the mcdonaldization of society thesis echoes

McDonaldization of Society: Definition and Examples

Charlotte Nickerson

Research Assistant at Harvard University

Undergraduate at Harvard University

Charlotte Nickerson is a student at Harvard University obsessed with the intersection of mental health, productivity, and design.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Key Takeaways

• McDonaldization is a term used to describe the penetration of American cultural and economic products throughout the world. It is used symbolically and is drawn from the market and ideological success of Mcdonald’s fast-food franchises all over the world.
• McDonaldization is a process through which certain principles of fast food management, such as efficiency, come to dominate the ethos of various sectors of society. It was developed by sociologist George Ritzer in his 1995 book The McDonaldization of Society .
• McDonaldization is an updated version of Max Weber”s rationalization, which argues that the traditions, values, and emotions as motivators for behavior in society are being replaced with rational and calculated ones.
• The four characteristics of McDonaldized systems are efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control. In essence, McDonaldized systems are built to provide consistent services to many customers in a way that is often quick and low-cost.
• Critics have argued that McDonaldization spurs on effects contrary to its principles, in some cases decreasing efficiency, introducing costs that cannot be seen until far after the fact, and reducing the rights and wages of workers.

History and Overview

McDonaldization is the process by which the principles of the fast-food restaurant — efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control — come to dominate more and more sectors of American society as well as the rest of the world (Ritzer, 2018).

McDonaldization, as described by Ritzer (2013), is a reconceptualization of rationalization and scientific management.

Rationalization refers to the replacement of traditions, values, and emotions as motivators for behavior in society with rational and calculated ones.

Whereas the sociologist Max Weber (2015) used the model of bureaucracy to represent the direction of his changing society, Ritzer sees the fast-food restaurant as being more representative of how contemporary societies are changing.

What are the Four Principles of McDonaldization?

McDonaldization, according to George Ritzer (2018) has four key principles: efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control through non-human technology.

These lie at the heart of the success of McDonald”s, and, more generally, of all McDonaldized systems.

Ritzer argues that McDonald”s and other McDonaldized systems have succeeded because they offer consumers, workers, and managers the advantages of these.

Efficiency involves finding and using the optimum method for getting from one point to another.

McDonald”s drive-through, for example, provides one of the fastest possible ways to get from being hungry to being full. The fast-food model also offers other methods for satisfying needs.

A business fashioned on the McDonald”s model may offer, or claim to offer, efficiency in, say, exercising, losing weight, lubricating cars, getting new glasses, completing taxes, making online purchases, or ride-hailing.

The workers in a McDonaldized system function by following steps in a predesigned and generally well-choreographed process (Ritzer, 2018).

Calculability

Calculability emphasizes the quantitative aspects of the products sold — such as their portion size or price — and services offered (how quickly someone can get the product).

In McDonaldized systems, quantity is equivalent to quantity — services that provide a lot of something, or are inexpensive or very fast are automatically better.

For example, the McDonald’s “Dollar Menu” quantifies both a low cost and the feeling that people are getting a lot of food for a small sum of money (Ritzer, 2018).

Consumers can also make calculations in terms of time. They may calculate, consciously or not, how much time it would take to go to a McDonald”s, be served food, eat it, and return home in comparison to the time required to prepare food at home.

Ritzer argues that this is important to other food delivery chains — say, pizza restaurants — as well as brands that emphasize obtaining any good or service quickly, such as fast fashion.

Workers within McDonaldized systems emphasize the quantitative, rather than the qualitative aspects of their work. Because the quality of work must be uniform, workers focus on how quickly tasks can be accomplished.

Ritzer (2018) argued that digital services such as Facebook and Amazon are heavily McDonalized, and that the calculability aspect of McDonaldization has been enhanced by “big data.”

Predictability

McDonaldization is also built on predictability, meaning that the products and services will be more or less the same over time and in all locations.

McDonald” ‘s hamburgers should be virtually identical today in New York as they will be next week in London. Consumers, according to Ritzer, take comfort in knowing that McDonald’s offers no surprises.

