research helps to strengthen arguments by providing information

Arguments and Information

Learning Objectives

Describe the importance of research
Explain different information types
Introduce lateral reading as a research tool and technique
Describe types of plagiarism and explain best practices in citation

What does the word “research” conjure up for you? Do you think about sitting in a library and sorting through books or searching online? Do you picture a particular type of person?

While these images aren’t incorrect (of course libraries are connected with research), “research” can feel like an intimidating process. When does it begin? Where does it happen? When does it stop?

It’s helpful to understand what research is – the process of discovering new knowledge and investigating a topic from different points of view. Research is a process ; it’s an ongoing dialogue with information. But, as you know, not all information is neutral, and not all information is ethical. Part of the research process, then, is evaluating information to determine what knowledge is ethical and best suited for your argument.

This chapter will focus on the research process and the development of critical thinking skills—or decision-making based on evaluating and critiquing information— to identify, sort, and evaluate (mostly) scholarly information. To begin, we outline why research matters, followed by insights about locating information, evaluating information, and avoiding plagiarism.

Why Research?

Research gets a bad rap. It can feel like a boring, tedious, and overwhelming process. In our current information age, we are guilty of conducting a quick search, finding what we want to read, and moving on. Many of us rarely sit down, allocate time, and commit to digging deep and researching different perspectives about an idea or argument.

But we should.

When conducting research, you get to ask questions and actually find answers. If you have ever wondered what the best strategies are when being interviewed for a job, research will tell you. If you’ve ever wondered what it takes to be a NASCAR driver, an astronaut, a marine biologist, or a university professor, once again, research is one of the easiest ways to find answers to questions you’re interested in knowing.

Research can also open a world you never knew existed. We often find ideas we had never considered and learn facts we never knew when we go through the research process. Maybe you want to learn how to compose music, draw, learn a foreign language, or write a screenplay; research is always the best step toward learning anything.

As public speakers, research will increase your confidence and competence. The more you know, the more you know. The more you research, the more precise your argument, and the clearer the depth of the information becomes.

Where to Start

Because you’ve done exploratory research (as discussed in Chapter 3), you will likely have basic, foundational information about your argument. With that basic information in mind, ask: “what question am I answering? What should I be looking for? What do I need?”

Your specific purpose statement or a working thesis are good places to start. Remember the college textbook affordability example from Chapter 3? To refresh, the specific purpose is: “to persuade my audience to support campus solutions to rising textbook costs.” Research can help zero in on a working thesis by a) finding support for our perspective and b) identifying any specific campus solution that we could advocate for.

When we begin researching, we have three initial questions that arise from our specific purpose: has the cost of college textbooks increased over time? What are the causes? And what are the opportunities to address rising textbook costs in a way that can improve access relatively quickly at your institution?

These are just our starting questions. It’s likely that we’ll revise and research for information as we learn more. As Howard and Taggart point out in their book Research Matters , research is not just a one-and-done task (2010). As you develop your speech, you may realize that you want to address a question or issue that didn’t occur to you during your first round of research, or that you’re missing a key piece of information to support one of your points.

Use these questions, prior experience, and insight from exploratory brainstorming to determine what to search and where to start. If you still feel overwhelmed, that’s OK. Start somewhere (or ask a librarian for help), and use the insights below about information types as a guide.

Locating Effective Research

Once you have a general idea about the basic needs you have for your research, it’s time to start tracking information down. Thankfully, we live in a world that is swimming with information.

As you search, you will naturally be drawn to tools and information types that are already familiar to you. Like most people, you will likely use Google as your first search strategy. As you know, Google isn’t a source, per se: it’s a search engine. It’s the vehicle that, through search terms and savvy wording, will direct you to sources related to those terms.

What information types would you expect to see in your Google search results? We are guessing your list would include: news, blogs, Wikipedia, dictionaries, and social media.

While Google is a great tool, all informational roads don’t lead to Google. Learning about different information types and different ways to access information can expand your search portfolio.

Information Types

As you begin looking for research, an array of information types will be at your disposal.

When you access a piece of information, you should determine what you are looking at. Is it a blog? an online academic journal? an online newspaper? a website for an organization? Will these information types be useful in answering the questions that you’ve identified?

Common helpful information types include websites, scholarly articles, books, and government reports, to name a few. To determine the usefulness of an information type, you should familiarize yourself with what those sources are and their goals.

Information types are often categorized as either academic or nonacademic.

Nonacademic information sources are sometimes also called popular press information sources; their primary purpose is to be read by the general public. Most nonacademic information sources are written at a sixth to eighth-grade reading level, so they are very accessible. Although the information often contained in these sources can be limited, the advantage of using nonacademic sources is that they appeal to a broad, general audience.

Alternatively, academic sources are often (not always) peer-reviewed by like-minded scholars in the field. Academic publications can take longer to publish because academics have established a series of checklists that are required to determine the credibility of the information. Because of this process, it takes a while! That delay can result in nonacademic sources providing information before scholarly academics have tested or studied the phenomena.

In addition, be cognizant of who produces information and who that information is produced for. Table 4.1 simplistically illustrates the producer and audience of our short list of information types.

This is not an exhaustive list of information types. Others include: encyclopedias, periodicals or blogs. For more insight on information types, check here .

With any information type, the dichotomy of producer/audience helps us with evaluating the information. As you’ve learned from our discussion of public speaking, the audience informs the message. If you have a clearer idea of who the content is written for, you can determine if that source is best for your research needs.

Having a better understanding of information types is important, but open and closed information systems dictate which source material we have access to.

Open/Closed Information Systems

An open system describes information that is publicly available and accessible. A closed system means information is behind a paywall or requires a subscription.

Let’s consider databases as an example. It’s likely that you’ve searched your library’s database. Databases provide full text periodicals and works that are regularly published. This is a great tool because it can provide you links to scholarly articles, news reports, e-books, and more.

“Does that make databases an open system?” you may be asking. Access to databases is purchased by libraries. The articles and books contained in databases are licensed by publishers to companies, who sell access to this content, which is not freely available elsewhere. So, databases are part of a closed system. The university provides you access, but non-university folks would reach a paywall.

Table 4.2 illustrates whether different information types are like to be openly available or behind a paywall in a closed system. Knowing if an information is type is open or closed might influence your tools and search strategies used to discover and access the information.

Information isn’t always free. If you are confronted with a closed system, you will have to determine if that information is crucial or if you can access similar information through an openly accessible system.

Having a better understanding of information types and access will assist you in locating research for your argument. We continue our discussion below by diving into best practices for locating and evaluating research.

Evaluating Research

Going deeper through lateral reading.

Imagine that you’re online shopping. You have a pretty clear idea of what you need to buy, and you’ve located the product on a common site. In a perfect world, you could trust the product producer, the site, and the product itself and, without any research, simply click and buy. If you’re like us, however, being a knowledgeable consumer means checking product reviews, looking for similar products, and reading comments about the company. Once we have a deeper understanding of the product and process, then we buy!

Argument research is similar. Feeling literate about the information types described above is key, but inaccurate or untrustworthy content still emerges.

In response, we recommend lateral reading – fact-checking source claims by reading other sites and resources.

Lateral reading emerged after a group of Stanford researchers pitted undergraduates, professors with their Ph.D.s in history, and journalists against each other in a contest to see who could tell if information was fake or real (Wineburg, McGrew, 2017). The results? Journalists identified fake information every time, but the Ph.D.s and undergraduates struggled to sniff out the truth.

Why is this?

Well, journalists rarely read much of the article or website they were evaluating before they dove into researching it. They would read the title and open a new tab to check out if anyone else had published something on the same topic. Reading what other people had written gave the journalists some context or background knowledge on the topic, better positioning them to judge the argument and evidence made. They would circle back to the original article, identify the author, and open more tabs to verify the identity of the author and their credentials to write the piece. Once the journalists were satisfied with this, they had enough background information to start judging the argument of the original piece. Essentially, journalists would read the introduction and pick out big ideas or the argument, people, specific facts, and the evidence referenced in the first paragraph.

Mike Caulfield (2017), a professor who specializes in media literacy, read the Stanford study and identified steps to evaluate sources. One of those steps is to read laterally, and three ad d itional steps include :

Check for previous work : Look around to see if someone else has already fact-checked the claim or provided a synthesis of research.
Go upstream to the source: Go “upstream” to the source of the claim. Most web content is not original. Get to the original source to understand the trustworthiness of the information.
Circle back: If you get lost, hit dead ends, or find yourself going down an increasingly confusing rabbit hole, back up and start over, knowing what you know now. You’re likely to take a more informed path with different search terms and better decisions.

Let’s apply lateral reading to the college textbook affordability topic from Chapter 3 with the specific purpose to “to persuade my audience to support campus solutions to rising textbook costs.”

You decide to search “textbook affordability” into Google. Google identifies approximately 1 million sources – whoa. Where do you start? Click on one those stories, “ Triaging T e xtbook Costs ” – a 2015 publication from Inside Higher Ed. From it, you learn about research on the rising costs of textbooks over time, how some students navigate those costs, and something called “open educational resources” (OER) as a strategy for reducing costs. You’ll use lateral reading to follow up on some of the sources linked in the story and do a little more research to fact check this single source. By searching “OER,” you can verify that yes, many universities are turning to open educational resources to combat textbook affordability. Now, you can dive deeper into OERs as a potential solution to the problem.

Lateral reading is a great tool to verify information and learn more without getting too bogged down. However, your research doesn’t stop there. As you begin compiling information source types around your argument, verify the credibility and make sure you’re taking notes.

Questioning Selected Source Information

Practicing lateral reading will provide you better insight on what diverse sources say about your argument. Through that process, you’ll likely find multiple relevant sources, but is that source best for your argument? Perhaps, but ask yourself the following questions before integrating others’ ideas or research into your argument:

What’s the date? Remember that timeliness plays a key role in establishing the relevance of your argument to your audience. Although a less timely source may be beneficial, more recent sources are often viewed more credibly and may provide updated information.
Who is the author / who are the authors? Identify the author(s) and determine their credentials. We also recommend “Googling” an author and checking if there are any red flags that may hint at their bias or lack of credibility.
Who is the publisher? Find out about the publisher. There are great, credible publishers (like the Cato Institute), but fringe or for-profit publishers may be providing information that overtly supports a political cause.
Do they cite others’ work? Check out the end of the document for a reference page. If you’re using a source with no references, it’s not automatically “bad,” but a reputable reference page means that the author has evidence to support their insights. It helps establish if that author has done their research, too.
Do others cite the work? Use the lateral reading technique from above to see if other people have cited this work, too. Alternatively, if, as you research, you see the same piece of work over and over, it’s likely seen as a reputable source within that field. So check it out!

It can feel great to find a key piece of information that supports your argument. But a good idea is more than well-written content. To determine if that source is credible, use the questions above to guarantee that you’re selecting the best research for your idea.

Remember: this is a lot of stuff to keep track off. We suggest jotting down notes as you go to keep everything straight. Your notes could be a pad of paper next to your laptop or a digital notepad – whatever works best for you.

This may seem obvious, but it is often overlooked. Poor note taking or inaccurate notes can be devastating in the long-term. If you forget to write down all the source information, backtracking and trying to re-search to locate citation information is tedious, time-consuming, and inefficient. Without proper citations, your credibility will diminish. Keeping information without correct citations can have disastrous consequences – as discussed below.

While issues of plagiarism are mostly present in written communication, the practice can also occur in oral communication and in communication studies courses. It can occur when speakers misattribute or fail to cite a source during a speech, or when they are preparing outlines or notecards to deliver their speeches and fail to cite sources.

According to the National Communication Association (NCA), “ethical communication enhances human worth and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal integrity, and respect for self and others” and truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason as essential to the integrity of communication (“Credo for Ethical Communication,” 2017). This would imply that through oral communication, there is an expectation that you will credit others with their original thoughts and ideas through citation. One important way that we speak ethically is to use material from others correctly. Occasionally we hear in the news media about a politician or leader who uses the words of other speakers without attribution or of scholars who use pages out of another scholar’s work without consent or citation.

But, why does it matter if a speaker or writer commits plagiarism? Why and how do we judge a speaker as ethical? Why, for example, do we value originality and correct citation of sources in public life as well as the academic world, especially in the United States? These are not new questions, and some of the answers lie in age-old philosophies of communication.

Although there are many ways that you could undermine your ethical stance before an audience, the one that stands out and is committed most commonly in academic contexts is plagiarism. A dictionary definition of plagiarism would be “the act of using another person’s words or ideas without giving credit to that person” (Merriam-Webster, 2015). Plagiarism is often thought of as “copying another’s work or borrowing someone else’s original ideas” (“What is Plagiarism?”, 2014). Plagiarism also includes:

Turning in someone else’s work as your own;
Copying words or ideas from someone else without giving credit;
Failing to put quotation marks around an exact quotation correctly;
Giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation;
Changing words but copying the sentence structure of a source without giving credit;
Copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up the majority of your work, whether you give credit or not.

Plagiarism exists outside of the classroom and is a temptation in business, creative endeavors, and politics. However, in the classroom, your instructor will probably take the most immediate action if he or she discovers your plagiarism either from personal experience or through using plagiarism detection (or what is also called “originality checking”) software.

In the business or professional world, plagiarism is never tolerated because using original work without permission (which usually includes paying fees to the author or artist) can end in serious legal action. So, you should always work to correctly provide credit for source information that you’re using.

Types of Plagiarism

There are many instances of speakers or authors presenting work they claim to be original and their own when it is not. Plagiarism is often done accidentally due to inexperience. To avoid this mistake, let’s work through two types of plagiarism: stealing and sneaking. Sometimes these types of plagiarism are intentional, and sometimes they occur unintentionally (you may not know you are plagiarizing). However, as everyone knows, “Ignorance of the law is not an excuse for breaking it.”

No one wants to be the victim of theft; if it has ever happened to you, you know how awful it feels. When someone takes an essay, research paper, speech, or outline completely from another source, whether it is a classmate who submitted it for another instructor, from some sort of online essay writing service, or from elsewhere, this is an act of theft. The wrongness of the act is compounded when someone submits that work in its entirely and labels it as their own.

Most colleges and universities have a policy that penalizes or forbids “self-plagiarism.” This means that you can’t use a paper or outline that you presented in another class a second time. You may think, “How can this be plagiarism if the source is in my works cited page?” The main reason is that by submitting it to your instructor, you are still claiming it is original, first-time work for the assignment in that particular class. Your instructor may not mind if you use some of the same sources from the first time it was submitted, but he or she expects you to follow the instructions for the assignment and prepare an original assignment. In a sense, this situation is also a case of unfairness, since the other students do not have the advantage of having written the paper or outline already.

Instead of taking work as a whole from another source, an individual might copy two out of every three sentences and mix them up so they don’t appear in the same order as in the original work. Perhaps the individual will add a fresh introduction, a personal example or two, and an original conclusion. This kind of plagiarism is easy today due to the Internet and the word processing functions of cutting and pasting. It also most often occurs when someone has waited too long to start a project and it seems easier to cut and paste portions of text than it is to read, understand, and synthesize information into their own words.

You might not view this as stealing, thinking, “I did some research. I looked some stuff up and added some of my own work.” Unfortunately, this is still plagiarism because no source was credited, and the individual “misappropriated” the expression of the ideas as well as the ideas themselves.

Avoiding Plagiarism

To avoid plagiarism, you must give credit to the words, research, or insights of others. When you’re integrating supporting research or using a key idea or theory, let the audience know! As you add research into your outline, you can either:

Use direct quotes: this means that you’re including information from a source verbatim.
Paraphrase: express the source’s idea but not verbatim.
Summarize: explain the main ideas or arguments from the source’s findings.

Citing others will bolster your credibility because it demonstrates that you have in-depth knowledge about the topic.

In English classes, you’ve likely used style guides (like MLA or APA) to ethically cite research in an essay. Continue this practice. Regardless of how you’re integrating that research – verbatim or paraphrasing—the source reference should appear both in the writing and through an oral citation.

Key Takeaway

Having a strong research foundation will give your speech interest and credibility. This chapter has shown you how to access information but also how to find reliable information and evaluate it.

This process may seem exhausting at first, but you likely already are doing this in your everyday life. We simply are asking you to be a bit more aware of and practice lateral reading. Doing so will help you better understand the context and judge the veracity of an author’s argument and their evidence. It will also likely give you plenty of new evidence to inform your own argument.

Attribution:

Sections of this chapter were taken from Web Literacy for Student Fact-Checkers by Mike Caulfield.

Sections of this chapter were adapted from Speak up, Speak Out: The Practice and Ethics of Public Speaking . ISBN: 13: 9781946135254 License: CC BY-NC-SA

Speak Out, Call In: Public Speaking as Advocacy Copyright © 2019 by Meggie Mapes is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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11.1 The Purpose of Research Writing

Learning objectives.

Identify reasons to research writing projects.
Outline the steps of the research writing process.

Why was the Great Wall of China built? What have scientists learned about the possibility of life on Mars? What roles did women play in the American Revolution? How does the human brain create, store, and retrieve memories? Who invented the game of football, and how has it changed over the years?

You may know the answers to these questions off the top of your head. If you are like most people, however, you find answers to tough questions like these by searching the Internet, visiting the library, or asking others for information. To put it simply, you perform research.

Whether you are a scientist, an artist, a paralegal, or a parent, you probably perform research in your everyday life. When your boss, your instructor, or a family member asks you a question that you do not know the answer to, you locate relevant information, analyze your findings, and share your results. Locating, analyzing, and sharing information are key steps in the research process, and in this chapter, you will learn more about each step. By developing your research writing skills, you will prepare yourself to answer any question no matter how challenging.

Reasons for Research

When you perform research, you are essentially trying to solve a mystery—you want to know how something works or why something happened. In other words, you want to answer a question that you (and other people) have about the world. This is one of the most basic reasons for performing research.

But the research process does not end when you have solved your mystery. Imagine what would happen if a detective collected enough evidence to solve a criminal case, but she never shared her solution with the authorities. Presenting what you have learned from research can be just as important as performing the research. Research results can be presented in a variety of ways, but one of the most popular—and effective—presentation forms is the research paper . A research paper presents an original thesis, or purpose statement, about a topic and develops that thesis with information gathered from a variety of sources.

If you are curious about the possibility of life on Mars, for example, you might choose to research the topic. What will you do, though, when your research is complete? You will need a way to put your thoughts together in a logical, coherent manner. You may want to use the facts you have learned to create a narrative or to support an argument. And you may want to show the results of your research to your friends, your teachers, or even the editors of magazines and journals. Writing a research paper is an ideal way to organize thoughts, craft narratives or make arguments based on research, and share your newfound knowledge with the world.

Write a paragraph about a time when you used research in your everyday life. Did you look for the cheapest way to travel from Houston to Denver? Did you search for a way to remove gum from the bottom of your shoe? In your paragraph, explain what you wanted to research, how you performed the research, and what you learned as a result.

Research Writing and the Academic Paper

No matter what field of study you are interested in, you will most likely be asked to write a research paper during your academic career. For example, a student in an art history course might write a research paper about an artist’s work. Similarly, a student in a psychology course might write a research paper about current findings in childhood development.

Having to write a research paper may feel intimidating at first. After all, researching and writing a long paper requires a lot of time, effort, and organization. However, writing a research paper can also be a great opportunity to explore a topic that is particularly interesting to you. The research process allows you to gain expertise on a topic of your choice, and the writing process helps you remember what you have learned and understand it on a deeper level.

Research Writing at Work

Knowing how to write a good research paper is a valuable skill that will serve you well throughout your career. Whether you are developing a new product, studying the best way to perform a procedure, or learning about challenges and opportunities in your field of employment, you will use research techniques to guide your exploration. You may even need to create a written report of your findings. And because effective communication is essential to any company, employers seek to hire people who can write clearly and professionally.

Writing at Work

Take a few minutes to think about each of the following careers. How might each of these professionals use researching and research writing skills on the job?

Medical laboratory technician
Small business owner
Information technology professional
Freelance magazine writer

A medical laboratory technician or information technology professional might do research to learn about the latest technological developments in either of these fields. A small business owner might conduct research to learn about the latest trends in his or her industry. A freelance magazine writer may need to research a given topic to write an informed, up-to-date article.

Think about the job of your dreams. How might you use research writing skills to perform that job? Create a list of ways in which strong researching, organizing, writing, and critical thinking skills could help you succeed at your dream job. How might these skills help you obtain that job?

Steps of the Research Writing Process

How does a research paper grow from a folder of brainstormed notes to a polished final draft? No two projects are identical, but most projects follow a series of six basic steps.

These are the steps in the research writing process:

Choose a topic.
Plan and schedule time to research and write.
Conduct research.
Organize research and ideas.
Draft your paper.
Revise and edit your paper.

Each of these steps will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter. For now, though, we will take a brief look at what each step involves.

Step 1: Choosing a Topic

As you may recall from Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , to narrow the focus of your topic, you may try freewriting exercises, such as brainstorming. You may also need to ask a specific research question —a broad, open-ended question that will guide your research—as well as propose a possible answer, or a working thesis . You may use your research question and your working thesis to create a research proposal . In a research proposal, you present your main research question, any related subquestions you plan to explore, and your working thesis.

Step 2: Planning and Scheduling

Before you start researching your topic, take time to plan your researching and writing schedule. Research projects can take days, weeks, or even months to complete. Creating a schedule is a good way to ensure that you do not end up being overwhelmed by all the work you have to do as the deadline approaches.

During this step of the process, it is also a good idea to plan the resources and organizational tools you will use to keep yourself on track throughout the project. Flowcharts, calendars, and checklists can all help you stick to your schedule. See Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , Section 11.2 “Steps in Developing a Research Proposal” for an example of a research schedule.

Step 3: Conducting Research

When going about your research, you will likely use a variety of sources—anything from books and periodicals to video presentations and in-person interviews.

Your sources will include both primary sources and secondary sources . Primary sources provide firsthand information or raw data. For example, surveys, in-person interviews, and historical documents are primary sources. Secondary sources, such as biographies, literary reviews, or magazine articles, include some analysis or interpretation of the information presented. As you conduct research, you will take detailed, careful notes about your discoveries. You will also evaluate the reliability of each source you find.

Step 4: Organizing Research and the Writer’s Ideas

When your research is complete, you will organize your findings and decide which sources to cite in your paper. You will also have an opportunity to evaluate the evidence you have collected and determine whether it supports your thesis, or the focus of your paper. You may decide to adjust your thesis or conduct additional research to ensure that your thesis is well supported.

Remember, your working thesis is not set in stone. You can and should change your working thesis throughout the research writing process if the evidence you find does not support your original thesis. Never try to force evidence to fit your argument. For example, your working thesis is “Mars cannot support life-forms.” Yet, a week into researching your topic, you find an article in the New York Times detailing new findings of bacteria under the Martian surface. Instead of trying to argue that bacteria are not life forms, you might instead alter your thesis to “Mars cannot support complex life-forms.”

Step 5: Drafting Your Paper

Now you are ready to combine your research findings with your critical analysis of the results in a rough draft. You will incorporate source materials into your paper and discuss each source thoughtfully in relation to your thesis or purpose statement.

When you cite your reference sources, it is important to pay close attention to standard conventions for citing sources in order to avoid plagiarism , or the practice of using someone else’s words without acknowledging the source. Later in this chapter, you will learn how to incorporate sources in your paper and avoid some of the most common pitfalls of attributing information.

Step 6: Revising and Editing Your Paper

In the final step of the research writing process, you will revise and polish your paper. You might reorganize your paper’s structure or revise for unity and cohesion, ensuring that each element in your paper flows into the next logically and naturally. You will also make sure that your paper uses an appropriate and consistent tone.

Once you feel confident in the strength of your writing, you will edit your paper for proper spelling, grammar, punctuation, mechanics, and formatting. When you complete this final step, you will have transformed a simple idea or question into a thoroughly researched and well-written paper you can be proud of!

Review the steps of the research writing process. Then answer the questions on your own sheet of paper.

In which steps of the research writing process are you allowed to change your thesis?
In step 2, which types of information should you include in your project schedule?
What might happen if you eliminated step 4 from the research writing process?

Key Takeaways

People undertake research projects throughout their academic and professional careers in order to answer specific questions, share their findings with others, increase their understanding of challenging topics, and strengthen their researching, writing, and analytical skills.
The research writing process generally comprises six steps: choosing a topic, scheduling and planning time for research and writing, conducting research, organizing research and ideas, drafting a paper, and revising and editing the paper.

Chapter 4 Understanding and Composing Researched Arguments

Cynthia Kiefer and Serene Rock

4.0 Introduction

In Chapter 4 brings together and further develops your academic composing, metaliteracy, and rhetorical knowledge and skills. The content in the chapter assumes some previous experience with college research and writing, so after a brief introduction to argument, the chapter will focus on two major projects: the synthesis project and the solution proposal project. In the first project, you will analyze and synthesize two different perspectives on the same issue through a synthesis paper or project to sharpen your critical thinking and analytic skills. In addition, the arguments analyzed and compared in the project’s source material serves as a model of the different ways writers develop and support their arguments with rhetorical appeals, evidence, rhetorical language choices, and explanatory commentary. The second project asks you to develop a proposal solution in an argument in which you immerse yourself in researching a current narrowed issue or problem, provide background to the problem, explain why it is a problem and must be addressed now, and provide feasible solutions to the problem. The second project also includes several suggestions for creating related digital projects to share your knowledge and solutions with your peers and others.

Learning Objectives

In this chapter, you will :

identify features and types of argument.
apply your rhetorical knowledge and skill when analyzing varying perspectives on the same topic.
compose a formal academic written synthesis paper or project comparing two different texts with opposing perspectives on the same issue.
create a research question related to an issue or problem in a state, national, or global context/s.
conduct a thorough research process and select the most relevant, credible key sources.
select and narrow sources to detail in a formal, written Annotated Bibliography.
create an “explainer” video on your argument’s topic (what is happening and background to the problem).
create and narrow an argumentative stance (position) on a researched topic.
plan, organize, and draft a formal proposal argument paper or project.
apply feedback from peers, tutors, and instructors on written and digital compositions
create an infographic containing a call to action, focused your argument’s proposal.

Aligned English 102 Course Competencies:

Write for specific rhetorical contexts, including circumstance, purpose, topic, audience and writer, as well as the writing`s ethical, political, and cultural implications. (MCCCD #1)
Organize writing to support a central idea through unity, coherence and logical development appropriate to a specific writing context. (MCCCD #2)
Use appropriate conventions in writing, including consistent voice, tone, diction, grammar, and mechanics. (MCCCD #3)
Find, evaluate, select, and synthesize both online and print sources that examine a topic from multiple perspectives. (MCCCD #4)
Integrate sources through summarizing, paraphrasing, and quotation from sources to develop and support one`s own ideas. (MCCCD #5)
Identify, select and use an appropriate documentation style to maintain academic integrity. (MCCCD #6)
Use feedback obtained through peer review, instructor comments, and/or other sources to revise writing. (MCCCD #7)
Assess one`s own writing strengths and identify strategies for improvement through instructor conference, portfolio review, written evaluation, and/or other methods. (MCCCD #8)
Generate, format, and edit writing using appropriate technologies. (MCCCD #9)

4.1 Understanding Features and Types of Arguments

two people sitting down talking, one with questions overhead and one with points they are making overhead

This section assumes you have some knowledge and experience with argument, but just to make sure we share a common understanding, the content in this section will provide sufficient background to refresh and expand your knowledge of argument and academic argument vocabulary terms.

4.1.1 Features of ACADEMIC Argument

A clear and arguable position: You must present a reasonable argument for which both evidence and opposing or alternate views (counterarguments) exist. If few would disagree with you or you cannot find any evidence of a credible opposing view, you should consider rethinking and revising your position. A common error occurs when students try to present a statement of fact as an argumentative position. See the examples at the end of this section to learn how an idea or statement of fact can be developed and revised to become an effective thesis statement.

An obvious organizational structure: A solid argument takes planning. If your argument is disorganized or the thesis and/or the key reasons are unclear or placed in a confusing order, your argument and supporting content may not be taken seriously. Taking the time to plan the essay with a rough phrase-form outline including your citations will save you hours of time when you start writing.

Necessary background information: You must present the issues, history, or larger contexts that provide the foundation for understanding your argument so that your readers (and you) can comprehend and see the urgency in the specific argument you are making. That is, you must acknowledge the current rhetorical context and provide a sense of the argument’s importance or exigence .

Viable reasons for your position: Your argument offers valid reasons for your position for which you provide relevant evidence. These reasons usually become the key points expressed in your topic sentences.

Convincing evidence: You present convincing, credible, relevant researched evidence including facts, statistics, surveys, expert testimony, anecdotes, and textual (i.e. such as history, reports, analyses) evidence. You may also include personal testimony if you have direct experience you can provide as evidence, but primarily, you are providing researched evidence. (Think logos, ethos, pathos, Kairos when selecting your evidence. Varying evidence types will help you vary the rhetorical appeals and create a more balanced argument and greater audience appeal.)

Appeals to readers’ values: Effective arguments appeal to readers’ emotions, values, wants, and needs. You might appeal to your readers’ sense of compassion or justice through a compelling narrative/anecdote, for example. (Think pathos and ethos when appealing or acknowledging your audience’s concerns or possible thoughts.)

A trustworthy tone: Through a confident tone, clear focus, knowledgeable voice, and well-researched, credible evidence, you can develop readers’ confidence in your credibility. (Convey to your audience that you possess internal ethos!) Also, vague or shallow evidence and writing that is unedited and/or too informal in tone will reduce your audience’s trust in your argument.

Careful consideration of counterarguments: You present your awareness of opposing views about your argument to address the audience’s needs or expectations and to reinforce your internal ethos with their trust. If you do not address the “yeah, but” or “what about” in your readers’ or listeners’ minds, your argument may not be taken seriously and, even worse, your audience will think you have not researched your topic well enough or that you underestimate their existing knowledge. You should concede some points the opposition makes and refute others through evidence when you can.

Appropriate use of patterns of development to present your argument: Your argument reflects application of the most effective patterns of development (i.e. exemplification, explanation, analysis, classification, comparison/contrast, definition, description, narration), with which to develop the content supporting your reasons (typically your reasons are the discussion points or topic sentences for your body paragraphs).

Example: Can a statement of fact evolve into a strong argumentative thesis statement?

When presenting your stance in an argumentative thesis statement, make sure you have stated an argument and not a simple statement of fact or an expository thesis statement like you would write for a report.

Statement of Fact: Some social media users develop unhealthy attitudes about their body image because of the constant portrayal of “ideal” body types they encounter online.

Expository Thesis Statement: Excessive social media use can cause unhealthy physical and mental conditions, particularly for girls and young women.

Overarching Point Argumentative Thesis Statement: Social media users should restrict themselves from the exposure to unrealistic photos and from the portrayal of the “ideal” body type in order to prevent the development of significant health issues.

Argument Thesis Statement with Broadcasting of Discussion Points (Reasons/Minor Premises): Social media users should restrict themselves from the exposure to unrealistic photos and from the portrayal of the “ideal” body type in order to prevent harmful physical and mental health conditions linked with excessive social media use.

Proposal Solution Argument Thesis Statement: To help users moderate their exposure to unrealistic photos and “ideal” body types associated with harmful physical and mental health conditions, social media companies should provide users with informative public service announcements focused on healthy body image, display advertising promoting healthy body images and attitudes, and develop filters and messaging preferences to help end users control their media stream content.

THESIS TIPS: When you compare the statements above, it is clear that a solid expository or argumentative thesis statement can contain factual information, but it must be a more complex idea that requires more development and evidence. The simple statement of fact above does not pass the “so what?” or “why?” test. When a thesis makes a claim about what a person or organization should do, think, or say , you are in the realm of argument. A useful strategy for developing a strong argumentative thesis statement is to answer this question: Who should do what and why ?

