions. It is arguable that the expectations placed on athletes to be role models may cause heightened levels of stress which could result in poorer performances in sport.

While sport can provide avenues for personal growth, elite athletes are faced with a variety of risk factors with regard to their overall well-being. The adversity faced by athletes includes risk of injury, high levels of psychological distress, perceived pressure, and isolation amongst others (Verkooijen et al., 2012; Smith et al., 2015; Macdougall et al., 2016; Schinke et al., 2016; Tamminen et al., 2013). These adversities may cause a high level of perceived pressure which could in turn lead to athletes engaging in behaviours which would be considered unsporting. While athletes may feel isolated, it is important to recognise that they are participating within a complex environment. Pressures from coaches, other athletes, family members, the media and broader society to succeed combined with the athlete’s will to win appear to be strong predictors of the intent to dope (Barkoukis et al., 2013; Dunn & Thomas, 2012). It can be concluded through this study that the environment in which athletes perform is a strong factor in their well-being. Athletes do not train or perform in isolation therefore, transgressions or unsportspersonship behaviours are more than just a reflection of the athlete’s personal characteristics; they are a reflection of the culture in which the athlete is performing. Athletes are most likely to display intentions to dope according to situational pressures, including the suggestion that they should from coaches or high perceived expectations to win (Barkoukis et al., 2013).

Limitations This review has a number of limitations. The use of the key search term ‘athlete’ has the potential to exclude articles which use sportsperson, sportsman or sportswoman rather than athlete and may have impacted on the results. However, the authors determined that if the aforementioned terms were used we would also need to consider articles which refer to athletes by the sport such as footballer or basketballer, thus athlete was chosen as the single key search term to keep the results consistent.

The search terms regarding ethics largely elicited articles on performance enhancing drugs and doping. It is recognised the ethics, morals and values of elite athletes encompasses more than just their attitudes towards illicit substances. Therefore future research needs to include search terms which have the potential to generate articles on other areas pertaining to the ethical and moral judgements of elite athletes.

It appears as though there are differences between the national competitions and what constitutes an elite athlete that makes comparisons between countries difficult. For example, inter-collegiate may be considered elite in the United States of America but it is difficult to compare this level of competition with university college athletes in Australia or Taiwan. Through the search criteria for this systematic review a significant number of articles pertaining to college, intercollegiate and varsity athletes emerged. Therefore, recommendations for future research include conducting a second systematic review to ascertain whether the same issues are experienced by elite athletes are also experienced by college athletes.

CONCLUSION Given the implied consent of elite athletes to be role models, it would be of interest to investigate the impact of elite ethical issues and transgressions on lower leagues of sport (such as junior and amateur levels) to determine whether perceived unsportspersonship issues at the elite levels influences behaviours of participants in other competitions.

A key question raised through this review was whether athletes are performing in a fair environment. The expectation to be ‘good’ role models for society arguably places additional pressure on athletes, which could lead to increased stress and therefore impact on sports performance. Given none of the articles in this review asked elite athletes their perception on being a role model, further research should investigate how athletes themselves feel about being role models and the impact of this imposed role on their overall well-being.

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT Ethics and integrity issues are manifested in sport through athletes’ adherence to the components of sportspersonship. Society places high expectations on athletes to be appropriate role models which are unrealistic and far beyond those of other occupations. The sports environment is a key factor in the expectations placed on athletes and has a significant influence on athlete well-being. Athletes face many adversities during their careers and while these can provide opportunities for personal growth they can have negative consequences. Understanding the factors that can contribute to athlete well-being, either positive or negative is important as this will enable strategies to be developed to minimise the negative consequences of being involved in elite sport.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS none