The workers in McDonaldized systems also behave in predictable ways, by following corporate roles and the demands of the systems in which they work. What workers do and even say is highly predictable (Ritzer, 2018).

The fourth element of McDonaldization, control, is exerted over the people who enter a McDonald’s. The lines, limited options, and uncomfortable seats of a McDonald’s encourage its customers to eat quickly and leave.

Workers in McDonaldized organizations are also controlled, often in a more blatant way. These employees are trained to do a limited number of tasks in exactly the way they are told to do them.

This control is reinforced by both the technologies used by the company and the way the organization is set up (Ritzer, 2018).

Advantages of McDonaldization

McDonaldization has numerous advantages, both for consumers and businesses. According to Ritzer (2018), these include:

A wider range of goods and services available to a larger proportion of the population

Availability of goods and services depends less on time or geographic location.

People can acquire what they want or need near-instantaneously

Goods and services of more uniform quality

Widely-available and economical alternatives to high-priced, customized goods and services

Services for a population that has less time due to longer working hours

The comfort of stable, familiar, and safe products

Consumers can more easily compare competing products due to quantification

Some products, such as exercise and diet programs, become safer in a carefully regulated and controlled system

People are more likely to be treated similarly despite their race, sex, social class, and so on

Organizational and technological innovations can be diffused quickly and easily through networks of identical businesses

The most popular products and services of one society can be more easily disseminated to others.

Downsides of McDonaldization

Although McDonaldized systems can enable people to do many things they were not able to do in the past, these systems also keep them from doing things they otherwise could do.

Ritzer notes that McDonaldization brings with it a number of seemingly contradictory inconsistencies, such as:

Inefficiency (rather than efficiency);

High cost (despite the promise the McDonalized goods and services are inexpensive);

falseness in the way employees relate to consumers;

disenchantment;

health and environmental dangers;

homogenization;

dehumanization.

Ritzer argues that, Although there have been many benefits that have resulted from McDonaldization such as variety, round-the-clock banking and shopping, and often speedier service, these rationally built services can lead to irrational outcomes.

By this, Ritzer means that they “deny the basic humanity, the human reason, of the people who work within or are served by them” (Ritzer, 1996).

For instance, the lines at a fast-food restaurant can be very long, and waiting to get through the drive-through can take longer than going inside. This rational system does not save people money: while people may spend less, they may do more work in the form of waiting for food.

Additionally, the food that people eat at restaurants is often less nourishing and contains high levels of flavor enhancers, fats, salt, and sugar. This contributes to the downstream health problems of society, such as heart disease, diabetes, and obesity, ultimately costing more than was saved by the convenience of this fast food.

As children grow up within these systems, they can develop habits that ensure their increasing dependency upon the systems.

The packaging used in the fast food industry pollutes the environment. And the ritual of fast food may take the place of that of the communal meal, reducing quality social time (Ritzer, 1996).

Examples of McDonaldization

Worker’s rights and wages.

One notable criticism of McDonaldization is that it has, in many ways, replaced skilled work with workers who must engage in repetitive, routinized, highly focused, and compartmentalized tasks.

This, sociologists have observed, has reduced workers’ rights and wages throughout the world, as workers have become easier to replace and in higher supply due to the lack of skill required to do McDonalized jobs (Ritzer, 2013).

McDonaldization occurs when any institution follows its four principles: control, predictability, calculability, and efficiency. Amazon has a large database of items that they work with and sell. This includes groceries, electronics, and digital content.

With Amazon, consumers can order virtually any item online and these products will be delivered quickly and inspected carefully. This embodies the principle of efficiency.

Amazon also exhibits calculability — an emphasis on the quantitative aspects of products served and services offered. Amazon”s price listings provide the perception that one can seek out the best deal.

Amazon has also trained its employees to behave predictably. Customer service agents follow scripts when dealing with inquiries, and Amazon moderates what sellers can sell on their website. As a result, customers can make purchases, in theory, without worrying about whether or not sellers are trustworthy.

Finally, Amazon exerts control on both its consumers and employees. The company — albeit not without ethical criticism — emphasizes timing their workers when packaging goods to ensure that these are delivered within a specific amount of time.