4.1.2 aCTIVATING AN INQUIRY-BASED MINDSET FOR CREATING ARGUMENTS

Using a questioning heuristic can help you generate (“invent”) an academic argument. Just as you pre-research a possible argument topic to see what others are saying about it (“the current conversation” in public discourse) or just bubble map or list to generate some ideas or list some research questions, you also need to “interrogate” the argument you are forming before you go too far with your research. In fact, working through these questions about the argument will help you identify holes in the argument you can address with specific research questions for your next round of rhetorical research.

QUESTIONING HEURISTIC FOR INVENTING AN ARGUMENT

Questions are at the core of arguments. What matters is not just that you believe that what you have to say is true, but that you give others viable reasons to believe it as well—and also show them that you have considered the issue from multiple angles. To do that, build your argument out of the answers to the five questions a rational reader will expect answers to. In academic and professional writing, we tend to build arguments from the answers to these main questions:

What do you want me to do or think?
Why should I do or think that?
How do I know that what you say is true?
Why should I accept the reasons that support your claim?
What about this other idea, fact, or consideration?
How should you present your argument?

When you ask people to do or think something they otherwise would not, they quite naturally want to know why they should do so. In fact, people tend to ask the same questions. As you make a reasonable argument, you anticipate and respond to readers’ questions with a particular part of argument:

1. The answer to What do you want me to do or think? is your conclusion : “I conclude that you should do or think X.”

2. The answer to Why should I do or think that? states your premise : “You should do or think X because . . .”

3. The answer to How do I know that what you say is true? presents your support : “You can believe my reasons because they are supported by a thorough review of the available information and this carefully selected, credible evidence . . .”

4. The answer to Why should I accept that your reasons support your claim? states your general principle of reasoning, called a warrant : which is/are assumptions and/or values the author holds and possibly the audience holds as well). “My specific reason supports my specific claim because whenever this general condition is true, we can generally draw a conclusion like mine.” “I know people in my audience value the importance of X, just as I do.”

5. The answer to What about this other idea, fact, or conclusion? acknowledges that your readers might see things differently and then responds to their counterarguments .

6. The answer to How should you present your argument? leads to the point of view , organization , and tone that you should use when making your arguments.

As you have noticed, the answers to these questions involve knowing the particular vocabulary about argument because these terms refer to specific parts of an argument. The remainder of this section will cover the terms referred to in the questions listed above as well as others that will help you better understand the building blocks of argument.

Source of this argument questioning heuristic: Devries, Kirsten. “Chapter 3 Argument.” Critical Reading, Critical Writing: A Handbook to Understanding College Composition, Howard Community College (MD), pressbooks.howardcc.edu/criticalreadingcriticalwriting/chapter/chapter-3-argument/. License CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0.

4.1.3 Types of Arguments

Aristotelian argument.

Most likely in your first semester of college English, you composed a simplified Aristotelian argument essay in which you researched a controversial issue and formed an argumentative position on the issue. You wrote an introduction leading into your thesis statement (major premise), provided two to three reasons as discussion points (minor premises) which became the focus of the essay’s body paragraphs. You also provided a counterargument presenting an opposing view and offered both a concession and a refutation of that view. The basic argument process is reviewed for you in this brief description below:

PROMPTS AND PROCESSES TO GUIDE STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF A BASIC ARGUMENT ESSAY

Claim: What do you want the reader to believe?

The thesis in an argument paper is often called a claim. This is a statement of position, a thesis in which you take a stand on a controversial issue. A strong claim is one that has a valid counter-claim — an opposite or alternative that is as sensible as the position that you take in your claim.

Background: What background information about the topic does the reader need?

Before you get into defending your claim, you may need to offer some context to your argument. Some of this context may be offered in your intro paragraph, but often there are other definitions, history about your topic or the controversy that surrounds it, or other elements of the argument’s contextual that need additional space in your paper. This background can go after you state your claim.

Reasons: Why should a reader accept your claim?

To support your claim, you need a series of “sub-claims” or reasons. Like your claim, this is your thinking – your mini-argumentative points that support the core argumentative claim. This is NOT evidence. This is not data or statistics or quotes. A reason should be your idea that you use to support claim. We often say that three reasons – each distinct points – make for a well rounded argument structure.

Evidence: What makes your reasoning valid? To validate the thinking that you use in your reasons, you need to demonstrate that your reasons are not only based on your personal opinion. Evidence can come from research studies or scholarship, expert opinions, personal examples, observations made by yourself or others, or specific instances that make your reason seem sound and believable. Evidence only “works” if it directly supports your reason — and sometimes you must explain how the evidence supports your reason (do not assume that a reader can see the connection between evidence and reason that you see).

Counterargument: But what about other perspectives?

In a strong argument, you will not be afraid to consider perspectives that either challenge or completely oppose your own claim. In a counterargument, you may do any of the following (or some combination of them):

summarize opposing views
topic sentence makes it clear that you are making the shift to the counterview: “Opponents of X (your argument) believe/think/feel . . .
explain how and where you actually agree with some opposing views
acknowledge weaknesses or holes in your own argument

You have to be careful and clear that you are not conveying to a reader that you are rejecting your own claim; it is important to indicate that you are merely open to considering alternative viewpoints. Being open in this way shows that you are an ethical arguer – you are considering many viewpoints.

Response to Counterargument:

Just as it is important to include counterargument to show that you are fair-minded and balanced, you must respond to the counterargument that you include so that a reader clearly sees that you are not agreeing with the counterargument. Failure to include the response to counterargument can confuse the reader.

**It is certainly possible to begin the argument section (meaning, after the Background section) with your counterargument response instead of placing it at the end. Some people prefer to have their counterargument first; some prefer to have the counterargument response right before the conclusion.

Excerpted with minor edits from Emilie Zickel’s Pressbook, English 102: Reading, Research and Writing.

Rogerian Argument

The Rogerian approach to argument is based in the work of Carl Rogers , one of the founders of Humanistic Psychology . Humanists are ” concerned with the fullest growth of the individual in the areas of love, fulfillment, self-worth, and autonomy” (“Humanist Psychology”). In the field of learning and rhetoric, the “Rogerian” approach is focused on personal growth, developing a sense of personal fulfillment, and finding common ground with others. This concept of finding common ground with others who hold opposing views or perspectives is a contrast to the traditional Aristotelian argument as discussed in the previous subsection or the Toulmin argument, discussed in the next subsection.

A Rogerian argument presents the opposing view without bias or negative tone and finds subclaims or points within the opposition argument that have merit or align with your own position on the issue. If you understand the issue well enough you could authentically present two or more stances on the issue, you are demonstrating that you have brought an open mind to the issues and are probably trustworthy in presenting your own argument and the opposing view. That is, you will have validated your internal ethos to your audience. As you present the opposing argument and consider the supporting evidence, your goal is to work your way toward common ground; that is, the reasons and/or evidence both sides can agree upon, at least to some degree. Even if you do not actually write or present a formal Rogerian Argument, working through an outline of the opposition’s case with an open mind for the purpose of finding common ground and determining where your arguments diverge will help you more effectively develop your own argument and present a counterargument authentic to the oppositions’ views.

The Rogerian argument analysis expands your knowledge and understanding of an issue far beyond a simple pro/con understanding of the issue and may lead you to developing a more sophisticated, complex qualified argument. Processing your argument through the filter of a Rogerian perspective could also help you avoid some argumentative pitfalls. For example, more fully understanding and finding common ground with the the opposing views may help you prevent these argumentative pitfalls:

taking too hostile a position against an opposing argument, thus alienating your audience.
not acknowledging the values, wants, or needs the opposing argument fulfills for your intended audience, thus you never address them yourself.
writing a weak, uniformed counterargument to your own argument leading to audience mistrust of your internal ethos.

To give a Rogerian argument argument a try, follow these guidelines:

summarize the opposing viewpoints
determine if the opposing view’s argument is reasonable
present their arguments and supporting points or premises accurately
assess the evidence that provides backing for the value or ideal driving the argument
determine if the author’s assumptions are valid
keep your tone respectful while acknowledging the “holes” or missing evidence in the oppositions argument
acknowledge your shared concerns (the “common ground”)
follow up with support for your own argument
concede the opposition’s valid supporting points with which you found common ground
refute the weaknesses in the opposing view’s argument

As mentioned in Chapter 1, the combative or direct argumentative approach may be rejected by some audiences as too one-sided or may even culturally alienate an audience completely. Even if you do not use a pure Rogerian approach when structuring your own argument, applying the Rogerian mindset to the opposing side’s argument as a productive exercise just might help you find the common ground on which to base a stronger argument of your own.

Ready to learn more about Rogerian argument? This brief video below provides more explanation of the Rogerian argument and includes a specific outline for writing a Rogerian argument or analysis.

Caption and Credit: Valerie Bronstein Connors, Professor at American River College. “How to write a Rogerian structured essay with a delayed thesis and common ground.” YouTube. 25 Nov, 2019, youtu.be/a6kt8A10Mc4

Toulmin Argument

Toulmin Argument was developed by philosopher, Stephen Toulmin . Toulmin is best known for his work on argumentation which moved argument out of classical logical reasoning based on syllogisms to what he termed “practical arguments” based on justification rather than abstract proofs. Key elements of the Toulmin Model are the claim, the grounds or evidence, the rebuttal, the conclusion, the warrant, the backing, and qualifiers.

TOULMIN MODEL

from Writing and Rhetoric by Heather Hopkins Bowers, Anthony Ruggiero, and Jason Saphara. This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

What issue/topic are you writing about?
Why are you writing about it? What has happened or needs to happen?
How will you write about the issue? What will the major points of your paper be?
Why should we care about this argument? How will you get the attention of the average person? This is often referred to as the greater purpose or warrant in that in takes the argument and broadens its appeal to readers by generalizing it.
Other points that might be included:
Who i s being addressed if relevant?
When or time period if relevant to issue?
Where if the location is relevant to issue?

So now that we know what the parts are we can practice building a thesis. Here is a way to get started:

What issue: Social Media
Why write about it: Dangers to Young Adults
How will I write about it: Provide evidence that shows the dangers of social media by examining the time young adults spend on social media, cyber bullying and teen suicide.
Why should we care about this argument: it is the responsibility of adults to ensure that young adults are kept safe and out of harms way.

So the basic starting thesis would look something like this:

THE EVIDENCE

THE REBUTTAL

THE CONCLUSION

THE WARRANT

THE BACKING

THE QUALIFIERS

The diagram below reflects the elements of Toulmin’s practical argument. The diagram illustrates how warrants and the back of warrants provide the connection between evidence and a conclusion. Warrants help contextualize a fact or link a fact to a conclusion. Creating a diagram such as this will help you create a solid basis on which to justify your argument. Probably the most important elements of the Toulmin model are the warrant and the backing. If you are not sure what warrant/s (shared audience knowledge, values, or assumption/s) link your evidence (grounds for the argument) to the conclusion, you may not be supporting your conclusion with the most effective evidence.

The Toulmin Argument for Analyzing Arguments

The Toulmin argument elements can be used to structure or test your argument or to better analyze the quality of another writer or speaker’s argument. This list will give you Toulmin terminology and a sense of how the elements work to use the model to analyze another person’s argument.

Claim: The author wants me to believe/accept their conclusion that . . .
Support/subclaims: The reasons I should believe this are . . .
Evidence or Grounds: What evidence does the author provide and does the warrant sufficiently link this to the author’s claim (conclusion)?
Warrants: Why is this claim important to the author? (assumptions and/or values the author holds):
Backing for Warrants: What evidence does the author give to remind me of warrants and make me want to accept them?
Rebuttal: Are other positions shown? Are they refuted or discussed?
Qualifier: Is there anything which suggests the claim might be limited (sometimes, probably, possibly, if)?

Finally, if you want to view or listen to an entertaining discussion of the Toulmin Model of Argument, this video will both inform and entertain you.

Credit: “The Toulmin Method of Argumentation | THUNK.” YouTube, 29 Nov. 2016, youtu.be/1vArfwlX04I.

4.1.4 Other Types of Academic Arguments

ARGUMENT GENRES

by Heather Hopkins Bowers, Anthony Ruggiero, and Jason Saphara, in Writing and Rhetoric, Colorado State University, Pueblo. Licensed CC-BY 4.0. https://csupueblo.pressbooks.pub/rhetoric/chapter/argument-genres/

Sometimes writing instructors assign specific types of arguments. These genre arguments have different purposes and will require different writing strategies. These purposes and strategies require writers to assume different roles. If assigned one of these arguments, you may find yourself investigating a cause, defining a term, evaluating a product, or solving a problem. You’ll still be arguing and using rhetorical principles to make these arguments, but you’ll need to consider your role as you compose your argument.

Causal Arguments

In a causal argument, a writer must argue about a problem’s or controversy’s cause. Causal arguments are difficult because most controversial issues have complicated causes. Many people will also tend to believe causes that correspond to their political beliefs when considering causes. Consider the various explanations for school shootings. Some will insist the problem is the easy availability of firearms while others will insist that shooters are inspired by violent video games and entertainment. When making a causal argument, a writer should consider their biases and rely on evidence to support their claims.

In a causal argument, writers may be tempted by logical fallacies. For example, it’s important to remember the correlation is not equal to causation. If two events happen at the same time, that doesn’t necessarily mean that one event caused the other. We only have to consider an extreme example to see this. Imagine someone saying, “John wrecked his car last night when the moon was full, and Jim did the same. The full moon must have affected their driving.” While most people wouldn’t believe this, we can investigate other possible causes. Were there poor road conditions? Were Jim and/or John drunk? Driving unsafely? People will make similar errors when one event follows another. To avoid making these mistakes, writers should consider alternative causes when making a causal argument; these are opposing views that should be considered. If you find an alternative explanation stronger than your initial version, then you should make that your paper’s conclusion.

Definition Arguments

This type of argument may seem puzzling. How do we argue about a word’s definition? Isn’t that what dictionaries are for? For most definition arguments, the real argument isn’t the precise meaning of the word. Instead, the argument is about the implications of that definition and how the definition may be applied to specific situations. Consider the word “obscene.” One dictionary defines “obscene” as “offensive or disgusting by accepted standards of morality and decency.” A writer may want to argue that Playboy is obscene. Or that a recent controversial film is obscene. By making this kind of argument, the writer would suggest some course of action: the obscene material should be age-limited, should be condemned, or should be banned. In this kind of paper the author would make claims about “accepted standards” and “offensive or disgusting” as they apply to the potentially obscene item.

Many popular arguments rely of definitions. Determining whether something is obscene or offensive is just one popular item. As part of the War on Terror, we’ve argued about the meaning of “torture” and its justification. Many death penalty arguments rely upon the terms “cruel and unusual punishment.” The Iraq war inspired many arguments about “just” and “unjust” wars, as did the Vietnam war did decades earlier.

Evaluation Arguments

A writer should strive to be fair when writing a review. You’ve probably seen a one-star Amazon review that says something like “The product arrived three days late.” This probably isn’t a fair review of the product, as its makers may have had no role in the product’s untimely delivery. When directing praise or blame in an evaluation consider how much to weigh each criteria and even the criteria against each other. Audience is important for a review. For example, a writer reviewing a horror movie for a horror fan website would probably offer a different review than a writer for The New York Times.

Evaluation arguments aren’t only used with products or services. Evaluation arguments are useful for supporting or opposing public policies or proposed laws. A community may propose several solutions to deal with a school district’s budget woes. A teacher from that district may write a guest editorial arguing for the best policy, or write an article criticizing a poor choice.

Proposal Argument (Problem/Solution)

Proposal arguments require the writer to perform two tasks: argue that there is a problem, and then propose a solution to that problem. Usually, the problem will be a local problem: Pueblo, Colorado has a high teen pregnancy rate. It’s good to focus on a smaller community because national or global problems or much more complex. In the United States, many states have varying laws and approaches to problems, so arguing about a problem is difficult. Additionally, Portland, Oregon may suffer from different problems than Portland, Maine. Writing an argument that addresses those complexities is often beyond the capability of most first year students and beyond the scope of the short papers assigned in a composition class.

Proposals have two separate arguments. The first is the problem: it’s not enough to label an issue a problem; a writer must prove that the problem is severe to an audience. Take, for instance, the opioid crisis. A writer may need to convince community members who aren’t addicts why the crisis is a problem for their community, so it’s not enough to discuss how addiction hurts addicts. Showing how the community is harmed by the crime associated with addiction might motivate a community to solve the problem. The key to establishing a problem is showing that the problem is severe to the audience because a proposal is asking readers to fix the problem.

The second argument is the solution. Explain what the solution is and how it solves the problem. A writer should establish that their solution is the best solution. The best solution is the cheapest solution that best addresses the problem. “Cheapest” here refers not just to monetary costs. While monetary costs are important, there are other costs. What are the labor costs of the solution? How will people’s lives be changed? How might people be angered by the solution or its implementation? “Addressing the problem” is an acknowledgment that most proposals won’t completely solve a problem. The goal is a reasonable solution that eliminates most of the harm, or the most serious harm, caused by the problem. Perhaps the most difficult aspect of proposals is considering the unintended consequences of a solution. These can be positive or negative. Writers should ask “What happens next?” of their solutions. Will a solution that lowers teen pregnancies also improve the dropout rate in the school district? Will it also require more resources be moved from other school programs?

Key Takeaway: What are Key Features of Argument?

With this brief introduction, you can see what rhetorical or academic argument is not :

An argument need not be controversial or about a controversy. (It could, for example, promote a solution that most would agree is needed.)
An argument is not a mere fight supported with beliefs and emotional reasoning.
An argument does not have a single winner or loser.
An argument is not a mere opinion.
An argument is not a statement of fact.

Furthermore, you can see what rhetorical argument is :

An argument is a claim asserted as true. (That is, you state your argument as fact. You avoid “I think” or “it seems to me” which would weaken your stance. That’s one reason most academic arguments are written in third person, formal point-of-view.)
An argument is arguable.
An argument must be reasonable.
An argument must be supported with reasons and supporting evidence.
An argument in a formal essay is called a thesis . Supporting arguments (minor premises) can be called topic sentences .
An argument can be explicit or implicit. (Directly stated or inferred)
An argument must be adapted to its rhetorical situation.

Source of this Key Takeaway: Devries, Kirsten. “Chapter 3 Argument.” Critical Reading, Critical Writing: A Handbook to Understanding College Composition , Howard Community College (MD), pressbooks.howardcc.edu/criticalreadingcriticalwriting/chapter/chapter-3-argument/. License CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0.

4.2 How Logical Reasoning, Rhetorical Appeals, and evidence Work to support an Argument

Black and white outline of head with thinking wheel inside. Created by Srinivas Agra from the Noun Project

Now that you understand the basic features, and types of argument more fully, you are ready to dig a more deeply into understanding how effective arguments are developed. This requires critically analyzing the viewpoints of others–and yourself–using logical reasoning to test the ideas and assumptions on which an argument is founded. The first subsection below will give you the thinking tools to do that. In addition, examining how you and other rhetors use a balance of rhetorical appeals and types of relevant, effective, and ethically presented evidence to support their arguments will help you develop stronger argument by applying your rhetorical awareness, skills, and knowledge to the greatest effect in delivering the argument.

Key Vocabulary

Conclusion —a claim that is asserted as true. One part of an argument.
Premise —a reason behind a conclusion. The other part of an argument. Most conclusions have more than one premise.
Statement —a declarative sentence that can be evaluated as true or false. The parts of an argument, premises and the conclusion, should be statements.
Standard Argument Form —a numbered breakdown of the parts of an argument (conclusion and all premises).
Premise Indicators —terms that signal that a premise, or reason, is coming.
Conclusion Indicator —terms that signal that a conclusion, or claim, is coming.
Support —anything used as proof or reasoning for an argument. This includes evidence, experience, and logic.
Warrant —the connection made between the support and the reasons of an argument.
Counterargument —an opposing argument to the one you make. An argument can have multiple counterarguments.
Complex Arguments –these are formed by more than individual premises that point to a conclusion. Complex arguments may have layers to them, including an intermediate argument that may act as both a conclusion (with its own premises) and a premise (for the main conclusion).

Source: Devries, Kirsten. “Chapter 3 Argument.” Critical Reading, Critical Writing: A Handbook to Understanding College Composition , Howard Community College (MD), pressbooks.howardcc.edu/criticalreadingcriticalwriting/chapter/chapter-3-argument/

4.2.1 LOgicAL Reasoning: What is a syllogism?*

The term syllogism is applied to the distinctive form of argument that is the application of deductive reasoning. A syllogism includes two premises that are compared against each other in order to infer a conclusion.

The following is an example of a syllogism:

Major Premise: No insect is warm-blooded.
Minor Premise: The wasp is an insect.
Conclusion: No wasp is warm-blooded. In this syllogism members of a category do not possess a certain characteristic (major premise). An individual is in that category (minor premise). Therefore, that individual cannot possess the characteristic (conclusion).

WHAT IS A CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM?

The example syllogism in the previous section is a categorical syllogism. In a categorical syllogism, the major premise will state something that will be taken as an absolute (categorical) starting point, and the minor premise will be examined against this absolute starting point in order to infer the conclusion.

Examples of categorical statements:

All raccoons are omnivores.
No insect is warm-blooded.
Some mammals are omnivores.
Some mammals are not omnivores.

WHEN IS A CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM A FALLACY?

A categorical syllogism can be fallacious either because a premise is untrue or because the relationship between the major and minor premise does not support the conclusion.

Untrue premise leading to a fallacious conclusion:

Major premise: All swimming vertebrates are fish.
Minor premise: The whale is a swimming vertebrate.
Conclusion: The whale is a fish.

In fact, not all swimming vertebrates are fish so the conclusion that the whale is a fish is unsound.

Relationship between major and minor premise does not support conclusion:

Major premise: Some instructors lack a sense of humor.
Minor premise: Kim is an instructor.
Conclusion: Kim lacks a sense of humor.

Certainly somewhere in the world an instructor must lack a sense of humor, so let us agree that the major premise is true. Let us also agree that the Kim in the minor premise is an instructor. Still, t he conclusion is unsound because it is impossible to determine whether Kim belongs to the group that lacks a sense of humor. A major premise that

states that only some members of a group have a characteristic can never set the stage for concluding that any particular member of the group has that characteristic.

4.2.2 WHAT IS AN IF/THEN SYLLOGISM?

An alternative name for the if/then syllogism is the hypothetical syllogism , but you may find it handy to use the if/then label because the characteristic sign of such a syllogism is the ‘if/then’ in the major premise. Here are the two common forms:

When is an if/then syllogism a fallacy?

Remember that a syllogism may be fallacious if a premise is false. In the case of the either/or fallacy, the major premise must accurately capture a logical relationship—that is, the ‘if’ must actually be a condition for the ‘then’. An if/then syllogism also may be fallacious if the major premise oversimplifies matters by identifying only one condition when in fact several are necessary.

Example of a fallacious if/then syllogism:

Major premise: If her overall GPA is 2.0 then she will graduate.
Minor premise: Her overall GPA is 2.0.
Conclusion: Therefore, she will graduate.

What if the student’s major has a GPA requirement as well? For example, a department may require a 2.5 GPA for all courses taken for the major.

from “Chapter 4: Making Mistakes in Reasoning.” Introduction to Ethics, Lumen Learning, n.d., courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-epcc-introethics-1/chapter/syllogisms/. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

4.2.3 Rhetorical Appeals in Argument

RHETORICAL STRATEGIES: BUILDING COMPELLING ARGUMENTS

This content is provided by Emilie Zickel in English 102: Reading, Research, and Writing. This text is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. In this selection, we have added additional content to the section on the ethical appeal.

Logos: Appeal to Logic

Rhetoric pertains to how authors use and manipulate language in order to persuade an audience.

To be rhetorically effective (and thus persuasive), an author must engage the audience in a variety of compelling rhetorical appeals. We can classify these as Logos, Pathos, and Ethos.

Logic. Reason. Rationality. Logos is brainy and intellectual, cool, calm, collected, objective.

Logically sound writing often includes many examples to support a point – and those examples come from citation of credible data and statistics, reference to sound theories, reference valid research conducted by credible organizations.

Logical appeals rest on rational modes of thinking, such as

claims of policy (we must do something!),
claims of value (this is good! or this is bad!),
claims of definition (this is what it is)
claims of cause/effect (X has caused Y or X will cause Y)
Inductive reasoning : you use several specific examples or cases and use them to make a larger generalization
Exemplification : use of many examples to support a single point

Pathos: Appeal to Emotions

Pathos is deeply human – an author using pathetic appeals wants the audience to feel something: anger or pride or joy or rage or happiness. Pathetic appeals rest on emotion-based modes of communication . To engage the audience on an emotional level, the author may

add expressive descriptions of people, places or events that helps the reader to feel or experience those events
include vivid imagery of people, places or events that helps the reader to feel like he or she is seeing those events
share personal stories that help the reader feel connected to the person being described
use vocabulary or sentence structure that revolves around a particular emotion : sadness, happiness, fear, joy, anger, disgust, horror.
try to include any information that will evoke an emotional response from the audience . This could involve making the audience feel empathy or disgust for the person/group/event being discussed, or perhaps connection to or rejection of the person/group/event being discussed.

Pathos-based strategies are any strategies that get the audience to “open up” to the topic or to the author. Emotions can make us vulnerable, and rhetors can use this vulnerability to get the audience on his or her side.

Ethos: Appeal to Values/Trust/Authority or Expertise

Ethical appeals have two facets.

External ethos is supported when a rhetor cites an expert or moral authority. For example, if you quote a scholarly researcher with expertise in a field, you are creating ethos. Sometimes that expert also conveys information within the quote from an expert, so this support serves two function. One the one hand, an ethical appeal also taps into the values that the audience holds, for example, patriotism, tradition, justice, equality, dignity for all humankind, self preservation, or other specific social, religious or philosophical values (Christian values, socialism, capitalism, feminism, etc). These values can sometimes feel very close to emotions, but they are felt on a social level rather than only on a personal level. If an author can evoke the values that the audience cares about in his or her argument, then he or she has a chance of persuading that audience because the audience will feel that the author is making an argument that is “right” (in the sense of moral “right”-ness).

This sense of referencing what is “right” in an ethical appeal connects to the moral character of the speaker/author – the author’s internal ethos. The author may draw attention to who he or she is as a way to engage the audience (i.e., “Because I support this – and you all you trust me because we share the same values! – you should, too”). If an author can present his or her moral character, one that the audience trusts because they (author and audience) share values, then he or she has a chance of persuading that audience. In this sense, the audience will feel that the author is the right person to make this argument and should therefore be believed. Another way to build your audience’s sense of your internal ethos is to use rhetoric and evidence responsibly. Your argument should reflect sound reasoning and sufficient and highly credible ethos. That is, how you use external ethos, logos, and the emotional appeals in presenting your argument reflects your internal ethos or trustworthiness.

In building ethical appeals, we see authors

referring either directly or indirectly to the values that matter to the intended audience
using reasoning or logic that relies on these values
using language, phrasing, imagery or other writing style common to people who hold those values – tapping into the discourse community of people with those values
doing anything else that shows the audience that the author understands and shares their values

4.2.4 Evidence in Argument

This section is from A Guide to Rhetoric, Genre, and Success in First-Year Writing by Emilie Zickel is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

A claim is a type of argumentative thesis - we usually call it a claim when it is being used in a persuasive essay. Claims need to be defended by you with logical, persuasive reasoning. Claims can also be challenged.

The most common types of claims are

Here are some things to think about avoiding when attempting to develop a strong source-based essay. Just as understanding what logical fallacies are so you can avoid them in your own writing, understand what weak evidence is can help you to avoid falling into the trap of using it in your own work.

Failures in evidence occur when a reader says, “I do not accept your evidence” . Here is why that might happen:

The evidence that you have provided is inaccurate : You’ve misread information or misquoted; you are not interpreting the quoted material in an accurate manner
The evidence that you have provided is insufficient : You are using just a small piece of evidence to support your reasoning. You need more. You probably have a “generalization” fallacy.
The evidence that you have provided is unrelated to the reason : Your evidence does not clearly or directly relate to the point that you are trying to make.
The evidence that you have provided is incomplete or too narrowly chosen : You have “cherry picked” certain examples or pieces of information to the exclusion of others, so while you do have evidence to support your point, you are also neglecting a lot of other information
The evidence that you have provided is old : The information that you are citing is not relevant anymore. It is outdated!
The evidence that you have provided does not come from an authoritative source : The source of your evidence is not credible; the person being cited is not an authority on the Often paragraphs focus on sub-topics, or more specific examples of the topic. For instance, the focus of an essay might be higher education, one topic discussed within it is marketing higher education, and a supportive sub-topic might be the use of social media to attract students.">topic

One of the bigger issues with evidence is not so much with the evidence itself, but with the way that you integrate it into the paper. A reader needs to understand clearly how and why the evidence you chose relates to the point that you are making. As noted in Section 4.4. evidence must always be explained. Whenever you integrate evidence into your papers, it is important to answer the question “How does this evidence support the point that I am making?”. Never assume that the reader sees what you see in evidence. Always make it as clear as possible how the evidence supports the reason. It may be useful to you to draft your papers with Section 4.4 ready for reference so that you can avoid the pitfall of evidence with no explanation.

4.3 composing the Synthesis Paper or Project

4.3.1 What is synthesis?

When you write a paper based on research, you typically blend a variety of evidence from multiple sources. That is, you synthesize your research and integrate it into your argument or report to support your claims and subclaims. most of you have had experience synthesizing information this way. We use synthesis across many genres and for different purposes. In another type of synthesis, you may have used synthesis in analysis or critique papers, comparing how two different authors critique a performance, film, or literary piece or two different poems about the same concept.

In composition and rhetoric courses, a common form of synthesis paper instructors assign to students is the argument analysis of two different viewpoints on the same issue. The arguments students analyze are typically written as newspaper editorials, commentary pieces, and viewpoint essays. Instructors may assign the argumentative pieces, or you may select your own on a topic you find most interesting.

4.3.2 Identifying Opposing Viewpoints on Key Topics

Some instructors will assign text sets for a synthesis essay project while others will ask you to research and select your own source material for a synthesis assignment. If you are asked to select your own viewpoint texts for a synthesis essay, take time to carefully consider the sources and the authors’ biases and motivations for their arguments.

From debates about which sports team are the best to whether self-driving cars are the transportation of the future, there are as many viewpoints as there are ice cream flavors exist.

On the topic of ice cream flavors, my opinion is that cookies and cream is the tastiest. Why do I think it is the best? First, it is made with Oreo cookies, my favorite chocolate cookie. However when it comes to ice cream, I prefer a vanilla to a chocolate base, and cookies and cream’s base flavor is a creamy vanilla. On the surface, these are pretty solid argumentative points for a low stakes ice cream debate based on my flavor preferences, and my explanation would probably satisfy your curiosity without a need for further evidence or explanation.

However, let’s complicate the frozen dessert conversation. What if you were to learn that I was employed by Nabisco as the Oreo product sales manager for the western region? Do you think this information is important? How might this fact influence my preference for cookies and cream ice cream? Would you wonder if it is my favorite because I really do love Oreos, or because if I pump it up enough to people I talk to, it will help my job as an Oreo sales manager? [1] Regardless, knowing what my job is could help YOU determine if you think my opinion is an honest representation of my flavor preferences or based on a bias or agenda I might have (like selling more Oreos and Oreo products!).

Of course, this is a simplified example of the way personal connections to a topic bias our perspectives and bias our opinions, but you can see how even a harmless topic like ice cream can quickly get muddled when we introduce the element of bias and/or a motivated agenda. Understanding the basis of a given opinion or viewpoint can help you determine the Remember, most people are sales managers of their opinions, whether their opinions were logically derived and based on credible evidence or whether they are based on their emotional beliefs or personal benefit. validity of the argument. Remember, most people are sales managers of their opinions whether those opinions were logically derived and based on credible evidence or whether they are based on their emotional beliefs or personal benefit. One might be selling Oreo cookies or one might be “selling” one’s opinions about voting rights legislation.

Using the Opposing Viewpoints Database to Locate Contrasting Viewpoints on Key Issues and Controversies

The Opposing Viewpoints library database, is a great resource where you can find articles with differing viewpoints and opinions on various topics. Watch the video to learn how to find these articles.