REFERENCES 1. Abad, D. (2010). Sportsmanship. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, 4(1), 27-41. DOI: 10.1080/17511320903365227 2. Amorose, A. J., Anderson-Butcher, D., & Cooper, J. (2009). Predicting changes in athletes’ well being from changes in need satisfaction over the course of a competitive season. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport,80(2), 386-392. 3. Arai, A., Ko, Y., & Ross, S. (2014). Branding athletes: exploration and conceptualization of athlete brand image, Sport Management Review, 17, 97-106. 4. Australian Government, National Integrity of Sport Unit. (2016). National Integrity of Sport Unit, accessed 8 September 2016 http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/national-integrity-of-sport-unit 5. Bačanac, L., Milićević-Marinković, Kasum, G., & Marinković. M. (2014). Competitive anxiety, self-confidence and psychological skills in top athletes with and without disabilities: a pilot study, Facta Universitatis Physical Education and Sport, 12(2): 59-70. 6. Barkoukis, V., Lazuras, L., Tsorbatzoudis, H., & Rodafinos, A. (2011). Motivational and sportspersonship profiles of elite athletes in relation to doping behavior. Psychology of sport and exercise, 12(3), 205-212. 7. Barkoukis, V., Lazuras, L., Tsorbatzoudis, H., & Rodafinos, A. (2013). Motivational and social cognitive predictors of doping intentions in elite sports: An integrated approach. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports, 23(5), e330-e340. 8. Bartholomew, K., Ntoumanis, N., Ryan, R. M., & Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C. (2011). Psychological need thwarting in the sport context: Assessing the darker side of athletic experience. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 33(1), 75-102. 9. Britten, N., Campbell, R., Pope, C., Donovan, J., Morgan, M., & Pill, R. (2002), Using meta-ethnography to synthesise qualitative research: a worked example. Journal of Health Services Research & Policy, 7:209-215. 10. Burroughs, B., & Vogan, T. (2015). Media Industries and Sport Scandals: Deadspin, Sports Illustrated, ESPN, and the Manti Te’o Hoax. IJSC, 8(1): 87-102. 11. Connor, J. (2009). Towards a sociology of drugs in sport, Sport in Society, 12(3), 327-328. DOI: 10.1080/17430430802673676 12. Crocker, A. (2014). The integrity of sport and the privilege against self-incrimination- is ASADA playing by the rules? Australian and New Zealand Sports Law Journal, 9(1): 27-56. 13. Donahue, E. G., Miquelon, P., Valois, P., Goulet, C., Buist, A., & Vallerand, R. J. (2006). A motivational model of performance-enhancing substance use in elite athletes. Journal of sport & exercise psychology, 28(4), 511. 14. Doty, J. (2006). Sport builds character? Journal of College and Character, 7(3): 1-9 DOI: 10.2202/1940-1639.1529 15. Dubuc-Charbonneau, N., & Durand-Bush, N. (2015). Moving to action: The effects of a self-regulation intervention on the stress, burnout, well-being, and self-regulation capacity levels of university student-athletes. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 9(2), 173-192. 16. Dunn, M. (2014). Understanding athlete wellbeing. Sport Health, 32(2), 46. 17. Dunn, M., & Thomas, J. O. (2012). A risk profile of elite Australian athletes who use illicit drugs. Addictive behaviors, 37(1), 144-147. 18. Gould, D., & Carson, S. (2008). Life skills development through sport: Current status and future directions. International review of sport and exercise psychology, 1(1), 58-78. 19. Gulliver, A., Griffiths, K., Mackinnon, A., Batterham, P., & Stanimirovic, R. (2015). The mental health of Australian elite athletes, Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 18: 255-261. 20. Hauw, D., & Mohamed, S. (2015). Patterns in the situated activity of substance use in the careers of elite doping athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 16, 156-163. 21. Hellison, D. R., & Cutforth, N. J. (1997). Extended day programs for urban children and youth: From theory to practice. ISSUES IN CHILDRENS AND FAMILIES LIVES, 7, 223-252. 22. Jonson, P. T., Lynch, S., & Adair, D. (2013). The contractual and ethical duty for a professional athlete to be an exemplary role model: Bringing the sport and sportsperson into unreasonable and unfair disrepute. Australian and New Zealand Sports Law Journal, 8(1), 55-88. 