Robots also automate the picking of some products from warehouses. In all, this allows the company to provide a reliable and uniform experience to customers throughout the world (Ritzer & Miles, 2019).

Essay Question

In a culture built on the diverse contributions of various immigrant groups over time and the development of innovative technology, what will be the long-term effect of increased McDonaldization?

Hartley, David. “ The ‘McDonaldization’of higher education: food for thought ?” Oxford Review of Education 21.4 (1995): 409-423.

Ritzer, George. “ An introduction to McDonaldization .” McDonaldization: The Reader 2 (2002): 4-25.

Ritzer, George. The McDonaldization of society: Into the digital age. Sage Publications, 2018.

Ritzer, George. The McDonaldization of society. Sage, 2013.

Ritzer, George. “The McDonaldization thesis: Is expansion inevitable?.” International Sociology 11.3 (1996): 291-308.

Ritzer, George, and Steven Miles. “The changing nature of consumption and the intensification of McDonaldization in the digital age.” Journal of Consumer Culture 19.1 (2019): 3-20.

Weber, Max. “Bureaucracy.” Working in America. Routledge, 2015. 29-34.

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

The McDonaldization of society: An investigation into the changing character of contemporary social life

1995, The Leadership Quarterly

Related Papers

Joshua Oliveros

This paper utilizes the rationalization theory developed by Max Weber, which indicates a far-reaching process in which traditional modes and ways of thinking are replaced by end/means process of rationalization, which is characterized by efficiency and social control as evident in fast food industry led by the McDonald's.

Gender and leadership: The case of the food and beverage (F&B) sector

Pedro Simao

Journal of Foodservice

Marianne Ekström

Safeer Khan

Abel Mavura

Sexual harassment happens when a person is expected to engage in a sexual activity in order to acquire a job, to be promoted, to acquire better rewards or better working conditions of employment. In the fast food industry, it manifests in the recruitment of mostly young, attractive, beautiful employees who run the front office. Their uniforms are tight jeans and they are not allowed to wear dresses and the objective of this research is to interrogate this practice with a view to unearthing the motive behind, and its impact on women. Women’s work is devalued mainly due to the domestic service that they provide and have been for long been excluded from waged labor. Although women are now occupying a higher position in the waged labor, there are still some ideological justifications prohibiting gender equality which are also embedded in the language of protection. Men felt women deserve protection from exploitation by employers but at the same time preventing them from gaining access to some more lucrative and highly paid areas of work. This is one of the many reasons why women are over- represented in the low paying position of the fast food industry for example cashiers. This qualitative research using the Feminist, Marxist social theory, reveals that women working in the Fast foods face various challenges that hinder them from occupying influential positions and exposing them to sexual exploitation and discrimination. The National Employment Council for the Catering Industry, which is the regulatory body for the fast foods sector, is duty bound in terms of improving the working conditions, empowering both employees and employers with the knowledge to improve gender regulations and providing awareness programs for their benefit.

Glenn Rikowski

Exploring the Pervasive Influence of Fast-Food Values in Contemporary Society

Kylie O'Byrne

This research report provides a comprehensive analysis of the McDonaldization thesis as expounded by renowned sociologist George Ritzer from the University of Maryland. The thesis postulates the pervasive influence of fastfood values and methods in diverse domains of contemporary society. It explores opportunities for resistance and alternative modes of existence amidst the prevailing drive for efficiency, quantifiability, predictability, and control. Through an in-depth examination of the dimensions of McDonaldization, including efficiency, calculability, predictability, power, and the substitution of human labour with technology, Ritzer delineates the farreaching impact of McDonaldization on societal structures and consumer behaviour. Additionally, the report highlights Ritzer's propositions for resistance and alternatives to McDonaldization, emphasising the potential for individuals and communities to counteract its homogenising forces and preserve aspects of life that transcend its pervasive reach.

International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business

Nnamdi Madichie

Kate Cairns

Loading Preview

Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.