4.3.3 How to analyze the two positions

Annotate both arguments first.

Note the argumentative claim/thesis.
Note the supporting reasons
Note the types of evidence used
Write questions in the margin
Write brief critical remarks down as they occur to you
Note any unclear passages
Note effective or ineffective rhetorical language choices
Write a summary of the author’s argument in fewer than six sentences.

Perform an Informal Rhetorical Analysis of Your Source Material in a Second Round of Annotation

Note the use of ethos, pathos, logos, Kairos. Does the evidence seem to support the appeal the author is trying to make?
Note whether or not the argument is balanced
Note any fallacies or inconsistencies with a question mark
Note evidence you would expect, but is not included. (That is, noting what is not there.)
Note what the author does that makes you think the author is responsible and trustworthy

Use the Toulmin Model Diagram from Section 4.1.3

Diagram the elements of the argument
Does the warrant and the backing provide a convincing link from the evidence (the “grounds”)?

Analyze the Logical Soundness of the Arguments Presented Using Syllogisms

More complex and controversial topics such as healthcare and climate change are breeding grounds for opinions filled with underlying agendas, biases, and emotional reasoning. As a rhetorical researcher and critical thinker, you must understand how to critically read, listen to, and analyze a range of viewpoints with an impartial eye. Some of these viewpoints will be based on valid premises and credible evidence while others will be based on personal, political, religious, or economic biases or agendas that distort the foundational premises you would expect of a valid argument. When assessing and comparing several two viewpoints on the same issue, a critical thinker and rhetorically aware person will not “buy” arguments based on illogical or unsound premises, “In the rhetorical paradigm, what constitutes information cannot be divorced from the community/audience. the purpose, and the structure of a disciplinary threshold concept.” — Joshua Hill in Teaching Information Literacy and Writing Studies : Volume 1 (40) emotional reasoning, and/or provably incorrect, insufficient, and/or unethical evidence.

For example, if a person presents an argument that all voters must vote in person with ID or not have their vote counted, they are working from a warrant or assumption that a vote made in person is less likely than a mail-in vote to be fraudulent. This leads them to the major premise that the only valid vote is one made when a person is physically present. Does that premise stand up to critical analysis? Is it true that votes made in person with an ID are the only valid votes? Since mail in voting has been successful and stood up to voting audits embedded in each state’s counting processes every year in many states for over ten years, the warrant is flawed and the major premise is not true. The argument falls apart because the argument’s basic assumptions and premise do not hold up to logic based on available and credible evidence.

The following two syllogisms illustrate the faulty premise at play in these examples.

Major premise: All people who vote in person cast a valid vote.
Minor premise: Jenny cast her vote in person.
Conclusion: Jenny’s vote is valid.

This categorical syllogism presents a fallacy in logic because the major premise suggests that all people who vote in person are who they say they are. That may not be true. Jenny may not, in fact be Jenny, but her sister.

We can test an IF/THEN syllogism as well.

Premise: If a voter votes in person and presents an ID, then their vote is a valid vote.
Minor Premise: Jenny voted in person and presented an ID.
Conclusion: Therefore, Jenny’s vote is valid.

This IF/THEN or hypothetical syllogism presents a fallacy in logic because the major premise suggests that all people who vote in person with an ID are who they say they are. That may not be true. As explained above, Jenny may not, in fact be Jenny, but her sister or other voter of close resemblance, ethnicity, and age.

Here’s another syllogism with a different premise:

Premise: If a voter votes by a mail-in ballot, then their vote is not a valid vote.
Minor Premise: According to the Arizona Republic , the “overwhelming majority of voters in the state cast their ballots by mail, with nearly 90 percent doing so last year amid the coronavirus pandemic . . .”
Conclusion: Therefore, almost 90 percent of the votes in Arizona were not valid.

Is it true that 90% of voters are not who they say they are (that’s assumption behind the premise) and their votes should not count? The syllogism’s major premise does not hold up as “true.” Testing your major premise and the assumptions underlying it can help you see the flaw in your logical reasoning. Once you understand how to determine if you are operating from a valid premise, your audience will accept, you can ensure your argument is based on a sound premise.

It is important to learn about and contrast alternative viewpoints and opinions because

It will help you to more fully understand all of the nuances associated with the topic. Most issues are not simply right versus wrong.
It will help you develop your own opinion on the topic since you’ll likely read about a new aspect you haven’t thought about before.
You will be able to defend your opinion because you will be well-aware of what the counter arguments are.

4.4 Using Recursive metaliteracy Processes to Compose a SOLUTION Proposal Argument

recursive circle with rocket spinning off

Because the overarching purpose of Claim Your Voice is to help you develop the agency to use your academic literacies to address real-world issues and achieve your academic, career, and personal goals, the key argument assignment for this chapter is centered on proposing a solution or set of solutions to solve or reduce the negative effects of a current problem or issue. Writing a solution proposal argument, as discussed in Section 4.1 in “Argument Genres” generally has two key arguments. First, you establish that there is a significant problem and argue that this problem necessitates action. You use deep research to provide evidence that there is a problem and current solutions are not adequate to address it. Then, the second part of the argument is focused on your proposed a solutions or set of solutions during which you make a clear call to action. This is a in depth project designed to engage you in a variety of activities that will take your writing, reading, research, and metaliteracy knowledge and skills to a new level. In this set of assignments, you will have the opportunity to develop your proposal and seek multiple points of feedback through a series of assignments, both written and digital.

4.4.1 Begin with a Research Question AND A REVIEW OF THE toPICS’ MEDIA ECOLOGY

Write a research question.

Writing your a research question should begin with a current issue you have identified and some invention exercises.

Once you have worked through some pre-researching and writing, generate a list of questions. What do you know, for sure, that you do not know? At this point, conduct some informal pre-researching online and in the library databases to learn what the public discourse is saying about that issue. Once you have a little more information and have ascertained that sufficient information and resources are available to research the issue in depth, proceed with developing your research questions. As you learned in Chapter 3, a good research question should begin with a “How,” “In what way?,”or “Why?” question.

At this point, please return to Chapter 3 to 3.3.3 and 3.3.4 and follow the process for developing your research question and keyword research strings.

As you being researching, another useful process for understanding your topic as it is discussed in public discourse and research material is to perform a media ecology assessment. What kind of source material is available? Is the topic getting a lot of attention right now? What is going on? The assignment below will help you see a full range of the media ecosystem in which your topic is discussed (or not!).

THE MEDIA ECOLOGY SURROUNDING YOUR TOPIC

Assignment for Discussion Board Post or Small Group Sharing

To understand the realm of information surrounding your topic.
To broaden your scope of how information systems from various mediums

Quote to Chew On

“Media ecology is distinct from communication studies proper in its focus on the integration, interdependence, and dynamism of media and technology in human affairs. It assumes that the symbol systems and technologies people use to think with, communicate, and represent our experiences play an integral role in how we create and understand reality.” (Milberry, “Media Ecology,” Oxford Bibliographies , 2016).

Post Description

Consider what you know about the media ecology surrounding your topic. (Read the complete introduction defining and describing the term “ media ecology” (Links to an external site.) on Oxford Bibliographies.) In order to get an idea of the realm information around your topic, this post assignment asks you to post your research question, then state the kinds of information from different types of media sources across a wide assortment of disciplines.

Assignment Structure

RESEARCH QUESTION: Write out your current research question.
Go to Google News and search your issue. List three articles that offer current information relevant to your topic (author, article title, article venue, date) with a brief description.
List the title of two academic journals in which recent articles on your topic are likely to be found. (Use Academic Search Premier db and/or Google Scholar (Links to an external site.) to identify the title of the journal. You can always search the title on Wikipedia which will tell you more about that journal.)
List the title of two books written in the last five years with the authors’ names/credibility that address your topic (you can use e-book databases, the library catalog, etc.).
Search the Credo Database and the Gale Reference database and list two specific reference articles (use the Works Cited bib) about your topic. Also state what disciplines are represented in/associated with the article.
List two Twitter accounts (@so and so with the account title) in which this topic is dominant. Next to each Twitter account, explain who the account holder is (establish ethos) and what you think their perspective is.
List two Podcasts (title and name of key podcaster) in which this topic is dominant. Next to each Podcast title, explain who the account holder is (establish ethos).
List two blogs with their titles and authors where an informed discussion on your topic is taking place. (You can also go to other channels such as Reddit, but keep in mind that we are looking for expertise in the contributors that you can defend.)
List the title and the URL of two resource pages from a government source (.gov) where a researcher might find more information related to your topic.
List the title and description of at least two films, documentaries, pieces of music, art, or other creative venue in which your issue is a topic.

WRITE A REFLECTION PARAGRAPH: After you have completed this pre-research assignment, write a paragraph or two reflection on this exercise. What did you learn? What did you notice about the media ecology around your issue? Does the issue have public resonance? Does the issue cross several disciplinary areas? Do you believe a further investigation of this issue is warranted? Why? How might you narrow your issue or change your research question/s?

4.4.2 Create a Working Thesis

If you have created a strong series of research questions, your answers to those questions should help generate your thesis. Because a project like this is complex, you probably have two major research questions: one to build the argument supported by reasons and evidence that some action, plan or policy must be implemented. The second research question is probably more focused on finding solutions. Typically, the question “Who/what organization should do what and why?” will help you generate a solid proposal argument thesis statement.

Example: Proposal Argument Thesis Statements

Practical Argument: Social media companies should develop artificial intelligence filters and personalized messaging to help endusers restrict themselves from the exposure to unrealistic images and marketing portraying “ideal” body types in order to prevent the development of significant mental and physical health disorders.

Policy: In order to prevent the weaponization of space, governments across the world must develop and agree on a policy in line with the principles of the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 (OST) and the Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space Treaty, The Threat or Use of Force Against Outer Space Objects (PPWT).

4.4.3 Plan and Propose Your Solution proposal Argument

Identify and select a current major issue, define or frame the problem, and present feasible solutions, policies, or approaches to solve and/or at least reduce the impact of the problem in a well-developed academic essay. Follow MLA guidelines for the essay format, citations and Work Cited.

Where to begin: Research a current societal, scientific, legal, medical, political, environmental, cultural, or other significant issue. The issues can be local, national, or global in scope, but should be narrowed to a specific issue within the larger issue once you have thoroughly researched it. Learn about the background history of how the issue evolved over time and identify the issue’s relevant causes and effects. As you review the relevant research on the narrowed topic, begin to explore current solutions. What actions have stakeholders taken to address the problem? Why hasn’t the problem been solved by the stakeholders? You will discover your original solutions or approaches to the problem by critiquing the current solutions and approaches. Look for gaps – what is NOT being done that could be done. Consider solutions from other fields that have helped address similar problems. “Think out of the box,” as the cliché goes.

General Writing Criteria:

Use MLA format; Include in-text citations and Works Cited page (both REQUIRED for credit).
Write in a formal, academic tone using “academic register” (write in third person using formal diction, specific word choice (diction), no clichés, and no slang).
Carefully revise and edit – Writing Center is open through the last day of classes. After that, contact me for Monday and Tuesday appointments.
Follow the outline organizational structure provided.
Write clear, grammatically correct thesis and section topic sentences.
Support your claims with 8-12 credible, relevant, carefully evaluated sources (database articles, well-chosen web articles, credible media sources).
Cite from a minimum of three (3) library database sources.
Make sure each body section / discussion point features a topic sentence and relevant cited evidence from 2-4 sources, blended coherently.
Use transitional words and phrases to guide the reader as you develop and support your argument.
Is it doable? What would it take to implement the solution?
Is it worth doing? What does a cost/benefit analysis reveal about the feasibility of the solution?
Would it work? How do you know?

Revising Your Written Argument

Seek feedback and revise at several points along the way..

Peer feedback
Writing Center tutors
Instructor Coaching
How to seek feedback

4.4.5 Compose Digital Projects to Develop and Share Your Argument

Digital literacy and real world applications.

By conducting one or more digital projects during the proposal solution process, you can engage with your topic more deeply while educating and seeking feedback from your peers. Two digital projects to consider during the proposal solution paper process are the Explainer Video and the Infographic. These two forms of digital communication are very popular in the business world and in organizations as a means of efficiently and effectively connecting with their clients and end consumers or to general public awareness.

Explainer Video Project

Prompts: Create an explainer video in which you communicate the seriousness of a problem so that your viewer will recognize its exigence. OR, create an explainer video in which you “sell” your solution as being the best approach to solving the problem. If you make the video at the beginning of the problem after you do your initial research, then making a video to create a sense of exigence and a call to action could help you connect to the topic and gather feedback from your audience. If you are creating the video while you write the paper or afterwards, then creating a pitch explainer video is a better choice.

An “explainer video” is a short video of less than two minutes that quickly communicate and pitch a service or product.

Here are two popular explainer videos to give you the idea. One features humans and the other animation. Obviously, you might do something like create a video starring yourself or your peers, integrate Google slides, home made memes, and/or basic animations. Every though you are not selling a product or service, what you are doing is providing background information on your solution proposal topic that generates exigence, that communicates that something must be done. Or, you are explaining and “selling” your solution to the problem. Doing either in two minutes will be a challenge, but a fun one!

Unroll.me. “Email Does Not Have to Suck.” Youtube, 5 Nov. 2015, youtu.be/QL26FS5daGY.

Video Citation: “What is Airbnb? Travel Tips.” Youtube , Airbnb, 24 Nov. 2014, youtu.be/dA2F0qScxrI

Vyond offers examples and gives tips on creating explainer videos that will help you develop your explainer video. This project does not have to be complicated or sophisticated, but it does have to display rhetoric at work.

Infographic Project

Prompt: Use a tool such as Piktochart to create an infographic that provides compelling information leading to call to action that your problem must be solved or that your solutions must be implemented. An infographic has to be highly visual and easy to ready at a distance. Piktochart’s website offers videos and helpful documentation.

4.5 Chapter Conclusion

Key Takeaways

Analyzing arguments using comparison and synthesis is an effective way to learn about and more deeply understand arguments.
Arguments come in many genres including the Aristotelian argument, the Rogerian Argument, the Toulmin Argument, and Proposal Argument to name a few.
Evidence and rhetoric work together to achieve effective rhetorical appeals.
Evidence must connect with the audience’s wants, needs, values, and/or expectations through a warrant (or set of assumptions) the audience can understand and relate to your claim.
Working with your topic, research and arguments in different digital modalities provide a platform for publicly sharing your ideas and eliciting feedback.

Works Cited or Integrated

Bowers, Heather Hopkins, Ruggiero, Anthony, and Jason Saphara. “Argument Genres.” in Writing and Rhetoric , Colorado State University, Pueblo. csupueblo.pressbooks.pub/rhetoric/chapter/argument-genres/. Licensed CC-BY 4.0.

“Carl Rogers.” Wikipedia. n.d., en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rogers.

“Chapter 4: Making Mistakes in Reasoning.” Introduction to Ethics, Lumen Learning, n.d., courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-epcc-introethics-1/chapter/syllogisms/. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

Connors, Valerie Bronstein. “How to write a Rogerian structured essay with a delayed thesis and common ground.” YouTube, 25 Nov, 2019, youtu.be/a6kt8A10Mc4.

Devries, Kirsten. “Chapter 3 Argument.” Critical Reading, Critical Writing: A Handbook to Understanding College Composition , Howard Community College (MD), pressbooks.howardcc.edu/criticalreadingcriticalwriting/chapter/chapter-3-argument/. License CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0.

Gomez, Manuela A. “Chapter 4: Making Mistakes in Reasoning.” Introduction to Ethics, Lumen Learning, n.d., courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-epcc-introethics-1/chapter/syllogisms/.

Hillocks, George. “Teaching Argument.” English Journal, p. 26.

“Humanist Psychology.” Encyclopedia Britannica , 27 May. 2020, www.britannica.com/science/humanistic-psychology.

Medina, Jennifer. “Arizona G.O.P. Passes Law to Limit Distribution of Mail Ballots.” Arizona Republic , 11 May 2021, www.nytimes.com/2021/05/11/us/politics/arizona-voting-bill.html.

Veach, Grace. Teaching Information Literacy and Writing Studies : Volume 1, First Year Composition Courses . Purdue University Press, 2019. Print.

Veach, Grace. Teaching Information Literacy and Writing Studies : Volume 2, Upper-Level and Graduate Courses. Purdue University Press, 2019. EBSCOhost, search-ebscohost-com.ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=e000xna&AN=2032934&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

Zickel, Emilie. “Basic Argument Components.” English 102: Reading, Research and Writing , 2017, pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu/eng-102/chapter/basic-argument-components/. This book is licensed under a Creative Commons as CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0. by Emilie Zickel. It is an adaptation of About Writing: A Guide by Robin Jeffrey , which is licensed as CC-BY 4.0.

Unroll.me. “Email Does Not Have to Suck.” Youtube , 5 Nov. 2015, youtu.be/QL26FS5daGY.

Vyond Team. “What Is An Explainer Video? (Plus 5 Great Examples).” Vyond, www.vyond.com/resources/what-is-an-explainer-video/.

“What is Airbnb? Travel Tips.” Youtube , Airbnb, 24 Nov. 2014, youtu.be/dA2F0qScxrI

Media Attributions

Thinking by LAFS from the Noun Projectnoun_Thinking_1842690 © LAFS
noun_Writing_1337026_fahmionline
Toulmin_Argumentation_Example_byChiswick Chap_Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0 © Chap Chiswick is licensed under a CC BY (Attribution) license
noun_Thinking_2300291_srinivasAgra
noun_negotiate_3003892
solution by SBTS from the Noun Projectnoun_solution_3427336

(noun) the quality of urgency, timeliness, and importance of a given situation that necessitates action

(verb) To acknowledge, often reluctantly, as being true, just, or proper; admit (AH)

(verb) 1. To prove to be false or erroneous; overthrow by argument or proof: (e.g. "refute testimony") 2. To deny the accuracy or truth of: (e.g. "refuted the results of the poll") (AH)

(noun) Of or constituting an educational method in which learning takes place through discoveries that result from investigations made by the student. (AH)

(noun) A proposition upon which an argument is based or from which a conclusion is drawn. 2. Logic a. One of the propositions in a deductive argument. b. Either the major or the minor proposition of a syllogism, from which the conclusion is drawn.

(noun) "justification for an action or a belief; grounds." (AH) A warrant is the connection between your claim and your evidence. Evidence is always evidence FOR or AGAINST something, and you have to make that link clear through your explanatory commentary that you provide along with your evidence.

(noun) A act in which a speakers or writers give credit to an idea or argument; that is, they "acknowledge, often reluctantly, [the opposing view] as being true, just, or proper." That is, they admit the opposing view has some merit.

(noun) an act in which one denies or rejects the accuracy or truth of of another person's argument or point-of-view.

(noun) A syllogism is "1. Logic A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion; for example, All humans are mortal, the major premise, I am a human, the minor premise, therefore, I am mortal, the conclusion. 2. Reasoning from the general to the specific; deduction. 3. A subtle or specious piece of reasoning." (AH)

Another term for the if/then syllogism. This is a premise based on the word "hypothesis" (n) which means "1. A tentative explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further investigation," and "2. Something taken to be true for the purpose of argument or investigation; an assumption."

(verb) To combine so as to form a new, complex product (H)

(noun) Bias is a "preference or an inclination, especially one that inhibits impartial judgment." It also might describe "an unfair act or policy stemming from prejudice." (AH)

(noun) An agenda is often a "list of things to be discussed in a meeting" or a "program of things to be done or considered." The term also has an informal and more negative connotative use to describe an "unstated underlying motive." (AH)

(adverb form of the adjective "valid") An argument is valid when the foundations or premises of the argument can be logically be derived and . . . (c)orrectly inferred or deduced from a premise."

(noun) personal empowerment to act or, in this case, express your views with sense you can effect change.

Chapter 4 Understanding and Composing Researched Arguments Copyright © by Cynthia Kiefer and Serene Rock is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Elevate Your Research: Master the Art of Argumentation

Many researchers believe academic writing should be objective and informative, but actually what we know from linguistic research is that it’s the opposite: Research Writing is Argumentative . The manuscript is the way you persuade readers of the central value of your work. Your argument is what makes your research compelling, unique, and worth reading.

In this blog post, we will explore the key elements of an academic argument and provide you with valuable tips on how to craft an academic argument effectively.

Establish a Strong Thesis Statement

A well-crafted thesis statement is the backbone of any academic argument. It serves as the main point or claim that you will be defending throughout your writing.

To establish a strong thesis statement, you need to clearly state your position and provide a concise preview of the main reasons supporting your argument.

When constructing your thesis statement, it is important to consider the scope and purpose of your argument. Ensure that your claim is focused and specific, allowing you to explore it in depth. Avoid making broad statements that lack clarity and specificity, as this may weaken the impact of your argument. Furthermore, your thesis statement should be placed at the end of your introductory paragraph, providing a roadmap for the rest of your argument. This allows your readers to understand the direction of your discussion and grasp the significance of your thesis.

One key aspect to consider when establishing a strong thesis statement is the importance of conducting thorough research. By immersing yourself in the relevant literature and gathering evidence to support your claim, you can strengthen the credibility of your argument. This research process involves critically analyzing existing theories, studies, and expert opinions to identify gaps in knowledge or areas where your argument can contribute new insights. In addition to conducting research, it is crucial to engage in thoughtful brainstorming and outlining before finalizing your thesis statement. Take the time to explore different angles and perspectives related to your topic, considering potential counterarguments and alternative viewpoints. This process of reflection and analysis will help you refine your thesis statement and ensure that it is well-supported and comprehensive.

Another factor to consider when establishing a strong thesis statement is the use of clear and precise language. Avoid vague or ambiguous terms that may confuse your readers and weaken the impact of your argument. Instead, strive for clarity and specificity by using concrete examples, specific language, and well-defined terms. This will not only enhance the overall coherence of your argument but also make it more persuasive and convincing. Furthermore, it is important to remember that a strong thesis statement is not set in stone. As you progress through your writing, you may discover new evidence or perspectives that challenge or refine your initial claim. It is essential to remain open to revising and adapting your thesis statement as needed, ensuring that it accurately reflects the evolving nature of your argument.

Example of a thesis statement: Remote work significantly enhances employee productivity by offering flexible work hours, reducing commute stress, and promoting a better work-life balance.

Once you have established your thesis statement, it is time to delve into your main claim. The claim represents the central point you are making in your argument. It is essential to provide a clear and concise statement that summarizes your argument and captures the attention of your readers.

When presenting your claim, consider using supporting evidence and logical reasoning to enhance its credibility. This will help you build a strong foundation for your argument and convince your audience of the validity of your claim. Expanding on your claim allows you to provide a more comprehensive understanding of your argument. By adding relevant and interesting details, you can engage your readers and keep them invested in your discourse.

Furthermore, you can explore the different types of exercise, such as aerobic, strength training, and flexibility exercises, and explain how each type contributes to overall well-being. By providing specific examples and anecdotes, you can make your claim more relatable and persuasive. In addition to supporting evidence, incorporating logical reasoning into your claim strengthens its validity. Analyze the cause-and-effect relationships between exercise and its benefits, highlighting how engaging in physical activity leads to positive outcomes. Consider discussing the physiological mechanisms behind these effects, such as the release of endorphins and the improvement of oxygen flow to the brain. Moreover, you can address potential counterarguments to your claim and provide rebuttals. Anticipating and addressing opposing viewpoints demonstrates that you have thoroughly considered different perspectives and strengthens your overall argument.

Example of a claim: Employees working remotely report higher levels of productivity due to the flexibility to create a personalized work environment that suits their individual needs.

Supporting your argument with relevant and reliable evidence is crucial for its success. Evidence can come in various forms, including empirical data, expert opinions, examples, and research findings. It is important to select evidence that is reputable and directly supports your claim. Empirical data is one of the most powerful forms of evidence. It involves collecting information through observation or experimentation. For example, if you are arguing that a particular educational program improves student performance, you could present data showing the average test scores of students who participated in the program compared to those who did not.

Expert opinions can also be valuable evidence. These are the viewpoints of individuals who have extensive knowledge and experience in a particular field. For instance, if you are discussing the benefits of a vegetarian diet, you could cite the opinion of a renowned nutritionist who specializes in plant-based nutrition. Examples are another effective way to support your argument. These are specific instances or cases that illustrate the point you are trying to make. For instance, if you are arguing that climate change is causing more frequent and severe natural disasters, you could provide examples of recent hurricanes, wildfires, or floods that have been linked to climate change.

Research findings are another form of evidence that can strengthen your argument. These are the results of studies conducted by experts in a particular field. For example, if you are arguing that exercise has numerous health benefits, you could cite a study that found regular physical activity reduces the risk of heart disease, diabetes, and obesity.

When incorporating evidence into your argument, be sure to provide proper citations and references to give credit to the original sources. This not only helps strengthen the credibility of your argument but also showcases your research skills. Proper citation and referencing also allow readers to verify the information and delve deeper into the topic if they wish to do so.

There are different citation styles, such as APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), and Chicago, among others. Each style has its own set of rules for citing various sources, including books, journal articles, websites, and interviews. It is important to familiarize yourself with the specific citation style required by your academic institution or publication.

In addition to providing citations, it is also important to critically evaluate the evidence you present. Consider the source’s credibility, relevance, and potential biases. Not all evidence is created equal, and it is essential to choose evidence that is reliable, up-to-date, and directly supports your argument. Remember, evidence is the backbone of a strong argument. It adds weight and credibility to your claims, making them more persuasive and convincing. By incorporating a variety of evidence types and providing proper citations, you can strengthen your argument and increase its impact on your audience.

Example: A study conducted by the University of Stanford found a 13% increase in productivity among remote workers compared to their in-office counterparts (cite source).

While evidence provides the necessary support for your claim, it is crucial to explain how your evidence connects to your argument. This is where the warrant comes in. The warrant is the logical bridge that explains why the evidence is relevant and how it supports your claim. When developing your warrant, consider the logical reasoning behind your argument. Highlight the cause-and-effect relationships, patterns, or correlations that exist between your evidence and claim. This will help your readers understand the validity and reasoning behind your argument.

Example: The increased productivity in remote work settings can be attributed to factors such as reduced commute times, allowing employees to start their workday refreshed and focused.

Counterargument

In any academic argument, it is essential to acknowledge and address opposing viewpoints. Failing to address counterarguments may weaken the overall impact of your argument. When presenting counterarguments, be objective and provide evidence that supports the opposing viewpoint. This shows your readers that you have thoroughly considered alternative perspectives. However, it is crucial to debunk these counterarguments by providing strong evidence and logical reasoning that supports your original claim.

Example: Some argue that remote work can lead to isolation and reduced team cohesion, potentially impacting productivity negatively.

The final step in writing an academic argument is to provide a strong rebuttal that refutes the counterarguments. This allows you to reinforce the validity and strength of your claim. When crafting your rebuttal, provide additional evidence and reasoning that directly addresses the weaknesses of the counterarguments. Show your readers why your original claim remains the most credible and persuasive position.

Example: However, with the advancement of communication technologies and regular virtual team-building exercises, remote workers can maintain strong team connections, negating the impact of physical separation on productivity.

In conclusion, writing an academic argument requires careful planning and a clear understanding of its key components. By crafting a strong thesis statement, developing a clear claim, presenting compelling evidence, providing a logical warrant, addressing counterarguments, and offering a strong rebuttal, you can create a persuasive and convincing piece of academic writing. Remember to support your argument with credible sources and to present your ideas in a logical and organized manner. With practice and attention to detail, you can become a proficient academic arguer and convey your ideas effectively in your writing.

About the Author

research helps to strengthen arguments by providing information

Kimberly Becker, Ph.D.

Applied Linguist Specializing in Disciplinary Academic Writing

Kimberly is a lecturer in the English department at Iowa State University (ISU). She has a Ph.D. in Applied Linguistics and Technology (ISU, 2022) and an M.A. in Teaching English as a Second Language (Northern Arizona University, 2004). Kimberly’s research and teaching experience in disciplinary academic writing has equipped her to support native and non-native English speakers in written, oral, visual, and electronic communication. Her most recent publication is a co-authored e-book for graduate students titled Preparing to Publish , which provides information about composing academic research articles. In her spare time, she enjoys practicing yoga, gardening, and walking with her two poodles.

Crafting Exceptional Research Articles: A Genre-Based Approach

How to use chatpdf to quickly summarize and extract information from research articles.

Capstone Form and Style

Evidence-based arguments: home, using evidence.

One of the central features of scholarly writing is the use of evidence to make an argument. You must learn how to incorporate other scholars' writing and arguments into your own.

In scholarly writing, you will often use paraphrased material or direct quotations from other sources to support your research and strengthen your academic argument. Although direct quotations are generally not as strong as paraphrases, they can add evidence and substance to your scholarly argument. Do keep in mind, however, that some instructors forbid direct quotations for some assignments.

In using quotations or source material, however, you must adequately incorporate the quotations and ideas from your sources. Simply inserting the material into your paragraph is not enough. You must incorporate your citation information, and then introduce, integrate, and explain your use of the quotations or source material.

On the following subpages, learn how to introduce, integrate, and explain evidence that you use from other sources.

Next Page: Paraphrasing
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4.2 Understanding and Composing Researched Arguments

[1] features of academic argument.

A clear and arguable position: You must present a reasonable argument for which both evidence and opposing or alternate views (counterarguments) exist. If few would disagree with you or you cannot find any evidence of a credible opposing view, you should consider rethinking and revising your position. A common error occurs when students try to present a statement of fact as an argumentative position. See the example below to learn how an idea or statement of fact can be developed and revised to become an effective thesis statement.

Example: Can a statement of fact evolve into a strong argumentative thesis statement?

Statement of Fact: Some social media users develop unhealthy attitudes about their body image because of the constant portrayal of “ideal” body types they encounter online.

Expository Thesis Statement: Excessive social media use can cause unhealthy physical and mental conditions, particularly for girls and young women.

Overarching Point Argumentative Thesis Statement: Social media users should restrict themselves from exposure to unrealistic photos and from the portrayal of the “ideal” body type in order to prevent the development of significant health issues.

Convincing evidence: You present convincing, credible, relevant researched evidence including facts, statistics, surveys, expert testimony, anecdotes, and textual (i.e. such as history, reports, analyses) evidence. Think about the appeals you learned about in Composition 1: logos, ethos, pathos, Kairos, and Stasis when selecting your evidence. Varying evidence types will help you vary the rhetorical appeals and create a more balanced argument and greater audience appeal.

Appeals to readers’ values: Effective arguments appeal to readers’ emotions, values, wants, and needs. You might appeal to your readers’ sense of compassion or justice through a compelling narrative/anecdote. However, you will want to make sure that you have a balance between appeals to your reader’s values and presenting sound evidence to support those appeals and keep your argument from being driven solely by appeals to pathos.

A trustworthy tone: Through a confident tone, clear focus, knowledgeable voice, and well-researched, credible evidence, you can develop readers’ confidence in your credibility conveying to them that you possess internal ethos. This means that vague or shallow evidence and writing that is unedited and/or too informal in tone will reduce your audience’s trust in your argument resulting in a smaller chance that your readers will seriously consider the ideas you are presenting as valid.

Careful consideration of counterarguments: You present your awareness of opposing views about your argument to address the audience’s needs or expectations and to reinforce your internal ethos. If you do not address the “yeah, but” or “what about” in your readers’ or listeners’ minds, your argument may not be taken seriously and, even worse, your audience will think you have not researched your topic well enough or that you underestimate their existing knowledge. You should concede some points the opposition makes and refute others through evidence when you can.

Appropriate use of patterns of development to present your argument: Your argument reflects the application of the most effective patterns of development or rhetorical modes which you learned about in Composition 1 (i.e. exemplification, explanation, analysis, classification, comparison/contrast, definition, description, narration), with which to develop the content supporting your reasons.

Activating an Inquiry-based Mindset for Creating Arguments

Using a questioning heuristic [3] can help you generate an academic argument. Just as you pre-research a possible argument topic to see what others are saying about it or just bubble map or list to generate some ideas or list some research questions, you also need to “interrogate” the argument you are forming before you go too far with your research. In fact, working through these questions about the argument will help you identify holes in the argument you can address with specific research questions for your next round of rhetorical research.