23. Lines, G. (2001). Villains, fools or heroes? Sports stars as role models for young people. Leisure Studies, 20(4), 285-303. 24. Lu, F. J., & Hsu, Y. (2013). Injured athletes’ rehabilitation beliefs and subjective well-being: the contribution of hope and social support. Journal of athletic training, 48(1), 92. 25. Macdougall, H., O’Halloran, P., Sherry, E., & Shields, N. (2016). Needs and strengths of Australian para-athletes: Identifying their subjective psychological, social and physical health and well-being, The Sport Psychologist, 30: 1-12. 26. Martens, M. (2013). Alcohol and substance use, in P. Miller (ed). Principles of Addiction, San Diego: Elsevier; 575-583. 27. Martínková, I., & Parry, J. (2015). On Biting in Sport—The Case of Luis Suárez. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, 9(2), 214-232. 28. McNamee, M. (2009). On being ‘probably slightly on the wrong side of the cheating thing’. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, 3(3): 283-285. 29. Meng, J., & Pan, P. L. (2013). Revisiting image-restoration strategies: An integrated case study of three athlete sex scandals in sports news. International Journal of Sport Communication, 6(1), 87-100. 30. Osborne, A., Sherry, E., & Nicholson, M. (2016). Celebrity, scandal and the male athlete: a sport media analysis, European Sport Management Quarterly, 16(3), 255-273. DOI: 10.1080/16184742.2016.1164214 31. Reinboth, M., & Duda, J. L. (2006). Perceived motivational climate, need satisfaction and indices of well-being in team sports: A longitudinal perspective. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7(3), 269-286. 32. Sar, A., Isiklar, A. (2012). Examination of locus of control, subjective well-being and optimism as the predictors of sport confidence, Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 6(1): 76-84. 33. Scarf, M. (2008). The dethronement of dubious didacticism: Exposing the real justifications for drug-free sport. Essays in Sport and the Law, 231-241. 34. Schinke, R., Blodgett, A., McGannon, K., & Ge, Y. (2016). Finding one’s footing on foreign soil: A composite vignette of elite athlete acculturation, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 25: 36-43 35. Sezen-Balcikanli, G., & Yildiran, I. (2012). Sportspersonship Orientation and Empathy: a Study of Professional Football Players. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 12(1), 18. 36. Smith, B., Hanrahan, S., Anderson, R., & Abbott, L. (2015). Predicting homesickness in residential athletes, Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 9: 138-155. 37. Smith, A., & Stewart, B. (2008). Drug policy in sport: hidden assumptions and inherent contradictions, Drug and Alcohol Review, 27: 123-129 38. Storm, R. K., & Wagner, U. (2015). The Anatomy of the Sports Scandal: An Outline for a Theoretical Contextualization. International Journal of Sport Communication, 8(3): 293-312. 39. Summers, C. (2007). Ouch…. You just dropped the Ashes, Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 34: 68-76. 40. Tamminen, K., Holt, N., & Neely, K. (2013). Exploring adversity and the potential for growth among elite female athletes, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 14: 28-36. 41. Theberge, N. (2008). “Just a normal bad part of what I do”: Elite athletes’ accounts of the relationship between health and sport, Sociology of Sport Journal, 25, 206-222. 42. Thomas, J., & Harden, A. (2008). Methods for the thematic synthesis of qualitative research in systematic reviews. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 8: 45-55 doi:10.1186/1471-2288-8-45. 43. Treagas, M., Cover, R., & Beasley, C. (2011). Integrity in sport literature review, accessed 8 September 2016 http://www.ausport.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/516782/Integrity_in_Sport_Literature_Review-.pdf 44. Verkooijen, K., van Hove, P., & Dik, G. (2012). Athletic identity and well-being among young talented athletes who live at a Dutch elite sport centre, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 24: 106-113. 45. Whitaker, L., Backhouse, S. H., & Long, J. (2014). Reporting doping in sport: national level athletes’ perceptions of their role in doping prevention. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 24(6), e515-521. 46. World Health Organization. (2004). Promoting mental health: Concepts, emerging evidence, practice: Summary report

Share this:

Share this article, choose your platform.