RELATED PAPERS

Mariel Cano

ACR European Advances

Helene Brembeck

Womens Studies International Forum

Cayo Gamber

Gender & Society

Kate Cairns , Josee Johnston

Taufique Joarder

Research in Organizational Behavior

Debra Meyerson

Scandinavian Journal of Management

Elisabeth Sundin

Modern Economy

Scott Downey

Research in Hospitality Management

Beverly Chen

Agribusiness

Jeffrey Royer

Global Economy Journal

Adrian Tschoegl

Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies

Casey Kelly

Equal Opportunities International

michael kimmel

Business History

Alex Ketchum

Agriculture and Human Values

JoAnn Jaffe , Michael E Gertler

md minhajuddin

The Nigerian Journal of Sociology and Anthropology

olayinka akanle

Juan Barredo

International Journal of Business and Applied Social Science (IJBASS)

See Hoon Peow

Albert Mills

Sascha Stoddart

Riane Eisler

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

McDonaldization: Definition and Overview of the Concept

Guang Niu / Getty Images 

• Recommended Reading
• Key Concepts
• Major Sociologists
• News & Issues
• Research, Samples, and Statistics
• Archaeology

McDonaldization is a concept developed by American sociologist George Ritzer which refers to the particular kind of rationalization of production, work, and consumption that rose to prominence in the late twentieth century. The basic idea is that these elements have been adapted based on the characteristics of a fast-food restaurant—efficiency, calculability, predictability and standardization, and control—and that this adaptation has ripple effects throughout all aspects of society.

The McDonaldization of Society

George Ritzer introduced the concept of McDonaldization with his 1993 book,  The McDonaldization of Society.  Since that time the concept has become central within the field of sociology and especially within the sociology of globalization .

According to Ritzer, the McDonaldization of society is a phenomenon that occurs when society, its institutions, and its organizations are adapted to have the same characteristics that are found in fast-food chains. These include efficiency, calculability, predictability and standardization, and control.

Ritzer's theory of McDonaldization is an update on classical sociologist Max Weber's theory of how scientific rationality produced bureaucracy , which became the central organizing force of modern societies through much of the twentieth century. According to Weber, the modern bureaucracy was defined by hierarchical roles, compartmentalized knowledge and roles, a perceived merit-based system of employment and advancement, and the legal-rationality authority of the rule of law. These characteristics could be observed (and still can be) throughout many aspects of societies around the world.

According to Ritzer, changes within science, economy, and culture have shifted societies away from Weber's bureaucracy to a new social structure and order that he calls McDonaldization. As he explains in his book, there are four principles of McDonaldization.

• Efficiency  entails a managerial focus on minimizing the time required to complete individual tasks as well as that required to complete the whole operation or process of production and distribution.
• Calculability  is a focus on quantifiable objectives (counting things) rather than subjective ones (evaluation of quality).
• Predictability and standardization  are found in repetitive and routinized production or service delivery processes and in the consistent output of products or experiences that are identical or close to it (predictability of the consumer experience).
• Control within McDonaldization is wielded by management to ensure that workers appear and act the same on a moment-to-moment and daily basis. It also refers to the use of robots and technology to reduce or replace human employees wherever possible.

Ritzer asserts that these characteristics are not only observable in production, work, and in the consumer experience , but that their defining presence in these areas has a ripple effect on all aspects of social life. McDonaldization affects our values, preferences, goals, and worldviews, our identities, and our social relationships. Further, sociologists recognize that McDonaldization is a global phenomenon, driven by Western corporations, the economic power and cultural dominance of the West, and as such it leads to a global homogenization of economic and social life.

The Downside of McDonaldization

After laying out in his book how McDonaldization works, Ritzer explains that this narrow focus on rationality actually produces irrationality. He observed, "Most specifically, irrationality means that rational systems are unreasonable systems. By that, I mean that they deny the basic humanity, the human reason, of the people who work within or are served by them." Many people have no doubt encountered what Ritzer describes here, when the human capacity for reason seems to be not at all present in transactions or experiences are marred by rigid adherence to the rules and policies of an organization. Those who work under these conditions often experience them as dehumanizing as well.