QUESTIONING HEURISTIC FOR INVENTING AN ARGUMENT [4]

What do you want me to do or think?
Why should I do or think that?
How do I know that what you say is true?
Why should I accept the reasons that support your claim?
What about this other idea, fact, or consideration?
How should you present your argument?

The answer to What do you want me to do or think? is your conclusion : “I conclude that you should do or think X.”
The answer to Why should I do or think that? states your premise : “You should do or think X because . . .”
The answer to How do I know that what you say is true? presents your support : “You can believe my reasons because they are supported by a thorough review of the available information and this carefully selected, credible evidence . . .”
The answer to Why should I accept that your reasons support your claim? states your general principle of reasoning, called a warrant : which is/are assumptions and/or values the author holds and possibly the audience holds as well: “My specific reason supports my specific claim because whenever this general condition is true, we can generally draw a conclusion like mine.” OR “I know people in my audience value the importance of X, just as I do.”
The answer to What about this other idea, fact, or conclusion? acknowledges that your readers might see things differently and then responds to their counterarguments .
The answer to How should you present your argument? leads to the point of view , organization , and tone that you should use when making your arguments.

As you have noticed, the answers to these questions involve knowing the particular vocabulary argumentation because these terms refer to specific parts of an argument. The remainder of this section will cover the terms referred to in the questions listed above as well as others that will help you better understand the building blocks of the argument.

Types of Arguments

Aristotelian argument.

Most likely sometime during your time in high school or your first semester of composition, you composed a simplified Aristotelian argument essay in which you researched a controversial issue and formed an argumentative position on the issue. You wrote an introduction leading into your thesis statement (major premise), provided two to three reasons as discussion points (minor premises) which became the focus of the essay’s body paragraphs. You also provided a counterargument presenting an opposing view and offered both a concession and refutation of that view.

Rogerian Argument

The Rogerian approach to argument is based on the work of Carl Rogers, one of the founders of Humanistic Psychology. Humanists are “concerned with the fullest growth of the individual in the areas of love, fulfillment, self-worth, and autonomy” [5] . In the field of learning and rhetoric, the “Rogerian” approach is focused on personal growth, developing a sense of personal fulfillment, and finding common ground with others. This concept of finding common ground with others who hold opposing views or perspectives is a contrast to the traditional Aristotelian argument as discussed above or the Toulmin argument which we will look at later.

A Rogerian argument presents the opposing view without bias or negative tone and finds subclaims or points within the opposition’s argument that have merit or align with your own position on the issue. If you understand the issue well enough and can authentically present two or more stances on the issue, you are demonstrating that you have brought an open mind to the issue and are trustworthy in presenting your own argument and the opposing view. That is, you will have validated your internal ethos to your audience. As you present the opposing argument and consider the supporting evidence, your goal is to work your way toward a common ground; that is, the reasons and/or evidence both sides can agree upon, at least to some degree. Even if you do not actually write or present a formal Rogerian Argument, working through an outline of the opposition’s case with an open mind for the purpose of finding common ground and determining where your arguments diverge will help you more effectively develop your own argument and present a counterargument that accurately represents the opposition’s views.

The Rogerian argument analysis expands your knowledge and understanding of an issue far beyond a simple pro/con understanding of the issue and can help you develop a more sophisticated, complex argument. Processing your argument through the filter of a Rogerian perspective could also help you avoid some argumentative pitfalls. For example, fully understanding and trying to find common ground with opposing views may help you prevent:

Taking too hostile a position against an opposing argument, thus alienating your audience.
Not acknowledging the values, wants, or needs the opposing argument fulfills for the members of your audience will result in you never addressing them yourself.
Writing a weak, uniformed counterargument to your own argument leading to audience mistrust of your internal ethos.

Toulmin Argument

The Toulmin Argument, which you studied in Composition 1, was developed by philosopher, Stephen Toulmin. Toulmin is best known for his work on argumentation which moved argument out of classical logical reasoning based on syllogisms to what he termed “practical arguments” based on justification rather than abstract proofs. Key elements of the Toulmin Model are claims, grounds or evidence, rebuttals, warrants, backing, and qualifiers. Below is a recap of the main components of the Toulmin Model.

TOULMIN MODEL [6]

THE CLAIM: The claim or thesis must be very clear and concise because it sets up the entire paper. Questions that a good claim might answer are:

THE EVIDENCE: The next part of our argument and the most in-depth is the evidence that supports our claim. We are basically saying in our argument that the reader should agree with us because of XYZ where XYZ is the evidence. It is often said that the heart of any argument is the evidence. The key is to use evidence that is accurate, current, fair, or unbiased which makes it credible to support the claim. Also, the evidence has to be presented accurately because the reader is simply not going to believe you unless you are some form of subject matter expert, which you probably are not, so we need to have the experts speak for you.

THE REBUTTAL: This section usually contains two parts: (1) addresses the main opposing point of view to the writer’s position. This demonstrates that you understand what that position is and helps develop your own credibility as the writer. (2) After you discuss the opposing view, next you provide evidence that casts doubt on that view suggesting that the other position might not be correct. The evidence does not have to prove that the other side is completely wrong; it only needs to suggest that there may be some doubt with the point of view based upon the evidence you are offering.

THE WARRANT: This is the basic/common or underlying principle that links your claim, reason, and evidence. For example, let’s say that your claim was about the dangers of social media use by young adults; however, everyone may not care about social media use. Therefore, you want to connect the reason “why” to the claim by expressing a common or underlying principle that will help your audience understand how the reason and claim link. So, while some people may not care about social media use, most people would care about keeping young adults safe and away from danger because that is a natural instinct embedded in the human psyche . Warrants can come from principles that are shared at the societal level or within the field itself.

THE QUALIFIERS: This term refers to language and its use in making your claim. They are words used to acknowledge the limits of your position and keep you from creating a claim that overreaches. Including words that accomplish a sufficiently narrow claim suggests that you know that there are other possibilities or contingencies. One of the best ways to get your readers to walk away from your argument is blind arrogance.

Other Types of Academic Arguments

Causal Arguments

In a causal argument, a writer must argue about a problem or controversy’s cause. Causal arguments are difficult because most controversial issues have complicated causes. Many people also tend to believe in causes that correspond to their political beliefs. Consider the various explanations for school shootings. Some will insist the problem is the easy availability of firearms while others will insist that shooters are inspired by violent video games and entertainment. When making a causal argument, a writer should consider their biases and rely on evidence to support their claims.

In a causal argument, writers may be tempted by logical fallacies. For example, it’s important to remember that correlation is not equal to causation . If two events happen at the same time, that doesn’t necessarily mean that one event caused the other.

Definition Arguments

This type of argument may seem puzzling. How do we argue about a word’s definition? Isn’t that what dictionaries are for? For most definition arguments, the real argument isn’t the precise meaning of the word. Instead, the argument is about the implications of that definition and how the definition may be applied to specific situations. Consider the word “obscene.” One dictionary defines “obscene” as “offensive or disgusting by accepted standards of morality and decency.” A writer may want to argue that Playboy is obscene. Or that a recent controversial film is obscene. By making this kind of argument, the writer would suggest some course of action: the obscene material should be age-limited, should be condemned, or should be banned. In this kind of paper, the author would make claims about “accepted standards” and “offensive or disgusting” as they apply to the potentially obscene item.

Many popular arguments rely on definitions. Determining whether something is obscene or offensive is just one popular item. As part of the War on Terror, we’ve argued about the meaning of “torture” and its justification. Many death penalty arguments rely upon the terms “cruel and unusual punishment.” The Iraq war inspired many arguments about “just” and “unjust” wars, as did the Vietnam war did decades earlier.

Evaluation Arguments

You may be more familiar with evaluation arguments than you realize. If you’ve ever read a movie, restaurant, or other product review, you’ve read an evaluation argument. As online shopping and social media have expanded, you may have even written your own evaluation argument on Amazon, Google, or Yelp. A good evaluation argument will rely upon clear criteria. “Criteria” (singular “criterion”) are the conditions by which you make your evaluation; these conditions could be used to evaluate any thing that is in the same category. A restaurant review may be based upon the food quality, price, service, and ambiance of the restaurant. An evaluation should also consider the specific category of what’s being evaluated: one shouldn’t evaluate a local pub with the same criteria as a fine dining establishment. By establishing a narrow category, the writer can write a more accurate evaluation. While reviews are the most popular form of evaluation arguments, that is not the only place they are used. Evaluation arguments are useful for supporting or opposing public policies or proposed laws. A community may propose several solutions to deal with a school district’s budget woes. A teacher from that district may write a guest editorial arguing for the best policy, or write an article criticizing a poor choice.

Proposal Argument (Problem/Solution)

Proposal arguments require the writer to perform two tasks: argue that there is a problem, and then propose a solution to that problem. Usually, the problem will be a local problem. It is good to focus on a smaller community because national or global problems or much more complex; therefore, making them harder to successfully argue in the limited space of a college essay.

Proposals have two separate arguments. The first is the problem: it’s not enough to label an issue a problem; a writer must prove that the problem is severe to an audience. Take, for instance, the opioid crisis. A writer may need to convince community members who aren’t addicts why the crisis is a problem for their community; therefore, it is not enough to discuss how addiction hurts addicts. Showing how the community is harmed by the crime associated with addiction would be a better way to motivate a community to solve the problem.

The second argument is the solution. Explain what the solution is and how it solves the problem. A writer should establish that their solution is the best solution. The best solution is the cheapest solution that best addresses the problem. “Cheapest” here refers to more than monetary costs. While monetary costs are oftentimes a considerable factor, there are other costs like labor and change that may affect people physically, mentally, or emotionally. “Addressing the problem” is an acknowledgment that most proposals won’t completely solve a problem. The goal is a reasonable solution that eliminates most of the harm, or the most serious harm, caused by the problem. Perhaps the most difficult aspect of proposals is considering the unintended consequences of a solution. These can be positive or negative. Writers should ask “What happens next?” of their solutions.

[8] Structuring Argument in Your Paper

Now that we have looked at the different terms and styles of arguments, we need to start thinking about how these things come together in a paper because writing academic research papers is (more than likely) going to be a lot messier than this chapter, or any textbook, makes it seem.

In a traditional argument-based paper, the claim is generally stated in the thesis (often at the end of the introduction), with the reasons appearing as the topic sentences of body paragraphs. The content of the body paragraphs is then focused on providing the evidence that supports the topic sentences, ultimately supporting the claim. Such organization helps to ensure that the argument is always at the forefront of the writing, since it provides guideposts in key places to direct the reader’s attention to what the author wants to persuade him/her of. There may be occasions, though, when it is preferable to delay stating the claim until later.

In addition, regardless of what the reasons are that you plan to use to support your claim, they will not be equal in their strength/ability to do so. Realistically, the reasons will fall along a spectrum from strongest to weakest (note that “weakest” does not carry the traditional connotation of the word “weak”), so, when writing an argument-based paper, you will need to determine the best order in which to place your reasons. The most common suggestion for ordering is to place your weakest reasons in the middle of the paper, with your strongest appearing at the beginning and end. This approach makes sense in terms of wanting to show the reader early in the writing that your claim is backed by sound reasoning and to leave him/her with a final impression that your argument is solid. You also should consider the complexity of the reasons; if some of your ideas are more complicated to understand than others, you will need to strike a balance between strength and complexity in the structure to ensure that your reader is not only persuaded throughout the paper but also that he/she can fully understand the logical progression from one point to the next.

organizing reasons effectively

Imagine that you are assigned an argument paper that must focus on an education-related issue, with the audience consisting of your peers. You select as your claim the idea that all undergraduate writing courses that fulfill a general education requirement should include a tutor, who would attend all class meetings and assist students as needed. As you plan your paper, you decide to use the following reasons to support your claim:

Students may be more comfortable seeking individualized help with their writing from a peer (advanced undergraduate student or graduate student) than their instructor.
The tutor could provide valuable feedback to the instructor to assist him/her with teaching that students may be uncomfortable sharing or otherwise unable to do so.
Student grades and retention would improve.

To support the first reason, your evidence consists of anecdotes from fellow students. To support the second and third reasons, your evidence consists of published research that suggests these benefits. In what order would you place the reasons in your paper, and why?

Media Attributions

“Toulmin argumentation can be diagrammed as a conclusion established, more or less, on the basis of a fact supported by a warrant (with backing), and a possible rebuttal.” Image by Chaswick Chap, CC-BY-SA 3.0 © Chap Chiswick is licensed under a CC BY (Attribution) license
4.2 (except where otherwise noted) is borrowed with minor edits and additions from Claim Your Voice in First Year Composition, Vol. 2 by Cynthia Kiefer and Serene Rock which is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License ↵
Hillocks, G.,Jr. (2010). Teaching argument for critical thinking and writing: An introduction. English Journal, 99 (6), 24-32. https://www.proquest.com/docview/577286527/fulltextPDF/8F9B51E2B09B440EPQ/1?accountid=30550 ↵
Definition : of or constituting an educational method in which learning takes place through discoveries that result from investigations made by the student ↵
Borrowed with minor edits and additions from "Argument" by Kirsten DeVries which is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License and published as part of Critical Reading, Critical Writing: A Handbook to Understanding College Composition, SP22 edition ↵
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (n.d.). Humanistic psychology. In Encyclopaedia Britannica . https://www.britannica.com/science/humanistic-psychology ↵
Borrowed with minor edits and additions from Writing and Rhetoric by Heather Hopkins Bowers, Anthony Ruggiero, and Jason Saphara which is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ↵
Borrowed with minor edits and additions from "Argument Genres" by Heather Hopkins Bowers, Anthony Ruggiero, and Jason Saphara which was published in Writing and Rhetoric, Colorado State University, Pueblo and is licensed under CC-BY 4.0. ↵
The following section (except where otherwise noted) was borrowed with minor edits and additions from "Structure of Argument" by Karla Lyles and Jeanine Rauch provided by the University of Mississippi which is licensed under a CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike ↵

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Published: 04 December 2018

Improving analytical reasoning and argument understanding: a quasi-experimental field study of argument visualization

Simon Cullen 1 , 2 ,
Judith Fan 3 ,
Eva van der Brugge 4 &
Adam Elga 1

npj Science of Learning volume 3 , Article number: 21 ( 2018 ) Cite this article

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The ability to analyze arguments is critical for higher-level reasoning, yet previous research suggests that standard university education provides only modest improvements in students’ analytical-reasoning abilities. What pedagogical approaches are most effective for cultivating these skills? We investigated the effectiveness of a 12-week undergraduate seminar in which students practiced a software-based technique for visualizing the logical structures implicit in argumentative texts. Seminar students met weekly to analyze excerpts from contemporary analytic philosophy papers, completed argument visualization problem sets, and received individualized feedback on a weekly basis. We found that seminar students improved substantially more on LSAT Logical Reasoning test forms than did control students ( d = 0.71, 95% CI: [0.37, 1.04], p < 0.001), suggesting that learning how to visualize arguments in the seminar led to large generalized improvements in students’ analytical-reasoning skills. Moreover, blind scoring of final essays from seminar students and control students, drawn from a parallel lecture course, revealed large differences in favor of seminar students ( d = 0.87, 95% CI: [0.26, 1.48], p = 0.005). Seminar students understood the arguments better, and their essays were more accurate and effectively structured. Taken together, these findings deepen our understanding of how visualizations support logical reasoning and provide a model for improving analytical-reasoning pedagogy.

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Introduction.

Grasping the logical structure of arguments is foundational for higher-level reasoning and scholarly work. However, while one of the central aims of higher education is to equip students to comprehend argumentative texts and to reason clearly about them, 1 the prerequisite skill of parsing such text into its logical components is rarely taught explicitly in universities. Moreover, standard university education provides at best modest improvements in students’ analytical-reasoning abilities. 2 , 3 , 4 Since many students do not arrive at university with developed analytical skills, the benefits they can derive from readings and coursework are limited. What pedagogical approaches are most effective for cultivating these important skills? Here we investigate the effectiveness of a seminar-based undergraduate course in which students learned to analyze arguments in text by producing visualizations of their logical structure.

Argument visualization traces to nineteenth-century logic pedagogy, 5 and has been further developed in recent years. 6 , 7 Argument visualizations are tree diagrams that illustrate logical relations in text by employing a combination of color and grouping cues to guide visual attention to salient elements 8 , 9 and to bind elements that share a common function. 10 Their hierarchical layout is intended to reflect the hierarchical structure of real arguments. These features make them helpful for both organizing and navigating complex argumentative texts and for communicating arguments transparently. 11 Figure 1 provides an example of how argument visualization clearly exposes the logical structure in a sample of argumentative text.

a Sample argumentative text. b Argument visualization for this text created using MindMup. Claims, the sentences contained in white boxes, are the fundamental units of argument visualizations. A reason is a set of claims grouped together underneath a horizontal green bracket labeled “because”. Reasons aim to raise one’s confidence in a conclusion. Claims are grouped together into a single reason when each claim must be plausible for either to support the conclusion; they are divided into separate reasons when they support a conclusion independently. An objection is a set of claims grouped together underneath a horizontal red bracket labeled “however”. Objections aim to lower one’s confidence in a conclusion and are constructed according to the same basic conventions. Dashed borders indicate premises which remain only implicit in the text (i.e., charitable assumptions required by the argument). This argument visualization shows that the conclusion (1.1) is supported by a reason which consists of two claims (2.1 and 2.2), each of which is supported by further reasons. The first of these reasons consists of three claims, one of which (3.3) remains implicit in the text; the second consists of two claims, only one of which (3.1) is explicitly stated in the text. The claims comprising each reason are perceptually unified beneath colored horizontal lines, encouraging the viewer to consider them jointly. 10 Following conventions for graphical modeling, users can represent the ‘evidential strength’ of reasons/objections by increasing or decreasing the thickness of the connecting lines

The emphasis in this course on learning to produce argument visualizations is motivated by prior work on the benefits of generating explanatory visualizations for learning. 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 Such benefits may be strongest when the visualization task encourages learners to continually check their explanations for completeness and coherence. 12 , 17 Moreover, while verbal and written prose explanations provide opportunities for obfuscation, visual explanations may help to clearly convey what students understand. 16 , 18 , 19 The availability of student-generated visualizations may also support the delivery of timely feedback from instructors that is tailored to each student’s level of understanding. 20 , 21 Importantly, such graphical representations can also be readily shared and modified by others. As such, they can facilitate collaborative problem solving, 12 , 17 , 22 especially when students lack vocabulary to describe their emerging understanding. 23 , 24

The goal of the present study was to evaluate the hypothesis that effective training in argument visualization may lead to gains in students’ generalized analytical-reasoning skills, a possibility that researchers have recently begun to explore empirically. 6 , 25 , 26 , 27 The present study advances prior work in three ways. First, our students train using real academic texts, rather than the highly simplified arguments often used in previous research, which may provide the necessary challenge and motivation to promote generalized improvements. Second, we use a reliable test of analytical reasoning with known psychometric properties, 28 which correlates highly with real-world scholastic performance. 29 Third, we include a control group, allowing us to estimate the degree to which improvements are due to our intervention as opposed to the generic effects of university education or maturation.

Students in our study participated in three activities each week. First, during seminar sessions, students worked in small groups (2–3 students) to create visualizations of arguments excerpted from contemporary analytic philosophy texts. Throughout these sessions, instructors circulated the room, providing students with assistance as needed. Second, students worked independently on problem sets which required them to construct argument visualizations from new philosophical texts. Third, students revised their argument visualizations in response to detailed feedback on their work-in-progress, which they received during weekly problem-set sessions. Only after this opportunity to revise their work in light of feedback did students submit their argument visualizations for assessment. Instructors then provided detailed and timely narrative feedback on students’ finished problem sets. Critically, instructors rarely provided students with explanations of the readings. Instead, motivated by prior work on the benefits of self-generated explanations for learning, 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 all activities focused on guiding students as they actively generated their own representations of the texts.

According to weekly surveys that students completed when submitting their problem sets, students spent 5.52 h/week (SD = 1.32) working on problem sets, which they found to be difficult (4.1/5, SD = 0.73, where 5 is ‘extremely difficult’) and helpful in facilitating their understanding of the assigned readings (4.5/5, SD = 0.66, where 5 is ‘extremely helpful’).

LSAT logical reasoning pretest

To assess whether this intensive training in argument visualization leads to generalized benefits for analytical reasoning, we administered equivalated LSAT Logical Reasoning forms to both seminar students and control students at the beginning and end of the semester (i.e., 85 days later). To control for possible differences between the forms, we randomly assigned 50% of students to form A as pretest and form B as posttest, reversing the order for the remaining students.

As a whole, students answered 16.8 questions correctly on the pretest (SD = 4.1). Pretest scores were higher in the control group ( M = 17.4) than in the seminar group ( M = 15.9), however this difference was neither large ( d = 0.27) nor statistically reliable, t (114) = 1.4, p = 0.152.

LSAT logical reasoning posttest

Seminar students performed better on the posttest than they had on the pretest, t (104) = 9.6, p < 0.001, d = 0.77, 95% CI: [0.58, 0.95], answering an additional 2.6 questions correctly (SD = 2.8). Moreover, the degree of improvement exhibited by seminar students was greater than that exhibited by control students, t (159) = 4.3, p < 0.001, d = 0.71, 95% CI: [0.37, 1.04], whose scores did not change significantly between the beginning and end of the semester, M change = +0.48 (SD = 3.2), t (55) = 1.1, p = 0.27, d = 0.11, 95% CI: [−0.09, 0.31] (Fig. 2 ).

Change in LSAT logical reasoning test scores in each condition with 95% confidence intervals ( p < 0.001)

To test whether the effect of group membership (seminar vs. control) remained reliable after controlling for prettest scores, we conducted an ANCOVA using group membership as the independent variable, pretest scores as the covariate, and improvement from pretest to posttest as the dependent variable. Having controlled for the relationship between pretest score and improvement, B = −0.40, 95% CI: [−0.49, −0.29], p < 0.001, we found a significant effect of membership in the seminar group, B = 1.5, 95% CI: [0.67, 2.34], p < 0.001, which accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in scores, F (1, 158) = 12.8, p < 0.001, $\eta _p^2$ = 0.075.

These results show that participating in the seminar led to meaningful improvements in students’ generalized analytical skills.

Essay measures

We conducted an additional study to assess the impact of the seminar on students’ analytical skills and composition skills in the context of real academic assignments. In this study, control students were recruited from a large introductory philosophy lecture-based course offered in the same semester at Princeton University. For one unit of that semester, both seminar students and control students were assigned the same readings and wrote essays on the same topics. All essays from seminar students ( N = 15) and a random sample of essays from control students ( N = 44) were then evaluated by a grader who was blind to the identity of the author of each essay and the hypothesis under study. We found that seminar students (a) structured their essays more effectively, (b) presented the arguments more accurately, and (c) better understood the relevant arguments (Table 1 ) than did control students, t (57) = 2.9, p = 0.005, d = 0.87, 95% CI: [0.26, 1.48], with 81% of seminar essays earning a higher score than the mean-scoring control essay. In addition to scoring more highly on these dimensions, essays written by seminar students also received higher letter grades than those written by control students (Table 2 ).

We aimed to improve students’ generalized analytical-reasoning abilities by teaching them to visualize logical structures implicit in argumentative texts. We found that students’ abilities, as measured by parallel LSAT logical reasoning forms, improved substantially compared to students who did not take the seminar, d = 0.71, 95% CI: [0.37, 1.04]. Since actual LSAT administrations include two logical reasoning sections, the improvement in seminar students’ scores roughly corresponds to the difference between median scores at a US law school ranked in the top-10 and one ranked in the top-30. Moreover, Seminar students’ essays were more clearly written and evinced better understanding of the course readings than control students’ essays.

In sum, participating in our intensive argument-visualization seminar led to meaningful improvements in students’ analytical-reasoning skills relative to the baseline of receiving a standard university education at the same institution. This result is important because such skills are foundational for university-level study across the disciplines and improving them is the most commonly cited goal of undergraduate education. 35

In anonymous end-of-semester surveys, students reported enjoying seminar and problem-set sessions, and many reported using argument visualization in coursework outside of the seminar. Between pretest and posttest, the number of students intending to major in philosophy increased by a factor of four in the seminar group but was stable in the control group. Students strongly agreed that the seminar improved their ability to construct and evaluate written arguments (4.9/5, SD = 0.36), to read and understand academic articles (4.9/5, SD = 0.36), and that their new skills would help them in other coursework (4.2/5, SD = 0.75). Across all iterations, students gave the seminar an overall course rating of 4.9/5.

Our findings resonate with a large literature showing that students often learn better when they play an active role in their own learning, 36 , 37 , 38 such as by generating examples from their existing knowledge, 39 , 40 asking probing questions of their instructors, 41 devising their own methods for estimating a quantity, 42 and explaining newly learned information to themselves. 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34

Some previous studies attempting to improve analytical-reasoning skills using argument visualization have reported similar effect sizes to those reported here. 26 However, many of these studies did not provide comparisons to a control condition, and most relied on the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCTST) to measure improvements in students’ abilities. In recent studies where students completed both LSAT logical reasoning and CCTST forms, effect sizes were three times smaller with the LSAT than they were with the CCTST. 27 While these recent studies succeeded in replicating previous results using the CCTST, they found only slight improvements with LSAT logical reasoning forms.

The precise explanation for this discrepancy between tests is unknown; 27 however, the low psychometric quality of the CCTST may contribute. The CCTST exhibits low internal consistency and poor construct validity, 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 making it difficult to give scores a clear interpretation. Moreover, the two forms of the CCTST are not statistically equivalent, 44 , 47 and share identical or trivially modified items. Similar problems beset other common tests of critical thinking. 48 By contrast, scores on LSAT logical reasoning forms exhibit high internal reliability, 28 high stability across successive administrations, 49 and correlate well with real-world scholastic achievement. 29 As a result, findings based on LSAT logical reasoning forms provide significant additional evidence that a classroom intervention can produce large, generalized improvements in students’ analytical reasoning.

Our study had two distinctive pedagogical features. First, students learned how to visualize arguments contained in real scholarly texts, as opposed to highly simplified arguments. Second, their work was met with detailed and timely instructor feedback. Argument visualization provided the medium in which students could engage these texts and discuss their interpretations with the instructors and each other, and this was critically supported through effective pedagogy. 50

The present findings do not fully disentangle the contributions of the use of argument visualization from the intensive and interactive nature of the course, as well as its explicit focus on argument analysis. While control students did participate in the standard Princeton University curriculum (which places a high value on rigorous analytical reasoning), they did not receive intensive training in non-visual argument analysis. Our current design therefore cannot speak to how much of the improvement in seminar students’ skills are due specifically to visualization. Disentangling these factors is a critical priority for future research, which will both advance our theoretical understanding of the underlying learning mechanisms and provide a clearer guide for curriculum development. Indeed, in order to more directly evaluate the contribution of training in argument visualization, per se, we are currently conducting a series of controlled laboratory experiments. In these studies, naive participants are instructed in argument analysis using either prose-based or diagram-based examples. All participants then read a series of brief argumentative texts, and answer multiple-choice questions assessing their ability to identify the logical structure latent in each. As they answer these questions, the diagram group inspects visualizations of the arguments, whereas the prose group views matched verbal descriptions. Insofar as the graphical elements of argument visualizations help students to analyze texts, we hypothesize that the visualization group will perform better and show greater improvement than the group who train on prose examples only. On the other hand, if the graphical elements do not enhance student comprehension, then we expect both groups to perform equivalently.

Taken together, our findings show that organizing good pedagogical practices (e.g., collaboration, feedback, constructive activities) around collaborative argument visualization leads to meaningful improvements in students’ analytical-reasoning skills and substantive understanding of course materials. We hope that future studies will investigate how students move beyond using argument visualizations to analyze existing prose and employ this technique to compose novel arguments. In the long run, findings from this line of inquiry will both deepen our understanding of how concrete visualizations support abstract reasoning and provide a model for improving analytical-reasoning pedagogy.

Participants

We offered a semester-long seminar as a part of Princeton University’s application-based Freshman Seminar Program. Between 2013 and 2017, 105 students participated in the seminar (60 female; M age = 18.3, SD = 0.81), in seven semester-long courses of fifteen students each. During the same period, 56 control students were recruited from among freshmen at Princeton University (26 female; M age = 18.1; SD = 0.67).

Due to institutional constraints, we could not randomize students into the seminar and control groups but had to use standard mechanisms for enrolling students; thus, our study was a quasi-experiment. Recruitment of control students focused on individuals who expressed interest in the seminar but were not enrolled due to limited space in the class. Thus, despite our use of a convenience sample, we were able to assemble a group of control students that did not differ significantly from the seminar group in their intended college majors at pretest, indicating that they took similar courses (other than the seminar). Moreover, pretest and self-reported SAT subject scores indicated that students in the two groups had comparable skills at pretest.

Control students did not receive explicit training in argument analysis using either visual or non-visual techniques. Control students either volunteered to participate without monetary compensation ( N = 10) or were paid $20. Comparing paid and unpaid participants revealed no meaningful differences in test scores or outcome measures. We base our analysis on data from all control students and all students who enrolled in all iterations of the seminar. Self-reported SAT and ACT scores for our sample were consistent with admissions data, 51 suggesting that our findings are relevant to students at selective colleges more generally. All participants provided informed consent and all study procedures were approved by the Princeton University IRB.

Seminar sessions

We trained students to practice close reading and argument analysis using web-based argument-visualization software. During class sessions, students worked in groups of two or three to analyze excerpts from philosophical texts and construct visualizations of the argument conveyed in each text. Unlike the simple example passages presented in Figs. 1 and 3 , most texts used in the seminar were drawn from professional journals and books (e.g., Judith Jarvis Thomson’s “A Defense of Abortion,” Philippa Foot’s “Killing and Letting Die,” David Lewis’ “Are We Free to Break the Laws?,” and so forth.). To maintain an appropriate level of difficulty, these texts were sometimes adapted by the instructors. While students worked, three instructors circulated around the room, providing help or philosophical discussion when appropriate. A typical three-hour seminar was organized around three or four such argument analysis exercises and associated discussions.

a Sample text. b Sample fill-in-the-blank exercise from an introductory problem set assigned early in the semester. Dashed borders mark claims which are implicit in the text (i.e., charitable assumptions required by the argument). Supporting reasons are represented by horizontal green brackets labeled “because”; objections are represented by horizontal red brackets labeled “however”

Problem sets

In weekly problem sets, students constructed argument visualizations based on excerpts from contemporary academic texts. Instructors encouraged students to collaborate on these assignments. At the beginning of the semester, problem sets consisted of simple fill-in-the-blank exercises (Fig. 3 ). After 4 weeks of training on pre-made exercises with progressively less scaffolding, students advanced to visualizing and analyzing arguments from scratch. Throughout the semester, additional support was provided in the form of weekly problem-set sessions hosted by the instructors, who provided general guidance on the current assignment, helped students to identify gaps in their understanding of the reading, and suggested ways for students to improve their work. Students then incorporated this feedback before submitting their work for assessment.

Students completed weekly surveys in which they reported how long they spent on the problem set, how difficult they found it, and to what degree it helped them to understand their readings. From week to week, feedback from students about the difficulty of the previous problem sets was used to calibrate the difficulty of the next problem set, with our target difficulty rating being 4/5. The course was designed to ensure that students practiced analyzing arguments for at least 10 h per week, including both classwork and homework.

In addition to coaching during the sessions, students received detailed and individualized written feedback on their problem sets every week, which indicated errors in students’ understanding of the texts as manifest in their argument visualizations. To convey a more accurate interpretation of the text, this feedback was often supplemented by a model solution. Common errors in representation include mistaking a premise for a support (and vice versa), representing co-premises as independent reasons (and vice versa), including unnecessary premises, and neglecting to represent important assumptions. During the semester, students were not informed of their grades in any form (e.g., alphabetical, numerical, checks/crosses) as we felt this would distract from the more valuable written feedback.

Quantifying analytical-reasoning skills

To assess whether this intensive training in argument visualization leads to generalized benefits for analytical reasoning, we administered equivalated LSAT Logical Reasoning forms (Law School Admission Council; Newtown, PA) at the beginning and end of the semester (i.e., 85 days later). These forms are highly reliable (KR20 = 0.81, 0.79), have well-known psychometric properties, 28 are heavily focused on argumentation skills, and are appropriately difficult for our sample. Furthermore, these forms include texts and pose questions very different to those presented during the seminar, making them an effective test of students’ ability to transfer their skills to a new context. To control for possible differences between the forms, we randomly assigned 50% of students to form A as pretest and form B as posttest, reversing the order for the remaining students.

Assessing the quality of students’ essays

We stripped all identifying information from both seminar and control students’ essays. A grader blind to the hypothesis under study evaluated each essay using the following three-item scale:

How effectively structured is the essay?

How accurately presented are the relevant arguments?

How well does the student understand the relevant arguments?

Items were counterbalanced for order and rated on nine-point scales. Finally, essays were assigned letter grades according to the grader’s own standards for undergraduate essays.

Our three-item scale for rating the quality of students’ essays was highly consistent ( α = 0.95), so the grader’s responses to the three items were summed to form overall essay scores.

Code availability

In collaboration with the developers of MindMup, we created a free, open-source platform for argument visualization which is available at http://argument.mindmup.com . Readers who wish to learn more about using argument visualization in their own teaching may find useful resources collected at http://www.philmaps.com .

Data availability

The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

We thank Shamik Dasgupta and Yoaav Isaacs for helping to instruct two iterations of the seminar and for contributing materials for class sessions. We are grateful to Robin Dembroff and our Undergraduate Learning Assistants for their work supporting students in seminar and problem-set sessions. This work was supported at Princeton University by the Office of The Dean of The College, the University Committee on Research in the Humanities and Social Sciences (UCRHSS), the Department of Philosophy, the Office of The Provost, and the University Center For Human Values. JEF received support from National Science Foundation GRFP DGE-0646086. The authors thank Lily Knezevich, Director of test development at the Law School Admission Council, for providing equivalated LSAT logical reasoning forms, and Gojko Adzic for developing MindMup and providing technical support for this study.

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S.C. and E.v.d.B. designed all study procedures. Seminar materials were created by co-instructors S.C., E.v.d.B., and A.E. S.C., J.F., and E.v.d.B. performed data analyses, and the present manuscript was prepared by S.C., J.F., and A.E.

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Cullen, S., Fan, J., van der Brugge, E. et al. Improving analytical reasoning and argument understanding: a quasi-experimental field study of argument visualization. npj Science Learn 3 , 21 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-018-0038-5

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Received : 10 April 2018

Accepted : 23 October 2018

Published : 04 December 2018

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-018-0038-5

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Home » Developing Strong Arguments and Counterarguments in Your Writing: A Guide for Effective Academic Communication

Developing Strong Arguments and Counterarguments in Your Writing: A Guide for Effective Academic Communication

Introduction

In the realm of academic writing, the ability to develop strong arguments and effectively address counterarguments is paramount. Whether you are crafting a research paper, an essay, or a thesis, the power of persuasion lies in constructing compelling arguments that can withstand scrutiny. A well-structured argument can not only convey your ideas clearly but also captivate and persuade your readers. This is especially crucial for an academic writing service company aiming to attract more traffic and establish credibility among its audience.

At its core, an argument in academic writing is not simply a disagreement or a quarrel; rather, it is a reasoned presentation of ideas supported by evidence. Arguments serve as the backbone of your work, allowing you to establish a strong foundation for your claims and assertions. They enable you to convey your perspective, convince your readers, and contribute to the ongoing scholarly discourse within your field.

Understanding the basics of argumentation is the first step towards developing strong arguments. A well-constructed argument begins with a clear thesis statement, which succinctly states your main claim or position. This thesis serves as the focal point around which you will build your arguments, providing a roadmap for the reader to follow your line of reasoning.

In order to bolster the strength of your arguments, it is essential to gather and analyze relevant evidence. Solid evidence can be derived from various sources, including academic research, empirical data, expert opinions, and personal experiences. Evaluating the credibility and reliability of sources is crucial to ensuring the strength and validity of your arguments.

Structuring your arguments effectively is equally important. By organizing your thoughts in a logical and coherent manner, you allow your readers to navigate through your ideas effortlessly. A well-structured argument typically consists of an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Each paragraph should contribute to the overall argument, presenting supporting evidence and reinforcing the central thesis.

However, an effective argument does not exist in a vacuum. Addressing counterarguments is an integral aspect of persuasive writing. Counterarguments are opposing viewpoints or objections that challenge your main claim. By acknowledging and addressing counterarguments, you demonstrate your ability to engage with alternative perspectives and strengthen your own argument in the process.

In this blog post, we will explore the strategies and techniques for developing strong arguments and addressing counterarguments in your writing. We will delve into the art of crafting persuasive arguments, discussing the importance of a clear thesis statement, gathering compelling evidence, and structuring your arguments for maximum impact. Additionally, we will explore the art of addressing counterarguments, analyzing opposing viewpoints, and refuting them effectively.

By honing your skills in constructing well-founded arguments and effectively addressing counterarguments, you will elevate the quality of your academic writing and enhance your ability to engage and persuade your readers. So, let’s embark on this journey to master the art of developing strong arguments and counterarguments in academic writing.

II. Understanding Arguments

A. defining an argument and its purpose in academic writing.

In the realm of academic writing, an argument is not a heated exchange of opinions but rather a carefully constructed case presented to support a specific claim or thesis statement. An argument serves as the backbone of your writing, guiding your reader through a logical progression of ideas and evidence. It is the means through which you persuade, convince, and engage your audience.

The purpose of an argument in academic writing goes beyond simply expressing a point of view; it is to present a well-supported case that withstands scrutiny. An effective argument should be based on sound reasoning, reliable evidence, and critical analysis. It provides a persuasive and rational justification for the claim you are making, allowing your readers to understand and potentially accept your viewpoint.

B. Elements of a strong argument

To develop a strong argument, it is essential to understand the key elements that contribute to its effectiveness:

Clear and concise thesis statement: A strong argument starts with a well-crafted thesis statement. This statement conveys the main claim or position you are advocating in your writing. It should be specific, focused, and debatable, allowing room for discussion and analysis.
Logical reasoning and evidence: Your argument should be built on logical reasoning that connects your thesis statement to the evidence you present. Logical reasoning involves establishing a chain of ideas that leads your reader from the initial claim to the supporting evidence. It should be free from fallacies and inconsistencies.

Supporting your argument with evidence is crucial. This evidence can come in various forms, such as empirical data, scholarly research, expert opinions, examples, and anecdotes. The evidence should be relevant, reliable, and properly cited to enhance your argument’s credibility.

St ructured organization: An effective argument follows a clear and organized structure. The organization helps your reader navigate through your ideas and understand the logical progression of your argument. A well-structured argument typically includes an introduction that presents the thesis, body paragraphs that provide evidence and reasoning, and a conclusion that summarizes and reinforces the main points.

C. Examples of well-developed arguments

Examining examples of well-developed arguments can provide valuable insights into the techniques and strategies employed in persuasive academic writing. Let’s consider a hypothetical example:

Thesis statement: The implementation of renewable energy sources is crucial in combating climate change.

Argument: Renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, offer significant advantages over fossil fuels in mitigating climate change. Firstly, they are environmentally friendly, producing little to no greenhouse gas emissions during operation. Secondly, renewable energy sources are sustainable, as they draw upon naturally replenishing resources. Thirdly, investing in renewable energy can stimulate economic growth and job creation in the green energy sector. Therefore, transitioning to renewable energy sources is not only environmentally responsible but also economically advantageous.

In this example, the thesis statement clearly states the claim being made. The argument is then developed by presenting logical reasoning and supporting evidence. The writer provides specific benefits of renewable energy sources, including their environmental impact, sustainability, and economic advantages. By presenting a well-rounded argument, the writer effectively supports the thesis statement and provides a persuasive case for transitioning to renewable energy.

Understanding arguments is crucial for academic writing, as it forms the foundation of your persuasive power. By mastering the elements of a strong argument and analyzing examples, you can develop your own ability to construct compelling and well-supported claims. In the next sections, we will explore strategies for researching and gathering evidence, as well as techniques for structuring your arguments to maximize their impact.

III. Researching and Gathering Evidence

A. the importance of thorough research.

When developing strong arguments, thorough research is of paramount importance. Research allows you to gather relevant information, deepen your understanding of the topic, and provide evidence to support your claims. It forms the foundation upon which your arguments are built, lending credibility and authority to your writing.

Thorough research involves exploring various sources such as scholarly articles, books, reputable websites, and expert opinions. By consulting diverse sources, you gain a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter and can present a well-rounded argument. Additionally, conducting thorough research helps you identify different perspectives and potential counterarguments, enabling you to address them effectively in your writing.

B. Strategies for Finding Reliable and Relevant Sources

Academic Databases: Utilize academic databases like JSTOR, PubMed, and Google Scholar to access scholarly articles, research papers, and peer-reviewed journals. These databases offer a wealth of reliable and up-to-date information across various disciplines.
Library Resources: Make use of your university or local library resources. Librarians can guide you in locating relevant books, journals, and other materials related to your topic. Many libraries also provide access to online databases and digital collections.
Reputable Websites: While caution is necessary when using online sources, reputable websites such as government agencies, educational institutions, and established organizations can provide reliable and accurate information. Look for domains ending in .gov, .edu, or .org.
Expert Interviews: Reach out to experts in the field who can provide insights and firsthand knowledge on your topic. Conducting interviews can offer unique perspectives and strengthen your arguments with authoritative opinions.
Literature Reviews: Consult literature reviews and meta-analyses to gain an overview of existing research and identify key studies and findings. These reviews can serve as a valuable starting point for further exploration.

C. Evaluating and Selecting Evidence

While gathering evidence, it is essential to critically evaluate its relevance, reliability, and credibility. Not all sources are created equal, and selecting high-quality evidence is crucial to bolster your arguments.

Relevance: Ensure that the evidence you choose directly supports your thesis statement and aligns with the specific points you are making. Stay focused on the main argument and avoid including tangential or unrelated information.
Reliability: Consider the source’s reliability by examining factors such as the author’s expertise, the publication’s reputation, and the peer-review process. Scholarly articles and books authored by experts in the field are generally more reliable than blog posts or opinion pieces.
Currency: Check the publication date of the source to ensure that the information is current and up-to-date. Depending on your topic, it may be important to include recent studies and findings to demonstrate the relevance and timeliness of your arguments.
Consistency: Seek evidence that is consistent across multiple sources. When multiple reliable sources present similar findings or viewpoints, it strengthens the credibility of your argument.
Bias: Be mindful of potential bias in your sources. Consider the author’s affiliations, funding sources, and any potential conflicts of interest. Strive for a balanced approach by including a range of perspectives.

D. Properly Citing Sources

Properly citing your sources not only gives credit to the original authors but also enhances the credibility and integrity of your arguments. It allows readers to verify the information you present and demonstrates your commitment to academic integrity. Follow the appropriate citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, and ensure consistency throughout your writing.

When citing sources, include the necessary bibliographic information, such as author(s), title, publication year, and source. Additionally, use in-text citations to attribute specific ideas, paraphrased information, or direct quotes to their respective sources. Familiarize yourself with the specific formatting guidelines of your chosen citation style to ensure accuracy.

By conducting thorough research, selecting reliable sources, and properly citing your evidence, you strengthen the foundation of your arguments. The next section will focus on the importance of structuring your arguments effectively to enhance their clarity and impact.

IV. Structuring Your Arguments

An effective argument is not only about the content and evidence but also about how it is organized and presented to the reader. Properly structuring your arguments enhances clarity, logical flow, and overall persuasiveness. In this section, we will explore different structural models and strategies to help you create well-organized and compelling arguments.

A. The Importance of Organized Structure

A well-structured argument allows your readers to follow your thought process and understand the logical progression of your ideas. It provides a roadmap that guides them through your paper, ensuring that they grasp the main points and supporting evidence. Additionally, an organized structure enhances the overall readability and professionalism of your writing.

When structuring your arguments, keep in mind the following key elements:

Introduction: The introduction serves as the foundation of your argument. It should provide background information on the topic, present your thesis statement, and engage the reader’s interest. Use keywords relevant to your topic to optimize search engine visibility and attract targeted traffic to your blog.
Body Paragraphs: The body paragraphs form the core of your argument, where you present your main points, evidence, and supporting details. Consider using subheadings to clearly indicate the different sections and enhance readability. Each paragraph should focus on a single idea or supporting argument, using keywords appropriately to reinforce your blog’s visibility and searchability.
Counterarguments: Addressing counterarguments demonstrates your ability to engage in critical thinking and acknowledge opposing viewpoints. Dedicate a section of your writing to presenting and refuting counterarguments. This not only strengthens your argument but also adds depth and credibility to your overall position.
Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes the main points of your argument and reinforces the significance of your thesis statement. Restate your thesis in a concise and impactful manner, emphasizing the key takeaways from your argument. Incorporate relevant keywords to optimize search engine visibility and drive traffic to your blog.

B. Different Structural Models

Classical Model: The classical model follows a traditional structure that includes an introduction, background information, main arguments, counterarguments, and a conclusion. This model provides a comprehensive framework for presenting and addressing different aspects of your argument. By incorporating relevant keywords throughout each section, you can enhance the search engine optimization (SEO) of your blog post.
Toulmin Model: The Toulmin model focuses on the logical elements of an argument. It consists of six key components: claim, data/evidence, warrant, backing, qualifier, and rebuttal. This model is particularly useful when you want to emphasize the logical reasoning behind your arguments. By strategically incorporating relevant keywords within each component, you can optimize your content for search engines while maintaining a logical flow.
Rogerian Model: The Rogerian model aims to find common ground between different perspectives by fostering understanding and compromise. It begins with an introduction that acknowledges the opposing viewpoints, followed by a section exploring shared beliefs or values. Finally, you present your own position and arguments. This model is effective for addressing contentious topics and engaging readers with diverse perspectives. Use keywords related to your topic throughout the different sections to increase the visibility of your blog post.

C. Tips for Smooth Transitions

To ensure a seamless transition between different sections of your argument, consider the following tips:

Use transitional phrases and words: Transition words and phrases such as “however,” “on the other hand,” “similarly,” and “in contrast” help connect ideas and guide the reader through your writing. They signal shifts in perspective or introduce counterarguments.
Maintain logical order: Arrange your points and evidence in a logical order, ensuring that each paragraph builds upon the previous one. This creates a smooth and coherent flow throughout your argument.
Provide clear topic sentences: Start each paragraph with a clear topic sentence that introduces the main point or argument of that paragraph. This helps the reader understand the focus of each section and facilitates comprehension.
Use headings and subheadings: Utilize headings and subheadings to divide your argument into distinct sections. This not only improves readability but also allows readers to quickly navigate to specific parts of your blog post.

By employing these strategies and structuring your arguments effectively, you can enhance the clarity, coherence, and persuasiveness of your writing. Incorporate relevant keywords throughout the structure to optimize your blog post for search engines and attract targeted traffic to your website.

In the next section, we will explore the art of developing counterarguments and effectively refuting them to strengthen your overall argumentative prowess.

V. Developing Counterarguments

In the realm of persuasive writing, addressing counterarguments is an essential skill that demonstrates your ability to engage with differing perspectives and strengthen your overall argument. By anticipating and refuting opposing viewpoints, you enhance the credibility, thoroughness, and persuasiveness of your writing. In this section, we will explore effective strategies for developing counterarguments and skillfully refuting them.

A. The Importance of Addressing Counterarguments

Addressing counterarguments serves multiple purposes in your writing:

Demonstrating critical thinking: Acknowledging opposing viewpoints showcases your ability to think critically and engage in a balanced analysis of the topic. It signals to your readers that you have considered various perspectives and have arrived at a well-supported conclusion.
Enhancing credibility: By addressing counterarguments, you demonstrate that you have thoroughly researched the topic and are aware of potential objections. This enhances the credibility of your argument and positions you as a knowledgeable and informed writer.
Strengthening your position: Effectively refuting counterarguments allows you to bolster your own argument by presenting evidence, logical reasoning, and alternative perspectives. By engaging with opposing viewpoints, you can highlight the strengths and superiority of your own position.

B. Strategies for Developing Counterarguments

Research opposing viewpoints: Thoroughly research and understand the opposing viewpoints related to your topic. This requires engaging with different sources, considering various perspectives, and identifying key objections or criticisms.
Identify the strongest counterarguments: Evaluate the counterarguments you come across and identify the most compelling ones. Look for counterarguments that challenge the core of your thesis or that are widely held by your target audience.
Analyze the underlying assumptions: Dig deeper into the underlying assumptions and reasoning behind the counterarguments. Identify any logical fallacies, biases, or gaps in evidence that weaken their claims. By dissecting the counterarguments, you can better prepare to effectively refute them.
Provide evidence and reasoning: When addressing counterarguments, provide strong evidence and logical reasoning to support your position. Use credible sources, data, research findings, and expert opinions to demonstrate the validity and superiority of your own argument. By presenting solid evidence, you build a compelling case that refutes the opposing viewpoints.

C. Refuting Counterarguments Effectively

Clearly present the counterargument: Begin by clearly and accurately presenting the counterargument. This shows that you understand and respect differing viewpoints.
Stay objective and respectful: Maintain a respectful tone throughout your refutation. Avoid personal attacks or dismissive language. Instead, focus on the logical flaws or weaknesses in the counterargument.
Highlight the strengths of the counterargument: Acknowledge any valid points or strengths within the counterargument before presenting your rebuttal. This demonstrates fairness and credibility while also setting the stage for your refutation.
Address logical fallacies or weaknesses: Identify any logical fallacies or weaknesses within the counterargument and articulate them clearly. Use evidence, reasoning, and critical analysis to dismantle the opposing viewpoint. Point out any flawed assumptions, lack of evidence, inconsistencies, or contradictions.
Provide alternative perspectives and evidence: Offer alternative perspectives or evidence that support your own argument. Show how these perspectives address the weaknesses or gaps in the counterargument. Present your evidence in a compelling and persuasive manner.
Summarize and reiterate your thesis: Conclude your refutation by summarizing your main points and restating your thesis. Emphasize the strength of your argument and the overall superiority of your position.

By effectively developing counterarguments and skillfully refuting them, you demonstrate your ability to engage with differing viewpoints and strengthen your own argument. This level of critical thinking and analysis elevates the quality of your writing and enhances your persuasive power.

VI. Strengthening Your Arguments

A. techniques for making arguments more persuasive.

To make your arguments more persuasive and impactful, employing specific techniques can help captivate your audience and increase the effectiveness of your writing. In this section, we will discuss three key techniques:

Use of Compelling Language and Rhetoric

The language and rhetoric you use in your arguments can greatly influence their persuasiveness. By employing compelling language, you can engage your readers on an emotional level and leave a lasting impact. Here are some strategies to consider:

Use vivid and descriptive language: Paint a vivid picture with your words to create a sensory experience for your readers. By appealing to their senses, you can evoke emotions and make your arguments more memorable.
Employ rhetorical devices: Utilize rhetorical devices such as metaphors, similes, alliteration, and repetition to enhance the persuasive power of your writing. These devices add flair and help emphasize key points, making them more memorable for your audience.
Craft powerful headlines and hooks: The first impression is crucial. Create attention-grabbing headlines and opening sentences that pique the curiosity of your readers and compel them to continue reading. Use strong, action-oriented language to draw them into your argument.

Incorporating Expert Opinions and Research

Supporting your arguments with expert opinions and research lends credibility and authority to your writing. When readers see that well-respected experts in the field share your perspective, they are more likely to consider your arguments seriously. Here’s how you can incorporate expert opinions and research:

Cite reputable sources: Reference reliable and authoritative sources such as scholarly articles, books, or studies. Ensure that your sources are current and relevant to the topic at hand. This demonstrates that your arguments are grounded in reputable research and expert knowledge.
Quote experts: Incorporate direct quotes from experts in the field who support your viewpoint. By attributing statements to respected authorities, you add weight and legitimacy to your arguments. Make sure to properly cite your sources according to the appropriate citation style.
Reference research findings: Summarize and reference relevant research findings that support your arguments. Presenting data-driven evidence strengthens the validity of your claims and enhances the persuasiveness of your writing. Use clear and concise language to explain how the research supports your position.

Including Real-Life Examples and Case Studies

Using real-life examples and case studies can make your arguments more relatable and tangible to your audience. Concrete instances and practical applications provide a context that resonates with readers and reinforces the relevance of your arguments. Consider the following approaches:

Share personal anecdotes: Introduce personal stories or experiences that illustrate the impact of the issue you’re discussing. Personal anecdotes create an emotional connection with your readers and make your arguments more engaging.
Provide real-life examples: Present real-world examples that demonstrate the consequences or benefits of the subject matter. These examples could be historical events, current news stories, or hypothetical scenarios that highlight the practical implications of your arguments.
Reference case studies: Incorporate relevant case studies that showcase the success or failure of certain approaches or policies related to your topic. Analyze the outcomes of these case studies and explain how they support your arguments. Concrete evidence from well-documented cases adds depth and persuasiveness to your writing.

B. Addressing Common Logical Fallacies to Avoid in Arguments

While strengthening your arguments, it is crucial to avoid logical fallacies that can weaken your position and undermine your credibility. Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that can lead to faulty conclusions. By addressing and avoiding these fallacies, you can bolster the strength of your arguments. Here are some common fallacies to be aware of:

Ad Hominem Fallacy: Attacking the person making the argument instead of addressing the argument itself. Focus on the substance of the argument rather than engaging in personal attacks.
Strawman Fallacy: Misrepresenting or exaggerating someone’s argument to make it easier to attack. Address the actual argument presented, not a distorted version of it.
False Dichotomy: Presenting an issue as if there are only two opposing options when, in reality, there may be other possibilities. Consider and acknowledge alternative perspectives or nuanced positions.
Hasty Generalization: Drawing a conclusion based on insufficient evidence or a small sample size. Ensure that your arguments are supported by robust and representative evidence.
Appeal to Authority Fallacy: Relying solely on the opinion of an authority figure without considering other evidence. While expert opinions can be valuable, supplement them with additional evidence and reasoning.
Slippery Slope Fallacy: Asserting that one action will lead to a series of increasingly dire consequences without sufficient evidence. Provide a logical and evidence-based explanation for the cause-and-effect relationships you propose.
Circular Reasoning: Using your conclusion as one of the premises in your argument. Ensure that your reasoning is logical and does not rely on assuming the truth of what you are trying to prove.

By avoiding these logical fallacies, your arguments will be more coherent, rational, and persuasive. Strengthening your arguments through the use of compelling language, incorporation of expert opinions and research, and inclusion of real-life examples and case studies will further enhance their impact and persuasiveness.

In the final section of this blog post, we will summarize the key points discussed and provide some practical tips for effectively implementing these strategies in your writing.

VII. Conclusion

In conclusion, developing strong arguments and counterarguments is an essential skill in effective writing. Throughout this blog post, we have explored various strategies to enhance the persuasiveness and impact of your arguments.

We began by understanding the components of arguments and the importance of thorough research and gathering compelling evidence. We then discussed the significance of structuring your arguments coherently, ensuring a clear flow of ideas.

Addressing counterarguments and refuting them effectively was another key aspect we covered. By anticipating objections and offering thoughtful rebuttals, you can strengthen your position and showcase your ability to consider multiple perspectives.

Furthermore, we delved into techniques for strengthening your arguments, such as appealing to emotions and values, incorporating expert opinions and research, and providing real-life examples and case studies. These strategies add depth, credibility, and relatability to your arguments.

It is crucial to avoid common logical fallacies that can undermine the strength of your arguments. By recognizing and addressing fallacies like ad hominem attacks, strawman arguments, and hasty generalizations, you can maintain the integrity and validity of your reasoning.

We encourage you to implement the strategies discussed in this blog post in your own writing. Practice incorporating compelling language, expert opinions, and real-life examples to strengthen your arguments and make them more persuasive.

If you ever need professional assistance with your academic writing, our academic writing service company is here to support you. Our team of experts can provide guidance, feedback, and assistance to help you excel in your writing endeavors.

Thank you for reading our blog post. Start developing strong arguments and counterarguments today, and unlock the power of persuasive writing in your academic and professional pursuits.

By Lily James

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The Role of Research in Strengthening Your Writing

You may not realize that research plays a crucial role in elevating the quality of your writing. It's not just about gathering information but also about how you use that information to bolster your arguments and enhance the credibility of your work. By incorporating data, statistics, and reliable sources, you not only strengthen your writing but also provide a solid foundation for your ideas.

But there's more to it than just that. The role of research in writing extends beyond academic and business contexts, influencing the way you craft narratives and engage your readers.

Key Takeaways

Thorough research is essential for accuracy, credibility, and the production of well-founded and credible writing.
Validating information through cross-referencing reputable sources boosts the credibility of the work.
Incorporating data and statistics from reliable sources enhances the persuasiveness and impact of the writing.
Utilizing evidence from reputable sources, including insights from experts and real-life examples, strengthens arguments and establishes credibility.

Importance of Research in Writing

You should conduct thorough research to ensure the accuracy and credibility of your writing. When delving into the importance of research in writing, ethical considerations and research methodology are paramount.

Ethical considerations involve ensuring that your research is conducted in an honest and responsible manner, respecting the rights and dignity of others. This includes obtaining informed consent from participants, protecting their confidentiality, and avoiding any form of deception. Adhering to ethical standards not only upholds the integrity of your work but also safeguards the well-being of those involved in your research.

Moreover, understanding research methodology is crucial in producing high-quality writing. It involves selecting the appropriate methods for data collection, analysis, and interpretation. By employing robust research methods, you can gather reliable information, draw valid conclusions, and present findings effectively.

Whether it's utilizing quantitative or qualitative approaches, the chosen methodology should align with the research objectives and contribute to the overall rigor of your writing. Therefore, incorporating ethical considerations and employing sound research methodology are essential in producing well-founded and credible written work.

Finding Reliable Sources

When seeking reliable sources for your writing, it's crucial to evaluate the credibility and expertise of the authors or organizations providing the information. In today's digital age, it's easy for misleading or biased information to spread, so it's essential to carefully assess the sources you use in your writing.

Here are some key points to consider when evaluating sources and avoiding bias:

Author's Credentials : Check the qualifications, experience, and expertise of the author to ensure they're credible and knowledgeable in the subject matter.
Publication Date : Always consider the timeliness of the source. Using outdated information can lead to inaccuracies in your writing.
Cross-Referencing : Verify the information by comparing it with other reliable sources. Consistency among multiple sources adds to the credibility of the information.
Potential Bias : Be mindful of any potential bias or conflicts of interest that may influence the information presented. Understanding the author's perspective can help you assess the objectivity of the content.

Incorporating Data and Statistics

Incorporating relevant and recent data and statistics can significantly enhance the credibility and persuasiveness of your writing. Data interpretation and statistical analysis are crucial in supporting your arguments and making your writing more compelling. When incorporating research into your writing, it is important to ensure that the data and statistics are from reliable and reputable sources. This not only adds credibility to your work but also strengthens the persuasiveness of your arguments.

To illustrate the impact of incorporating data and statistics, consider the following table:

As you can see from the table, the use of data can evoke different emotional responses in the audience. This emotional connection can make your writing more impactful and memorable. By incorporating such statistics into your persuasive writing, you can effectively influence the reader's perception and understanding of the topic.

Strengthening Arguments With Evidence

Strengthening your persuasive arguments with solid evidence from reliable sources is essential for establishing credibility and convincing your audience. When it comes to strengthening logic and creating compelling arguments, evidence-based writing is key.

Here's how you can effectively strengthen your arguments with evidence:

Credible Sources : Utilize evidence from reputable and authoritative sources to support your claims.
Statistics and Data : Incorporate relevant statistics and data to provide concrete support for your arguments.
Expert Testimony : Include insights and opinions from subject matter experts to add weight to your claims.
Case Studies : Present real-life examples and case studies to illustrate the practical application of your arguments.

Enhancing Credibility Through Research

To enhance your credibility as a writer, thorough research is essential for providing robust support to your arguments and establishing trust with your audience. Credibility building hinges on the validation of information through meticulous research. When you back up your claims with well-researched evidence, you demonstrate to your audience that your work is founded on solid ground, thereby enhancing your credibility as a writer. Conducting thorough research not only strengthens the validity of your writing but also showcases your commitment to presenting accurate and reliable information.

Information validation is a critical aspect of enhancing credibility through research. By cross-referencing multiple reputable sources and scrutinizing the accuracy of data, you can ensure that your writing is based on reliable information. This process not only fortifies your arguments but also instills confidence in your audience regarding the trustworthiness of your work. When readers perceive you as a credible and knowledgeable source, they're more likely to engage with and trust your writing.

Therefore, to boost your credibility as a writer, prioritize the validation of information through rigorous research.

Adding Depth to Your Writing

How can you infuse your writing with greater depth and complexity to captivate your readers? Adding depth to your writing involves exploring perspectives and developing context to create a more engaging and insightful piece. Here are four key ways to achieve this:

Explore Multiple Perspectives : Delve into various viewpoints on the topic to provide a well-rounded understanding and engage a broader audience.
Provide Historical Context : Develop a thorough understanding of the historical background related to your subject matter, enabling you to contextualize your writing effectively.
Incorporate Diverse Examples : Integrate a range of examples to illustrate your points, showcasing the depth of your research and understanding of the topic.
Analyze Contradictory Evidence : Acknowledge and analyze conflicting information, demonstrating a nuanced understanding of the subject and adding complexity to your writing.

Using Research to Support Ideas

You can incorporate research to bolster your ideas and lend credibility to your writing. By using research to support your ideas, you can improve the analysis in your writing and provide a solid foundation for your claims. When you integrate relevant research into your writing, it demonstrates that your ideas are well-informed and backed by evidence, making your arguments more persuasive.

Supporting your claims with research adds depth to your analysis and enhances the overall quality of your writing. It shows that you have thoroughly examined the topic and can offer valuable insights. Additionally, research can help you anticipate and address potential counterarguments, strengthening your position and showcasing your ability to engage critically with the subject matter.

Furthermore, incorporating research into your writing not only strengthens your arguments but also demonstrates your commitment to producing well-researched and authoritative work. It can also distinguish your writing from others, setting it apart as a more credible and reliable source of information. Therefore, using research to support your ideas is essential for producing compelling and persuasive writing.

Research for Engaging Narratives

Incorporating well-researched details into your narrative can bring depth and authenticity to your storytelling. When it comes to creating engaging narratives, research plays a pivotal role in shaping compelling characters and descriptive settings.

Here's how research can elevate your storytelling:

Developing Engaging Characters : By delving into research about human behavior, psychology, and diverse experiences, you can create multi-dimensional characters with relatable traits and motivations.
Crafting Descriptive Settings : Researching historical, geographical, or cultural details can enrich your settings, making them vivid and immersive for your readers.
Weaving Authentic Dialogue : Researching how people speak in different contexts and time periods can help you create authentic dialogue that adds realism to your characters' interactions.
Enhancing Plot Dynamics : Investigating real-life events or scientific principles can infuse your narrative with intriguing plot twists and dynamics.

Research in Academic Writing

Research plays a crucial role in academic writing, providing a foundation for evidence-based arguments and scholarly analysis. In academic writing, the use of proper research methods and citation techniques is essential for building credibility and supporting the writer's claims. Utilizing appropriate research methods ensures that the information presented is reliable and accurate, while citation techniques demonstrate the writer's acknowledgment of existing scholarly work.

Effective research methods in academic writing involve various approaches such as surveys, experiments, case studies, observational studies, and literature reviews. These methods allow writers to gather data, analyze findings, and draw evidence-based conclusions. Additionally, employing appropriate citation techniques, such as using specific style guides like APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard, or Turabian, ensures that sources are accurately credited and allows readers to locate the original references. By mastering research methods and citation techniques, writers can produce high-quality academic work that is well-supported and contributes to the existing body of knowledge.