This is because McDonaldization does not require a skilled workforce. Focusing on the four key characteristics that produce McDonaldization has eliminated the need for skilled workers. Workers in these conditions engage in repetitive, routinized, highly focused, and compartmentalized tasks that are quickly and cheaply taught, and thus easy to replace. This kind of work devalues labor and takes away workers' bargaining power. Sociologists observe that this kind of work has reduced workers' rights and wages in the U.S. and around the world, which is exactly why workers at places like McDonald's, Amazon, and Walmart are leading the fight for a living wage in the U.S. Meanwhile in China, workers who produce Apple products face similar, if not worse, conditions and struggles.

The characteristics of McDonaldization have crept into the consumer experience too, with free consumer labor folded into the production process. Ever bus your own table at a restaurant or café? Dutifully follow the instructions to assemble Ikea furniture? Pick your own apples, pumpkins, or blueberries? Check yourself out at the grocery store? Then you have been socialized to complete the production or distribution process for free, thus aiding a company in achieving efficiency and control.

Sociologists observe the characteristics of McDonaldization in other areas of life, like education and media too, with a clear shift from quality to quantifiable measures over time, standardization, and efficiency playing significant roles in both, and control too.

Look around, and you will be surprised to find that you will notice the impacts of McDonaldization throughout your life.

• Ritzer, George. "The McDonaldization of Society: 20th Anniversary Edition." Los Angeles: Sage, 2013.
• Understanding Durkheim's Division of Labor
• Émile Durkheim: "Suicide: A Study in Sociology"
• Malcolm Gladwell's "The Tipping Point"
• The Main Points of "The Communist Manifesto"
• The Social Transformation of American Medicine
• An Overview of the Book Democracy in America
• Overview of The History of Sexuality
• Definition of the Sociological Imagination and Overview of the Book
• The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life
• The Asch Conformity Experiments
• A Book Overview: "The Protestant Ethic and The Spirit Of Capitalism"
• Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity
• Savage Inequalities: Children in America’s Schools
• Famous Sociologists
• What Is Symbolic Interactionism?
• Major Sociological Theories

• Find My Rep

You are here

The McDonaldization Thesis Explorations and Extensions

• George Ritzer - University of Maryland, USA
• Description

Part One centres on a discussion of Karl Mannheim's theory of rationalization. The author also assesses the degree to which sociology in general and sociological theory in particular have been `McDonaldized'. The second part demonstrates the empirical reach of the `McDonaldization' process with discussions on work, credit and globalization. Part Three moves beyond `McDonaldization' to the worlds of `new means of consumption' and the postmodern perspectives that best illuminate them. The author concludes with a re-evaluation of the McDonaldization thesis and its future.   Introduction: McDonaldization and Beyond   THEORETICAL ISSUES   Mannheim's Theory of Rationalization An Alternative Resource for the McDonaldization Thesis?

`Ritzer here revisits and extends the ground-breaking theory he first fully expounded in 1993 in The McDonaldisation of Society, since when he has published a number of papers which take the thesis further and on which this book builds....

This is exciting, readable, provocative modern sociology that sets out to challenge the dominant trends in the construction of our brave new global world....

His work constitutes a serious academic challenge from within the very heartland of McDonaldisation and I highly recommend it to those who want to gain a perspective on post-modern society (and

sociology)' - Self & Society

`The new book will underline the importance and usefulness of the concept of McDonaldization and I fully expect that it will become a standard topic for years to come.. Fascinating, it will make an ideal focus for lectures, seminars and so on' - Alan Bryman, Loughborough University

``McDonaldization' I came to appreciate long ago - it is by now a household term!' Professor Zygmunt Bauman, Department of Sociology, University of Leeds .

Preview this book

For instructors, select a purchasing option, order from:.

• VitalSource
• Amazon Kindle
• Google Play

Related Products

SAGE Knowledge is the premier social sciences platform for SAGE and CQ Press book, reference and video content.

The platform allows researchers to cross-search and seamlessly access a wide breadth of must-have SAGE book and reference content from one source.

The McDonaldization of Society

• George Ritzer - University of Maryland, USA

Good, lively introduction to globalization that students can easily relate to

The classic text for any course exploring aspects of globalization, culture and consumption. The text provides an up-to-date analysis of the homogenisation (or McDonaldisation) of society, drawing on the most recent examples, which students can easily apply at any level of study. A fundamental and essential text for any course exploring globalisation in the context of Sociology, Geography, Politics or Economics.