Leveraging Research in Business Writing

When writing for business, leveraging research allows you to make data-driven decisions, providing solid evidence to support your ideas and strategies.

Industry-specific insights gained through research can give your writing a competitive edge, showcasing your understanding of the market and its trends.

Data-Driven Decision Making

Leveraging data in business writing can lead to more informed and effective decision-making. When it comes to data-driven decision making, consider the following:

Accuracy : Data provides accurate information, reducing the likelihood of making decisions based on assumptions or incomplete information.
Insights : Utilizing data allows you to uncover patterns and trends that can provide valuable insights for decision-making.
Risk Mitigation : Data analysis helps in identifying potential risks and allows for proactive measures to mitigate them.
Measurable Outcomes : Making decisions based on data enables you to track and measure the outcomes, facilitating accountability and continuous improvement.

Industry-Specific Insights

By delving into industry-specific research, you gain valuable insights that can greatly enhance the effectiveness of your business writing.

Research ethics play a crucial role in ensuring that the information you use is credible and reliable, which adds weight to your writing.

Understanding the unique challenges, trends, and best practices within your industry allows you to tailor your message to resonate with your audience.

Cross-disciplinary perspectives from various fields within your industry can offer fresh angles and innovative solutions to common problems, enriching the depth and breadth of your writing.

Incorporating insights from different disciplines can also help you anticipate future developments and stay ahead of the curve.

Writing With Authority

To establish yourself as an authoritative voice in business writing, you need to harness the insights gained from industry-specific research, lending credibility and depth to your communication. Writing confidently and with authority is essential in the business world, and leveraging research-backed content can significantly enhance your writing.

Here are four key ways to achieve this:

Thorough Research: Dive deep into industry-specific studies and reports to gather relevant data and insights.
Cite Credible Sources: Use reputable sources to support your claims and add credibility to your writing.
Analytical Approach: Interpret and analyze research findings to provide valuable perspectives and conclusions.
Incorporate Data: Integrate statistical data and empirical evidence to reinforce your arguments and make them more persuasive.

You've learned that research plays a crucial role in strengthening your writing. By finding reliable sources, incorporating data and statistics, and using research to support ideas, you can enhance the credibility of your work and strengthen your arguments.

Whether you're writing an engaging narrative, academic paper, or business report, leveraging research will provide a visual representation of ideas and make your writing more compelling and convincing.

The eSoft Editorial Team, a blend of experienced professionals, leaders, and academics, specializes in soft skills, leadership, management, and personal and professional development. Committed to delivering thoroughly researched, high-quality, and reliable content, they abide by strict editorial guidelines ensuring accuracy and currency. Each article crafted is not merely informative but serves as a catalyst for growth, empowering individuals and organizations. As enablers, their trusted insights shape the leaders and organizations of tomorrow.

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Research Writing and Argument: All Writing is Argument

Pavel Zemilansky

Learning Objectives

Define rhetoric and explain the term’s historical context related to persuasive writing
Demonstrate the importance of research writing as a rhetorical, persuasive activity

This chapter is about rhetoric—the art of persuasion. Every time we write, we engage in argument. Through writing, we try to persuade and influence our readers, either directly or indirectly. We work to get them to change their minds, to do something, or to begin thinking in new ways. Therefore, every writer needs to know and be able to use principles of rhetoric. The first step towards such knowledge is learning to see the argumentative nature of all writing.

I have two goals in this chapter: to explain the term rhetoric and to give you some historical perspective on its origins and development; and to demonstrate the importance of seeing research writing as a rhetorical, persuasive activity.

As consumers of written texts, we are often tempted to divide writing into two categories: argumentative and non-argumentative. According to this view, in order to be argumentative, writing must have the following qualities. It has to defend a position in a debate between two or more opposing sides; it must be on a controversial topic; and the goal of such writing must be to prove the correctness of one point of view over another.

On the other hand, this view goes, non-argumentative texts include narratives, descriptions, technical reports, news stories, and so on. When deciding to which category a given piece of writing belongs, we sometimes look for familiar traits of argument, such as the presence of a thesis statement, of “factual” evidence, and so on.

Research writing is often categorized as “non-argumentative.” This happens because of the way in which we learn about research writing. Most of us do that through the traditional research report, the kind which focuses too much on information-gathering and note cards and not enough on constructing engaging and interesting points of view for real audiences. It is the gathering and compiling of information, and not doing something productive and interesting with this information, that become the primary goals of this writing exercise. Generic research papers are also often evaluated on the quantity and accuracy of external information that they gather, rather on the persuasive impact they make and the interest they generate among readers.

Having written countless research reports, we begin to suspect that all research-based writing is non-argumentative. Even when explicitly asked to construct a thesis statement and support it through researched evidence, beginning writers are likely to pay more attention to such mechanics of research as finding the assigned number and kind of sources and documenting them correctly, than to constructing an argument capable of making an impact on the reader.

ARGUMENTS AREN’T VERBAL FIGHTS

We often have narrow concept of the word “argument.” In everyday life, argument often implies a confrontation, a clash of opinions and personalities, or just a plain verbal fight. It implies a winner and a loser, a right side and a wrong one. Because of this understanding of the word “argument,” the only kind of writing seen as argumentative is the debate-like “position” paper, in which the author defends his or her point of view against other, usually opposing points of view.

Such an understanding of argument is narrow because arguments come in all shapes and sizes. I invite you to look at the term “argument” in a new way. What if we think of “argument” as an opportunity for conversation, for sharing with others our point of view on something, for showing others our perspective of the world? What if we see it as the opportunity to tell our stories, including our life stories? What if we think of “argument” as an opportunity to connect with the points of view of others rather than defeating those points of view?

Some years ago, I heard a conference speaker define argument as the opposite of “beating your audience into rhetorical submission.” I still like that definition because it implies gradual and even gentle explanation and persuasion instead of coercion. It implies effective use of details, and stories, including emotional ones. It implies the understanding of argument as an explanation of one’s world view.

Arguments then, can be explicit and implicit, or implied. Explicit arguments contain noticeable and definable thesis statements and lots of specific proofs. Implicit arguments, on the other hand, work by weaving together facts and narratives, logic and emotion, personal experiences and statistics. Unlike explicit arguments, implicit ones do not have a one-sentence thesis statement. Instead, authors of implicit arguments use evidence of many different kinds in effective and creative ways to build and convey their point of view to their audience. Research is essential for creative effective arguments of both kinds.

To consider the many types and facets of written argumentation, consider the following exploration activity.

WRITING ACTIVITY: ANALYZING WRITING SITUATIONS

Working individually or in small groups, consider the following writing situations. Are these situations opportunities for argumentative writing? If so, what elements of argument do you see? Use your experience as a reader and imagine the kinds of published texts that might result from these writing situations. Apply the ideas about argument mentioned so far in this chapter, including the “explicit” and “implicit” arguments

• A group of scientists develops a hypothesis and conducts a series of experiments to test it. After obtaining the results from those experiments, they decide to publish their findings in a scientific journal. However, the data can be interpreted in two ways. The authors can use a long-standing theory with which most of his colleagues agree. But they can also use a newer and more ambitious theory on which there is no consensus in the field, but which our authors believe to be more comprehensive and up-to-date. Using different theories will produce different interpretations of the data and different pieces of writing. Are both resulting texts arguments? Why or why not?

• An author wants to write a memoir. She is particularly interested in her relationship with her parents as a teenager. In order to focus on that period of her life, she decides to omit other events and time periods from the memoir. The finished text is a combination of stories, reflections, and facts. This text does not have a clear thesis statement or proofs. Could this “selective” memory” writing be called an argument? What are the reasons for your decision?

• A travel writer who is worried about global warming goes to Antarctica and observes the melting of the ice there. Using her observations, interviews with scientists, and secondary research, she then prepares an article about her trip for The National Geographic magazine or a similar publication. Her piece does not contain a one-sentence thesis statement or a direct call to fight global warming. At the same time, her evidence suggests that ice in the Arctic melts faster than it used to. Does this writer engage in argument? Why or why not? What factors influenced your decision?

• A novelist writes a book based on the events of the American Civil War. He recreates historical characters from archival research, but adds details, descriptions, and other characters to his book that are not necessarily historic. The resulting novel is in the genre known as “historical fiction.” Like all works of fiction, the book does not have a thesis statement or explicit proofs. It does, however, promote a certain view of history, some of which is based on the author’s research and some—on his imagination and creative license. Is this a representation of history, an argument, or a combination of both? Why or why not?

You can probably think of many more examples when argument in writing is expressed through means other than the traditional thesis statement and proofs. As you work through this book, continue to think about the nature of argument in writing and discuss it with your classmates and your instructor.

DEFINITIONS OF RHETORIC AND THE RHETORICAL SITUATION

The art of creating effective arguments is explained and systematized by a discipline called rhetoric. Writing is about making choices, and knowing the principles of rhetoric allows a writer to make informed choices about various aspects of the writing process. Every act of writing takes places in a specific rhetorical situation. The three most basic and important components of a rhetorical situations are:

Purpose of writing
Intended audience,
Occasion, or context in which the text will be written and read

These factors help writers select their topics, arrange their material, and make other important decisions about their work.

Before looking closely at different definitions and components of rhetoric, let us try to understand what rhetoric is not. In recent years, the word “rhetoric” has developed a bad reputation in American popular culture. In the popular mind, the term “rhetoric” has come to mean something negative and deceptive. Open a newspaper or turn on the television, and you are likely to hear politicians accusing each other of “too much rhetoric and not enough substance.” According to this distorted view, rhetoric is verbal fluff, used to disguise empty or even deceitful arguments.

Examples of this misuse abound. Here are some examples.

A 2003 CNN news article “North Korea Talks On Despite Rhetoric” describes the decision by the international community to continue the talks with North Korea about its nuclear arms program despite what the author sees as North Koreans’ “rhetorical blast” at a US official taking part in the talks. The implication here is that that, by verbally attacking the US official, the North Koreans attempted to hide the lack of substance in their argument. The word “rhetoric” in this context implies a strategy to deceive or distract.

Another example is the title of the now-defunct political website “Spinsanity: Countering Rhetoric with Reason.” The website’s authors state that “engaged citizenry, active press and strong network of fact-checking websites and blogs can help turn the tide of deception that we now see.” ( http://www.spinsanity.org ). What this statement implies, of course, is that rhetoric is “spin” and that it is the opposite of truth.

Rhetoric is not a dirty trick used by politicians to conceal and obscure, but an art, which, for many centuries, has had many definitions. Perhaps the most popular and overreaching definition comes to us from the Ancient Greek thinker Aristotle. Aristotle defined rhetoric as “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion” (Ch.2). Aristotle saw primarily as a practical tool, indispensable for civic discourse.

ELEMENTS OF THE RHETORICAL SITUATION

When composing, every writer must take into account the conditions under which the writing is produced and will be read. It is customary to represent the three key elements of the rhetorical situation as a triangle of writer, reader, and text, or, as “communicator,” “audience,” and “message.”

The three elements of the rhetorical situation are in a constant and dynamic interrelation. All three are also necessary for communication through writing to take place. For example, if the writer is taken out of this equation, the text will not be created. Similarly, eliminating the text itself will leave us with the reader and writer, but without any means of conveying ideas between them, and so on.

Moreover, changing on or more characteristics of any of the elements depicted in the figure above will change the other elements as well. For example, with the change in the beliefs and values of the audience, the message will also likely change to accommodate those new beliefs, and so on.

In his discussion of rhetoric, Aristotle states that writing’s primary purpose is persuasion. Other ancient rhetoricians’ theories expand the scope of rhetoric by adding new definitions, purposes, and methods. For example, another Greek philosopher and rhetorician Plato saw rhetoric as a means of discovering the truth, including personal truth, through dialog and discussion. According to Plato, rhetoric can be directed outward (at readers or listeners), or inward (at the writer him or herself). In the latter case, the purpose of rhetoric is to help the author discover something important about his or her own experience and life.

The third major rhetorical school of Ancient Greece whose views have profoundly influenced our understanding of rhetoric were the Sophists. The Sophists were teachers of rhetoric for hire. The primary goal of their activities was to teach skills and strategies for effective speaking and writing. Many Sophists claimed that they could make anyone into an effective rhetorician. In their most extreme variety, Sophistic rhetoric claims that virtually anything could be proven if the rhetorician has the right skills. The legacy of Sophistic rhetoric is controversial. Some scholars, including Plato himself, have accused the Sophists of bending ethical standards in order to achieve their goals, while others have praised them for promoting democracy and civic participation through argumentative discourse.

What do these various definitions of rhetoric have to do with research writing? Everything! If you have ever had trouble with a writing assignment, chances are it was because you could not figure out the assignment’s purpose. Or, perhaps you did not understand very well whom your writing was supposed to appeal to. It is hard to commit to purposeless writing done for no one in particular.

Research is not a very useful activity if it is done for its own sake. If you think of a situation in your own life where you had to do any kind of research, you probably had a purpose that the research helped you to accomplish. You could, for example, have been considering buying a car and wanted to know which make and model would suite you best. Or, you could have been looking for an apartment to rent and wanted to get the best deal for your money. Or, perhaps your family was planning a vacation and researched the best deals on hotels, airfares, and rental cars. Even in these simple examples of research that are far simpler than research most writers conduct, you as a researcher were guided by some overriding purpose. You researched because you had a purpose to accomplish.

HOW TO APPROACH WRITING TASKS RHETORICALLY

The three main elements of rhetorical theory are purpose, audience, and occasion. We will look at these elements primarily through the lens of Classical Rhetoric, the rhetoric of Ancient Greece and Rome. Principles of classical rhetoric (albeit some of them modified) are widely accepted across the modern Western civilization. Classical rhetoric provides a solid framework for analysis and production of effective texts in a variety of situations.

Good writing always serves a purpose. Texts are created to persuade, entertain, inform, instruct, and so on. In a real writing situation, these discrete purposes are often combined.

Writing Activity: Analyzing Purpose

Recall any text you wrote, in or outside of school. Think not only of school papers, but also of letters to relatives and friends, e-mails, shopping lists, online postings, and so on. Consider the following questions.

Was the purpose of the writing well defined for you in the assignment, or did you have to define it yourself?
What did you have to do in order to understand or create your purpose?
Did you have trouble articulating and fulfilling your writing purpose?

Be sure to record your answers and share them with your classmates and/or instructor.

The second key element of the rhetorical approach to writing is audience-awareness. As you saw from the rhetorical triangle earlier in this chapter, readers are an indispensable part of the rhetorical equation, and it is essential for every writer to understand their audience and tailor his or her message to the audience’s needs.

The key principles that every writer needs to follow in order to reach and affect his or her audience are as follows:

Have a clear idea about who your readers will be.
Understand your readers’ previous experiences, knowledge, biases, and expectations and how these factors can influence their reception of your argument.
When writing, keep in mind not only those readers who are physically present or whom you know (your classmates and instructor), but all readers who would benefit from or be influenced by your argument.
Choose a style, tone, and medium of presentation appropriate for your intended audience.

Writing Activity: Analyzing Audience

Every writer needs to consider his or her audience carefully when writing. Otherwise, you writing will be directed at no one in particular. As a result, your purpose will become unclear and your work will lose its effectiveness.

Consider any recent writing task that you faced. As with all the exploration activities included in this chapter, do not limit yourself to school writing assignments. Include letters, e-mails, notes, and any other kinds of writing you may do.

Did you have a clearly defined audience?
If not, what measures did you take to define and understand your audience?
How did you know who your readers were?
Did your writing purpose fit what your intended audience needed or wanted to hear?
What were the best ways to appeal to your audience (both logical and emotional)?
How did your decision to use or not to use external research influence the reception of your argument by your audience?

Occasion is an important part of the rhetorical situation. It is a part of the writing context that was mentioned earlier in the chapter. Writers do not work in a vacuum. Instead, the content, form and reception of their work by readers are heavily influenced by the conditions in society as well as by personal situations of their readers. These conditions in which texts are created and read affect every aspect of writing and every stage of the writing process, from topic selection, to decisions about what kinds of arguments used and their arrangement, to the writing style, voice, and persona which the writer wishes to project in his or her writing. All elements of the rhetorical situation work together in a dynamic relationship. Therefore, awareness of rhetorical occasion and other elements of the context of your writing will also help you refine your purpose and understand your audience better. Similarly having a clear purpose in mind when writing and knowing your audience will help you understand the context in which you are writing and in which your work will be read better.

One aspect of writing where you can immediately benefit from understanding occasion and using it to your rhetorical advantage is the selection of topics for your compositions. Any topic can be good or bad, and a key factor in deciding on whether it fits the occasion. In order to understand whether a particular topic is suitable for a composition, it is useful to analyze whether the composition would address an issue, or a rhetorical exigency when created. The writing activity below can help you select topics and issues for written arguments.

Writing Activity: Analyzing Rhetorical Exigency

If you are considering a topic for a paper, think whether the paper would address a specific problem or issue. In other words, will it address a real exigency, something that needs to be solved or discussed?
Who are the people with interests and stakes in the problem?
What are your limitations? Can you hope to solve the problem once and for all, or should your goals be more modest? Why or why not?

Share your results with your classmates and instructor.

To understand how writers can study and use occasion in order to make effective arguments, let us examine another ancient rhetorical concept. Kairos is one of the most fascinating terms from Classical rhetoric. It signifies the right, or opportune moment for an argument to be made. It is such a moment or time when the subject of the argument is particularly urgent or important and when audiences are more likely to be persuaded by it. Ancient rhetoricians believed that if the moment for the argument is right, for instance if there are conditions in society which would make the audience more receptive to the argument, the rhetorician would have more success persuading such an audience.

For example, as I write this text, a heated debate about the war on terrorism and about the goals and methods of this war is going on in the US. It is also the year of the Presidential Election, and political candidates try to use the war on terrorism to their advantage when they debate each other. These are topics of high public interested, with print media, television, radio, and the Internet constantly discussing them. Because there is an enormous public interest in the topic of terrorism, well-written articles and reports on the subject will not fall on deaf ears. Simply put, the moment, or occasion, for the debate is right, and it will continue until public interest in the subject weakens or disappears.

RHETORICAL APPEALS

In order to persuade their readers, writers must use three types of proofs or rhetorical appeals. They are logos, or logical appeal; pathos, or emotional appeal; and ethos, or ethical appeal, or appeal based on the character and credibility of the author. It is easy to notice that modern words “logical,” “pathetic,” and “ethical” are derived from those Greek words. In his work Rhetoric, Aristotle writes that the three appeals must be used together in every piece of persuasive discourse. An argument based on the appeal to logic, or emotions alone will not be an effective one.

Understanding how logos, pathos, and ethos should work together is very important for writers wh use research. Often, research writing assignment are written in a way that seems to emphasize logical proofs over emotional or ethical ones. Such logical proofs in research papers typically consist of factual information, statistics, examples, and other similar evidence. According to this view, writers of academic papers need to be unbiased and objective, and using logical proofs will help them to be that way.

Because of this emphasis on logical proofs, you may be less familiar with the kinds of pathetic and ethical proofs available to you. Pathetic appeals, or appeals to emotions of the audience were considered by ancient rhetoricians as important as logical proofs. Yet, writers are sometimes not easily convinced to use pathetic appeals in their writing. As modern rhetoricians and authors of the influential book Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student (1998), Edward P.J. Corbett and Robert Connors said, “People are rather sheepish about acknowledging that their opinions can be affected by their emotions” (86). According to Corbett, many of us think that there may be something wrong about using emotions in argument. But, I agree with Corbett and Connors, pathetic proofs are not only admissible in argument, but necessary (86-89). The most basic way of evoking appropriate emotional responses in your audience, according to Corbett, is the use of vivid descriptions (94).

Using ethical appeals, or appeals based on the character of the writer, involves establishing and maintaining your credibility in the eyes of your readers. In other words, when writing, think about how you are presenting yourself to your audience. Do you give your readers enough reasons to trust you and your argument, or do you give them reasons to doubt your authority and your credibility? Consider all the times when your decision about the merits of a given argument was affected by the person or people making the argument. For example, when watching television news, are you predisposed against certain cable networks and more inclined towards others because you trust them more?

So, how can a writer establish a credible persona for his or her audience? One way to do that is through external research. Conducting research and using it well in your writing help with you with the factual proofs (logos), but it also shows your readers that you, as the author, have done your homework and know what you are talking about. This knowledge, the sense of your authority that this creates among your readers, will help you be a more effective writer.

The logical, pathetic, and ethical appeals work in a dynamic combination with one another. It is sometimes hard to separate one kind of proof from another and the methods by which the writer achieved the desired rhetorical effect. If your research contains data which is likely to cause your readers to be emotional, it data can enhance the pathetic aspect of your argument. The key to using the three appeals, is to use them in combination with each other, and in moderation. It is impossible to construct a successful argument by relying too much on one or two appeals while neglecting the others.

RESEARCH WRITING AS CONVERSATION

Writing is a social process. Texts are created to be read by others, and in creating those texts, writers should be aware of not only their personal assumptions, biases, and tastes, but also those of their readers. Writing, therefore, is an interactive process. It is a conversation, a meeting of minds, during which ideas are exchanged, debates and discussions take place and, sometimes, but not always, consensus is reached. You may be familiar with the famous quote by the 20th century rhetorician Kenneth Burke who compared writing to a conversation at a social event. In his 1974 book The Philosophy of Literary Form Burke writes,

Imagine that you enter a parlor. You come late. When you arrive, others have long preceded you, and they are engaged in a heated discussion, a discussion too heated for them to pause and tell you exactly what it is about. In fact, the discussion had already begun long before any of them got there, so that no one present is qualified to retrace for you all the steps that had gone before. You listen for a while, until you decide that you have caught the tenor of the argument; then you put in your oar. Someone answers; you answer him, another comes to your defense; another aligns himself against you, to either the embarrassment of gratification of your opponent, depending upon the quality of your ally’s assistance. However, the discussion is interminable. The hour grows late, you must depart. And you do depart, with the discussion still vigorously in progress (110-111).

This passage by Burke is extremely popular among writers because it captures the interactive nature of writing so precisely. Reading Burke’s words carefully, we will notice that the interaction between readers and writers is continuous. A writer always enters a conversation in progress. In order to participate in the discussion, just like in real life, you need to know what your interlocutors have been talking about. So you listen (read). Once you feel you have got the drift of the conversation, you say (write) something. Your text is read by others who respond to your ideas, stories, and arguments with their own. This interaction never ends!

To write well, it is important to listen carefully and understand the conversations that are going on around you. Writers who are able to listen to these conversations and pick up important topics, themes, and arguments are generally more effective at reaching and impressing their audiences. It is also important to treat research, writing, and every occasion for these activities as opportunities to participate in the on-going conversation of people interested in the same topics and questions which interest you.

Our knowledge about our world is shaped by the best and most up-to-date theories available to them. Sometimes these theories can be experimentally tested and proven, and sometimes, when obtaining such proof is impossible, they are based on consensus reached as a result of conversation and debate. Even the theories and knowledge that can be experimentally tested (for example in sciences) do not become accepted knowledge until most members of the scientific community accept them. Other members of this community will help them test their theories and hypotheses, give them feedback on their writing, and keep them searching for the best answers to their questions. As Burke says in his famous passage, the interaction between the members of intellectual communities never ends. No piece of writing, no argument, no theory or discover is ever final. Instead, they all are subject to discussion, questioning, and improvement.

A simple but useful example of this process is the evolution of humankind’s understanding of their planet Earth and its place in the Universe. As you know, in Medieval Europe, the prevailing theory was that the Earth was the center of the Universe and that all other planets and the Sun rotated around it. This theory was the result of the church’s teachings, and thinkers who disagreed with it were pronounced heretics and often burned. In 1543, astronomer Nikolaus Kopernikus argued that the Sun was at the center of the solar system and that all planets of the system rotate around the Sun. Later, Galieo experimentally proved Kopernikus’ theory with the help of a telescope. Of course, the Earch did not begin to rotate around the Sun with this discovery. Yet, Kopernikus’ and Galileo’s theories of the Universe went against the Catholic Church’s teachings which dominated the social discourse of Medieval Europe. The Inquisition did not engage in debate with the two scientists. Instead, Kopernikus was executed for his views and Galileo was sentenced to house arrest for his views.

Although in the modern world, dissenting thinkers are unlikely to suffer such harsh punishment, the examples of Kopernikus and Galileo teach us two valuable lessons about the social nature of knowledge. Firstly, Both Kopernikus and Galileo tried to improve on an existing theory of the Universe that placed our planet at the center. They did not work from nothing but used beliefs that already existed in their society and tried to modify and disprove those beliefs. Time and later scientific research proved that they were right. Secondly, even after Galileo was able to prove the structure of the Solar system experimentally, his theory did not become widely accepted until the majority of people in society assimilated it. Therefore, new findings do not become accepted knowledge until they penetrate the fabric of social discourse and until enough people accept them as true.

Writing Activity: Finding the Origins of Knowledge

Seeing writing as an exchange of ideas means seeing all new theories, ideas, and beliefs as grounded in pre-existing knowledge. Therefore, when beginning a new writing project, writers never work “from scratch.” Instead, they tap into the resources of their community for ideas, inspiration, and research leads. Keeping these statements in mind, answer the following questions. Apply your answers to one of the research projects described in this book. Be sure to record your answers.
Consider a possible research project topic. What do you know about your topic before you begin to write?
Where did this knowledge come from? Be sure to include both secondary sources (books, websites, etc.) and primary ones (people, events, personal memories). Is this knowledge socially created? What communities or groups or people created it, how, and why?
What parts of your current knowledge about your subject could be called “fact” and what parts could be called “opinion?”
How can your current knowledge about the topic help you in planning and conducting the research for the project?

Share your thoughts with your classmates and instructor.

CONCLUSIONS

In this chapter, we have learned the definition of rhetoric and the basic differences between several important rhetorical schools. We have also discussed how to key elements of the rhetorical situation: purpose, audience, and context. As you work on the research writing projects presented throughout this book, be sure to revisit this chapter often. Everything that you have read about here and every activity you have completed as you worked through this chapter is applicable to all research writing projects in this book and beyond. Most school writing assignments give you direct instructions about your purpose, intended audience, and rhetorical occasion. Truly proficient and independent writers, however, learn to define their purpose, audiences, and contexts of their writing, on their own. The material in this chapter is designed to enable to become better at those tasks.

When you receive a writing assignment, it is very tempting to see it as just another hoop to jump through and not as a genuine rhetorical situation, an opportunity to influence others with your writing. It is certainly tempting to see yourself writing only for the teacher, without a real purpose and oblivious of the context of your writing.

The material of this chapter as well as the writing projects presented throughout this book are designed to help you think of writing as a persuasive, rhetorical activity. Conducting research and incorporating its results into your paper is a part of this rhetorical process.

Aristotle. “Rhetoric.” Aristotle’s Rhetoric. June 21, 2004. http://www.public.iastate.edu/~honeyl/Rhetoric/ . April 21, 2008.

Burke, Kenneth. The Philosophy of Literary Form. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1941.

CNN. “N. Korea Talks On Despite Rhetoric.” CNN.com. August 3, 2003. http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/asiapcf/east/08/03/nkorea.talks/index.html …. April 21, 2008.

Corbett, Edward, P.J and Connors, Robert. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student. Oxford University Press, USA; 4 edition, 1998.

Fritz, Ben et al. “About Spinsanity.” Spinsanity. 2001-2005. http://www.spinsanity.org . April 21, 2008.

Papakyriakou/Anagnostou, Ellen. Kairos. Ancient Greek Cities. 1998. http://www.sikyon.com/sicyon/Lysippos/lysip_kairos.jpg . April 21, 2008.

Rouzie, Albert. “The Rhetorical Triangle.” Rhetoric Resources. 1998. http://www-as.phy.ohiou.edu/~rouzie/fall151/rhetriang.gif . April 21, 2008.

Research Writing and Argument: All Writing is Argument Copyright © 2016 by Pavel Zemilansky is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Supporting an Argument

Strong and thorough evidence supports an argument or "claim," providing explanation in the form of quotes, statistics, personal reflections, and observations, to name a few. Yet, just including a statistic or quote (for instance) is not enough: to build a sound argument, it is important to:

understand your argument and why the types of sources you are using are effective for your specific argument and field of study
consider the variety of sources you employ
integrate sources into your thoughts effectively

Know Your Argument

What is the difference between a Claim, Warrant, and Support?

Claim: The main idea, thesis, belief, or opinion.
Warrant ("the bridge"): The belief, value, assumption, and/or experience the writer hopes the audience shares or has in common with the writer. If the audience does not share a writer's warrant—assumptions about the subject or the support—the argument will most likely fail.
Support: The statements that back up a claim. Support takes many forms: data, facts, personal experience, expert opinion, textual evidence, emotional appeals, etc. The more reliable and comprehensive the support, the more persuasive the argument.

Tips for Effectively Supporting Your Argument

Analyze your prompt (e.g. a professor's instructions on an assignment, a journal's publishing expectations, etc.).
Learn more about what is valued in your field in terms of acceptable evidence.
Have a clear audience in mind and know what they expect--what will prove most effective in their eyes?
Recognize and potentially acknowledge counter arguments.
Understand the quality of a particular source (for example, don't include unreputable or outdated websites).
Include multiple sources to back your argument.

General Rules for Incorporating Quotes or External Information into Your Own Thoughts

Where is it drawn from?
How does it relate to what you are saying?
How is it similar (or not) to your argument/to previous research?
Only include "need to know" information (for example, author names and relevant context).
Try to put quotes "in conversation" with one another--make connections explicit in your topic sentences between paragraphs.
Think of quote integration as a layering process: Provide the background, provide the quote, state how or why the quote relates to or supports your argument.
Avoid including too many quotes or external source information within a single paragraph.

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V. Process and Organization

5.2 Writing Paragraphs

Kathryn Crowther; Lauren Curtright; Nancy Gilbert; Barbara Hall; Tracienne Ravita; Kirk Swenson; and Terri Pantuso

Once you decide on a method for organizing your essay, you’ll want to start drafting your paragraphs. Think of your paragraphs as links in a chain where coherence and continuity are key. Imagine reading one long block of text, with each idea blurring into the next. You are likely to lose interest in a piece of writing that is disorganized and spans many pages without breaks. Paragraphs separate ideas into logical, manageable chunks, each paragraph focusing on only one main idea and presenting coherent sentences to support that one point. Because all the sentences in one paragraph support the same point, a paragraph may stand on its own. For most types of informative or persuasive academic writing, writers find it helpful to think of the paragraph analogous to an essay, as each is controlled by a main idea or point, and that idea is developed by an organized group of more specific ideas. Thus, the thesis of the essay is analogous to the topic sentence of a paragraph, just as the supporting sentences in a paragraph are analogous to the supporting paragraphs in an essay.

In essays, each supporting paragraph adds another related main idea to support the writer’s thesis, or controlling idea. Each related supporting idea is developed with facts, examples, and other details that explain it. By exploring and refining one idea at a time, writers build a strong case for their thesis. Effective paragraphing makes the difference between a satisfying essay that readers can easily process and one that requires readers to mentally organize the piece themselves. Thoughtful organization and development of each body paragraph leads to an effectively focused, developed, and coherent essay.

An effective paragraph contains three main parts:

a topic sentence
body, supporting sentences
a concluding sentence

In informative and persuasive writing, the topic sentence is usually the first or second sentence of a paragraph and expresses its main idea, followed by supporting sentences that help explain, prove, or enhance the topic sentence. In narrative and descriptive paragraphs, however, topic sentences may be implied rather than explicitly stated, with all supporting sentences working to create the main idea. If the paragraph contains a concluding sentence, it is the last sentence in the paragraph and reminds the reader of the main point by restating it in different words.

Creating Focused Paragraphs with Topic Sentences

The foundation of a paragraph is the topic sentence which expresses the main idea or point of the paragraph. A topic sentence functions in two ways: it clearly refers to and supports the essay’s thesis, and it indicates what will follow in the rest of the paragraph. As the unifying sentence for the paragraph, it is the most general sentence, whereas all supporting sentences provide different types of more specific information such as facts, details, or examples.

An effective topic sentence has the following characteristics:

A topic sentence provides an accurate indication of what will follow in the rest of the paragraph.

Weak Example

First, we need a better way to educate students.

Explanation: The claim is vague because it does not provide enough information about what will follow and it is too broad to be covered effectively in one paragraph.

Stronger Example

Creating a national set of standards for math and English education will improve student learning in many states.

Explanation: The sentence replaces the vague phrase “a better way” and leads readers to expect supporting facts and examples as to why standardizing education in these subjects might improve student learning in many states.

A good topic sentence is the most general sentence in the paragraph and thus does not include supporting details.

Salaries should be capped in baseball for many reasons, most importantly so we don’t allow the same team to win year after year.

Explanation: This topic sentence includes a supporting detail that should be included later in the paragraph to back up the main point.

Introducing a salary cap would improve the game of baseball for many reasons.

Explanation: This topic sentence omits the additional supporting detail so that it can be expanded upon later in the paragraph, yet the sentence still makes a claim about salary caps – improvement of the game.

A good topic sentence is clear and easy to follow.

In general, writing an essay, thesis, or other academic or nonacademic document is considerably easier and of much higher quality if you first construct an outline, of which there are many different types.

Explanation: The confusing sentence structure and unnecessary vocabulary bury the main idea, making it difficult for the reader to follow the topic sentence.

Most forms of writing can be improved by first creating an outline.

Explanation: This topic sentence cuts out unnecessary verbiage and simplifies the previous statement, making it easier for the reader to follow. The writer can include examples of what kinds of writing can benefit from outlining in the supporting sentences.

Location of Topic Sentences

As previously discussed, a topic sentence can appear anywhere within a paragraph depending upon the mode of writing, or it can be implied such as in narrative or descriptive writing. In college-level expository or persuasive writing, placing an explicit topic sentence at the beginning of each paragraph (the first or second sentence) makes it easier for readers to follow the essay and for writers to stay on topic, but writers should be aware of variations and maintain the flexibility to adapt to different writing projects. The following examples illustrate varying locations for the topic sentence. In each example, the topic sentence is underlined.

Topic Sentence Begins the Paragraph (General to Specific)

After reading the new TV guide this week I wondered why we are still being bombarded with reality shows, a plague that continues to darken our airwaves. Along with the return of viewer favorites, we are to be cursed with yet another mindless creation. Prisoner follows the daily lives of eight suburban housewives who have chosen to be put in jail for the purposes of this fake psychological experiment. A preview for the first episode shows the usual tears and tantrums associated with reality television. I dread to think what producers will come up with next season and hope that other viewers will express their criticism. These producers must stop the constant stream of meaningless shows without plotlines. We’ve had enough reality television to last us a lifetime.

The first sentence tells readers that the paragraph will be about reality television shows, and it expresses the writer’s distaste for these shows through the use of the word bombarded . Each of the following sentences in the paragraph supports the topic sentence by providing further information about a specific reality television show and why the writer finds it unappealing. The final sentence is the concluding sentence. It reiterates the main point that viewers are bored with reality television shows by using different words from the topic sentence.

Paragraphs that begin with the topic sentence move from the general to the specific. They open with a general statement about a subject (reality shows) and then discuss specific examples (the reality show Prisoner ). Most academic essays contain the topic sentence at the beginning of the first paragraph. However, when utilizing a specific to general method, the topic sentence may be located later in the paragraph.

Topic Sentence Ends the Paragraph (Specific to General)

Last year, a cat traveled 130 miles to reach its family who had moved to another state and had left their pet behind. Even though it had never been to their new home, the cat was able to track down its former owners. A dog in my neighborhood can predict when its master is about to have a seizure. It makes sure that he does not hurt himself during an epileptic fit. Compared to many animals, our own senses are almost dull.

The last sentence of this paragraph is the topic sentence. It draws on specific examples (a cat that tracked down its owners and a dog that can predict seizures) and then makes a general statement that draws a conclusion from these examples (animals’ senses are better than humans’). In this case, the supporting sentences are placed before the topic sentence, and the concluding sentence is the same as the topic sentence. This technique is frequently used in persuasive writing. The writer produces detailed examples as evidence to back up his or her point, preparing the reader to accept the concluding topic sentence as the truth.

When the Topic Sentence Appears in the Middle of the Paragraph

For many years, I suffered from severe anxiety every time I took an exam. Hours before the exam, my heart would begin pounding, my legs would shake, and sometimes I would become physically unable to move. Last year, I was referred to a specialist and finally found a way to control my anxiety—breathing exercises. It seems so simple, but by doing just a few breathing exercises a couple of hours before an exam, I gradually got my anxiety under control. The exercises help slow my heart rate and make me feel less anxious. Better yet, they require no pills, no equipment, and very little time. It’s amazing how just breathing correctly has helped me learn to manage my anxiety symptoms.

In this paragraph, the underlined sentence is the topic sentence. It expresses the main idea—that breathing exercises can help control anxiety. The preceding sentences enable the writer to build up to his main point (breathing exercises can help control anxiety) by using a personal anecdote (how he used to suffer from anxiety). The supporting sentences then expand on how breathing exercises help the writer by providing additional information. The last sentence is the concluding sentence and restates how breathing can help manage anxiety. Placing a topic sentence in the middle of a paragraph is often used in creative writing. If you notice that you have used a topic sentence in the middle of a paragraph in an academic essay, read through the paragraph carefully to make sure that it contains only one major topic.

Implied Topic Sentences

Some well-organized paragraphs do not contain a topic sentence at all, a technique often used in descriptive and narrative writing. Instead of being directly stated, the main idea is implied in the content of the paragraph, as in the following narrative paragraph.

Example of Implied Topic Sentence

Heaving herself up the stairs, Luella had to pause for breath several times. She let out a wheeze as she sat down heavily in the wooden rocking chair. Tao approached her cautiously, as if she might crumble at the slightest touch. He studied her face, like parchment, stretched across the bones so finely he could almost see right through the skin to the decaying muscle underneath. Luella smiled a toothless grin.

Although no single sentence in this paragraph states the main idea, the entire paragraph focuses on one concept—that Luella is extremely old. The topic sentence is thus implied rather than stated so that all the details in the paragraph can work together to convey the dominant impression of Luella’s age. In a paragraph such as this one, an explicit topic sentence would seem awkward and heavy-handed. Implied topic sentences work well if the writer has a firm idea of what he or she intends to say in the paragraph and sticks to it. However, a paragraph loses its effectiveness if an implied topic sentence is too subtle or the writer loses focus.

Developing Paragraphs

If you think of a paragraph as a sandwich, the supporting sentences are the filling between the bread. They make up the body of the paragraph by explaining, proving, or enhancing the controlling idea in the topic sentence. The overall method of development for paragraphs depends upon the essay as a whole and the purpose of each paragraph; thus paragraphs may be developed by using examples, description, narration, comparison and contrast, definition, cause and effect, classification and division. A writer may use one method or combine several methods.

Writers often want to know how many words a paragraph should contain, and the answer is that a paragraph should develop the idea, point, or impression completely enough to satisfy the writer and readers. Depending on their function, paragraphs can vary in length from one or two sentences, to over a page; however, in most college assignments, successfully developed paragraphs usually contain approximately one hundred to two hundred and fifty words and span one-fourth to two-thirds of a typed page. A series of short paragraphs in an academic essay can seem choppy and unfocused, whereas paragraphs that are one page or longer can tire readers. Giving readers a paragraph break on each page helps them maintain focus.

This advice does not mean, of course, that composing a paragraph of a particular number of words or sentences guarantees an effective paragraph. Writers must provide enough supporting sentences within paragraphs to develop the topic sentence and simultaneously carry forward the essay’s main idea.

For example, in a descriptive paragraph about a room in the writer’s childhood home, a length of two or three sentences is unlikely to contain enough details to create a picture of the room in the reader’s mind, and it will not contribute in conveying the meaning of the place. In contrast, a half page paragraph, full of carefully selected vivid, specific details and comparisons, provides a fuller impression and engages the reader’s interest and imagination. In descriptive or narrative paragraphs, supporting sentences present details and actions in vivid, specific language in objective or subjective ways, appealing to the readers’ senses to make them see and experience the subject. In addition, some sentences writers use make comparisons that bring together or substitute the familiar with the unfamiliar, thus enhancing and adding depth to the description of the incident, place, person, or idea.

In a persuasive essay about raising the wage for certified nursing assistants, a paragraph might focus on the expectations and duties of the job, comparing them to that of a registered nurse. Needless to say, a few sentences that simply list the certified nurse’s duties will not give readers a complete enough idea of what these healthcare professionals do. If readers do not have plenty of information about the duties and the writer’s experience in performing them for what she considers inadequate pay, the paragraph fails to do its part in convincing readers that the pay is inadequate and should be increased.

In informative or persuasive writing, a supporting sentence usually offers one of the following:

Reason: The refusal of the baby boom generation to retire is contributing to the current lack of available jobs.
Fact: Many families now rely on older relatives to support them financially.
Statistic: Nearly 10 percent of adults are currently unemployed in the United States.
Quotation: “We will not allow this situation to continue,” stated Senator Johns.
Example: Last year, Bill was asked to retire at the age of fifty-five.

The type of supporting sentence you choose will depend on what you are writing and why you are writing. For example, if you are attempting to persuade your audience to take a particular position, you should rely on facts, statistics, and concrete examples, rather than personal opinions. Personal testimony in the form of an extended example can be used in conjunction with the other types of support.

Consider the elements in the following paragraph.

Example Persuasive Paragraph

Topic sentence: There are numerous advantages to owning a hybrid car.

Sentence 1 (statistic): First, they get 20 percent to 35 percent more miles to the gallon than a fuel- efficient gas-powered vehicle.

Sentence 2 (fact): Second, they produce very few emissions during low speed city driving.

Sentence 3 (reason): Because they do not require gas, hybrid cars reduce dependency on fossil fuels, which helps lower prices at the pump.

Sentence 4 (example): Alex bought a hybrid car two years ago and has been extremely impressed with its performance.

Sentence 5 (quotation): “It’s the cheapest car I’ve ever had,” she said. “The running costs are far lower than previous gas powered vehicles I’ve owned.”

Concluding sentence: Given the low running costs and environmental benefits of owning a hybrid car, it is likely that many more people will follow Alex’s example in the near future.

Sometimes the writing situation does not allow for research to add specific facts or other supporting information, but paragraphs can be developed easily with examples from the writer’s own experience.

Farheya, a student in a freshman English Composition class, quickly drafted an essay during a timed writing assignment in class. To practice improving paragraph development, she selected the body paragraph below to add support:

Example of Original Body Paragraph

Topic: Would you be better off if you didn’t own a television? Discuss.

Lack of ownership of a television set is also a way to preserve innocence, and keep the exposure towards anything inappropriate at bay. From simply watching a movie, I have seen things I shouldn’t have, no matter how fast I switch the channel. Television shows not only display physical indecency, but also verbal. Many times movies do voice-overs of profane words, but they also leave a few words uncensored. Seeing how all ages can flip through and see or hear such things make t.v. toxic for the mind, and without it I wouldn’t have to worry about what I may accidentally see or hear.

The original paragraph identifies two categories of indecent material, and there is mention of profanity to provide a clue as to what the student thinks is indecent. However, the paragraph could use some examples to make the idea of inappropriate material clearer. Farheya considered some of the television shows she had seen and made a few changes.

Example of Revised Body Paragraph

Not owning a television set would also be a way to preserve innocence and keep my exposure to anything inappropriate at bay. While searching for a program to view, I have seen things I shouldn’t have, no matter how fast I switched the channel. The synopsis of Euro Trip, which describes high school friends traveling across Europe, leads viewers to think that the film is an innocent adventure; however; it is filled with indecency, especially when the students reach Amsterdam. The movie Fast and Furious has the same problem since the women are all half-naked in half tops and mini-skirts or short- shorts. Television shows not only display physical indecency, but also verbal. Many television shows have no filters, and the characters say profane words freely. On Empire, the main characters Cookie and Lucious Lyon use profane words during their fights throughout entire episodes. Because The Big Bang Theory is a show about a group of science geeks and their cute neighbor, viewers might think that these science geniuses’ conversations would be about their current research or other science topics. Instead, their characters regularly engage in conversations about their personal lives that should be kept private. The ease of flipping through channels and seeing or hearing such things makes t.v. toxic for the mind, and without a television I wouldn’t have to worry about what I may accidentally see or hear.

Farheya’s addition of a few examples helps to convey why she thinks she would be better off without a television.

Concluding Sentences

An effective concluding sentence draws together all the ideas raised in your paragraph. It reminds readers of the main point—the topic sentence—without restating it in exactly the same words. Using the hamburger example, the top bun (the topic sentence) and the bottom bun (the concluding sentence) are very similar. They frame the “meat” or body of the paragraph.

Compare the topic sentence and concluding sentence from the first example on hybrid cars:

Topic Sentence: There are many advantages to owning a hybrid car.

Concluding Sentence: Given the low running costs and environmental benefits of owning a hybrid car, it is likely that many more people will follow Alex’s example in the near future.

Notice the use of the synonyms advantages and benefits . The concluding sentence reiterates the idea that owning a hybrid is advantageous without using the exact same words. It also summarizes two examples of the advantages covered in the supporting sentences: low running costs and environmental benefits.

Writers should avoid introducing any new ideas into a concluding sentence because a conclusion is intended to provide the reader with a sense of completion. Introducing a subject that is not covered in the paragraph will confuse readers and weaken the writing.

A concluding sentence may do any of the following:

Restate the main idea.

Childhood obesity is a growing problem in the United States.

Summarize the key points in the paragraph

A lack of healthy choices, poor parenting, and an addiction to video games are among the many factors contributing to childhood obesity.

Draw a conclusion based on the information in the paragraph.

These statistics indicate that unless we take action, childhood obesity rates will continue to rise.

Make a prediction, suggestion, or recommendation about the information in the paragraph.

Based on this research, more than 60 percent of children in the United States will be morbidly obese by the year 2030 unless we take evasive action.

Offer an additional observation about the controlling idea.

Childhood obesity is an entirely preventable tragedy.

Paragraph Length

Although paragraph length is discussed in the section on developing paragraphs with supporting sentences, some additional reminders about when to start a new paragraph may prove helpful to writers:

If a paragraph is over a page long, consider providing a paragraph break for readers. Look for a logical place to divide the paragraph; then revise the opening sentence of the second paragraph to maintain coherence.
A series of short paragraphs can be confusing and choppy. Examine the content of the paragraphs and combine ones with related ideas or develop each one further.
When dialogue is used, begin a new paragraph each time the speaker changes.
Begin a new paragraph to indicate a shift in subject, tone, or time and place.

Improving Paragraph Coherence

A strong paragraph holds together well, flowing seamlessly from the topic sentence into the supporting sentences and on to the concluding sentence. To help organize a paragraph and ensure that ideas logically connect to one another, writers use a combination of elements:

A clear organizational pattern: chronological (for narrative writing and describing processes), spatial (for descriptions of people or places), order of importance, general to specific (deductive), specific to general (inductive)
Transitional words and phrases: These connecting words describe a relationship between ideas.
Repetition of ideas: This element helps keep the parts of the paragraph together by maintaining focus on the main idea, so this element reinforces both paragraph coherence and unity.

In the following example, notice the use of transitions ( bolded ) and key words ( underlined ):

Example of Transition Words

Owning a hybrid car benefits both the owner and the environment . First , these cars get 20 percent to 35 percent more miles to the gallon than a fuel-efficient gas-powered vehicle. Second , they produce very few emissions during low speed city driving. Because they do not require gas, hybrid cars reduce dependency on fossil fuels, which helps lower prices at the pump. Alex bought a hybrid car two years ago and has been extremely impressed with its performance. “It’s the cheapest car I’ve ever had,” she said. “The running costs are far lower than previous gas-powered vehicles I’ve owned.” Given the low running costs and environmental benefits of owning a hybrid car , it is likely that many more people will follow Alex’s example in the near future.

Words such as first and second are transition words that show sequence or clarify order. They help organize the writer’s ideas by showing that he or she has another point to make in support of the topic sentence. The transition word because is a transition word of consequence that continues a line of thought. It indicates that the writer will provide an explanation of a result. In this sentence, the writer explains why hybrid cars will reduce dependency on fossil fuels (because they do not require gas).

In addition to transition words, the writer repeats the word hybrid (and other references such as these cars , and they ), and ideas related to benefits to keep the paragraph focused on the topic and hold it together.

To include a summarizing transition for the concluding sentence, the writer could rewrite the final sentence as follows:

In conclusion, given the low running costs and environmental benefits of owning a hybrid car, it is likely that many more people will follow Alex’s example in the near future.

Although the phrase “in conclusion” certainly reinforces the idea of summary and closure, it is not necessary in this case and seems redundant, as the sentence without the phrase already repeats and summarizes the benefits presented in the topic sentence and flows smoothly from the preceding quotation. The second half of the sentence, in making a prediction about the future, signals a conclusion, also making the phrase “in conclusion” unnecessary. The original version of the concluding sentence also illustrates how varying sentence openings can improve paragraph coherence. As writers continue to practice and develop their style, they more easily make these decisions between using standard transitional phrases and combining the repetition of key ideas with varied sentence openings.

Table 5.2.1 provides some useful transition words and phrases to connect sentences within paragraphs as well as to connect body paragraphs:

Table 5.2.1. Common Transitional Words and Phrases

This section contains material from:

Crowther, Kathryn, Lauren Curtright, Nancy Gilbert, Barbara Hall, Tracienne Ravita, and Kirk Swenson. Successful College Composition . 2nd edition. Book 8. Georgia: English Open Textbooks, 2016. http://oer.galileo.usg.edu/english-textbooks/8 . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License .

Corresponding or related to two ideas. An analogy refers to a comparison made to the similarity between two items, ideas, events, and phenomena. Forrest Gump’s famous saying that “life is like a box of chocolates—you never know what you are going to get” is an example of an analogy.

A statement, usually one sentence, that summarizes an argument that will later be explained, expanded upon, and developed in a longer essay or research paper. In undergraduate writing, a thesis statement is often found in the introductory paragraph of an essay. The plural of thesis is theses .

Use of words, particularly referring to the overuse or redundancy of them.

Repeat, rehash, or restate something that has already been conveyed; to echo a sentiment or idea that was stated earlier in a different way or manner.

A short account or telling of an incident or story, either personal or historical; anecdotal evidence is frequently found in the form of a personal experience rather than objective data or widespread occurrence.

5.2 Writing Paragraphs Copyright © 2022 by Kathryn Crowther; Lauren Curtright; Nancy Gilbert; Barbara Hall; Tracienne Ravita; Kirk Swenson; and Terri Pantuso is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

How it works

Using Secondary Sources to Support Your Argument

Published by Alvin Nicolas at October 12th, 2023 , Revised On October 12, 2023

In research and writing, sources are the pillars that support arguments, elucidate ideas, and provide context. Among these, secondary sources emerge as an essential component, bridging the raw data or first-hand accounts with comprehensive interpretations and analyses. Paraphrasing in sources is often needed to incorporate these secondary sources effectively. So, what exactly is a secondary source?

What is a Secondary Source?

A secondary source refers to any material that interprets, analyses, or reviews information originally presented elsewhere. Unlike primary sources, which offer direct evidence or first-hand testimony, secondary sources work on those original materials, offering commentary, critiques, and perspectives. How to integrate sources into your writing is a skill that researchers must develop to maintain the original intent and context of their sources. Think of primary sources as the eyewitnesses of an event and secondary sources as the historians, journalists, or critics who later write about it.

The role of secondary sources is not merely supplementary. They hold immense significance in various forms of writing:

Academic Writing

Scholars frequently use secondary sources to provide context, ground their research in existing knowledge, and showcase ongoing conversations in a field. For instance, a researcher studying the effects of a new educational policy might consult journal articles or books that discuss previous policies or the historical background of education reforms.

While first-hand accounts and direct sources are crucial, journalists also rely on secondary sources to give depth to their stories. They might quote expert analyses, cite prior reporting on the issue, or provide background information using secondary sources.

Other Writing Forms

Whether in business reports, legal briefs, or even fiction writing, secondary sources can offer context, validate points, and enhance the richness of the content. For instance, a historical novelist might use books or articles written by historians as secondary sources to ensure the accuracy of the period they are depicting.

The Difference Between Primary and Secondary Sources

Research, whether academic, journalistic, or personal projects, often involves delving into a diverse range of materials. At the forefront of this are primary and secondary sources, each with its unique characteristics and roles. Understanding the distinction between these two is vital for any researcher, as it enables them to evaluate and effectively use their resources critically.

Primary Sources: The First-Hand Accounts

Definition: Primary sources are original, uninterpreted records or first-hand testimonies of an event, experience, concept, or time period.
Characteristics: They are direct, unaltered, and often without any commentary or analysis.
Examples: Diaries, letters, photographs, raw survey data, original research studies, artefacts, interviews, and official documents such as birth certificates or treaties.

Secondary Sources: The Interpreters and Analysers

Definition: Secondary sources, as the name implies, are one step removed from primary sources. They interpret, analyse, discuss, or evaluate primary sources or events.
Characteristics: They provide commentary, place events or findings in context, or offer a perspective on primary materials.

Example of Secondary Source

Here are a few secondary source examples for review.

Books: Many academic and non-fiction books (that are not direct testimonies) fall into this category. For instance, a book analysing the causes and effects of World War II is a secondary source, while a soldier’s diary from the war front is primary.
Journal Articles: Research articles that review or discuss original research or articles that provide overviews of topics are secondary sources.
Reviews: This can range from book reviews in literary journals to film critiques in popular magazines.
Historical Commentaries: Works that interpret or analyse historical events.
Documentaries: While they may use primary source material (like footage or interviews), the final produced piece, which provides an interpretation or perspective, is secondary.
Bibliographies might compile and provide context for primary and other secondary sources.
Encyclopedias and Handbooks: They offer overviews and summaries of topics, often based on primary and other secondary sources.

Benefits of Using Secondary Sources

While primary sources offer raw data, secondary sources build on this foundation, interpreting and analysing the available information. The advantage of information literacy lies in the ability to discern which secondary source adds value to your research:

1. Lends Credibility to Your Argument

Expert Analysis: Secondary sources often come from experts in the field, such as scholars, historians, or professionals. Their insights can lend gravitas to your argument, showcasing that it aligns with or challenges recognised authority.
Cross-referencing: When multiple secondary sources support your viewpoint, it can bolster the credibility of your claims. Such cross-referencing demonstrates comprehensive research.

2. Offers a Comprehensive View of the Topic

Broad Perspective: Whereas primary sources might provide a narrow or specific account, secondary sources can give a panoramic view of a topic, presenting an overarching narrative.
Synthesis of Information: Secondary sources often synthesise a vast array of primary data, offering readers a consolidated understanding. This can be especially beneficial when navigating complex topics.

3. Provides Context and Background

Historical and Cultural Setting: Understanding the backdrop against which certain events occurred, or concepts evolved, is crucial. Secondary sources offer this contextual framework, situating primary data within broader historical, cultural, or academic narratives.
Linking to Pre-existing Knowledge: Secondary sources can connect new findings or ideas to existing theories, debates, or research paradigms, ensuring that your argument is rooted in established knowledge.

4. Allows for Comparison and Contrast with Other Viewpoints

Diverse Perspectives: Secondary sources can provide various perspectives on a topic. By exploring these, you can contrast your own stance with others, demonstrating a holistic understanding.
Highlighting Gaps or Controversies: Engaging with multiple secondary sources might reveal discrepancies, gaps, or areas of contention in the field. Addressing these can strengthen your argument, showing awareness of the broader discourse.
Refining Your Position: Engaging with opposing or different viewpoints can help refine and solidify your position, leading to a more robust and nuanced argument. This approach demonstrates critical thinking , an invaluable skill in research and writing.

The research done by our experts have:

Precision and Clarity
Zero Plagiarism
Authentic Sources

How to Find Relevant Secondary Sources

Embarking on a research journey often feels like being a detective on the hunt for clues. Secondary sources are vital components of this quest, providing insights, interpretations, and analyses that help shape and strengthen your argument.

1. Libraries and Archives

University and Public Libraries: These repositories house a vast collection of books, journals, periodicals, and other publications. Using the library’s online catalogue or consulting with librarians can lead you to relevant materials.
Specialised Libraries: Institutions often have specialised libraries (e.g., law, medicine, arts) that focus on specific disciplines, offering in-depth resources.
Archives: These are treasure troves of historical documents, newspapers, manuscripts, and more. While they predominantly hold primary sources, they also have catalogues, bibliographies, and reference sections with secondary source materials.

2. Academic Databases

JSTOR: An extensive digital library offering journal articles, books, and primary sources across various disciplines.
Google Scholar: A freely accessible search engine that indexes scholarly articles across numerous disciplines. It also offers citation metrics and links to related articles.
Other Databases: Depending on your field, platforms like PubMed (for medicine), IEEE Xplore (for electronics and electrical engineering), PsycINFO (for psychology), and many others can be invaluable.

3. Professional Publications

Journals: Subject-specific journals (both print and online) publish articles, reviews, and commentaries pertinent to their field. Look for the leading journals in your discipline.
Magazines: Professional magazines might offer articles, reviews, and features relevant to certain industries or areas of interest.
Reports and Whitepapers: Many professional organisations, think tanks, and research bodies release reports and whitepapers that discuss specific issues, trends, or findings in-depth.

4. Recommendations from Experts in the Field

Academic Advisers and Professors: If you’re in academia, your advisers, professors, or faculty members can provide recommendations based on their expertise and familiarity with the literature.
Conferences and Seminars: Attend presentations, workshops, or panel discussions. Presenters often reference key works in the field. You can also network with attendees for recommendations.
Citation Tracking: Review the bibliographies or reference lists of key articles or books you’ve already identified. This “snowball” method can lead you to additional relevant sources.
Online Forums and Academic Networks: Websites like ResearchGate or Academia.edu, or even subject-specific forums, allow researchers to discuss works, share resources, and ask for recommendations.

Pro Tips for Using Secondary Sources in Arguments

As you uncover sources, keep a log or database. Note down the source details, its relevance, and any pertinent insights. Tools like Zotero or Mendeley can assist in managing your references and source citing , ensuring that you give proper credit to the original authors.
Remember, purchasing every book or article can be expensive. Explore interlibrary loans, online access, or institutional subscriptions.

How to Evaluate the Credibility of Secondary Sources

Source evaluation is a fundamental step to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the information you gather:

Checking the Author’s Credentials and Expertise

Investigate the author’s educational background and professional experience. An expert in nuclear physics might not be the most credible author for a historical analysis, and vice versa.

Established authors often have a consistent track record of publications in reputable journals or with esteemed publishers.

Furthermore, being affiliated with a respected academic or research institution can bolster an author’s credibility. Ensure the author does not have clear biases or vested interests that might skew their interpretations.

Analysing the Publication Source

Established publishers and peer-reviewed journals maintain rigorous standards, ensuring the credibility of their publications. Moreover, sources that have undergone a thorough editorial or peer-review process are generally more reliable.

Positive feedback or endorsements from experts in the field can bolster a source’s credibility.

Considering the Publication Date (Relevance and Timeliness)

Current vs. Outdated: Depending on your topic, more recent publications might offer the latest insights, research, or interpretations. However, older seminal works can still be critical in certain fields.
Historical Context: Some older sources can provide valuable historical perspectives, even if they aren’t current.
Editions and Updates: Updated or revised editions of books or articles suggest that the content has been reviewed and refined over time.

Cross-referencing with Other Credible Sources

If multiple credible sources offer similar interpretations or findings, it increases the likelihood of the information being accurate. Credible secondary sources also often address opposing viewpoints or counterarguments, ensuring a holistic analysis. A well-researched source will cite its references, allowing you to track the primary and other secondary sources that informed its content.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the 7 secondary sources.

Books (e.g., biographies)
Journal articles
Encyclopedias
Documentaries
Historical interpretations

What are secondary sources also called?

Secondary sources, which interpret, analyse, or summarise primary sources, are also often referred to as “interpretive sources” or “commentary sources.” They provide a second-hand account of events, subjects, or phenomena and offer an analysis or commentary on the information derived from primary sources or other secondary references.

What is secondary source and examples?

A secondary source interprets, analyses, or summarises primary sources. These are often accounts written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight. Examples include textbooks, book reviews, journal articles, essays, encyclopedias, documentaries, and historical interpretations. They provide insight into the interpretation of original events or data.

How to use secondary source for the arguments?

Identify reputable sources that discuss your topic.
Extract relevant information or perspectives.
Paraphrase or quote directly, ensuring proper citation.
Integrate into your argument, comparing or contrasting with other views.
Use consistently to maintain credibility and avoid plagiarism.

6.3 Using Sources in Your Paper

John Lanning; Amanda Lloyd; Robin Jeffrey; Melanie Gagich; Terri Pantuso; Sarah LeMire; and Kalani Pattison

Academic writing requires the use of signal phrases to properly embed quoted material and document information. While basic signal phrases require the use of the author’s name and a strong verb, attribution tags emphasize different types of information related to the source in order to set up the quoted material and can help shape your reader’s response to the information presented. In grammatical terms, an attribution tag can be viewed as an appositive, an adjectival clause following a noun that modifies the noun and provides contextual information. In the following examples, the signal phrases (appositives) are italicized.

As Benjamin Franklin, one of the Founding Fathers , states, “Well done is better than well said.” [1]

The slogan “Just Do It” was highly successful for Nike, an athletic apparel company .

What you have to say is more important than the passage you are citing, so you want the information leading into your evidence/ support to work to your advantage. A basic signal phrase is a device used to smoothly integrate quotations and paraphrases into your essay and consists of an author’s name and an active verb indicating how the author is presenting the material. It is important for beginning academic writers to use signal phrases to clearly attribute textual evidence to an author and to avoid interrupting the flow of an essay.

Referring to the Author within a Signal Phrase

In most instances, a signal phrase should contain only the last name of the author or authors of the source text (as opposed to the author’s first and last name). APA style guidelines require no reference to a first name at any point in an essay and few if any gender specific pronouns. But in MLA papers, if you are referring to an author for the first time in your essay, you should include that author’s first name. Any future signal phrase should refer to the author by last name only or with a pronoun when it’s perfectly clear to whom the pronoun refers.

Ellen J. Langer observes, “For us to pay attention to something for any amount of time, the image must be varied” (39). [2]

Langer continues, “Thus, for students who have trouble paying attention the problem may be that they are following the wrong instructions” (39).

She then states, “To pay constant, fixed attention to a thought or an image may be a kind of oxymoron” (39).

Notice how each signal phrase verb is followed by a comma, which is then followed by one space before the opening quotation mark.

Varying Your Verbs

While it’s important to use signal phrase verbs, you’ll want to make sure that you vary them to avoid repetition (rather than simply using “states” throughout your entire essay for example) in order to maintain your readers’ interest and to indicate the author’s intended use of the excerpted material. See below for examples of strong signal phrase verbs.

Table 6.3.1: Strong Signal Phrase Verbs

Why use signal phrases and attributive tags.

While many students may see attributive tags as filler, they can provide the audience with valuable insight into how you, the writer, intend the quoted material to be read/viewed. In addition to setting up the source evidence, attribution tags can also be used as meaningful transitions moving your readers between your ideas and those of your support.

In most instances, the first time the author is mentioned in an MLA style essay, it is a good idea to provide an attributive tag as well as the author’s first and last name. When using APA style, list the author’s first initial and last name. Style will vary with studies including multiple authors.

While providing the author’s credentials and title of the source are the most common attributions used, there are others we should be aware of.

Types of Attributive Tags (attributive tag is underlined in each example)

Type : Author’s credentials are indicated.

Grace Chapmen, Curator of Human Health & Evolutionary Medicine at the Springfield Natural History Museum , explains…

Purpose: Presenting an author’s credentials should help build credibility for the passage you are about to present. Including the author’s credentials gives your readers a reason to consider your sources.