This updated edition offers a new chapter which examines Starbucks. Students felt they could relate to many of the updated examples and support the ideas on environmental issues and McDonaldization

Thought provoking, helped make sense of many theories and myths around our changing society.

This is a book that applies classical sociological theory in a very interesting and wise way and so it is very insightful in explaining and understanding sociological theory in practice.

Get Citation

Based upon George Ritzer's McDonaldization of Society thesis and incorporating aspects of social theory, this book examines the introduction of care management to social work practice. Donna Dustin analyzes care management as an example of the managerial application of efficiency, calculability, predictability and control to social work practice. These principles, put to good use in organizations that produce tangible outputs at a profit, are being increasingly applied in non-profit public sector organizations where the outcomes require intangibles such as professional relationships. The author examines whether the McDonaldization process heightens dilemmas such as cost versus rights for professionals working in the social services. Using social theory to frame her research with care managers and their managers in the UK, the author examines the day-to-day implications of care management for social work practice and questions whether the construction of service users as customers contributes to empowering practice. The book's in-depth analysis of the policy background, implementation and practice of care management will resonate with social workers in other national contexts, such as the US, where the care management model has been introduced.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter | 10  pages, introduction, part i | 45  pages, the macro perspective, chapter 1 | 18  pages, theorizing social change, chapter 2 | 25  pages, the context of social change: globalization, mcdonaldization and the introduction of care management, part ii | 63  pages, the micro perspective, chapter 3 | 22  pages, the impact of care management on social work practice, chapter 4 | 19  pages, consumerism, choice and empowerment in care-managed services, chapter 5 | 19  pages, the professional status of social workers practising as care managers, part iii | 44  pages, considering the macro and the micro, chapter 6 | 20  pages, care management as the commodification of care within postmodernity as late capitalism, chapter 7 | 22  pages, social work practice in the specialist field of care management.

• Privacy Policy
• Terms & Conditions
• Cookie Policy
• Taylor & Francis Online
• Taylor & Francis Group
• Students/Researchers
• Librarians/Institutions

Connect with us

Registered in England & Wales No. 3099067 5 Howick Place | London | SW1P 1WG © 2024 Informa UK Limited

How JD Vance Thinks About Power

Mr. Vance has been blunt about wanting to break norms and test constitutional limits to execute his ideas: “We have to get pretty wild, pretty far out there.”

In recent years, Senator JD Vance of Ohio has been unswerving in his assessment of how Republicans should carry themselves when they win: Use every available lever of state, even if that means testing the bounds of the constitutional system. Credit... Todd Heisler/The New York Times

Supported by

• Share full article

By Matt Flegenheimer

• Published Aug. 3, 2024 Updated Aug. 9, 2024

In September 2021, JD Vance offered two predictions about former President Donald J. Trump and one piece of advice.

Mr. Trump would run again in 2024, Mr. Vance said. He would win.

And when he did, Mr. Vance counseled, he needed the right people around him this time.

“Fire every single midlevel bureaucrat, every civil servant in the administrative state, replace them with our people,” Mr. Vance said on a podcast .

He continued.

“Then when the courts stop you, stand before the country like Andrew Jackson did,” Mr. Vance said, citing a (possibly apocryphal) quotation long attributed to America’s seventh president, “and say: ‘The chief justice has made his ruling. Now let him enforce it.’”

In his U-turning path from anti-Trump author to MAGA-approved Ohio senator and running mate, Mr. Vance has developed a reputation for being ideologically pliable — open-minded, supporters say; core-less, critics counter.

But he has been unswerving in recent years in his assessment of how Republicans should carry themselves when they win: Use every available lever of state, even if that means testing the bounds of the constitutional system.

We are having trouble retrieving the article content.

Please enable JavaScript in your browser settings.

Thank you for your patience while we verify access. If you are in Reader mode please exit and  log into  your Times account, or  subscribe  for all of The Times.

Thank you for your patience while we verify access.

Already a subscriber?  Log in .

Want all of The Times?  Subscribe .

Advertisement