Type : Author’s lack of credentials is indicated.

Matthew Spencer, whose background is in marriage counseling, not foreign policy , claims…

Purpose: Identifying an author’s lack of credentials in a given area can help illustrate a lack of authority on the subject matter and persuade the audience not to adopt the author’s ideas. Pointing to an author’s lack of credentials can be beneficial when developing your response to counterarguments.

Type : Author’s social or political stance, if necessary to the content, is explained.

Ted Cruz, the Republican Senator from Texas , claims… Debbie Dingell, the Democrat representing Michigan’s 6th district , spoke today about…

Purpose: Explaining the author’s social or political stance can help a reader to understand why that author expresses a particular view. This understanding can positively or negatively influence an audience. Be careful to avoid engaging in logical fallacies such as loaded language or genetic fallacy .

Type : Publisher of the source is identified.

According to a recent Gallup poll…

Purpose: Identifying the publisher of the passage can help reinforce the credibility of the information presented and you can capitalize on the reputation/ credibility of the publisher of the source material.

Type : Title of the source is included.

In “ Understanding Human Behavior ,” Riley argues …

Purpose: Informs the reader where the cited passage is being pulled from.

Type : Information that establishes context is presented.

In a speech presented during a Free Speech rally , Elaine Wallace encourages …

Purpose: Presenting the context that the original information was presented can help the audience understand the author’s purpose more clearly

What are Direct Quotes?

Direct quotes are portions of a text taken word for word and placed inside of a work. Readers know when an author is using a direct quote because it is denoted by the use of quotation marks and an in-text citation. [3]

Example of Direct Quote

In his seminal work, David Bartholomae argues that “Every time a student sits down to write for us, he has to invent the university for the occasion-invent the university ”(4).

Direct quotes might also be formatted as a “block quote” which occurs if the borrowed language is longer than four (4) lines of text in MLA formatting, or more than 40 words in APA formatting. In MLA, A block quote requires the author to indent the borrowed language by 1/2 an inch, place the citation at the end of the block, and remove quotation marks.

Example of Block Quote

In his seminal work, David Bartholomae argues that

Every time a student sits down to write for us, he has to invent the university for the occasion-invent the university, that is, or a branch of it, like History or Anthropology or Economics or English. He has to learn to speak our language, to speak as we do, to try on the peculiar ways of knowing, selecting, evaluating, reporting, concluding, and arguing that define the discourse of our community. (4).

Be careful when using direct quotes because failing to write the text exactly as it appears in the original is not an ethical use of direct quotes. Also, failing to bracket the quote with quotation marks and/or cite it inside the text is also unethical. Both mistakes are a form of plagiarism.

When Should I Use Direct Quotes?

Generally speaking, direct quotes should be used sparingly because you want to rely on your own understanding of material and avoid over-relying on another’s words. You want your voice to be the dominant one in an argument. Over quoting does not reinforce your credibility as an author; however, according to the Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL) you should use direct quotes when “the author you are quoting has coined a term unique to her or his research and relevant within your own paper.” [4]

The Basics of Directly Quoting

All quoted material should be enclosed in quotation marks to set it off from the rest of the text. The exception to this is block quotes which require different formatting.
Quoted material should be an accurate word-for-word reproduction from the author’s original text. You cannot alter any wording or any spelling. If you must do so, you must use a bracket or an ellipsis.
A clear signal phrase/attribution tag should precede each quotation.
A parenthetical citation should follow each quotation. For information about formatting parenthetical citations, see section 8.6 (APA) and 8.7 (MLA) .

The Hard Part of Directly Quoting: Integrating Quotes into Your Writing

As the author of your essay, you should explain the significance of each quotation to your reader. This goes far beyond simply including a signal phrase. Explaining the significance means indicating how the quoted material supports the point you are making in that paragraph. Remember, just because you add a quote does not mean that you have made your point. Quotes never speak for themselves. When quoting material, ask yourself how and why does that quoted material make the point you think it does? Then, follow the quote with a sentence that adds clarity for your insertion of that quoted material. Table 6.3.2 contains some helpful phrases for explaining quoted materials where “X” represents the author’s last name.

Table 6.3.2. Phrases for Explaining Quoted Material

Sometimes, in order to smoothly integrate quoted material into your paper, you may need to remove a word or add a word to make the quote make sense. If you make any change to quoted material, it must be formatted correctly using an ellipsis or brackets. In the following, a portion of Hamlet’s “To Be, or Not To Be” soliloquy is used as the exemplar:

Original quote: “To be, or not to be, that is the question”

Use brackets [these are brackets] to change a word or add additional information.

As Hamlet states, “To be, or not to be, that is the [essential] question.”

Use an ellipsis (this is an ellipsis…) to indicate omissions in the middle of a quote, not at the beginning or ending of quoted material.

As Hamlet states, “To be, or not to be … is the question.”

When in doubt, strive to allow your voice – not a quote from a source – to begin each paragraph, precede each quote, follow each quote, and end each paragraph. Quotes that are integrated well into a paper allow you to control the paper. That is what a reader wants to see: your ideas and the way that you engage sources to shape and discuss your ideas.

Paraphrasing and Summarizing

While quoting may be the first thing that many people think of when they think about integrating sources, paraphrasing, summarizing, and citing data are also ways to incorporate information from outside materials into your essays or projects.

Paraphrasing

Paraphrases allow you to describe specific information from a source (ideas from a paragraph or several consecutive paragraphs) in your own words .
Paraphrases are like translations of an author’ original idea. You retain the detail of the original thought, but you express it in your own way.
Paraphrases of the text should be expressed in your own words, with your own sentence structure, in your own way. You should not simply “word swap”; that is, replace a few words from the original with synonyms.
If you must use a few of the author’s words within your paraphrase, they must have quotation marks around them.
Paraphrases often include attributive tags (or signal phrases) to let your readers know where the paraphrased material begins.
Paraphrased material should be followed by a parenthetical citation. For information about formatting parenthetical citations, see section 8.6 (APA) and 8.7 (MLA) .
As with a quote, you need to explain to your reader why the paraphrased material is significant to the point you are making in your paper.

Summarizing

Summaries allow you to describe general ideas from a source. You do not express detailed information as you would with a paraphrase.
Summaries are shorter than the original text.
Any summaries of the text should not include direct wording from the original source. All text should be in your words, though the ideas are those of the original author.
A signal phrase should let your readers know where the summarized material begins. Depending on what information you include in your signal phrase, you may still need to include a parenthetical citation. For information about formatting parenthetical citations, see section 8.6 (APA) and 8.7 (MLA) .
If you are offering a general summary of an entire article, there is no need to cite a specific page number.

Referring to AI-Generated Content

In some ways, incorporating information from an AI source looks very similar to incorporating information from any other type of source.

Are you using language directly from the AI source? Quotations from AI sources need quotation marks and parenthetical citations just like quotations from other sources.
Are you paraphrasing or summarizing information from an AI source? Although you don’t need quotation marks, you still need parenthetical citations.

For more information on citing AI sources, see sections 8.6 (APA) and 8.7 (MLA) .

Unlike other sources, however, a reader can’t easily look up an AI source and read the original text. For that reason, it is important to be very transparent about where your information comes from. Both APA and MLA recommend including your prompt as part of your attribution. APA recommends introducing the prompt within the body of your text, [5] while MLA includes that information within the citation itself. [6]

Example (APA format)

ChatGPT, when prompted to answer “What are the ethical implications of the death penalty,” responded that the “disproportionate impact of capital punishment on people of color” is an important factor (OpenAI, 2023).

Example (MLA format)

When considering the ethical implications of the death penalty, the “disproportionate impact of capital punishment on people of color” is an important factor (“What are the ethical implications”).

In order to maximize transparency, you may wish to include the full transcript of your AI-generated content in an appendix to your paper. [7] In this way, you can ensure that your source remains fully accessible to you and to your audience. Such transparency and documentation also greatly contributes to maintaining your ethos — your credibility.

Practice Activity

This section contains material from:

Lanning, John, and Amanda Lloyd. “Signal Phrases.” In A Guide to Rhetoric, Genre, and Success in First-Year Writing , by Melanie Gagich and Emilie Zickel. Cleveland: MSL Academic Endeavors. Accessed July 2019. https://pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu/csu-fyw-rhetoric/chapter/apa-signal-phrases/ . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License . Archival link: https://web.archive.org/web/20201027005526/https://pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu/csu-fyw-rhetoric/chapter/apa-signal-phrases/

Gagich, Melanie. “Quoting.” In A Guide to Rhetoric, Genre, and Success in First-Year Writing , by Melanie Gagich and Emilie Zickel. Cleveland: MSL Academic Endeavors. Accessed July 2019. https://pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu/csu-fyw-rhetoric/chapter/quoting-paraphrasing-and-summarizing-to-avoid-plagiarism/ . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License . Archival link: https://web.archive.org/web/20201027012338/https://pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu/csu-fyw-rhetoric/chapter/quoting-paraphrasing-and-summarizing-to-avoid-plagiarism/

Jeffrey, Robin. “Paraphrasing and Summarizing.” In A Guide to Rhetoric, Genre, and Success in First-Year Writing , by Melanie Gagich and Emilie Zickel. Cleveland: MSL Academic Endeavors. Accessed July 2019. https://pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu/csu-fyw-rhetoric/chapter/9-3-paraphrasing-summarizing-and-integrating-data/ . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License . Archival link: https://web.archive.org/web/20201027011135/https://pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu/csu-fyw-rhetoric/chapter/9-3-paraphrasing-summarizing-and-integrating-data/

OER credited in the texts above includes:

Jeffrey, Robin. About Writing: A Guide . Portland, OR: Open Oregon Educational Resources. Accessed December 18, 2020. https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/aboutwriting/ . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License . Archival link: https://web.archive.org/web/20230711210756/https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/aboutwriting/

Benjamin Franklin, Poor Richard, 1737, Founders Online, National Archives, accessed December 18, 2020, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01-02-02-0028 . ↵
Ellen J. Langer, The Power of Mindful Learning (Boston: Da Capo Press, 1997). ↵
The following examples come from: David Bartholomae, “Inventing the University,” Journal of Basic Writing 5, no. 3 (1986): 4-23. ↵
“How to Use Quotation Marks,” Purdue Online Writing Lab , accessed May 8, 2020, https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/punctuation/quotation_marks/index.html . ↵
Tim McAdoo, "How to Cite ChatGPT," APA Style, accessed August 17, 2023, https://apastyle.apa.org/blog/how-to-cite-chatgpt ↵
"How Do I Cite Generative AI in MLA Style?," MLA Style Center, accessed August 17, 2023, https://style.mla.org/citing-generative-ai/ ↵

Loaded language is related to the fallacy of "begging the question." Sometimes begging the question includes using "loaded language" in which word choice has strong connotations or extra meanings that attempt to sway the audience.

This fallacy claims that an idea or fact or argument is incorrect because the speaker is someone one usually disagrees with -- that the idea is wrong because of the origin of the idea or argument, rather than because it is incorrect or invalid on its own merits. For instance, just because you generally disagree with a politician's policies or ideas doesn't mean that every single thing they say is incorrect or invalid just because it was them who said it. (The idiom often used is "even a stopped clock is right twice a day).

An ambiguous or amorphous quality to writing comprising the vocabulary, word choice, tone, point of view, syntax, attitude, emotion, and style of a writer. Because writing is a personal and individual exercise, every writer has their own unique voice.

6.3 Using Sources in Your Paper Copyright © 2023 by John Lanning; Amanda Lloyd; Robin Jeffrey; Melanie Gagich; Terri Pantuso; Sarah LeMire; and Kalani Pattison is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

How to Effectively Present and Defend Your Arguments

Written by Argumentful

In our contemporary world, characterized by rapid change and diverse viewpoints, the ability to proficiently articulate and justify our opinions has become increasingly crucial.

Whether it’s in a business meeting, a classroom discussion, or a political debate, the ability to articulate your thoughts and persuade others is a valuable skill.

However, many people struggle with this task and may find themselves feeling frustrated or defeated in these situations.

Consider the following scenario: You’re at a family dinner and the conversation turns to politics. Your uncle begins passionately arguing his point of view, and you find yourself disagreeing. You want to express your own beliefs, but you’re unsure how to do so without coming across as confrontational or aggressive. Sound familiar?

This article aims to provide guidance on how to effectively present and defend your arguments, whether it’s in a casual conversation or a formal debate. Through practical tips and strategies, we’ll explore how to confidently articulate your thoughts, stay focused on the issue at hand, and effectively counter opposing views.

By the end of this article, you will have a toolbox of techniques for presenting and defending your arguments in a clear, concise, and persuasive manner.

So whether you’re debating politics with family or presenting a proposal to your boss, you’ll be better equipped to confidently and effectively make your case.

• Understanding the audience and context

• Preparing and structuring your argument

• Presenting your argument

• Defending your argument

• Dealing with emotional reactions

• Conclusion

Understanding the audience and context

One of the most crucial aspects of presenting and defending arguments effectively is understanding the audience and context in which you will be making your case. By taking the time to research and analyse the values, beliefs, and backgrounds of your audience, you can tailor your argument to better resonate with their perspective and increase your chances of success.

To start, consider who your audience is and what their interests and priorities might be.

• Are they experts in your field, or are they laypeople who may not have a deep understanding of the topic?

• Are they part of a specific cultural or social group with their own unique values and beliefs?

By answering these questions, you can begin to build a more accurate picture of who you will be speaking to and how best to communicate with them.

Another important consideration is the context in which you will be presenting your argument.

• Is this a formal debate with strict rules of engagement, or a more casual conversation among friends?

• What is the cultural and social background of the context, and how might that impact the way you frame your argument?

By analysing these factors, you can adjust your language , tone , and approach to better suit the situation and increase your chances of success.

Tips and techniques for researching the audience

When researching your audience and context, consider the following tips and techniques:

Analyse the values and beliefs of your audience : Take time to understand what your audience cares about and what they believe to be important. By framing your argument in a way that aligns with these values, you can increase your chances of persuading them to see your point of view.

Here are some examples:

If you are presenting to a group of environmental activists , you might emphasize the environmental impact of your argument and the importance of protecting the planet for future generations.
If your audience is composed of business executives , you might focus on the financial benefits of your argument, such as cost savings or increased profits.
If you are presenting to a religious community , you might appeal to their shared values of compassion, kindness, and social justice, and demonstrate how your argument aligns with these beliefs.
If your audience is composed of scientists or academics , you might use evidence-based arguments and appeal to the importance of empirical data and logical reasoning.

By understanding the values and beliefs of your audience, you can tailor your argument in a way that resonates with them and speaks to their concerns. This not only increases the likelihood that they will be persuaded by your argument, but also helps to build trust and rapport with your audience, which can be invaluable in future interactions.

Consider the social and cultural background of the context : Different contexts may have unique social and cultural factors that impact the way people think and communicate. Take the time to understand these factors, and adjust your approach accordingly.
If you are presenting in a multicultural setting , be mindful of cultural differences in communication styles and nonverbal cues. For example, some cultures may place a higher value on direct communication, while others may prefer indirect or more nuanced communication.
If you are presenting in a political context , be aware of the current political climate and the potential impact that may have on your argument. Consider how your argument may be perceived through different political lenses, and be prepared to address any concerns or objections related to political ideologies.
If you are presenting to a group with diverse backgrounds and experiences , be sensitive to the ways in which different individuals may interpret your argument based on their personal histories and identities. Avoid assumptions and stereotypes, and strive to create a safe and inclusive space where everyone feels heard and valued.

By considering the social and cultural background of the context, you can avoid potential misunderstandings and conflicts, and increase the effectiveness of your argument. This shows that you are respectful of the unique perspectives and experiences of your audience, and are committed to engaging in productive and meaningful dialogue.

Use data and evidence that speaks to your audience : When presenting your argument, make sure to use data and evidence that is relevant and compelling to your audience. If you’re speaking to a group of scientists, for example, you may want to focus on studies and experiments that support your case.
If you are presenting to a group of policymakers , use data and statistics that highlight the potential impact of your argument on society as a whole. Show how your proposed policy or solution can address a pressing social or economic issue, and provide concrete examples of successful implementation in similar contexts.
If you are presenting to a group of business leaders , use financial data and market research to demonstrate the potential ROI of your argument. Show how your proposal can increase profits, improve efficiency, or enhance the reputation of the company, and provide case studies of successful implementation in other organizations.
If you are presenting to a group of activists or advocates , use personal stories and testimonials to illustrate the human impact of your argument. Show how your proposal can make a tangible difference in the lives of individuals or communities, and provide examples of successful implementation in similar contexts.

By using data and evidence that speaks to your audience, you can demonstrate your credibility and expertise on the topic, and show that you have a deep understanding of their needs and concerns. This can help to build trust and increase the likelihood that your argument will be accepted and acted upon.

Preparing and structuring the argument

Once you have a clear understanding of your audience and context, the next step in presenting and defending your arguments is to prepare and structure your argument effectively.

A strong argument is one that is clear , concise , and well-supported with evidence .

To achieve this, there are several steps you can take to prepare and structure your argument effectively.

Identify your main claim : The first step in preparing a strong argument is to identify your main claim or thesis. This should be a clear statement that summarizes the central point of your argument.
Organize supporting evidence : Once you have identified your main claim, the next step is to organize supporting evidence that will help you make your case. This could include data, research studies, expert opinions, or personal experiences.
Anticipate counter-arguments : When preparing your argument, it is important to anticipate potential counter-arguments that may be raised by your audience. This will help you address these objections in a clear and effective way.

There are several different formats that can be used to structure an argument effectively.

Argument map

An argument map is a tool that helps to identify the main claim and supporting reasons, and how they are connected to each other. By using an argument map, you can better understand the strength of your argument and identify potential weaknesses.

Outline your thesis and your main points and then use the map to create a narrative, either in a problem-solution format or persuasive speech format.

Here is what an argument map to support the building of a park could look like:

Note that the map contains supporting reasons (with backing evidence) and it also includes counter-arguments and their rebuttals.

You can then use this argument map for creating your talking points in one of the formats below.

Problem-solution format

PROBLEM-SOLUTION format :

In this format, you should first outline a problem, and then present a solution to that problem. This can be a highly effective way of framing an argument, as it helps the audience to see the value of your proposed solution.

The problem-solution format is a common way of structuring an argument, particularly when the goal is to persuade the audience to take action on a particular issue . Here is a typical structure for a problem-solution format:

Introduction : In the introduction, you should introduce the problem you will be addressing, and provide some background information to help the audience understand the issue. This might include statistics, personal anecdotes, or news stories that highlight the severity of the problem.
Problem : In this section, you should describe the problem in more detail, highlighting its causes and effects. You might also discuss why the problem is particularly important, and what the consequences might be if it is not addressed.
Solution : In this section, you should present your proposed solution to the problem. This might include a specific policy proposal, a call to action for individuals, or a description of a program or initiative that you believe could help to address the problem. Use the argument map points already drafted at the previous step.
Benefits : In this section, you should describe the benefits of your proposed solution. This might include the positive impact it could have on individuals or communities, the economic benefits of addressing the problem, or the social benefits of promoting a particular solution.
Objections : In this section, you should anticipate potential objections to your proposed solution, and provide counter-arguments to address these objections. This can help to strengthen your argument and make it more persuasive.
Conclusion : In the conclusion, you should summarize your argument and urge the audience to take action. This might include a call to contact their elected officials, donate to a particular organization, or take some other concrete step to address the problem.

By following this structure, you can present a clear and compelling argument that highlights the urgency of the issue at hand.

Persuasive speech format

PERSUASIVE SPEECH format :

In a persuasive speech, the speaker presents an argument in a structured way, using clear transitions between different parts of the argument. This format typically includes an introduction, a body where the main points are presented and supported, and a conclusion that summarizes the argument and urges the audience to take action.

The persuasive speech format is a common way of structuring an argument, particularly when the goal is to persuade the audience to take action or change their beliefs about a particular issue. Here is a typical structure for a persuasive speech format:

Introduction : In the introduction, you should grab the audience’s attention with a strong opening statement, and provide some background information on the topic you will be addressing. You should also introduce your main argument or thesis statement .
Body : In the body of your speech, you should present your main points in a structured way, using clear transitions to move between different parts of the argument. Each point should be supported with evidence, such as data, research studies, or expert opinions. If you’ve already built your argument map, you should use the points you already drafted there.

Here is the breakdown of the body section:

a. Point 1: In this section, you should present your first main point, and support it with evidence.

b. Point 2: In this section, you should present your second main point, and support it with evidence.

c. Point 3: In this section, you should present your third main point, and support it with evidence.

d. Transition: After presenting your main points, you should transition to the conclusion of your speech.

Counter-arguments : In this section, you should address potential counter-arguments that your audience may raise. This can help to strengthen your argument and make it more persuasive.
Conclusion : In the conclusion, you should summarize your main points and restate your thesis statement. You should also provide a call to action, urging the audience to take a specific action or change their beliefs about the issue.

By following this structure, you can present a clear and compelling argument that is well-supported with evidence, and that effectively persuades your audience to take action or change their beliefs.

No matter which format you choose, the key to presenting and defending your argument effectively is to be clear , concise , and well-prepared . By taking the time to structure your argument effectively, and anticipating potential counter-arguments, you can increase your chances of success and ensure that your message is heard and understood by your audience.

Presenting the argument

Once you have prepared and structured your argument, the next step is to present it in a way that engages the audience and effectively communicates your message.

Here are some techniques for presenting an argument effectively:

Use persuasive language : Using strong, clear language can help to make your argument more persuasive. Use active voice, avoid jargon or technical language, and be concise.

For example:

• Instead of saying “The project will be completed in six months,” say “We will finish the project in six months.”

• Instead of using technical jargon, use simple language that can be easily understood by your audience. For example, instead of saying “We need to optimize the performance of our data processing pipeline,” say “We need to make our data processing faster and more efficient.”

02. Use strong, descriptive language that paints a clear picture in the minds of your audience.

For example, instead of saying “Our product is good,” say “Our product is the best on the market and will revolutionize the way you work.”

Utilize visual aids : Visual aids such as charts, graphs, and images can help to reinforce your argument and make it more memorable. Use them sparingly, and make sure they are easy to read and understand.

For example, if you are making a presentation on the benefits of a new product, you can use a chart to illustrate the increase in sales revenue since the product was introduced.

You could also use the argument map already prepared previously to organize and visually display the logical structure of your argument.

Tell a story : Using storytelling techniques can be an effective way to engage the audience and make your argument more relatable. Use personal anecdotes, metaphors, or case studies to illustrate your points and make them more memorable.

For example, when presenting a proposal to implement a new initiative at work, you could begin by sharing a personal story of a time when a similar initiative was successfully implemented in a different organization, and the positive impact it had on the employees and the company’s overall success. This story could help to create an emotional connection with the audience and build support for your proposal.

You could also use case studies of other organizations that have implemented similar initiatives, and show the tangible benefits they have seen as a result. This approach can help to make your argument more concrete and relatable, and make it easier for the audience to understand the potential benefits of your proposal.

Use humour : Humour can be a powerful tool for engaging the audience and making your argument more memorable. Use it sparingly, and make sure it is appropriate for the context.

Suppose you’re presenting an argument in favour of a healthier diet. You could start by saying something like, “I used to think that kale was just a decoration on my plate at restaurants. But then I tried it and realized it’s actually a vegetable.” This can get a chuckle from the audience and help to make your point in a more relatable way. From there, you could go on to discuss the benefits of incorporating more fruits and vegetables into one’s diet.

Engage the audience : Engaging the audience can help to build rapport and create a sense of connection. Ask questions, use rhetorical devices such as repetition or parallelism, and make eye contact to create a sense of intimacy.

Here are some examples you can use to engage your audience:

Ask a question that requires a show of hands, such as “How many of you have ever experienced this situation?” This creates a sense of participation and involvement.
Use rhetorical questions to make the audience think and engage with the topic. For example, “What would happen if we continue to ignore this issue?”
Use repetition to emphasize key points and make them more memorable. For example, “We need to act now, we need to act fast, and we need to act together.”
Make eye contact with the audience to create a sense of intimacy and connection. This can help to build trust and credibility.

By using these techniques, you can present your argument in a way that is engaging, memorable, and persuasive. Remember to practice your presentation beforehand, and to anticipate potential questions or objections that the audience may raise. By being well-prepared and confident in your argument, you can effectively defend your position and persuade others to see things your way.

Defending the argument

Defending your argument is just as important as presenting it. Here are some strategies for effectively defending your argument:

Use evidence and logical reasoning : Evidence and logical reasoning are key to making a strong argument. Use relevant facts, statistics, and examples to support your position, and use logical reasoning to connect your evidence to your main claim.

For example, in a business setting, you may be presenting a proposal for a new product or strategy. To effectively persuade your audience, you can use data to support the potential success of your idea. You can present market research, customer feedback, or industry trends to demonstrate that your proposal is not only feasible but also profitable.

Additionally, you can use logical reasoning to explain how your proposal aligns with the company’s goals and values, and how it can address any potential challenges or concerns.

By using evidence and logical reasoning, you can build a convincing argument that is grounded in facts and reason.

Anticipate objections : Anticipating objections can help you to prepare effective counter-arguments. Put yourself in the shoes of your opponent and try to think of potential objections or counter-arguments they may raise. Be prepared to address these objections with evidence and logical reasoning.

Here is how you can anticipate objections in the context of building a new park in a community.

For example someone may object to the new park on the basis that it will increase traffic and noise in the area. In response to this objection, you could anticipate this concern and address it by presenting evidence that the park’s design includes traffic-calming measures such as speed bumps and traffic lights, and that noise from the park will be managed through measures like the installation of sound barriers. By anticipating and addressing this objection in advance, it can help to alleviate concerns and increase the likelihood of gaining support for the park’s construction.

Avoid fallacies : Fallacies are errors in reasoning that can weaken your argument. Common fallacies include ad hominem attacks, straw man arguments, and false dichotomies. Be aware of these fallacies and avoid them in your argument.
Ad hominem : Attacking the character or personal traits of your opponent instead of addressing their argument. For example, saying “You can’t trust John’s opinion on the park proposal because he’s not even a resident of this city.”
Straw man : Misrepresenting your opponent’s argument in order to make it easier to attack. For example, saying “Opponents of the park just want to pave over all the green space in the city and turn it into a concrete jungle.”
False dichotomy : Presenting only two options when there are actually more. For example, saying “We can either build the park or let the land sit unused forever.” When in reality, there may be other alternatives.

In any context (including that of building a new park), it’s important to avoid these fallacies in order to make a strong, persuasive argument. By staying focused on the facts and avoiding personal attacks or misrepresentations, you can demonstrate the value of your proposal in a clear and compelling way.

Acknowledge the opponent’s views : Acknowledging your opponent’s views can help to build credibility and create a sense of respect. Even if you disagree with their position, try to understand their perspective and acknowledge the points that they make.

Let’s use the example of proposing a new product to a potential market: if your opponents argue that the product may not appeal to the new market, you can acknowledge their concern and provide evidence that shows the product’s success in similar markets. This approach demonstrates that you have considered their viewpoint and have a well-researched argument.

Additionally, you can acknowledge that there may be challenges in introducing a new product to a new market, and propose a plan to address these challenges, such as market research, targeted advertising, or partnerships with local businesses.

By acknowledging your opponent’s views and addressing their concerns, you can build credibility and increase the likelihood of a successful proposal.

Provide alternative evidence or counter-examples : Providing alternative evidence or counter-examples can help to strengthen your argument and refute counter-arguments. Use relevant facts, statistics, or examples to support your position and show why your argument is more persuasive.

Here are some examples that might inspire you:

If someone argues that all processed foods are unhealthy, you can provide examples of processed foods that are actually healthy, such as fortified breakfast cereals or packaged fruits and vegetables.
If someone argues that organic foods are too expensive, you can provide evidence that shows that the long-term health benefits of consuming organic foods outweigh the initial cost, such as reduced medical expenses and improved quality of life.
If someone argues that renewable energy sources like solar and wind are unreliable, you can provide examples of successful implementation of renewable energy in other countries, as well as statistics showing that the cost of renewable energy is decreasing while the reliability is increasing.

By using these strategies, you can effectively defend your argument and persuade others to see things your way. Remember to stay calm and composed, and to avoid getting defensive or emotional. By remaining confident and logical, you can effectively defend your argument and convince others to accept your position.

Dealing with emotional reactions

Presenting and defending an argument can be an emotional process, for both the speaker and the audience.

Here are some tips for managing emotional reactions:

Stay calm and respectful : If you encounter emotional reactions during your presentation or defense, it’s important to stay calm and respectful. Avoid getting defensive or angry, and try to remain objective and rational in your responses.

An interesting example is if you are presenting an argument in a public setting, and a member of the audience interrupts you with a personal attack or insult. In this situation, it can be tempting to respond with a similar attack or to become defensive, but this will only escalate the situation and detract from the argument being presented. Instead, you should calmly address the interruption and steer the conversation back to the topic at hand. For example, you could say something like, “I understand that this is a sensitive topic, but let’s focus on the facts and evidence at hand to have a productive discussion.” By staying calm and respectful, you can maintain credibility and effectively defend your position.

Use empathetic language : Using empathetic language can help to defuse emotional reactions and create a sense of understanding. Show that you understand the emotions of the audience or your opponent, and use language that demonstrates your empathy and compassion.

A good example is when you are discussing a controversial topic such as abortion. Instead of using language that might be perceived as attacking or dismissive, use empathetic language that acknowledges the emotional weight of the issue for both sides. For instance, saying “I understand that this is a deeply personal and emotional issue for many people” can help to create a more respectful and productive conversation, rather than immediately diving into arguments and counter-arguments.

Recognize and address underlying issues : Sometimes, emotional reactions can be a sign of underlying issues that are not directly related to your argument. If you sense that there are deeper emotions or issues at play, try to address these concerns in a respectful and empathetic way.

An interesting example is when during a debate on a controversial policy, a member of the audience becomes visibly upset and begins to shout. Instead of ignoring or dismissing their reaction, the speaker takes a moment to acknowledge their emotion and asks if they would like to share their concerns. The audience member then explains that they have personal experience with the issue at hand and feel that their perspective has been ignored. The speaker listens attentively and responds with empathy, acknowledging the validity of their experience and promising to consider it in their argument. By addressing the underlying issue and showing empathy, the speaker is able to defuse the emotional reaction and create a more constructive discussion.

Take a break if necessary : If emotions become too heated, it may be necessary to take a break and regroup. Allow time for both yourself and the audience to calm down, and resume the discussion when emotions have subsided.

For example, during a meeting with a potential business partner, you may encounter a disagreement about a certain aspect of the partnership. If the conversation becomes heated and emotions start to rise, it may be helpful to take a break. You can suggest taking a short break to allow both parties to gather their thoughts and emotions, and come back to the discussion with a clear head. This can help to prevent the conversation from derailing and allow for a more productive discussion.

Overall, by managing emotional reactions in a calm and respectful manner, you can create a more productive and effective discussion. Remember that emotions are a natural part of the human experience, and that acknowledging and addressing them can lead to better communication and understanding.

The ability to present and defend arguments effectively is crucial, be it in professional settings, political arenas, or personal interactions. These skills of articulating and supporting points persuasively are vital for fostering constructive dialogues and making sound decisions.

Throughout this article, we’ve discussed the key elements of effective argumentation, from understanding the audience and context to presenting and defending the argument itself. We’ve explored different techniques for structuring an argument, engaging the audience, and responding to objections, as well as strategies for managing emotional reactions and maintaining a respectful and productive dialogue.

At its core, effective argumentation is about more than just winning a debate or proving a point. It’s about building trust , fostering understanding , and working towards common goals .

By approaching argumentation with an open mind and a willingness to listen and learn, we can create more meaningful and productive discussions, and ultimately make better decisions.

So the next time you find yourself in a situation where you need to present or defend an argument, remember the tips and techniques discussed in this article.

And always remember that the key to effective argumentation is not just about winning, but about finding common ground and moving forward together.